title: Maia

text: Maia is the daughter of Atlas and Pleione the Oceanid, and is the oldest of the seven Pleiades. They were born on Mount Cyllene in Arcadia, and are sometimes called mountain nymphs, "oreads"; Simonides of Ceos sang of "mountain Maia" "(Maiados oureias)" "of the lovely black eyes." Because they were daughters of Atlas, they were also called the Atlantides.


title: Maia

text: According to the Homeric "Hymn to Hermes", Zeus, in the dead of night, secretly made love to Maia, who avoided the company of the gods, in a cave of Cyllene. She became pregnant with Hermes. After giving birth to the baby, Maia wrapped him in blankets and went to sleep. The rapidly maturing infant Hermes crawled away to Thessaly, where by nightfall of his first day he stole some of his half-brother Apollo's cattle and invented the lyre from a tortoise shell. Maia refused to believe Apollo when he claimed that Hermes was the thief, and Zeus then sided with Apollo. Finally, Apollo exchanged the cattle for the lyre, which became one of his identifying attributes.


title: Maia

text: Although the "Homeric Hymn" has Maia as Hermes' caretaker and guardian, in Sophocles's now lost satyr play "Ichneutae", Maia entrusted the infant Hermes to Cyllene (the local mountain goddess) to nurse and raise, and thus it is her that the satyrs and Apollo confront when looking for the god's missing cattle.


title: Maia

text: Maia also raised the infant Arcas, the child of Callisto with Zeus. Wronged by the love affair, Zeus' wife Hera in a jealous rage had transformed Callisto into a bear. Arcas is the eponym of Arcadia, where Maia was born. The story of Callisto and Arcas, like that of the Pleiades, is an "aition" for a stellar formation, the constellations Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, the Great and Little Bear.


title: Maia

text: Her name is related to μαῖα ("maia"), an honorific term for older women related to μήτηρ ("mētēr") 'mother', also meaning "midwife" in Greek.


title: Maia

text: In ancient Roman religion and myth, Maia embodied the concept of growth, as her name was thought to be related to the comparative adjective "maius, maior" "larger, greater". Originally, she may have been a homonym independent of the Greek Maia, whose myths she absorbed through the Hellenization of Latin literature and culture.


title: Maia

text: In an archaic Roman prayer, Maia appears as an attribute of Vulcan, in an invocational list of male deities paired with female abstractions representing some aspect of their functionality. She was explicitly identified with Earth ("Terra", the Roman counterpart of Gaia) and the Good Goddess ("Bona Dea") in at least one tradition. Her identity became theologically intertwined also with the goddesses Fauna, Ops, Juno, Carna, and the Magna Mater ("Great Goddess", referring to the Roman form of Cybele but also a cult title for Maia), as discussed at some length by the late antiquarian writer Macrobius. This treatment was probably influenced by the 1st-century BC scholar Varro, who tended to resolve a great number of goddesses into one original "Terra". The association with Juno, whose Etruscan counterpart was Uni, is suggested again by the inscription "Uni Mae" on the Piacenza Liver.


title: Maia

text: The month of May (Latin "Maius") was named for Maia, though ancient etymologists also connected it to the "maiores" "ancestors", again from the adjective "maius, maior", meaning those who are "greater" in terms of generational precedence. On the first day of May, the Lares Praestites were honored as protectors of the city, and the flamen of Vulcan sacrificed a pregnant sow to Maia, a customary offering to an earth goddess that reiterates the link between Vulcan and Maia in the archaic prayer formula. In Roman myth, Mercury (Hermes), the son of Maia, was the father of the twin Lares, a genealogy that sheds light on the collocation of ceremonies on the Kalends of May. On May 15, the Ides, Mercury was honored as a patron of merchants and increaser of profit (through an etymological connection with "merx, merces", "goods, merchandise"), another possible connection with Maia his mother as a goddess who promoted growth.


title: Madeline Carroll

text: Madeline Carroll (born March 18, 1996) is an American actress known for starring as Juli Baker in "Flipped", as Molly Johnson in "Swing Vote", as Farren in "The Spy Next Door", and as Willow O'Neil in "The Magic of Belle Isle".


title: Madeline Carroll

text: Carroll was born and raised in Los Angeles. Her mother is a homemaker and her father is a contractor. She has three brothers: Ned, Jack and Dylan. She began modeling at the age of three. At the age of four, she was discovered by her theatrical agent 'Wendy' in a nail shop in Sherman Oaks. She began her career appearing in numerous commercials for companies such as Allstate, Chef Boyardee, Kmart, Mr. Clean, Subway, Super 8 Motels and Target Corporation.


title: Madeline Carroll

text: Her first appearance in a film was in the 2006 horror film "When a Stranger Calls". After minor roles in "" and "", in 2008 she got her first major role co-starring in "Swing Vote" alongside Kevin Costner. In 2010 she appeared in the Jackie Chan film "The Spy Next Door." That same year she also starred in the film adaptation of Wendelin Van Draanen's novel, "Flipped", directed by Rob Reiner. Carroll's performance in the film garnered critical acclaim, and in 2011 and 2012 she appeared in numerous other movies such as "Mr. Popper's Penguins", "Machine Gun Preacher", and "The Magic of Belle Isle".


title: Madeline Carroll

text: Around age 15, Carroll began to be offered nude or promiscuous roles, all of which she turned down due to her personal beliefs. In 2014, also due to personal reasons, she turned down a larger role in the show "Scandal", in which she had already appeared in two episodes. When she was 19, she nearly gave up being an actress altogether after a call from her agent, who stated that it was impossible to be a Hollywood actress without taking nude roles. Later, she related the following:


title: Madeline Carroll

text: The next day, she was offered a role in the Christian film "God Bless the Broken Road". Since then, she has played roles in other faith-based films, including "I Can Only Imagine" and Pure Flix's "Indivisible", both of which were released in 2018.


title: Madeline Carroll

text: In 2019, Carroll received the Golden Angel for "Excellent Young Performing Artist of U.S." at the 15th Chinese American Film Festival in Los Angeles.


title: Madeline Carroll

text: Subsequent to starring in the Erwin Brothers' "I Can Only Imagine", Carroll became involved with their studio Kingdom Story Company, with the purpose of learning filmmaking. She, Jon Erwin, and Jon Gunn wrote the script of Kingdom's first production and Carroll's screenwriting debut, "I Still Believe", which was released in March 2020.


title: Madeline Carroll

text: Carroll is a devout Christian, and often speaks about her faith at religious events and conferences, and during interviews.


title: Edith Head

text: Edith Head (October 28, 1897 – October 24, 1981) was an American costume designer who won a record eight Academy Awards for Best Costume Design between 1949 and 1973, making her the most awarded woman in the Academy's history. Head is considered to be one of the greatest and most influential costume designers in film history.


title: Edith Head

text: Born and raised in California, Head started her career as a Spanish teacher, but was interested in design. After studying at the Chouinard Art Institute in Los Angeles, Head was hired as a costume sketch artist at Paramount Pictures in 1923. She won acclaim for her design of Dorothy Lamour’s trademark sarong in the 1936 film "The Jungle Princess", and became a household name after the Academy Award for Best Costume Design was created in 1948. Head was considered exceptional for her close working relationships with her subjects, with whom she consulted extensively; these included virtually every top female star in Hollywood.


title: Edith Head

text: Head worked at Paramount for 44 years. In 1967, the company declined to renew her contract, and she was invited by Alfred Hitchcock to join Universal Pictures. There she earned her eighth and final Academy Award for her work on "The Sting" in 1973.


title: Edith Head

text: She was born Edith Claire Posener in San Bernardino, California, the daughter of Jewish parents, Max Posener and Anna E. Levy. Her father, born in January 1858, was a naturalized American citizen from Germany, who came to the United States in 1876. Her mother was born in St. Louis, Missouri in 1875, the daughter of an Austrian father and a Bavarian mother. Max and Anna married in 1895, according to the 1900 United States Federal Census records. Just before Edith's birth, Max Posener opened a small haberdashery in San Bernardino, which failed within a year.


title: Edith Head

text: The marriage did not survive. In 1905, Anna remarried, this time to mining engineer Frank Spare, originally from Pennsylvania. The family moved frequently as Spare's jobs moved. The only place Head could later recall living during her early years was Searchlight, Nevada. Frank and Anna Spare passed Edith off as their child. As Frank Spare was a Catholic, Edith ostensibly became one as well.


title: Edith Head

text: In 1919, Edith received a Bachelor of Arts degree in letters and sciences with honors in French from the University of California, Berkeley, and in 1920 earned a Master of Arts degree in romance languages from Stanford University.


title: Edith Head

text: She became a language teacher with her first position as a replacement at Bishop's School in La Jolla teaching French. After one year, she took a position teaching Spanish at the Hollywood School for Girls. Wanting a slightly higher salary, she told the school that she could also teach art, even though she had only briefly studied the discipline in high school. To improve her drawing skills, at this point rudimentary, she took evening classes at the Otis Art Institute and Chouinard Art College.


title: Edith Head

text: On July 25, 1923, she married Charles Head, the brother of one of her Chouinard classmates, Betty Head. Although the marriage ended in divorce in 1938 after a number of years of separation, she continued to be known professionally as Edith Head until her death. In 1940 she married award-winning art director Wiard Ihnen, a marriage which lasted until his death in 1979.


title: Edith Head

text: In 1924, despite lacking art, design, and costume design experience, the 26-year-old Head was hired as a costume sketch artist at Paramount Pictures. Later she admitted to "borrowing" other students' sketches for her job interview. She began designing costumes for silent films, commencing with "The Wanderer" in 1925 and, by the 1930s, had established herself as one of Hollywood's leading costume designers. She worked at Paramount for 43 years until she went to Universal Pictures on March 27, 1967, possibly prompted by her extensive work for director Alfred Hitchcock, who had moved to Universal in 1960.


title: Edith Head

text: Head's marriage to set designer Wiard Ihnen, on September 8, 1940, lasted until his death from prostate cancer in 1979. Over the course of her long career, she was nominated for 35 Academy Awards, annually from 1949 (the first year that the Oscar for Best Costume Design was awarded) through 1966, and won eight times – receiving more Oscars than any other person.


title: Edith Head

text: Although Head was featured in studio publicity from the mid-1920s, she was originally overshadowed by Paramount's lead designers, first Howard Greer, then Travis Banton. Head was instrumental in conspiring against Banton, and after his resignation in 1938 she became a high-profile designer in her own right. Her association with the "sarong" dress designed for Dorothy Lamour in "The Hurricane" (1937) made her well known among the general public, although Head was a more restrained designer than either Banton or Adrian. She gained public attention for the top mink-lined gown she created for Ginger Rogers in "Lady in the Dark" (1944), which caused much comment owing to the mood of wartime austerity. The establishment, in 1949, of the Academy Award for Costume Design further boosted her career, giving her a record-breaking run of Award nominations and wins, beginning with her nomination for "The Emperor Waltz". Head and other film designers like Adrian became well known to the public.


title: Edith Head

text: Head was known for her unique working style and, unlike many of her male contemporaries, usually consulted extensively with the female stars with whom she worked. As a result, she was a favorite among many of the leading female stars of the 1940s and 1950s, such as Ginger Rogers, Bette Davis, Barbara Stanwyck, Shirley MacLaine, Grace Kelly, Audrey Hepburn, and Elizabeth Taylor. In fact, Head was frequently "loaned out" by Paramount to other studios at the request of their female stars. She herself always dressed very plainly, preferring thick-framed glasses and conservative two-piece suits.


title: Edith Head

text: In 1946, Head worked for the first time with director Alfred Hitchcock. They worked together on his spy film "Notorious." Head, who worked for Paramount, was loaned to Radio-Keith-Orpheum (RKO) pictures to work with Hitchcock on this film. In this time period it was more often found that costume designers would design to reflect their own style. Head had a different outlook on this. She felt that it was more important to design pieces that reflected the character. During their time working on this movie, Head and Hitchcock found that they were like-minded and had the same bluntness in their careers and attitudes. The costumes she designed for this film reflected restraint and the need to blend in. This style suited what Hitchcock was looking for since he did not want the clothes to be the focal point. The two would go on to work together many more times.


title: Edith Head

text: On February 3, 1955 (Season 5 Episode 21), Edith Head appeared as a contestant on the Groucho Marx quiz show "You Bet Your Life". She and her partner won a total of $1,540. Her winnings were donated to charity.


title: Edith Head

text: Head also authored two books describing her career and design philosophy, "The Dress Doctor" (1959) and "How To Dress For Success" (1967). These books were re-edited in 2008 and 2011, respectively.


title: Edith Head

text: In 1967, at the age of 70, she left Paramount Pictures and joined Universal Pictures, where she remained until her death in 1981. By this point, Hollywood was rapidly changing from what it had been during Head's heyday in the 1930s-1940s. Studio-based production was giving way to outdoors and on-scene shooting, and many of the actresses from that era whom she worked with and knew intimately had retired or were working less. She thus turned more of her attention to TV, where some old friends such as Olivia de Havilland had begun working. She designed Endora's clothing on "Bewitched", and made a cameo appearance in 1973 on the detective series "Columbo" beside Anne Baxter, playing herself and displaying her Oscars to date. In 1974, Head received a final Oscar win for her work on "The Sting".


title: Edith Head

text: In the late 1970s Edith Head was asked to design a woman's uniform for the United States Coast Guard, because of the increasing number of women in the Coast Guard. Head called the assignment a highlight in her career and received the Meritorious Public Service Award for her efforts. Her designs for a TV mini-series based on the novel "Little Women" were well received. Her last film project was the black-and-white comedy "Dead Men Don't Wear Plaid" (1982), starring Steve Martin and Carl Reiner, a job Head was chosen for because of her expertise on 1940s fashions. She modeled Martin and Reiner's outfits on classic film noir and the movie, released in theaters just after her death, was dedicated to her memory.


title: Edith Head

text: Head died on October 24, 1981, four days before her 84th birthday, from myelofibrosis, an incurable bone marrow disease. She is interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California.


title: Edith Head

text: Edith Head's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, which she received in 1974, is located at 6504 Hollywood Boulevard.


title: Edith Head

text: Head received eight Academy Awards for Best Costume Design, more than any other person, from a total of 35 nominations.


title: Edith Head

text: Head made a brief appearance in "Columbo: Requiem for a Falling Star" (1973) acting as herself, the clothing designer for Anne Baxter's character. Her Oscars were displayed on a desk in the scene.


title: Edith Head

text: Again as herself, she appeared in the film "Lucy Gallant" (1955) as the emcee of a fashion show. She also appeared in "The Pleasure of His Company" (1961) as she showed dresses for Debbie Reynolds' wedding in the film, and in "The Oscar" (1966) in three short, non-speaking scenes opposite Elke Sommer's character, a sketch artist turned costume designer like Head herself.


title: Edith Head

text: In 1999 the group They Might Be Giants released a song on their album, "Long Tall Weekend", entitled "(She Thinks She's) Edith Head."


title: Edith Head

text: As part of a series of stamps issued by the U.S. Postal Service in February 2003, commemorating the behind-the-camera personnel who make movies, Head was featured on a stamp honoring costume design.


title: Edith Head

text: On October 28, 2013, Internet search engine Google commemorated Head's 116th birthday with a Google Doodle created by Google Artist Sophie Diao.


title: Edith Head

text: The one-woman play "A Conversation with Edith Head" premiered in Canada in 2014 at the Buddies in Bad Times Theatre, Toronto. Inspired by the book "Edith Head's Hollywood," the play was by Paddy Calistro and Susan Claassen and starred and was directed by Susan Claassen. Among the key props used in the production were a size 2 dress purportedly made by Edith Head for Grace Kelly and illustrations of Head's designs. Audience members were given the opportunity of an unscripted meet and greet with Claassen while in character as Edith Head after the show.


title: Edith Head

text: An Edith Head costume collection from the Paramount Pictures Archive left Hollywood—for just the second time—to be shown exclusively at the Decorative Arts Center of Ohio in Lancaster in "Designing Woman: Edith Head at Paramount 1924-1967" as presented by the Fox Foundation from June 7 through August 17, 2014.


title: Edith Head

text: The visual appearance of Edna Mode, the costume designer in Pixar's "The Incredibles" and "Incredibles 2", was inspired by Head in a tribute to the late designer's work in Hollywood.


title: Edith Head

text: A fictionalized version of Edith Head appears as one of the protagonists in the mystery novels by Renee Patrick, "Design for Dying" (2016), "Dangerous to Know" (2017), "Script for Scandal" (2020), "The Sharpest Needle" (2021), and "Idle Gossip" (2022).


title: Edith Head

text: On September 15, 2017, the advice book "How To Dress For Success", written by Edith Head and Joe Hyams, was optioned by Purple Skies for a film adaptation of the life and times of Edith Head.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The judiciary of India is a system of courts that interpret and apply the law in the Republic of India. India uses a "common law system", first introduced by the British East India Company and with influence from other colonial powers and Indian princely states, as well as practices from ancient and medieval times. The constitution provides for a single unified judiciary in India.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The Indian judicial system is managed and administrated by officers. Judges of Subordinate Judiciaries are appointed by the governor on recommendation by the High Court. Judges of the High Courts and Supreme Court are appointed by the President of India on the recommendation of a collegium.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The judicial system is structured in three levels with subsidiary parts. The Supreme Court, also known as the Apex Court, is the top court and the ultimate appellate court in India. The Chief Justice of India leads that court. High Courts are the top judicial bodies in individual states, controlled and managed by state Chief Justices. Below the High Courts are District Courts, also known as subordinate courts, that are controlled and managed by District and Sessions Judges. The lower subordinate courts are Civil Court and the District Munsif Court, headed a Sub-Judge. The higher subordinate Criminal Court is headed by Chief Judicial/Metropolitan Magistrate at top and followed by ACJM /ACMM and JM/MM at the lower level.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The Executive and Revenue Courts are managed by the state government through the district magistrate and commissioner, respectively. Although the executive courts are not part of the judiciary, various provisions and judgements empower the High Courts and Session Judges to inspect or direct their operation.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The Ministry of Law and Justice at the Union level is responsible for raising issues before Parliament relating to the judiciary. It has jurisdiction to deal with the issues of any court. It also deals with the appointment of Judges of the High Courts and the Supreme Court. At the state level, the law departments of the states deal with issues regarding the High Court and the Subordinate Courts.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The Indian Constitution empowers the Judiciary to act as the Guardian of the Law. A number of provisions deal with the Judiciary's role, power, function, and officer appointments. The major provisions are:


title: Judiciary of India

text: The judiciary acts as the arbiter on legal matters. The Inner Conflict of Constitutionalism: Judicial Review and the 'Basic Structure' – India's Living Constitution: Constitution, acts as its watchdog by calling for scrutiny any act of the legislature or the executive from overstepping bounds set for them by the Constitution. It acts as a guardian in protecting the fundamental rights of the people, as enshrined in the Constitution, from infringement by any organ of the state. It also balances the conflicting exercise of power between the centre and a state or among states.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The judiciary is expected to remain unaffected by pressures exerted by other branches of government, citizens or interest groups. Independence of the judiciary is a basic and inalienable feature of the Constitution, One such protection is that no minister can suggest a name to the President, who ultimately appoints judges from a list recommended by the collegium of the judiciary. Judges of the Supreme Court or a High Court cannot be removed from office once appointed, unless a two-thirds majority of members of any of the Houses of the Parliament back the move on grounds of misconduct or incapacity. A person who has been a judge of a court is barred from practising in the jurisdiction of that court.


title: Judiciary of India

text: Under Parts V and VI of the Constitution, the President of India appoints Judges of the Supreme Court and High Court with the consent of the Chief Justice. In practice, cultural norms are followed in the appointment of judges to the Supreme Court and High Courts. In accordance with the principles set forth in the Three Judges Cases, the President selects from a list recommended by the collegium  – a closed group consisting of the Chief Justice and the most senior judges of the Supreme Court. Prior to the Three Judges Cases, the President appointed judges upon their recommendation by the Union Cabinet. In 1993, as a result of the Second Judges Case, the executive was given the power to reject a name recommended by the judiciary. The executive has since faced criticism for its decisions relating to this power.


title: Judiciary of India

text: Decisions by the collegium have been the subject of legal scrutiny. In "Mahesh Chandra Gupta vs. Union of India and Ors.", the court held that who could become a judge was a matter of fact, and that any person therefore had a right to question the court's determination regarding a candidate's qualifications. However, the court also wrote that who should become a judge was a matter of opinion and could not be questioned. As long as a judge's appointment is the subject of a legitimate consultation by the collegium, the content or material it uses to form its opinion cannot be scrutinized by a court.


title: Judiciary of India

text: In contrast to the historical norms concerning Supreme Court and High Court appointments, appointments for Subordinate Court Judges are handled as prescribed under the constitution and other laws and codes. Appointments are generally made by the Public Service Commission of a particular state. However, in some states, the respective High Court can appoint judges of subordinate courts. Regardless of the source of the appointment, the process for the appointment of judges is the same, and is based on the results of a competitive examination. Junior Division civil judges may advance to judicial positions in the Provincial Civil Service, while entry level district judges with at least 7 years of experience can complete the Higher Judicial Service (HJS) exam in order to advance.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The history of jury trials in India dates to the period of European colonisation. In 1665, a petit jury in Madras composed of twelve English and Portuguese jurors acquitted Ascentia Dawes, who was on trial for the murder of her enslaved servant. During the period of Company rule in India, jury trials within dual-court system territories were implemented in Indian territories under East India Company (EIC) control. In Presidency towns (such as Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras), Crown Courts employed juries to judge European and Indian defendants in criminal cases. Outside of Presidency towns, Company Courts staffed by EIC officials judged both criminal and civil cases without the use of a jury.


title: Judiciary of India

text: In 1860, after the British Crown assumed control over the EIC's possessions in India, the Indian Penal Code was adopted. A year later, the Code of Criminal Procedure was adopted. These provisions stipulated that criminal juries were only mandatory in the High Courts of Presidency towns; in all other parts of British India, they were optional and rare. In cases where the defendants were either European or American, at least half of the jury was required to be European or American men, with the justification given that juries in these cases had to be "acquainted with [the defendant's] feelings and dispositions."


title: Judiciary of India

text: During the 20th century, the jury system in British India came under criticism from both colonial officials and independence activists. The system received no mentions in the 1950 Indian Constitution and went unimplemented in many jurisdictions after independence. In 1958, the Law Commission of India recommended its abolition in the fourteenth report that the commission submitted to the Indian government. Jury trials in India were gradually abolished during the 1960s, culminating with the 1973 Criminal Procedure Code, which remained in effect in the 21st century.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The Sapru Committee Report, published in 1945, considered the judiciary in detail and reiterated what the Government of India Act 1935 had set out: a Federal Court of India would be the forerunner to the Supreme Court. To separate the judiciary from the executive, the Sapru Committee suggested that judges have fixed salaries and tenures, and that they could only be removed for gross misbehaviour. Judges were to be appointed by the president, in consultation with the CJI. The committee appointed to deal with judicial questions as part of the Constituent Assembly in 1946 was influenced by the Sapru Report, though there was concern over the power given to the President. Jawaharlal Nehru, however, supported the Sapru Committee's proposals. In 1949, Nehru said that Constituent Assembly judges ought to be individuals of "the highest integrity," who could "stand up against the executive government, and whoever may come in their way." B. R. Ambedkar emphasised the need for judicial independence stating, "There can be no difference of opinion in the House that our judiciary must both be independent of the executive and must also be competent in itself." Finally, the constitution stated that "Every Judge of the Supreme Court shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal after consultation with such of the Judges of the Supreme Court and of the High Courts in the tates as the President may deem necessary for the purpose," given that "in the case of appointment of a Judge other than the Chief Justice, the Chief Justice of India shall always be consulted."


title: Judiciary of India

text: Lower-level officers are eligible to progress to any higher judicial rank, including Chief Justice; however, no judicial officer from a subordinate judiciary has achieved that position. Several subordinate officers have reached the rank of Supreme Court Judge. A judicial officer typically begins his or her career as a civil judge in a Court of Judicial Magistrate of First Class. After seven years of experience judges can be appointed to the post of District Judge via a competitive examination. The retirement age for Indian Judicial Officers is 60 years in the Subordinate (District) court, 62 years in the High Court, and 65 in the Supreme Court.


title: Judiciary of India

text: Entry-level positions in the Courts of Judicial Magistrate of First Class are generally considered probationary, or training posts. After completing the probationary assignment, a candidate is posted either as Judicial Magistrate of First Class in the criminal side, or in the District Munsiff Court for civil appointments. Unlike many Indian Union civil service officer positions, judicial roles are mostly field positions. In order to allow officers to diversify their experience, many deputy posts answering to higher judiciary officers were created. Officers are not initially placed in these deputy roles, but after several years of courtroom experience they may receive such an appointment. After five years in the junior division, an officer is eligible to be promoted to Civil Judge (Senior Division).


title: Judiciary of India

text: In 1996, the first National Judicial Pay Commission (NJPC) was created by Supreme Court Justice K.J. Shetty to examine the issues of subordinate judiciaries and set uniform service conditions. The first NJPC introduced the Assured Career Progression (ACP) scheme in order to assure subordinate judicial officers of benefits in the event of delayed career progression. According to the ACP scheme, if an officer's promotion is delayed, after a span of five years of service in their respective grade they are entitled to receive the first stage of the increased ACP pay scale for the next five years. If they are not promoted for another five years, their pay scale under the ACP is increased accordingly. In 2017, the 2nd NJPC revised the pay and service conditions of subordinate judiciaries with the objective to attract talent.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The same methodology is applied at the level of District Judge. After completing the required service in the senior division the High Court, with the consent of the Governor of the respective state, they are eligible for promotion to the cadre of entry level District Judge or Additional District (ADJ) and Session Judge. When District judges are vested with administrative power, they are known as Principal District and Session Judges.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The officers of Junior and Senior division are subordinate to the District and Session Judges and also to CJMs. ADJs are under the general control of their respective high courts. Specific judicial officers are vested with certain special powers as Special Judges or Magistrates to deal with specific matters regarding their areas of practice (e.g. railway, MP-MLA-Ministers, Terrorism, or other specific departments), as needed.


title: Judiciary of India

text: One-third of High Court Judge positions are filled from the Subordinate Judiciary. High Court and Supreme Court Judges are constitutional posts, and have strict processes for appointment that take more time. Several Supreme Court Judges were promoted from the Subordinate Judiciary. Most Judicial officers appointed directly from the bar as a District Judge or in areas of higher judicial service (HJS) have a chance of promotion to the High Court, and potentially to the Supreme Court.


title: Judiciary of India

text: Various departments and ministries were created by state and union government to broaden the experience of judicial officers. State government-created positions range from undersecretary to principal secretary. Union ministries include Deputy Secretary posts, which typically answer to officers in the High Courts and the Supreme Court. Temporary deputy posts for officers of certain judicial rankings provide similar perks and career allowances to comparable civil servants. The most common departments involving deputations of judicial officers at civil secretarial posts are- Law and Justice Ministry, Legal Affairs Department, and Legislative Department.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The Supreme Court is the highest court established by the Constitution. The Constitution states that the Supreme Court is a federal court, guardian of the Constitution, and the highest court of appeal. Articles 124 to 147 of the Constitution lay down the court's composition and jurisdiction. Primarily, it is an appellate court that takes up appeals against judgments of the High Courts of the states and territories. It also takes writ petitions in cases of serious human rights violations or any petition filed under Article 32, which is the right to a constitutional remedy, or if a serious case involves needs immediate resolution.


title: Judiciary of India

text: It first sat on 26 January 1950, the day India's constitution came into force, and thereafter delivered more than 24,000 reported judgements.


title: Judiciary of India

text: Proceedings are conducted in English only. The Supreme Court Rules of 1966 were framed under Article 145 of the Constitution, which exists to regulate its practices and procedures. Article 145 was amended and is governed by the Supreme Court Rules of 2013.


title: Judiciary of India

text: 27 High Courts operate at the state level. of the Constitution mandates that they are bound by the judgements and orders of the Supreme Court of India by precedence. These courts have jurisdiction over a state, a union territory or a group of states and union territories. High courts were instituted as constitutional courts under , Article 214 of the Constitution.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The High Courts are the principal civil courts of original jurisdiction in the state (along with the subordinate District Courts). However, High Courts civil and criminal jurisdiction applies only if subordinate courts are not authorized to try matters for lack of pecuniary or territorial jurisdiction. High Courts may enjoy original jurisdiction in certain matters if so designated in a state or federal law. For example, company law cases are instituted only in a high court.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The primary work of most High Courts consists of deciding appeals from lower courts, and writs in terms of of the Constitution. Writ jurisdiction is also an original jurisdiction of High Courts. The precise territorial jurisdiction of each High Court varies by province.


title: Judiciary of India

text: Judges in these courts are appointed by the President after consultation with the Chief Justice of India, Chief Justice of the High Court, and the state governor. The number of judges in a court is decided by dividing the average institution of main cases during the last five years by the national average, or the average rate of disposal of main cases per judge per year in that High Court, whichever is higher.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The Calcutta High Court is the country's oldest, established on 2 July 1862, while the Allahabad High Court is the largest, hosting 160 judges.


title: Judiciary of India

text: High Courts that handle large numbers of cases have permanent "benches" (or a branch of the court). For litigants of remote regions, 'circuit benches' work on those days when judges visit.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The District courts of India are established by state governments for every district or group of districts, taking into account the number of cases and population distribution. These courts are under administrative control of the state's High Court. Decisions are subject to the appeal to the High Court.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The district court is presided over by one District Judge appointed by the Governor with the consultation of High Court. Additional District Judges and Assistant District Judges may be appointee depending on the workload. The Additional District Judge has equivalent jurisdiction as the District Judge. The District Judge is called a "Metropolitan session judge", when he is presiding over a district court in a city which is designated a "Metropolitan area" by the state government.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The district court has appellate jurisdiction over subordinate courts on all matters. Subordinate courts, on the civil side (in ascending order) are Junior Civil Judge Court, Principal Junior Civil Judge Court, Senior Civil Judge Court (also called sub-court). Subordinate courts, on the criminal side (in ascending order) are, Second Class Judicial Magistrate Court, First Class Judicial Magistrate Court, Chief Judicial Magistrate Court. In Family Courts deal with matrimonial disputes.


title: Judiciary of India

text: Family Court and Mahila Court matters are handled by the Principal Judge. The Judges appointed to this post are from the pool of District Judges. In Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and some other states, judges are appointed from the pool of retired judicial officer either directly or through exam.


title: Judiciary of India

text: Below the judicial hierarchy sits the executive hierarchy. Cr.P.C. empowers the Executive Court to deal with petty offences, but the power does not imply that they hold judicial power. Section 3 of CrPC clearly splits matter to be handled by both magistrates. Section 20 of CrPC empowers the State Government to appoint Executive Magistrates (EM) in every metropolitan area and in every district. It has the authority to appoint one Executive Magistrate as the District Magistrate and to appoint any EM as the ADM. Such a magistrate has the same power as enjoyed by the District Magistrate (DM).


title: Judiciary of India

text: If the office of a DM is left vacant then any officer who temporarily succeeds to the executive administration of the district exercises the same power as enjoyed by the DM. The State Government is empowered to give charge of a sub-division to the EM, who is called Sub-divisional Magistrate. The EM role generally smaintain law and order under section 107–110, 133, 144, 145, and 147 of the CrPC., cancelling or granting licenses, handling land acquisition matters, or any other matter raised by state government.


title: Judiciary of India

text: Section 21 empowers state government to appoint special Executive Magistrates (Sp. EM). Under Section 20(5) of Crpc, the Commissioner of Police (CP) can be appointed as EM, but only when the district is declared by state government as a Commissionerate. The DG(P) holds the rank of CP but can't exercise power of EM (special) until his designation changes into CP. The appeal of executive court lies in the court of Session Judge or Additional Session Judge of the district or to the High Court.


title: Judiciary of India

text: To deal with the land revenue matters, each state established a Revenue Court. These courts adjudicate matters related to:


title: Judiciary of India

text: The Revenue Court is a quasi-judicial body and holds only limited power to deal with specific civil matters. As per Section 5(2) of Civil Procedure Code; Revenue Courts have jurisdiction to deal with suits related to rent, revenue or profits of land used for agricultural purposes, but does not include civil court matters. Therefore, certain matters of the Revenue Courts are barred from jurisdiction of Civil Courts as specified under the code. The Court of Additional Commissioner and above are appellate courts. However, it is a state controlled organization. Generally the officers of the rank of Collector and above ar from the pool of the Indian Administrative Service, while lower positions can be from either IAS or SAS and inferior to that are from the State Administrative Services.


title: Judiciary of India

text: Village courts, Lok Adalat (people's court) or Nyaya panchayat (justice of the villages), offer alternative dispute resolution. They were recognized through the 1888 Madras Village Court Act, then developed (after 1935) in various provinces and (after independence) Indian states. The model from


title: Judiciary of India

text: Gujarat State (with a judge and two assessors) was used from the 1970s onwards. In 1984 the Law Commission recommended to create Panchayats in rural areas with laymen ("having educational attainments"). The 2008 Gram Nyayalayas Act had foreseen 5,000 mobile courts in the country for judging petty civil (property cases) and criminal (up to 2 years of prison) cases. However, the Act was not enforced, with only 151 functional Gram Nyayalayas in the country (as of May 2012) against a target of 5000. The major reasons were include financial constraints, reluctance of lawyers, police and other government officials.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The President of India, vice-president, Supreme Court and High Court Judges and other constitutional authorities are paid from the Consolidated fund. Two acts deal with SC and HC judge compensation. The Supreme Court Judges (Salaries and Condition) Act deals with the compensation for Supreme Court Judges. The High Court Judges (Salaries and Condition) Act (1954) regulate the compensation of High Court judges. Whenever compensation is amended, the Central Government must present it as a normal bill before Parliament.


title: Judiciary of India

text: NJPC decides the pay scale, allowances, facilities, etc. for subordinate judiciaries throughout the country. This commission was set up by the Government to comply with a Supreme Court order. The recommendations of NJPC, when accepted by the Supreme Court (after hearing any objection of Central or State Govt.), become binding The commission was set up based on recommendations from All Indian Judges Association. The Chief Justice of India recommended that the central government constitute a permanent body to avoid unnecessary delays.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The first NJPC was constituted on 21 March 1996 on the order of Supreme Court in the landmark judgment "All India Judges Association v UOI". The commission was headed by Justice K. J. Shetty (Ex- Supreme Court Judge). The commission submitted its report in 1999. It recommended raising the salaries of the subordinate judiciary and fixed their overall compensation. Ten years later, the second NJPC was headed by P.V. Reddi (Ex-Judge SC).


title: Judiciary of India

text: The institute provides training to Subordinate Judiciary officers on topics that State Judicial Academies do not cover. It also offers training to High Court judges of states and judges and judicial officers of other nations. Indian judicial academies:


title: Judiciary of India

text: According to the World Bank, "although India's courts are notoriously inefficient, they at least comprise a functioning independent judiciary"


title: Judiciary of India

text: Citizens are, after many negative experiences, often unaware of their rights, or resigned to their fate before an inefficient court. Court efficiency is crucial, as a backlog of cases creates opportunities for corruption.


title: Judiciary of India

text: As of May 2022, India has a sanctioned strength of 25,628 judges with 4.7 crore(47 million) cases pending in judiciary. Nearly 1,82,000 cases have been pending for over 30 years. According to National Judicial Data Grid, Indian courts had 27% rise in backlog between December 2019 and April 2022.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The legal maxim "justice delayed is justice denied" is honored only in the breach. On average about 20% of approved judicial positions are vacant. The annual backlog increase is less than 2%. If the vacancies were filled, the backlog would decline. Minor infractions make up nearly half of pending cases.


title: Judiciary of India

text: In 2015, some 400 vacancies were reported in the 24 high courts. The Supreme Court backlog is 70,572 as of May 2, 2022. Some 30 million cases await resolution in various courts. The budget allocation is a 0.2 per cent of gross domestic product. The judge-population ratio is 10.5 to one million, about 20% of the recommended 50 to one million.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The government is the largest single litigant, adding cases to the docket, losing most, and then appealing to the next court. The Law Commission found that most such appeals were pointless.


title: Judiciary of India

text: Jagdev claimed that the Judiciary does not attract the best legal talent in part because of disparity in compensation. In recent years scandals have besmirched the judiciary's reputation. The sub-ordinate judiciary works in appalling conditions.


title: Judiciary of India

text: On 12 January 2012, the Supreme Court said that confidence in the judiciary was decreasing, posing a threat to the country. It acknowledged the problems of vacancies in trial courts, unwillingness of lawyers to become judges, and the failure of the apex judiciary in filling vacant HC posts. One proposal is that access to justice must be made a constitutional right requiring the executive to provide the necessary infrastructure for protecting that right. The Court also wanted the Government of India to detail the work being done by the National Mission for Justice Delivery and Legal Reforms.


title: Judiciary of India

text: Undertrials outnumber convicts in the prison population. Ordinary citizens have been imprisioned for espionage for overstaying their visa or straying across international borders, languishing in prison for years due to the slow redressal process. According to Prison Statistics- India 2015, 67.2% of the total prison population of India is under trial, which means they have not yet(by 2015) been convicted by the court.


title: Judiciary of India

text: To reduce pendency, 'Fast-track courts', 'Evening courts/Morning courts' were set up and met with mixed success. Mobile courts were set up to bring 'justice at the doorsteps' of litigants of judge-poor rural areas.


title: Judiciary of India

text: "Lok Adalats" is an informal, alternative mechanism that has been a success in tackling backlogs, especially in pre-litigation matters, settling cases before they enter the courts.


title: Judiciary of India

text: According to a report released by Centre for Public Policy Research and British Deputy High Commission "a total of 16,884 commercial disputes [are] pending in High Courts with original jurisdiction. Of these Madras High court tops with 5,865. With the number of commercial disputes growing rapidly, facilitating a seamless dispute resolution system through alternate means has become crucial."


title: Judiciary of India

text: Economists Boehm and Oberfeld calculated that the backlog costs the Indian economy several percentage points of GDP.


title: Judiciary of India

text: According to Transparency International, judicial corruption in India is attributable to factors such as "delays in the disposal of cases, shortage of judges and complex procedures, all of which are exacerbated by a preponderance of new laws". Corruption has reached the Supreme Court. Notable cases include:


title: Judiciary of India

text: Around 50% of the judges of high courts and 33% judges in the Supreme Court are family members of those in higher echelons of judiciary. Supreme Court has a sanctioned strength of 31 judges, out of which six judges were sons of former judges and appointments of over 88 judges from 13 high courts who were either born to a family of lawyers, judges, or worked under some legal luminaries. Union Minister of State, HRD, Upendra Kushwaha notes that only 250-300 families have sent judges to Supreme Court and there is negligible representation of women and Scheduled Castes in higher judiciary.


title: Judiciary of India

text: The E-courts project was established in 2005. All courts were to get computerised. As per the project in 2008, all the District courts were initialised under the project. In 2010, all District courts were computerised. Digital services began in the Supreme Court in June 2011. The case lists and the judgements of most district courts were available Data is updated daily. Most District and Taluka Courts in the country are computerised. Cause list of each of the Court are available.


title: Judiciary of India

text: Judicial service centres are available for all courts. The public assess case status, stage and next hearing dates.


title: Carnatic Wars

text: The Carnatic Wars were a series of military conflicts in the middle of the 18th century in India's coastal Carnatic region, a dependency of Hyderabad State, India. Three Carnatic Wars were fought between 1744 and 1763.


title: Carnatic Wars

text: The conflicts involved numerous nominally independent rulers and their vassals, struggles for succession and territory; and included a diplomatic and military struggle between the French East India Company and the British East India Company. They were mainly fought within the territories of Mughal India with the assistance of various fragmented polities loyal to the "Great Moghul".


title: Carnatic Wars

text: As a result of these military contests, the British East India Company established its dominance among the European trading companies within India. The French company was pushed to a corner and was confined primarily to Pondichéry. The East India Company's dominance eventually led to control by the British Company over most of India and eventually to the establishment of the British Raj.


title: Carnatic Wars

text: The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb died in 1707. He was succeeded by Bahadur Shah I, but there was a general decline in central control over the empire during the tenure of Jahandar Shah and later emperors. Nizam-ul-Mulk established Hyderabad as an independent kingdom. A power struggle ensued after his death between his son, Nasir Jung, and his grandson, Muzaffar Jung, which soon involved foreign powers eager to expand their influence. France aided Muzaffar Jung while Britain aided Nasir Jung. Several erstwhile Mughal territories were autonomous such as the Carnatic, ruled by Nawab Dost Ali Khan, despite being under the legal purview of the Nizam of Hyderabad. French and British support soon became intertwined with the affairs of the Nawab. Dost Ali's death sparked a power struggle between his son-in-law Chanda Sahib, supported by the French, and Muhammad Ali, supported by the British.


title: Carnatic Wars

text: One major instigator of the Carnatic Wars was the Frenchman Joseph François Dupleix, who arrived in India in 1715, rising to become the French East India Company's governor in 1742. Dupleix sought to expand French influence in India, which was limited to a few trading outposts, the chief one being Pondicherry on the Coromandel Coast. Immediately upon his arrival in India, he organized Indian recruits under French officers for the first time, and engaged in intrigues with local rulers to expand French influence. However, he was met by the equally challenging and determined young officer from the British Army, Robert Clive.


title: Carnatic Wars

text: "The Austrian War of Succession in 1740 and later the war in 1756 automatically led to a conflict in India...and British reverses during the American War of Independence (1775–1783) in the 1770s had an impact on events in India."


title: Carnatic Wars

text: In 1740, the War of the Austrian Succession broke out in Europe. Great Britain was drawn into the war in 1744, opposed to France and its allies. The trading companies of both countries maintained cordial relations in India while their parent countries were bitter enemies on the European continent. Dodwell writes, "Such were the friendly relations between the English and the French that the French sent their goods and merchandise from Pondicherry to Madras for safe custody." Although French company officials were ordered to avoid conflict, British officials were not, and were furthermore notified that a Royal Navy fleet was en route. After the British initially captured a few French merchant ships, the French called for backup from as far afield as Isle de France (now Mauritius), beginning an escalation in naval forces in the area. In July 1746, French commander La Bourdonnais and British Admiral Edward Peyton fought an indecisive action off Negapatam, after which the British fleet withdrew to Bengal. On 21 September 1746, the French captured the British outpost at Madras. La Bourdonnais had promised to return Madras to the British, but Dupleix withdrew that promise, and wanted to give Madras to Anwar-ud-din after the capture. The Nawab then sent a 10,000-man army to take Madras from the French but was decisively repulsed by a small French force in the Battle of Adyar. The French then made several attempts to capture the British Fort St. David at Cuddalore, but the timely arrivals of reinforcements halted these and eventually turned the tables on the French. British Admiral Edward Boscawen besieged Pondicherry in the later months of 1748, but lifted the siege with the advent of the monsoon rains in October.


title: Carnatic Wars

text: With the termination of the War of Austrian Succession in Europe, the First Carnatic War also came to an end. In the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), Madras was given back to the British in exchange for the French fortress of Louisbourg in North America, which the British had captured. The war was principally notable in India as the first military experience of Robert Clive, who was taken prisoner at Madras but managed to escape, and who then participated in the defence of Cuddalore and the siege of Pondicherry. The French retained their position as the protectors of nizams of Hyderabad.


title: Carnatic Wars

text: Though a state of war did not exist in Europe, the proxy war continued in India. On one side was Nasir Jung, the Nizam and his protege Muhammad Ali, supported by the British, and on the other was Chanda Sahib and Muzaffar Jung, supported by the French, vying to become the Nawab of Arcot. Muzaffar Jung and Chanda Sahib were able to capture Arcot while Nasir Jung's subsequent death allowed Muzaffar Jung to take control of Hyderabad. Muzaffar's reign was short as he was soon killed, and Salabat Jung became Nizam. In 1751, however, Robert Clive led British troops to capture Arcot, and successfully defend it. The war ended with the Treaty of Pondicherry, signed in 1754, which recognised Muhammad Ali Khan Walajah as the Nawab of the Carnatic. Charles Godeheu replaced Dupleix, who died in poverty back in France.


title: Carnatic Wars

text: The outbreak of the Seven Years' War in Europe in 1756 resulted in renewed conflict between French and British forces in India. In this time the French were facing many financial problems. The Third Carnatic War spread beyond southern India and into Bengal where British forces captured the French settlement of Chandernagore (now Chandannagar) in 1757. However, the war was decided in the south, where the British successfully defended Madras, and Sir Eyre Coote decisively defeated the French, commanded by the comte de Lally at the Battle of Wandiwash in 1760. After Wandiwash, the French capital of Pondicherry fell to the British in 1761.


title: Carnatic Wars

text: The war concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, which returned Chandernagore and Pondichéry to France, and allowed the French to have "factories" (trading posts) in India but forbade French traders from administering them. The French agreed to support British client governments, thus ending French ambitions of an Indian empire and making the British the dominant foreign power in India.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: Adrian Chiles (born 21 March 1967) is a British writer and television and radio presenter. He has co-presented both "The One Show" (2007–2010) and "Daybreak" (2010–2011) with Christine Lampard. He was also the chief presenter for football coverage on ITV Sport from 2010 until 2015. His journalistic training and love of football resulted in his presenting business programmes such as "Working Lunch" and "The Money Programme" as well as sports programmes like "Match of the Day 2". He currently works for BBC Radio 5 Live.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: Chiles was born in Quinton, Birmingham, to an English father and Croatian mother, and moved a few miles away to Hagley, Worcestershire at the age of four. His Birmingham accent is a feature of his presentations. He also speaks Croatian, despite having a self-confessed imperfect understanding of the language's verbs, declensions, and cases. Chiles started his education at Haybridge High School, and then worked in his father's scaffolding business, before graduating with a degree in English literature from the University of London (studying at Westfield College, now part of Queen Mary, University of London).


title: Adrian Chiles

text: Before going to university he was a keen amateur actor, appearing in the Crescent Theatre's musical production of Mary O'Malley's "Once A Catholic" and Sandy Wilson's "The Cheese". After university, while waiting for his broken leg to heal from an amateur football incident he applied for and failed both Civil Service exams, before being asked to apply for MI5 — he failed the second interview. He studied journalism at Cardiff and then worked as a sports reporter for the "News of the World".


title: Adrian Chiles

text: Chiles' experience from "Financial World Tonight" led to him fronting the BBC Two business show "Working Lunch", where he came to popular notice.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: He has since created, scripted and fronted a variety of other programmes for the BBC including, for BBC Two, the 2003 series "So What Do You Do All Day?" – a look at the lives of the rich and famous – and "Asian Millionaires". For BBC One he created and fronted "Royal Millions", an investigation of the Queen's finances, as well as reports for "Panorama" and various documentaries.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: From 2006 until 2009, Chiles presented the spin-off series of the popular UK television show "The Apprentice" called "" in which he interviews the latest candidate to be fired. He left the BBC in 2009, and was replaced by Dara Ó Briain.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: During August 2006 Chiles co-presented a pilot of a new BBC One early-evening magazine programme, "The One Show". The programme was re-commissioned for 2007 with Chiles returning as host, leaving "Working Lunch". Chiles' last appearance on "The One Show" was on 30 April 2010 and his favourite guest from the programme, rock singer Robert Plant, appeared again. His final show also saw video tributes to an emotional Chiles from Prime Minister Gordon Brown and political leaders David Cameron and Nick Clegg.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: In January 2016, Chiles returned to BBC television, where he fronted a 2-part religion/travel series "My Mediterranean with Adrian Chiles" for BBC Two. In July 2016, he presented a special edition of "Panorama" called "Why We Voted to Leave: Britain Speaks" for BBC One. On 1 January 2019, he hosted a follow-up programme on BBC Radio 4 called "Brexit: bewitched, bothered or bewildered?" in which he spoke again to the same people – more than two years on – on how they now felt about Brexit. In November 2016, he fronted one-off documentary "Whites v Blacks: How Football Changed a Nation" for BBC Two.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: Chiles co-presented "Christine and Adrian's Friendship Test", a three-part documentary series with Christine Lampard. The series was broadcast on BBC Northern Ireland in November 2017.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: In August 2018, Chiles presented a BBC Two documentary entitled "Drinkers Like Me" in which he admitted to regularly drinking in excess of 100 units of alcohol per week and investigated why alcohol had become such a big part of his life. As part of the programme, a doctor carried out a [Fibroscan] liver test on him, which produced a score of 8.9, indicating mild/moderate fibrosis of the liver and significant hepatic steatosis.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: When the BBC won back the rights to Premier League football, Chiles became the host of "Match of the Day 2" on Sundays. In the run-up to the 2006 World Cup, he was an integral part in BBC Three's African Cup of Nations coverage. He was also a member of the BBC's World Cup team often bringing viewers late night highlights. He was a main presenter of the BBC's Euro 2008 coverage and was one of the anchors of the morning 2008 Olympics coverage from Beijing.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: After news media speculation suggesting that the BBC wished to increase the popularity of "The One Show" on Fridays by introducing Chris Evans alongside Christine Lampard in an extended one-hour format, Chiles was said to be discussing a contract with ITV. After Evans was confirmed as the new Friday presenter in a revamped one-hour format, Chiles left the BBC for ITV in a four-year contract, speculated to be worth £1million per year. Chiles left the BBC on 30 April 2010.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: From May 2010, Chiles fronted ITV's football coverage. He made his ITV debut on 24 May 2010, presenting the England v Mexico friendly at Wembley (England won the match 3–1).


title: Adrian Chiles

text: On 6 September 2010, he made his first appearance on "Daybreak", ITV's new breakfast television programme. The show failed to capture a larger market share than its competitor "Breakfast", and on 18 November 2011 it was announced that Chiles would be axed from the show. He was replaced by Dan Lobb.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: In January 2011, Chiles began presenting "That Sunday Night Show" on ITV, which returned for a second series in September 2011 and a third in January 2012.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: His contract with ITV came an end on 20 April 2014. However, he signed a new contract to purely host ITV's football coverage. The new contract included a wage cut of £1 million per year.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: On 23 January 2015, it was announced that Chiles had left his role as ITV's football host with immediate effect. He has not returned to the channel since.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: In his early career at the BBC, Chiles became an assistant producer and, by 1993, was presenting Radio 4's "Financial World Tonight".


title: Adrian Chiles

text: He began presenting and producing his own show "Chiles on Saturday" for Radio 5 Live, which was awarded the sports category Gold Medal at the "Sony Radio Academy Awards" in 2002.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: In November 2013, Chiles returned to Radio 5 Live, co-presenting "Drive on Fridays" with Anna Foster.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: In October 2014, he became the Monday and Tuesday host of new programme "5 Live Daily" from 10am – 1pm; with Peter Allen, and subsequently Emma Barnett, hosting Wednesday to Friday.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: In January 2018, he was moved to Fridays only and the title was changed to "Chiles on Friday", with Emma Barnett hosting from Monday to Thursday under the title "The Emma Barnett Show", although the content remains essentially the same.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: Chiles was the World Record holder for highest number of kisses received in 60 seconds from 2007 until 2009, with 78.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: In 2004, Chiles appeared with Johnny Vegas and Mackenzie Crook in the film "Sex Lives of the Potato Men" in a cameo role as the host of a sex party.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: He appeared on the second series of "Al Murray's Happy Hour" as himself, and also had a cameo as himself in Series Two of "That Mitchell and Webb Look".


title: Adrian Chiles

text: On 23 November 2009, Chiles released a "2 Good 2 Bad: The World Cup DVD" based on the popular segment from "Match of the Day 2".


title: Adrian Chiles

text: In 2020, he participated in ('Language Road Trip'), a show for S4C where he and several other celebrities learned Welsh, broadcast in April 2020. An extra episode, ('Language Road Trip: Christmas') was broadcast at the end of 2020, interviewing each of the celebrities about whether they were still making use of their Welsh and the opportunities they had had to use Welsh during lockdown.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: Chiles wrote the non-fiction book "The Good Drinker: How I Learned to Love Drinking Less", published in October 2022.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: Chiles married Jane Garvey, a former regular presenter of "Woman's Hour" on Radio 4, in September 1998 in Swansea. Chiles and Garvey have two daughters. In June 2008, the couple separated; they divorced in October 2009. Chiles married "Guardian" editor Kath Viner in 2022.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: Chiles converted to Catholicism in 2007. During Lent 2015, he attended Mass daily and at a different church each time; a total of 46 different churches in 46 days.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: He is a supporter of West Bromwich Albion Football Club, where he is a season-ticket holder and presenter on some of the club's official DVDs. Both of his cars have WBA in their registration and he has a stained glass West Bromwich Albion crest above his door.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: Chiles plays the double bass, as revealed when he dueted with violinist Nigel Kennedy playing "Fever" on "The One Show." On 7 May 2008, his co-presenter on "The One Show", Christine Lampard, sang part of a song with Chiles accompanying on piano.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: Chiles began writing a regular column for "The Guardian" in February 2019. He confirmed his relationship with the newspaper's editor, Katharine Viner, in an interview with "The Daily Telegraph" in April 2020, saying "I’ve got a horror of talking about relationships. I don’t mind saying I’m with Kath." Chiles has said that the relationship began as a result of him writing the column and not the other way around.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: In 2019, Chiles wrote an opinion piece detailing his experience after several publications such as the "Mail on Sunday" republished false information about his alleged marriage to a woman named Maria Walsh in his Wikipedia article, presumably from erroneous information within a "Daily Mail" article. The "Daily Mail" article has since been corrected.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: In 2020, Chiles revealed in his "Guardian" column that he had been diagnosed with ADD. He wrote that his condition is being successfully treated with prescription drugs, after he had initially disregarded his symptoms.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: Chiles describes himself as "almost vegan". He has a urinal in his flat and has written about the mixed reactions it receives.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: In March 2008, Chiles embarked on a charity cycling trip with footballer Alan Shearer from Newcastle upon Tyne to London via West Bromwich for Sport Relief. The duo raised £371,065 for their feat.


title: Adrian Chiles

text: In 2010, Chiles grew a beard, which was later shaved off by his "One Show" co-host Christine Lampard for Sport Relief, raising £60,000 in the process.


title: Terry Francona

text: Terrence Jon Francona (born April 22, 1959), nicknamed "Tito", is an American baseball manager and former player who is the manager of the Cleveland Guardians in Major League Baseball (MLB). Previously, he was the manager of the Boston Red Sox for eight seasons, whom he led to two World Series titles and ended the franchise's 86-year championship drought.


title: Terry Francona

text: After a four-year stint as the manager of the Philadelphia Phillies, Francona was hired to manage the Red Sox in 2004 and led the team to their first championship since 1918. He won another World Series with Boston in 2007 and continued to manage the team until the end of the 2011 season. In 2013, Francona became Cleveland's manager and led them to an American League pennant in 2016. He also led Cleveland to a 22-game win streak during the 2017 season, the longest in American League history and the second-longest in MLB history.


title: Terry Francona

text: Francona was born on April 22, 1959, in Aberdeen, South Dakota, to Tito Francona (1933–2018), who played outfield for several Major League clubs from 1956 to 1970, and Roberta Jackson (1932–1992).


title: Terry Francona

text: Francona grew up in New Brighton, Pennsylvania, about northwest of Pittsburgh, where he got his start in baseball at New Brighton Area High School.


title: Terry Francona

text: Francona represented the United States at the 1979 Pan American Games and attended the University of Arizona, where he played college baseball for the Arizona Wildcats baseball team. Francona and the Arizona Wildcats won the 1980 College World Series and Francona was named the tournament's Most Outstanding Player. Francona won the 1980 Golden Spikes Award.


title: Terry Francona

text: Francona was drafted in the first round of the 1980 amateur draft by the Montreal Expos, using the 22nd overall selection. After briefly playing in the minor leagues, Francona made his major league debut with Montreal on August 19, 1981, a week after the end of that summer's player strike. He appeared mainly as an outfielder that first year, and he went 4-for-12 in the National League Division Series against the Philadelphia Phillies, an extra playoff round utilized that year because the season was conducted in two halves as the result of the strike. The Expos won that series, three games to two.


title: Terry Francona

text: As the seasons went on, Francona shifted to first base, where he ultimately played one hundred games more than he had in the outfield. He also developed a reputation as a contact hitter, with very few home runs, walks, or strikeouts.


title: Terry Francona

text: The Expos released Francona after the 1985 season, during which his batting average had slipped to .267 after posting a .346 average in limited action in 1984. He went on to sign one-year contracts with the Chicago Cubs, Cincinnati Reds, Cleveland Indians, and Milwaukee Brewers. The Brewers re-signed Francona for 1990, but he only played in three games for the Brewers that year, the last on April 19. In 10 seasons and 708 games, he posted a .274 career average, with 16 home runs and 143 RBI. He also made an appearance as a pitcher with Milwaukee on May 15, 1989, late in a game that the Brewers lost 12–2; he threw 12 pitches and struck out one batter (Stan Javier) on three pitches.


title: Terry Francona

text: After retiring as a player, Francona began coaching, spending several years in the Chicago White Sox organization. In 1991, he managed the rookie league Sarasota White Sox of the Gulf Coast League. In 1992, he ran the South Bend White Sox of the mid-level Class A Midwest League. As manager of the AA franchise Birmingham Barons in 1993–95, he posted a 223–203 record and won two distinctions: Southern League Manager of the Year in 1993, "Baseball America's" Minor League Manager of the Year in 1993, and top managerial candidate by "Baseball America" in 1994, the same year Michael Jordan played for Birmingham. Birmingham won the Southern League championship in 1993.


title: Terry Francona

text: He managed in the Dominican Winter League with the Águilas Cibaeñas, and he also won the championship and the Serie del Caribe in 1995–96. That team included Miguel Tejada, Manny Ramirez, and Tony Batista.


title: Terry Francona

text: Francona became third-base coach for the Detroit Tigers in 1996, working under their new skipper, Buddy Bell, a former teammate of Francona on the Reds.


title: Terry Francona

text: After the 1996 season ended, he was hired as manager of the Phillies, who had won the NL pennant in 1993 but then had three consecutive losing seasons. In Francona's four seasons (1997–2000) as the Phils' skipper, the club never rose above third place in the National League East. His best finish with the Phillies was 77–85 in 1999. In 1998 and 1999, the Phillies finished in third place, behind the Atlanta Braves and their division-rival New York Mets.


title: Terry Francona

text: He was fired following the 2000 campaign. He finished with a 285–363 record. He spent the following season as a special assistant to the general manager with the Cleveland Indians in 2001, which was followed by two one-year terms as a bench coach for the Texas Rangers (2002) and Oakland Athletics (2003).


title: Terry Francona

text: The Red Sox hired Francona to manage their club in 2004, after Grady Little's contract was not renewed following the Red Sox loss in the 2003 American League Championship Series.


title: Terry Francona

text: Francona led the Red Sox to a 98–64 record in 2004, the second-best record in the American League behind their biggest rival, the New York Yankees. The club gelled in the second half and won more games than any other team in the American League after the All-Star break.


title: Terry Francona

text: As the American League wild card, the Red Sox swept the AL West champion Anaheim Angels, three games to none, in the Division Series. In the 2004 American League Championship Series, the Red Sox fell behind the Yankees, three games to none, including a 19–8 loss in Game 3 at home in Fenway Park. However, the club regained its composure and won the last four games of the series, the first time in Major League Baseball history that a team rallied from an 0–3 deficit to win a playoff series (only the third team to even make it as far as Game 6, and the first team to force a Game 7 after trailing a series three games to zero). The Red Sox then swept the St. Louis Cardinals 4–0 in the 2004 World Series to win the sixth world title in franchise history, and their first since 1918. The long-awaited victory ended 86 years of frustration for Red Sox fans.


title: Terry Francona

text: Francona and the Red Sox posted a 95–67 record in 2005, tied with New York for first in the American League East. However, the Yankees were awarded the division due to their 10–9 record against Boston during the season. Once again the American League Wild Card winner, the Red Sox were swept in the ALDS by the Chicago White Sox, whom went on to win the 2005 World Series.


title: Terry Francona

text: The 2006 Red Sox started strong but stumbled in the second half of the season after many key players suffered extensive injuries. The team posted a 23–35 record over the final two months and finished at 86–76, third place in the AL East. It was the first time Boston had finished lower than second place since 1997.


title: Terry Francona

text: However, Boston rebounded impressively in 2007. The Red Sox won the AL East for the first time since 1995, finishing two games ahead of the Yankees. Under Francona's leadership, the Sox swept the Angels in the Division Series before dropping three of the first four games to the Cleveland Indians in the ALCS. The Sox, facing elimination, went on to win their next three games, defeating Cleveland to advance to the 2007 World Series, where they swept the Colorado Rockies in four games. Francona is the only manager in Major League history to win his first eight consecutive World Series games and just the second manager to guide two Red Sox clubs to World Series titles, the other being Bill "Rough" Carrigan who led Boston to back-to-back championships in 1915 and 1916.


title: Terry Francona

text: As of October 1, 2008, Francona's career regular-season managerial record was 755–703 (.518), while his post-season record was 22–9 (.710). Among managers who have managed at least 20 post-season games, he has the highest winning percentage. Francona won his first seven playoff elimination games (not losing until being swept by the Chicago White Sox in the 2005 ALDS) and first nine ALCS elimination games (not losing until Game 7 of the 2008 ALCS at the Tampa Bay Rays).


title: Terry Francona

text: On February 24, 2008, the Red Sox announced that they had extended Francona's contract. Instead of expiring at the end of the 2008 season, it would expire after the 2011 season. The team also held club options for 2012 and 2013. Francona was guaranteed a total of $12 million over the first three years of the contract, plus a $750,000 buyout to be received if his 2012 and 2013 options were not exercised.


title: Terry Francona

text: On June 2, 2009, Francona recorded his 500th win as manager of the Red Sox, making him the third manager in club history to have 500 wins. The only other two to win at least 500 games as manager of the Red Sox are Joe Cronin (1,071), and Pinky Higgins (560). On May 6, 2010, Francona became the fourth person to manage 1,000 games for the Red Sox.


title: Terry Francona

text: On July 23, 2011, Francona got his 1,000th win as a manager, but his team collapsed historically in September, finishing 7–20 and squandering a nine-game lead over the Rays for the AL Wild Card spot. Following the season, the Red Sox declined to exercise Francona's 2012 option. He finished his Red Sox career with a 744–552 record in the regular season—second to Cronin in victories, but tops in winning percentage (.574) among those having managed at least 750 games—and 28–17 (.622) in the postseason with those two World Series championships.


title: Terry Francona

text: Francona was hired as manager of the Cleveland Indians on October 6, 2012, and officially introduced on October 8. The Indians chose Francona over Sandy Alomar Jr., who had served as the club's interim manager for the final six games of the 2012 season after Manny Acta was fired on September 27. Alomar, who had spent the past three seasons as a coach in Cleveland, and Francona were the only candidates interviewed for the Indians' opening. Alomar stayed in Cleveland on Francona's staff as the bench coach. Under Francona, the Cleveland Indians finished the 2013 regular season with a record of 92–70, which was a 24-game improvement over the previous year. The Indians were eliminated from the 2013 MLB playoffs by losing 4–0 to the Tampa Bay Rays in the American League Wild Card Game. On November 12, 2013, Terry Francona was named as the American League Manager of the Year. Francona agreed to a two-year extension on November 4, 2014. He led the team to a 177–147 record in his first two seasons as Indians manager.


title: Terry Francona

text: Francona managed the Indians to the American League Central Division title in 2016. His team swept his former club, the Boston Red Sox, in three games in the divisional series—clinching a berth in the ALCS with a win at Fenway Park on October 10, 2016. On October 19, 2016, Francona's Indians beat the Toronto Blue Jays to move on to the World Series, where the Indians won game 1 against the Chicago Cubs 6–0 to extend his World Series record to 9–0. He lost his first World Series game when the Indians were defeated by the Cubs in game 2 by a score of 5–1. The Indians won Game 3 against the Chicago Cubs 1–0. The Indians won Game 4 against the Chicago Cubs 7–2 to give Cleveland a 3–1 lead. The Indians would fall to the Cubs 3–2 in Game 5. Cleveland went on to lose Game 6 by a score of 9–3, then lose 8–7 in 10 innings in Game 7 handing Francona his first World Series loss. On November 15, 2016, Francona was named American League Manager of the Year for the second time in his career.


title: Terry Francona

text: Cleveland turned in another successful season in 2017, with Francona undergoing a cardiac ablation. The highlight of the season was a 22-game win streak that spanned August 24 – September 15. Of historic proportions, the streak placed second longest all-time in major league history to the New York Giants' 26 consecutive (included ties and suspended games) in 1916. It surpassed the 2002 Oakland Athletics' 20 consecutive wins for the American League record. Dominant in all aspects, the Indians trailed at the end of just eight of the 199 innings, and their run-differential of plus-105 (142–37) was higher than all but six teams through that point in the entire 2017 season. The offense produced a .937 OPS, 54 points higher the next best team, the Twins. The Indians' 1.58 ERA scaled 1.15 points lower than the next-best club, the Arizona Diamondbacks. Their Central division lead over the second-place Twins swelled from games to games. In April 2019, the Indians extended Francona's contract for two more years.


title: Terry Francona

text: On July 29, 2021, Francona announced that he would step aside from the team for the rest of the year, citing health issues. He had dealt with a gastrointestinal issue in the 2020 season that led to managing just 14 games (Sandy Alomar Jr. served as acting manager and went 28–18); in February of 2021, he had toe surgery for a staph infection, and a lingering hip problem also bothered him. Bench coach DeMarlo Hale took over as interim manager.


title: Terry Francona

text: Francona entered the 2022 season as the longest-tenured manager in MLB with the same team. Also, since Francona has returned to the team, all the games he missed and that were managed by Hale in 2021 got credited to his record, thereby making him the all-time Indians/Guardians leader in wins by a manager (with 753 coming into 2022). In 2022, Francona led the Guardians to their first playoff appearance since 2020 and first AL Central title since 2018. Francona won the 2022 American League Manager of the Year, beating out Brandon Hyde and Scott Servais.


title: Terry Francona

text: Following his departure from the Red Sox in 2011, Francona was employed by the Fox network as a substitute color analyst for the first two games of the American League Championship Series. Francona, who teamed with play-by-play announcer Joe Buck, filled in for regular Fox analyst Tim McCarver, who was recuperating from minor heart surgery.


title: Terry Francona

text: On December 5, 2011, Francona signed with ESPN joining their "Sunday Night Baseball" telecast, replacing Bobby Valentine, who himself replaced Francona as manager of the Red Sox. During the 2012 season, he worked as an analyst on "Sunday Night Baseball", contributed to ESPN.com, and contributed to ESPN's Little League World Series coverage.


title: Terry Francona

text: Francona married Jacque Lang on January 9, 1982, and they have four children: son Nicholas, and daughters Alyssa, Leah, and Jamie. Nick played collegiate baseball for the University of Pennsylvania and for a time in the Cape Cod Baseball League. He was a lieutenant in the United States Marine Corps. In 2003, Nick was drafted by the Boston Red Sox. Alyssa and Leah played on the University of North Carolina softball team. In 2009, Alyssa was a senior and Leah was a freshman on the team. Jamie graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 2016.


title: Terry Francona

text: It was revealed in October 2011, that Francona and Lang had recently separated and that Francona had been living in a hotel room during the baseball season. Francona later said that he and Lang were in the final stages of divorcing.


title: Terry Francona

text: He is known for his ever-present wad of chew. Francona and Indians' bench coach Brad Mills have been best friends since their college playing days and have coached together on the Phillies, Red Sox and Indians.


title: Terry Francona

text: During the 2005 season, Francona was hospitalized after complaining of severe chest pains. Tests revealed significantly clogged arteries, but it was concluded that Francona had not suffered a heart attack. This incident, as well as a life-threatening pulmonary embolism suffered in 2002, painful knees, and ongoing treatment for blood clots, has led to circulation issues which necessitate wearing extra clothes, including two pairs of tights. This is also why his regular uniform top is usually hidden by a pullover.


title: Terry Francona

text: During the months of June and July 2017, Francona missed several games because of feeling lightheaded. He was admitted to the Cleveland Clinic to undergo a series of tests. On July 7, 2017, it was announced that Francona underwent a catheter ablation to correct an irregular heartbeat. Because of the recovery period from the procedure, Francona had to skip the 2017 MLB All-Star Game, which he was due to coach. On July 8, 2017, he was released from the hospital and expected to rest until July 14, 2017, when the Indians start the second half of the season.


title: Terry Francona

text: Francona missed most of the 2020 season and all of the postseason due to a blood clotting issue. On July 29, 2021, it was announced by the team that Francona would step away from managerial duties for the remainder of the 2021 season to focus on his health and recovery after managing the first 99 games of the regular season for a record of 50–49. DeMarlo Hale served as acting manager for the rest of the season.


title: Terry Francona

text: On March 2, 2021, a new report from "The Athletic" indicated that Francona, alongside Cleveland president of baseball operations Chris Antonetti, had known of the behavior of former coach Mickey Callaway (who had served as a coach from 2013 to 2017), who was accused of sexual harassment by five women. Francona and Antonetti even defended him to an irate husband who had called the club due to his wife suffering harassment at the hand of Callaway (the organization had brought in an attorney from Cleveland that suggested Francona call the husband). Callaway would receive a one year ban from MLB while Francona merited criticism from his son Nick, who stated that his father lied to him about the proceedings.


title: Trophic state index

text: The Trophic State Index (TSI) is a classification system designed to rate water bodies based on the amount of biological productivity they sustain. Although the term "trophic index" is commonly applied to lakes, any surface water body may be indexed.


title: Trophic state index

text: The TSI of a water body is rated on a scale from zero to one hundred. Under the TSI scale, water bodies may be defined as:


title: Trophic state index

text: The quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other biologically useful nutrients are the primary determinants of a water body's TSI. Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus tend to be limiting resources in standing water bodies, so increased concentrations tend to result in increased plant growth, followed by corollary increases in subsequent trophic levels. Consequently, trophic index may sometimes be used to make a rough estimate of biological condition of water bodies.


title: Trophic state index

text: Carlson's index was proposed by Robert Carlson in his 1977 seminal paper, "A trophic state index for lakes". It is one of the more commonly used trophic indices and is the trophic index used by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. The "trophic state" is defined as the total weight of biomass in a given water body at the time of measurement. Because they are of public concern, the Carlson index uses the algal biomass as


title: Trophic state index

text: an objective classifier of a lake or other water body's trophic status. According to the US EPA, the Carlson Index should only be used with lakes that have relatively few rooted plants and non-algal turbidity sources.


title: Trophic state index

text: Because they tend to correlate, three independent variables can be used to calculate the Carlson Index: "chlorophyll pigments", "total phosphorus" and "Secchi depth". Of these three, chlorophyll will probably yield the most accurate measures, as it is the most accurate predictor of biomass. Phosphorus may be a more accurate estimation of a water body's summer trophic status than


title: Trophic state index

text: chlorophyll if the measurements are made during the winter. Finally, the Secchi depth is probably the least accurate measure, but also the most affordable and expedient one. Consequently, citizen monitoring programs and other volunteer or large-scale surveys will often use the Secchi depth. By translating the Secchi transparency values to a log base 2 scale, each successive doubling of biomass is represented as a whole integer index number. The Secchi depth, which measures water transparency, indicates the concentration of dissolved and particulate material in the water, which in turn can be used to derive the biomass. This relationship is expressed in the following equation:


title: Trophic state index

text: A lake is usually classified as being in one of three possible classes: "oligotrophic", "mesotrophic" or "eutrophic". Lakes with extreme trophic indices may also be considered "hyperoligotrophic" or "hypereutrophic" (also "hypertrophic"). The table below demonstrates how the index values translate into trophic classes.


title: Trophic state index

text: Oligotrophic lakes generally host very little or no aquatic vegetation and are relatively clear, while eutrophic lakes tend to host large quantities of organisms, including algal blooms. Each trophic class supports different types of fish and other organisms, as well. If the algal biomass in a lake or other water body reaches too high a concentration (say >80 TSI), massive fish die-offs may occur as decomposing biomass deoxygenates the water.


title: Trophic state index

text: Limnologists use the term "oligotrophic" or "hipotrophic" to describe lakes that have low primary productivity due to nutrient deficiency. (This contrasts against eutrophic lakes, which are highly productive due to an ample supply of nutrients, as can arise from human activities such as agriculture in the watershed.)


title: Trophic state index

text: Oligotrophic lakes are most common in cold, sparsely developed regions that are underlain by crystalline igneous, granitic bedrock. Due to their low algal production, these lakes consequently have very clear waters, with high drinking-water quality.


title: Trophic state index

text: Lakes that have intermixing of their layers are classified into the category of holomictic, whereas lakes that do not have interlayer mixing are permanently stratified and thus are termed meromictic.


title: Trophic state index

text: Generally, in a holomictic lake, during the fall, the cooling of the epilimnion reduces lake stratification, thereby allowing for mixing to occur. Winds aid in this process. Thus it is the deep mixing of lakes (which occurs most often during the fall and early winter, in holomictic lakes of the monomictic subtype) that allows oxygen to be transported from the epilimnion to the hypolimnion.


title: Trophic state index

text: In this way, oligotrophic lakes can have significant oxygen down to the depth to which the aforementioned seasonal mixing occurs, but they will be oxygen deficient below this depth. Therefore, oligotrophic lakes often support fish species such as lake trout, which require cold, well-oxygenated waters. The oxygen content of these lakes is a function of their seasonally mixed hypolimnetic volume. Hypolimnetic volumes that are anoxic will result in fish congregating in areas where oxygen is sufficient for their needs.


title: Trophic state index

text: Anoxia is more common in the hypolimnion during the summer when mixing does not occur. In the absence of oxygen from the epilimnion, decomposition can cause hypoxia in the hypolimnion.


title: Trophic state index

text: Mesotrophic lakes are lakes with an intermediate level of productivity. These lakes are commonly clear water lakes and ponds with beds of submerged aquatic plants and medium levels of nutrients.


title: Trophic state index

text: The term mesotrophic is also applied to terrestrial habitats. Mesotrophic soils have moderate nutrient levels.


title: Trophic state index

text: A eutrophic water body, commonly a lake or pond, has high biological productivity. Due to excessive nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, these water bodies are able to support an abundance of aquatic plants. Usually, the water body will be dominated either by aquatic plants or algae. When aquatic plants dominate, the water tends to be clear. When algae dominate, the water tends to be darker. The algae engage in photosynthesis which supplies oxygen to the fish and biota which inhabit these waters. Occasionally, an excessive algal bloom will occur and can ultimately result in fish death, due to respiration by algae and bottom-living bacteria. The process of eutrophication can occur naturally and by human impact on the environment.


title: Trophic state index

text: Eutrophic comes from the Greek "eutrophos" meaning "well-nourished", from "eu" meaning good and "trephein" meaning "to nourish".


title: Trophic state index

text: Hypertrophic or hypereutrophic lakes are very nutrient-rich lakes characterized by frequent and severe nuisance algal blooms and low transparency. Hypereutrophic lakes have a visibility depth of less than , they have greater than 40 micrograms/litre total chlorophyll and greater than 100 micrograms/litre phosphorus.


title: Trophic state index

text: The excessive algal blooms can also significantly reduce oxygen levels and prevent life from functioning at lower depths creating dead zones beneath the surface.


title: Trophic state index

text: Likewise, large algal blooms can cause biodilution to occur, which is a decrease in the concentration of a pollutant with an increase in trophic level. This is opposed to biomagnification and is due to a decreased concentration from increased algal uptake.


title: Trophic state index

text: Both natural and anthropogenic factors can influence a lake or other water body's trophic index. A water body situated in a nutrient-rich region with high net primary productivity may be naturally eutrophic. Nutrients carried into water bodies from non-point sources such as agricultural runoff, residential fertilisers, and sewage will all increase the algal biomass, and can easily cause an oligotrophic lake to become hypereutrophic.


title: Trophic state index

text: Often, the desired trophic index differs between stakeholders. Water-fowl enthusiasts (e.g. duck hunters) may want a lake to be eutrophic so that it will support a large population of waterfowl. Residents, though, may want the same lake to be oligotrophic, as this is more pleasant for swimming and boating. Natural resource agencies are generally responsible for reconciling these conflicting uses and determining what a water body's trophic index should be.


title: Adhesive

text: Adhesive, also known as glue, cement, mucilage, or paste, is any non-metallic substance applied to one or both surfaces of two separate items that binds them together and resists their separation.


title: Adhesive

text: The use of adhesives offers certain advantages over other binding techniques such as sewing, mechanical fastenings, or welding. These include the ability to bind different materials together, the more efficient distribution of stress across a joint, the cost-effectiveness of an easily mechanized process, and greater flexibility in design. Disadvantages of adhesive use include decreased stability at high temperatures, relative weakness in bonding large objects with a small bonding surface area, and greater difficulty in separating objects during testing. Adhesives are typically organized by the method of adhesion followed by "reactive" or "non-reactive", a term which refers to whether the adhesive chemically reacts in order to harden. Alternatively, they can be organized either by their starting physical phase or whether their raw stock is of natural or synthetic origin.


title: Adhesive

text: Adhesives may be found naturally or produced synthetically. The earliest human use of adhesive-like substances was approximately 200,000 years ago, when Neanderthals produced tar from the dry distillation of birch bark for use in binding stone tools to wooden handles. The first references to adhesives in literature appeared in approximately 2000 BC. The Greeks and Romans made great contributions to the development of adhesives. In Europe, glue was not widely used until the period AD 1500–1700. From then until the 1900s increases in adhesive use and discovery were relatively gradual. Only since the last century has the development of synthetic adhesives accelerated rapidly, and innovation in the field continues to the present.


title: Adhesive

text: Evidence of the earliest known use of adhesives was discovered in central Italy when two stone flakes partially covered with birch-bark tar and a third uncovered stone from the Middle Pleistocene era (circa 200,000 years ago) were found. This is thought to be the oldest discovered human use of tar-hafted stones.


title: Adhesive

text: The birch-bark-tar adhesive is a simple, one-component adhesive. A study from 2019 showed that birch tar production can be a very simple process—merely involving the burning of birch bark near smooth vertical surfaces in open air conditions. Although sticky enough, plant-based adhesives are brittle and vulnerable to environmental conditions. The first use of compound adhesives was discovered in Sibudu, South Africa. Here, 70,000-year-old stone segments that were once inserted in axe hafts were discovered covered with an adhesive composed of plant gum and red ochre (natural iron oxide) as adding ochre to plant gum produces a stronger product and protects the gum from disintegrating under wet conditions. The ability to produce stronger adhesives allowed middle Stone Age humans to attach stone segments to sticks in greater variations, which led to the development of new tools.


title: Adhesive

text: More recent examples of adhesive use by prehistoric humans have been found at the burial sites of ancient tribes. Archaeologists studying the sites found that approximately 6,000 years ago the tribesmen had buried their dead together with food found in broken clay pots repaired with tree resins. Another investigation by archaeologists uncovered the use of bituminous cements to fasten ivory eyeballs to statues in Babylonian temples dating to approximately 4000 BC.