title: Optometry

text: The Optometrists Board of the Supplementary Medical Professions Council regulates the profession in Hong Kong. Optometrists are listed in separate parts of the register based on their training and ability. Registrants are subject to restrictions depending on the part they are listed in. Those who pass the examination on refraction conducted by the Board may be registered to Part III, thereby restricted to practice only work related to refraction. Those who have a Higher Certificate in Optometry or have passed the Board's optometry examination may be registered to Part II, thereby restricted in their use of diagnostic agents, but may otherwise practice freely. Part I optometrists may practice without restrictions and generally hold a bachelor's degree or a Professional Diploma.


title: Optometry

text: There are around 2000 optometrists registered in Hong Kong, 1000 of which are Part I. There is one Part I optometrist to about 8000 members of the public. The Polytechnic University runs the only optometry school. It produces around 35 Part I optometrists a year.


title: Optometry

text: In 2010, it was estimated that India needs 115,000 optometrists; whereas India has approximately 9,000 optometrists (4-year trained) and 40,000 optometric assistants/vision technicians (2-year trained). In order to prevent blindness or visual impairment more well-trained optometrists are required in India. The definition of optometry differs considerably in different countries of the world. India needs more optometry schools offering four-year degree courses with a syllabus similar to that in force in those countries where to practise of optometry is statutorily regulated and well established with an internationally accepted definition.


title: Optometry

text: In 2013, it was reported in the "Indian Journal of Ophthalmology" that poor spectacle compliance amongst school children in rural Pune resulted in significant vision loss.


title: Optometry

text: In 2015, it was reported in the Optometry and Vision Science that, optometrists need to be more involved in providing core optometry services like binocular vision and low vision.


title: Optometry

text: At present, there are more than fifty schools of optometry in India. In the year 1958, two schools of optometry were established, one at Gandhi Eye Hospital, Aligarh in Uttar Pradesh and another one at Sarojini Devi Eye Hospital, Hyderabad in Telangana, under the second five-year plan by Director General of Health Services of Government of India. These schools offered diplomas in optometry courses of two years duration validated by State Medical Faculties.


title: Optometry

text: Subsequently, four more schools were opened across India situated at Sitapur Eye Hospital, Sitapur in Uttar Pradesh, Chennai (formerly Madras) in Tamil Nadu, Bengalooru (formerly Bangalore) in Karnataka and Regional Institute of Ophthalmology, Thiruvananthapuram (formerly Trivandrum) in Kerala.


title: Optometry

text: The Elite School of Optometry (ESO) was established in 1985 at Chennai and was the first to offer a four-year degree course.


title: Optometry

text: School of Optometry, Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University, Pune (https://optometry.bharatividyapeeth.edu/) established in 1998 was the first to offer a degree course to diploma holders, through a lateral entry program. Also, the first 2 years of Masters of Optometry course was started here in the year 2003.


title: Optometry

text: Academic degrees such as Bachelor of Optometry, Master of Optometry and Doctor of Philosophy in Optometry are awarded in India by the universities recognised by University Grants Commission (India), a statutory body responsible for the maintenance of standards of higher education in India.


title: Optometry

text: Optometrists across India are encouraged to register with the Optometry Council of India, a self-regulatory body registered under the Indian Company Act.


title: Optometry

text: It takes four years to complete a degree in optometry. Today, optometry courses are well received by citizens. More universities and higher education studies are about to implement the courses, e.g., National Institute of Ophthalmic Sciences in Petaling Jaya whereby it is the academic arm of The Tun Hussein Onn National Eye Hospital. Other public universities that provide this course are University Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM), and International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). There is also a private university that provides this course such as Management and Science University (MSU) and SeGi University.


title: Optometry

text: After completing the study in Degree in Optometry, the optometrist who practices in Malaysia must register under the Malaysian Optical Council (MOC) which is the organization under the Ministry of Health.


title: Optometry

text: The Association of Malaysian Optometrist (AMO) is the only body that represents the Malaysian optometrist profession. All of the members are either local or overseas graduates in the field of Optometry.


title: Optometry

text: Optometry is taught as a five/four-year Doctor/ Bachelors/ Bachelors with Honors course at many institutions notable among which are Department of Optometry & Vision Sciences (DOVS) FAHS, ICBS, Lahore, Pakistan Institute of Community Ophthalmology (PICO) Peshawar, Pakistan institute of Rehabilitation science Isra University campus Islamabad (PIRS),College of Ophthalmology & Allied Vision Sciences (COAVS) Lahore and Al-Shifa Institute of Ophthalmology Islamabad. After graduation, the optometrists can join a four-tiered service delivery level (Centre of Excellence, Tertiary/Teaching, District headquarter and sub-district /Tehsil headquarters). M.Phil. in Optometry is also available at select institutions such as King Edward Medical University, Lahore


title: Optometry

text: Department of Optometry & Vision Sciences (DOVS) FAHS, ICBS, Lahore started bridging programmes for Bachelors/ Bachelors with Honors to become Doctor of Optometry OD, Post Professional Doctor of Optometry(PP-OD), Transitional Doctor of Optometry(t-OD).


title: Optometry

text: Optometry is not yet a regulated field in Pakistan as there is no professional licensing board or authority responsible for issuing practise licenses to qualified optometrists. This creates difficulty for Pakistani optometrists who wish to register abroad.


title: Optometry

text: Imam Hussain Medical University also has launched Doctor of Optometry Program. Chairman Imam Hussain Medical University Dr Sabir Hussain Babachan has vowed to regulate OD curriculum according to international standard.


title: Optometry

text: Optometry is regulated by the Professional Regulation Commission of the Philippines. To be eligible for licensing, each candidate must have satisfactorily completed a doctor of optometry course at an accredited institution and demonstrate good moral character with no previous record of professional misconduct. Professional organizations of optometry in the Philippines include Optometric Association of the Philippines and Integrated Philippine Association of Optometrists, Inc. (IPAO).


title: Optometry

text: In Saudi Arabia, optometrists must complete a five-year doctor of optometry degree from Qassim University and King Saud University also they must complete a one-year residency.


title: Optometry

text: The education of Optometry in Taiwan commenced in 1982 at Shu-Zen College of Medicine and Management. Currently, Bcahelor degrees in Optometry can be obtained from seven universities (North to South): University of Kang Ning, Yuanpei University of Medical Technology, Asia University, Central Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Chung Shan Medical University, Dayeh University, and Chung Hwa University of Medical Technology; where as associate degrees in Optometry can be obtained from Mackay Junior College of Medicine, Nursing and Management, Hsin Sheng College of Medical Care and Management, Jen-Teh Junior College of Medicine, Nursing, and Management, and Shu-Zen College of Medicine and Management.


title: Optometry

text: The Law of Optometrists was established in Taiwan in 2015, since then, Optometry students after obtaining Optometry degrees need to pass the National Optometry Examination of Taiwan to be registered as Optometrists. Currently, there are approximately 4,000 Optometrists in Taiwan (2020), and around 400 new Optometrists register annunally (2018-2020).


title: Optometry

text: Since late 1990, Thailand has set a goal to provide more than 600 optometrists to meet the minimal public demands and international standards in vision care. There are more than three university degree programs in Thailand. Each program accepts students that have completed grade 12th or the third year in high school (following US education model). These programs offer "Doctor of Optometry" degree to graduates from the program that will take six years to complete the courses. Practising optometrists will also be required to pass licensing examination (three parts examinations) that is administrated through a committee under the Ministry of Public Health.


title: Optometry

text: Nowadays, the number of practising optometrists in Thailand is still less than one hundred (2015). However, it has projected that the number of practising optometrists in Thailand will greatly increase within the next ten years. In the theoretical scenario, the number of optometrists should be able to meet minimal public demands around 2030 or earlier.


title: Optometry

text: Since the formation of the European Union, "there exists a strong movement, headed by the Association of European Schools and Colleges of Optometry (AESCO), to unify the profession by creating a European-wide examination for optometry" and presumably also standardized practice and education guidelines within EU countries. The first examinations of the new European Diploma in Optometry were held in 1998 and this was a landmark event for optometry in continental Europe.


title: Optometry

text: As of July 2003, there was no regulatory framework and optometrists were sometimes trained by completing an apprenticeship at an ophthalmologists' private office.


title: Optometry

text: Optometric tasks are performed by ophthalmologists and professionally trained and certified opticians.


title: Optometry

text: Hellenic Ministry of Education founded the first department of Optometry at Technological Educational Institute of Patras in 2007. After protests from the department of Optics at Technological Educational Institute of Athens (the only department of Optics in Greece, until 2006), the Government changed the names of the departments to "Optics and Optometry" and included lessons in both optics and optometry. Optometrists-Opticians have to complete a 4-year undergraduate honours degree. Then the graduates can be admitted to postgraduate courses in Optometry at universities around the world.


title: Optometry

text: Since 2015, a Master of Science (MSc) course in Optometry is offered by the Technological Educational Institute of Athens.


title: Optometry

text: The Institute of Vision and Optics (IVO) of the University of Crete focuses on the sciences of vision and is active in the fields of research, training, technology development and provision of medical services. Professor Ioannis Pallikaris has received numerous awards and recognitions for the institute's contribution to ophthalmology. In 1989 he performed the first LASIK procedure on a human eye.


title: Optometry

text: Optometrist education takes 4 years in the medical universities in Hungary, and they will get a Bachelor of Science degree. They work in networks and retail stores and private optics, very few are located in the Health Care care system as ophthalmologists as an assistant.


title: Optometry

text: The profession of Optometry has been represented for over a century by the Association of Optometrists, Ireland [AOI]. In Ireland an optometrist must first complete a four-year degree in optometry at Dublin Institute of Technology. Following successful completion of the degree, an optometrist must then complete professional qualifying examinations to enter the register of the Opticians Board [Bord na Radharcmhaistoiri]. Optometrists must be registered with the Board to practice in the Republic of Ireland.


title: Optometry

text: The A.O.I. runs a comprehensive continuing education and professional development program on behalf of Irish optometrists. The legislation governing optometry was drafted in 1956. Some feel that the legislation restricts optometrists from using their full range of skills, training and equipment for the benefit of the Irish public. The amendment to the Act in 2003 addressed one of the most significant restrictions: the use of cycloplegic drugs to examine children.


title: Optometry

text: In Italy Optometry is an unregulated profession. It is taught at seven universities: Padua, Turin, Milan, Salento, Florence, Naples and Rome, as three years course (like a BSc) of "Scienze e tecnologie fisiche" as a sector of the Physics Department. Additionally, courses are available at some private institutions (as at Vinci Institute near Firenze) that offer advanced professional education for already qualified opticians (most of the Italian optometrists are also qualified opticians, i.e. "ottico abilitato"). In the last thirty years several verdicts from High Court (Cassazione) proof that optometry is a free practice and has truly education path.


title: Optometry

text: In Norway, the optometric profession has been regulated as a healthcare profession since 1988. After a three-year bachelor program, one can practice basic optometry. At least one year in clinical practice qualify for a post-degree half-year sandwich course in contact lens fitting, which is regulated as a healthcare speciality. A separate regulation for the use of diagnostic drugs in optometric practice was introduced in 2004.


title: Optometry

text: In Russia, optometry education has been accredited by the Federal Agency of Health and Social Development.


title: Optometry

text: There are only two educational institutions that teach optometry in Russia: Saint Petersburg Medical Technical College, formerly known as St. Petersburg College of Medical Electronics and Optics, and The Helmholtz Research Institute for Eye Diseases. They both belong and are regulated by the Ministry of Health. The optometry program is a four-year program. It includes one to two science foundation years, one year focused on clinical and proficiency skills, and one year of clinical rotations in hospitals. Graduates take college/state examinations and then receive a specialist diploma. This diploma is valid for only five years and must be renewed every five years after receiving additional training at state-accredited programs.


title: Optometry

text: The scope of practice for optometrists in Russia includes refraction, contact lens fitting, spectacles construction and lens fitting (dispensing), low vision aids, foreign body removal, referrals to other specialists after clinical condition diagnoses (management of diseases in the eye).


title: Optometry

text: Optometrists in the United Kingdom are regulated by the General Optical Council under the Opticians Act 1989 and distinguished from medical practitioners. Registration with the GOC is mandatory to practice optometry in the UK. Members of the College of Optometrists (incorporated by a Royal Charter granted by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II) may use the suffix MCOptom.


title: Optometry

text: The National Health Service provides free sight tests and spectacle vouchers for children and those on very low incomes. The elderly and those with some chronic conditions like diabetes get free periodic tests. Treatment for eye conditions such as glaucoma and cataracts is free and checked for during normal eye examinations.


title: Optometry

text: In the United Kingdom, optometrists have to complete a 4 year undergraduate honours degree followed by a minimum of a one-year "pre-registration period", (internship), where they complete clinical practice under the supervision of a qualified and experienced practitioner. During this year the pre-registration candidate is given a number of quarterly assessments, often including temporary posting at a hospital, and on successfully passing all of these assessments, a final one-day set of examinations (details correct for candidates from 2006 onwards). Following successful completion of these assessments and having completed one year's supervised practice, the candidate is eligible to register as an optometrist with the General Optical Council (GOC) and, should they so wish, are entitled to membership of the College of Optometrists. Twelve universities offer Optometry in the UK: Anglia Ruskin, Aston, Bradford, Cardiff, City, Glasgow Caledonian, Hertfordshire, Manchester, University of Plymouth, Ulster University at Coleraine, University of Portsmouth and University of the West of England.


title: Optometry

text: In 2008 the UK moved forward to offer the Doctor of Optometry postgraduate program. This became available at the Institute of Optometry in London in partnership with London South Bank University. The Doctor of Optometry postgraduate degree is also offered at one other UK institution.Aston University


title: Optometry

text: In 1990, a survey of the opinions of British medical practitioners regarding the services provided by British optometrists was carried out by Agarwal at City, University of London. A majority of respondents were in favour of optometrists extending their professional role by treating external eye conditions and prescribing broad-spectrum topical antibiotics through additional training and certification.


title: Optometry

text: Since 2009, optometrists in the UK have been able to undertake additional postgraduate training and qualifications that allow them to prescribe medications to treat and manage eye conditions. There are currently three registerable specialities:


title: Optometry

text: Optometrists in the United Kingdom are able to diagnose and manage most ocular diseases, and may also undertake further training to perform certain surgical procedures.


title: Optometry

text: In Canada, Doctors of Optometry typically complete four years of undergraduate studies followed by four to five years of optometry studies, accredited by the Accreditation Council on Optometric Education. There are two such schools of optometry located in Canada — the University of Waterloo and the Université de Montreal. Canada also recognizes degrees from the twenty US schools.


title: Optometry

text: In Canada, Doctors of Optometry must write national written and practical board exams. Additionally, optometrists are required to become licensed in the province in which they wish to practice. Regulation of professions is within provincial jurisdiction. Therefore, regulation of optometry is unique to individual provinces and territories. In Ontario, optometrists are licensed by the College of Optometrists of Ontario.


title: Optometry

text: In Canada, the profession is represented by the Canadian Association of Optometrists. In the province of Ontario, the Ontario Association of Optometrists is the designated representative of optometrists to the provincial government.


title: Optometry

text: Optometrists in Canada are trained and licensed to be primary eye care providers. They provide optical and medical eye care. They are able to diagnose and treat most eye diseases and can prescribe both topical and oral medications. They can also undertake further qualifications in order to perform some surgical procedures.


title: Optometry

text: Optometrists or Optometry Doctors usually function as primary eye care providers - they have a degree in eye care. They provide comprehensive optical and medical eye care, but usually not surgery. They are trained and licensed to practice medicine for eye related conditions - prescribe topical medications (prescription eye drops), oral medications as well as administer diagnostic agents. In some states, optometrists may also be licensed to perform certain types of eye surgery.


title: Optometry

text: Optometrists, provide optical and medical eye care. They prescribe corrective lenses to aid refractive errors (e.g. myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, astigmatism, double vision). They manage vision development in children including amblyopia diagnosis/treatment. Some perform vision therapy. They are trained to diagnose and manage any eye disease and their associations with systemic health. Optometrists are trained and licensed to practice medicine for eye-related conditions (including bacterial/viral infections, inflammation, glaucoma, macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy). They can prescribe all topical medications (eye drops) and most oral medications (taken by mouth), including scheduled controlled substances. They may also remove ocular foreign bodies and order blood panels or imaging studies such as CT or MRI. Optometrists do not perform invasive surgery, however In Oklahoma and Louisiana, Optometrists may perform superficial surgeries within the anterior segment of the eye. Legislation permits Optometrists in Oklahoma and Kentucky to perform certain laser procedures.


title: Optometry

text: Within their scope of practice optometrists are considered physicians and bill medical insurance plans accordingly.


title: Optometry

text: The Association of Regulatory Boards of Optometry (ARBO) assists these state board licensing agencies in regulating the practice of optometry.


title: Optometry

text: Optometrists must complete all course work and graduate from an accredited College of Optometry. This includes passage of all parts of the national board examinations as well as local jurisprudence examinations, which vary by state.


title: Optometry

text: Optometrists typically complete four years of undergraduate studies followed by four years of Optometry school. Some complete a 5th year of training. Their program is highly specific to the eyes and related structures. Optometrists receive their medical eye training while enrolled in Optometry school and during internships. Training may take place in colleges of Optometry, hospitals, clinics and private practices. In many instances Optometry students and Ophthalmology residents will co-manage medical cases. Instructors may be Optometrists, professors or physicians. The program includes extensive classroom and clinical training in geometric, physical, physiological and ophthalmic optics, specialty contact lens evaluation, general anatomy, ocular anatomy, ocular disease, pharmacology, ocular pharmacology, neuroanatomy and neurophysiology of the visual system, pediatric visual development, gerontology, binocular vision, color vision, form, space, movement and vision perception, systemic disease, histology, microbiology, sensory and perceptual psychology, biochemistry, statistics and epidemiology.


title: Optometry

text: Optometrists are required to obtain continuing education credit hours to maintain licensure - number of hours varies by state.


title: Optometry

text: Optometrists prescribing schedule controlled substances are required to renew their DEA license every few years.


title: Optometry

text: Australia currently has five recognized courses in optometry, and one course seeking to obtain accreditation with the Optometry council of Australia and New Zealand :


title: Optometry

text: To support these courses the Australian College of Optometry provides clinical placements to undergraduate students from Australian Universities and abroad.


title: Optometry

text: in 2016, almost 5000 optometrists in general practice were licensed with their regulatory body, the Optometry Board of Australia. Of these, approximately 2300 were registered with the scheduled medicines endorsement, which enables them to prescribe some medicines for the treatment of conditions of the eye.


title: Optometry

text: In July 2014, the Medicines Amendment Act 2013 and Misuse of Drugs Amendment Regulations 2014 came into effect. Among other things, the changes to the Act name optometrists as authorised prescribers. This change enables optometrists with a therapeutic pharmaceutical agent (TPA) endorsement to prescribe all medicines appropriate to their scope of practice, rather than limiting them to a list of medicines specified in the regulation; this recognises the safe and appropriate prescribing practice of optometrists over the previous nine years.


title: Optometry

text: The CBOO (Brazilian Council of Optics and Optometry), which is affiliated to the WCO (World Council of Optometry), represents Brazilian optometrists. In conjunction with organizations representative weight of Brazilian companies, including the National Commerce Confederation for goods, services and tourism (CNC), through the CBÓptica/CNC, its defence arm of the optometric and optical industry, are defending the right of free and independent practice of optometrists, even if it is against the interests of ophthalmologists.


title: Optometry

text: The Federal Supreme Court (STF), the Brazilian Court of Justice and the Superior Court of Justice (STJ), another important National Court, ruled several processes granting inquestionable victories to ophthalmologists.


title: Optometry

text: In Brazilian law, however, there is an explicit recommendation that the one prescribing corrective lenses are prohibited to sell them. This restricting rule to the ophthalmologists has to keep the optic shops away from Hospitals and Eye Care Clinics since 1930, and it has to be reviewed before any further regulation for the optometrists.


title: Optometry

text: In Colombia, optometry education has been accredited by the Ministry of Health. The last official revision to the laws regarding healthcare standards in the country was issued in 1992 through the Law 30. Currently there are eight official universities that are entitled by ICFES to grant the optometrist certification. The first optometrists arrived in the country from North America and Europe . These professionals specialized in optics and refraction. In 1933, under Decrees 449 and 1291, the Colombian Government officially set the rules for the formation of professionals in the field of optometry. In 1966 La Salle University opened its first Faculty of Optometry after a recommendation from a group of professionals. At present optometrists are encouraged to keep up with new technologies through congresses and scholarships granted by the government or the private sector (such as Bausch & Lomb).


title: Resolute desk

text: The "Resolute" desk, also known as the Hayes desk, is a nineteenth-century partners desk used by several presidents of the United States in the White House as the Oval Office desk, including the five most recent presidents. The desk was a gift from Queen Victoria to President Rutherford B. Hayes in 1880 and was built from the oak timbers of the British Arctic exploration ship . The desk was created by William Evenden, a skilled joiner at Chatham Dockyard in Kent, probably from a design by Morant, Boyd, & Blanford.


title: Resolute desk

text: HMS "Resolute" was abandoned in the Arctic waterway Tariyunnuaq in 1854 while searching for Sir John Franklin and his lost expedition. It was found in 1855 floating in Davis Strait by "George Henry", an American whaling ship. "Resolute" was repaired and returned to the United Kingdom as a gesture of goodwill from the United States. The ship was decommissioned in 1879, broken up, and a competition was held to design and build a piece of furniture from its timbers that Queen Victoria could give to the American president. Morant, Boyd, & Blanford won this contest, and this desk was constructed shortly after. Two other furniture pieces were created from the timbers of the "Resolute": the Grinnell desk, made for the widow of Henry Grinnell, who spent significant sums of money trying to find Sir John Franklin and his ships; and a table made for Queen Victoria's steam-powered yacht .


title: Resolute desk

text: The "Resolute" desk was received at the White House on November 23, 1880, and shortly thereafter was moved to the second floor. It stayed in the President's Office and President's Study until the White House Reconstruction from 1948 to 1952. After the reconstruction, it was placed in the Broadcast Room where Dwight D. Eisenhower used it during both radio and television broadcasts. Jackie Kennedy rediscovered the desk and had it brought to the Oval Office in 1961. The desk was removed from the White House after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, and went on a traveling exhibition with artifacts of the Kennedy Presidential Library. It was then put on display in the Smithsonian Institution. President Jimmy Carter brought the desk back to the Oval Office in 1977, where it has remained since, save that George H. W. Bush used the C&O desk in the Oval Office but kept the "Resolute" desk in the White House.


title: Resolute desk

text: The desk has been modified twice. Franklin Roosevelt requested the addition of a door with the presidential seal to conceal his leg braces and a safe, but it was not installed until 1945, after his death. A plinth was added to the desk in 1961 and replaced in 1986. Many replicas have been made of the "Resolute" desk. The first was commissioned in 1978 for a permanent display at the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library in Boston, Massachusetts, and since then five other presidential libraries and many museums, libraries, tourist attractions, and private homes and offices have acquired copies of the desk.


title: Resolute desk

text: The "Resolute" desk is built from oak timbers that were once part of the ship . The double pedestal, partners desk is high with a workspace measuring wide and deep. It weighs . The desk was created in 1880 by William Evenden, a skilled joiner at Chatham Dockyard in Kent, probably from a design by Morant, Boyd, & Blanford. The desk is decorated with carved moldings and carved floral swag designs. There are sets of drawers behind the cabinet doors on each side of the desk pedestals, and the desktop is covered with red leather. Built at the same time as the Grinnell desk, the two desks together cost 380 pounds ().


title: Resolute desk

text: A plaque, mounted on the front center drawer, explains the history of the "Resolute" and the meaning behind the desk. This plaque was originally on the back of the desk but from Ronald Reagan's presidency onwards it has been photographed as being on the front. The underside of all the exterior drawer fronts are stamped "MORANT BOYD & BLANFORD / 91 NEW BOND STREET" and the lock plates are stamped "BY ROYAL / LETTERS PATENT / FOUR LEVERS / SAFETY LOCK / COMYN CHINC & Co."


title: Resolute desk

text: President Franklin D. Roosevelt requested that a panel be installed in the rear kneehole during his presidency. Roosevelt wore leg braces and was in a wheelchair most of the time due to polio, so wanted the panel added to hide his legs from his visitors, and to conceal a safe placed in the kneehole. The panel was designed by White House architect Lorenzo Winslow and constructed out of hard oak by Rudolph Bauss in 1945. The kneehole panel is hinged, opens up, and features a carving of the presidential seal. The carved seal depicts the eagle's head facing left, turned towards the arrows in the eagle's talon. In 1945 the design of the presidential seal was changed by Harry S. Truman to have the eagle turned towards the olive branch in the right talon instead. This was to have the bird turn away from the symbol of war and towards the symbol of peace. However, the carving on the desk was not changed, making the carving on the desk no longer match the official design.


title: Resolute desk

text: In 1961, during the John F. Kennedy administration, a two-inch-tall plinth was installed under the desk to elevate the kneehole and allow the president to sit more comfortably. This plinth was replaced in 1986 during Ronald Reagan's administration. The plinth fits the shape of the desk, sitting flush with the molding above it.


title: Resolute desk

text: The "'Resolute" desk is constructed as multiple parts and can be broken down for ease of movement. This is evident in a photo taken on January 20, 1993, by David Hume Kennerly for Getty Images where the tabletop and the two pedestals are visible as separate pieces during the redesign of the Oval Office for Bill Clinton's presidency.


title: Resolute desk

text: While the "Resolute" desk has resided in the Oval Office since it was returned in 1993 by president Clinton, it has been occasionally disassembled and moved out of the room. Moving the desk out mostly happens during renovations and updates to the space. It was removed in 2005, during the George W. Bush presidency, for a renovation where the flooring of the Oval Office was replaced. It was again removed in 2017 for improvements to the HVAC system and a general redesign for Donald Trump's presidency.


title: Resolute desk

text: In May 1845 Sir John Franklin, a British explorer, launched an expedition to find the Northwest Passage. Using two of the Royal Navy's best ships, and , stocked with enough provisions to last three years, he charted a course through Baffin Bay, located between Baffin Island and the west coast of Greenland. The expedition and all 129 crew members vanished.


title: Resolute desk

text: The fate of the ship was frequently brought up in British press and grew into a cause célèbre. At least one folk ballad was written about the expedition and Charles Dickens published an article in Household Words down playing scandalous, unfounded reports that were circulating claiming the crew had resorted to cannibalism. Due to the public desire to know what happened a five-ship squadron under Edward Belcher set out from Britain in 1852 to search for the missing ships and explorer. , captained by Henry Kellett, was joined by , , , and , all under Belcher's command, on the expedition. The "North Star" stayed at a supply base on Beechey Island, while the other four ships split up to search for Franklin. The "Resolute" was constructed expressly as an arctic vessel with a bow covered in iron to cut through ice. It nevertheless became trapped in ice in April 1854, and the other three ships became stuck soon after. Belcher decided to abandon the four ships, and on May 15, 1854, "Resolute" was abandoned in Tariyunnuaq (what was then called Melville Sound). The ships' crews marched across the ice to the "North Star" back at Beechey Island and later sailed back to England on it and two auxiliary vessels. Belcher was court-martialed for the loss of his ships and the danger he put his crew through during the expedition. He never again received a naval command.


title: Resolute desk

text: When the ice thawed in the spring, the unmanned "Resolute" began drifting south, traveling more than and roughly 7 degrees latitude, where it was spotted in September 1855 in Davis Strait, off the shores of Baffin Island, by the crew of "George Henry", an American whaling ship captained by James Buddington. The whalers tried to signal the ship, and after it failed to respond four sailors boarded it. They found the ship uninhabited but still stocked. The ship was listing badly to its port side and missing its topmast. It took several weeks to pump out the water from the ship and get it back to an even keel, but Buddington knew the ship's story and knew he could likely sell it for a large sum when he returned it to dock. Buddington claimed the right to salvage for HMS "Resolute", and sailed it to New London, Connecticut, arriving on Christmas Eve 1855.


title: Resolute desk

text: This all happened during an especially tense time in United Kingdom–United States relations. Then-President Franklin Pierce was prepared to go to war with Britain for what would be a third time. In his third annual message, in 1855, Pierce discussed disputes over fishing rights and the border between British Columbia and Washington Territory as well as Britain's territorial claims in South America, which the United States claimed violated the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty. Regarding the disagreement about Britain's foothold in South America, Britain's then First Lord of the Admiralty stated that "We are fast drifting into war with the United States."


title: Resolute desk

text: Wealthy American philanthropist Henry Grinnell, who had financed an earlier expedition to find Franklin's lost ships to no avail, suggested to the US government that the "Resolute" should be refit and sent back to England as a token of goodwill. As a way to help calm tensions between the two countries, a bill was introduced to Congress on June 24, 1856, to authorize the purchase and restoration of the "Resolute". The United States Government bought the ship from Buddington for $40,000 () with plans to return it to the United Kingdom as a gift to Queen Victoria.


title: Resolute desk

text: On September 12, 1856, the "Resolute" was towed to the Brooklyn Navy Yard, where it underwent a complete refit, repaint, and restock. The ship set sail on November 13, 1856, out of New York Harbor and arrived in Portsmouth on December 12 of the same year, captained by Henry Hartstene. Hartstene, a member of the United States Navy during the American Civil War, had previously taken part in the Wilkes Expedition to study the Pacific Northwest, and captained a voyage to the arctic to successfully save Dr. Elisha Kent Kane who had gone missing on his own search for Franklin. After arriving in England the "Resolute" was later brought to Cowes Harbour on the Isle of Wight where Queen Victoria and Prince Albert boarded the ship and accepted it on behalf of all of Great Britain. Hartstene, as part of comments about the ship in a speech, expressed his hope "that long after every timber in her sturdy frame shall have perished, the remembrance of the old "Resolute" will be cherished."


title: Resolute desk

text: The "Resolute" continued serving in the Royal Navy for twenty-three years as a supply vessel, but never again left British waters. The ship was decommissioned in 1879 and subsequently broken up in Chatham Dockyard in Chatham, England in 1880.


title: Resolute desk

text: On June 11, 1879, the British Admiralty launched a competition to design a piece of furniture made from the timbers of the "Resolute" which Queen Victoria could gift to the American president. A January 3, 1880 article in "The Builder" described the desired furniture piece as "a magnificent article of furniture, combining writing table, bookshelves &c., ... made out of the ship's timber and sent as a present to the President of the United States." Six firms, including Morant, Boyd, & Blanford and Jackson & Graham, submitted competing designs. Morant, Boyd, & Blanford was chosen to complete the furniture piece. According to Kelly's London Post Office Directory of 1871, Morant, Boyd, & Blanford were "interior decorators, painters, upholsterers, estate and housing managers, carvers, gilders and cabinet makers" with two locations, one at 91 New Bond Street and the other at 4–7 Woodstock Street. The company was founded by George Morant and had supplied work for Thomas Lawrence, Robert Peel, and the Dukes of Sussex, Cambridge, and Sutherland. The company also exhibited at the Great Exhibition, the Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations, and the 1862 International Exhibition. Queen Victoria granted the company a Royal Warrant of Appointment in 1840. For the rest of the century, they were seen as one of the preeminent cabinet makers in England.


title: Resolute desk

text: Morant, Boyd, & Blanford had sent in multiple design drawings for the competition late in 1879 for various furniture pieces that could be constructed, including a large combination bookcase and chimneypiece. This design was created to symbolize the circumstances surrounding the gift of the "Resolute" back to England. A bust of Minerva, the first shipwright in Roman lore, sat in the central broken pediment, and reclining figures representing navigation and astronomy flanked the bust. Niches on either side of the central columns held busts of Edward Belcher and Henry Grinnell, and directly about the fireplace a carving of a personified "America" hands "Britannia" the ship "Resolute". The National Maritime Museum holds the plans for two other proposed designs; a secretaire and a library table. This library table design was not built, but a December 11, 1880 issue of "Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper" incorrectly presented an engraving of this design as the actual desk presented to the president. The engraving was made from drawings by H. Biscoe for an earlier "Scientific American" article about the proposed design. This early, ornate design for the desk was created on September 9, 1879. It included portraits of both Queen Victoria and then-President Rutherford B. Hayes. These portraits were paired with side panels displaying scenes of the arctic and British and American flags along with other highly ornate details and a Moroccan leather top.


title: Resolute desk

text: Queen Victoria ordered that three desks be made from the timbers of "Resolute". The one that is now known as the "Resolute" desk was announced as "recently manufactured" on November 18, 1880. Built under orders of the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury, William Evenden was tasked with creating the desk at Chatham Dockyard. Evenden was a skilled joiner working in the dockyard's Joiner's Shop, but very little is known about him. June Drake, Evenden's great-great-granddaughter, wrote in a 2012 letter to the Friends of Medway Archives that he was born in 1828 in Rochester, Kent and worked as a Freeman of Rochester at Chatham Dockyard. Drake said she believed Evenden to be well educated, as his mother was a schoolmistress and his two brothers had gainful employment; his younger brother was a master shipwright and naval architect in Devonport, Plymouth, while the other became a mining pioneer and Magistrate in Thornborough, Queensland, Australia. Drake said she was unsure why Evenden was chosen to build the "Resolute" desk, but suggested that his brother in Devonport may have suggested Evenden for the job. According to Drake, Evenden committed suicide in 1896 after "being distraught at the thought of being unemployed and maybe entering the workhouse." She surmised that is likely the reason there is not much information about him. He was buried at Chatham Cemetery, but his grave can no longer be found.


title: Resolute desk

text: On August 26, 1880, Victor Drummond, the British ambassador to Washington, wrote a letter to William M. Evarts, Secretary of State for the US, informing him of Queen Victoria's upcoming gift of the new writing table as well as its history. The crate containing the desk arrived in New York on November 15, 1880, by steamship and arrived at the White House on November 23. The first note written on the desk was by Hayes on the day the desk arrived at the White House to George Bancroft where he noted, "It gives me great pleasure to say that I do it in the first note written on the desk made from the timbers of the Resolute sent by Queen Victoria for the President." The desk has since been referred to by the name of the ship it was crafted from, the "Resolute" desk, or by the name of the president that accepted the gift, the Hayes desk. The December 11, 1880, issue of "Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper" praised the desk's beauty (albeit with the previous design pictured) and declared how it represented a major step forward in British–American relations.


title: Resolute desk

text: After receiving the desk, President Hayes placed it in the Green Room, one of the three state parlors on the first floor of the White House. It was on view here as an exhibition for tourists and visitors until Hayes ordered the desk be taken upstairs to his office on the second floor. At this time, the second floor of the White House acted both as the first family's living quarters and as the President's Office. What are now the Lincoln Bedroom, Lincoln Sitting Room, and Treaty Room were the president's main working spaces with the Yellow Oval Room used as the president's library or a family parlor. After the desk was moved to these offices by Hayes in 1880, it traveled from room to room, based on presidents' needs, for the next twenty-two years. Grover Cleveland used it in his office and library in what is now the Yellow Oval Room for both of his non-consecutive terms, William McKinley used the desk often in the Presidential Office and had a bouquet of flowers placed upon it every day, and Theodore Roosevelt used it in the President's Room, today's Lincoln Bedroom.


title: Resolute desk

text: The desk stayed in the President's Office until the office was moved to the newly built West Wing in 1902, during Theodore Roosevelt's presidency. After the McKim, Mead, & White renovations to the White House, Edith Roosevelt moved the "Resolute" desk to the former cabinet room, now the Treaty Room, to create a Den, or President's Study, for her husband. Woodrow Wilson also used the "Resolute" desk in this room. Wilson and his wife called the center drawer on one side of the desk "The Drawer" as it was where important communications and papers were placed if something happened between the closing time the day before and that morning.


title: Resolute desk

text: Franklin D. Roosevelt turned the Yellow Oval Room into his Oval Study, where both he and Harry S. Truman used the "Resolute" desk. Roosevelt kept the desk covered in personal mementos and, when entertaining visitors, would show off his bartending skills, which he was proud of, by personally mixing drinks atop the desk. His specialty was a dry martini. While the desk was in use in the Oval Study, President Roosevelt requested that a panel be installed in the rear kneehole, but it was not installed until 1945 after Roosevelt had died.


title: Resolute desk

text: The White House saw a major reconstruction under Harry S. Truman between 1948 and 1952 where the entire interior of the building was rebuilt. The president moved his family to Blair House during this reconstruction. The move out began on November 9, when the president left for a trip to Key West, with staff being given only two weeks to completely empty the building of furnishings. Blair House was already furnished but some White House elements were installed in the next door Lee House which was connected to Blair house during this move. The rest of the items had to be stored. The Library of Congress stored some books, the National Gallery of Art housed some of the art, and the Smithsonian Institution stored a few additional pieces. Most objects though were shipped up to New York to be stored in the climate controlled vaults owned by B. Altman and Company. Charles T. Haight, who ran the interior design department at Altman, charged the government only the at-cost rate for storage, $85 a month ().


title: Resolute desk

text: Charles T. Haight was awarded for storing the furnishings at such a low cost by being invited to do the interior design for the newly constructed White House rooms. On June 19, 1951, Haight presented a color drawing of his design for the old kitchen, later known as the Broadcast Room and now the Office of the Curator, to Congress' Commission on Renovation of the Executive Mansion. These plans included heavy traverse draperies in dull gold, a chenille rug, a pine table and cabinet removed from the White House after the 1814 Burning of Washington, black leather sofas and chairs, small tables, two new end tables, two new coffee tables and "The large desk which was originally in the President's Study" per minutes from a meeting of the Commission. Here, in the Broadcast Room, the "Resolute" desk was used during both radio and television broadcasts by Dwight D. Eisenhower.


title: Resolute desk

text: In 1961 John F. Kennedy was the first president to use the desk in the Oval Office. The Theodore Roosevelt desk was used briefly by Kennedy in the presidential office, but Jacqueline Kennedy had it replaced by the "Resolute." She was disappointed by the interior design of the White House when she moved in, stating that it "looked like it's been furnished by discount stores", and called it "that dreary Maison Blanche." Her desire to update the interior, however, was not immediately embraced by politicians. This changed with the forming of the Fine Arts Committee for the White House, later replaced by the Committee for the Preservation of the White House, in February 1961 with a stated goal of finding "authentic furniture of the date of the building of the White House and the raising of funds to purchase this furniture as gifts for the White House." Jacqueline Kennedy worked with the committee, including its chair Henry Francis du Pont, first White House Curator Lorraine Waxman Pearce, and interior designer Sister Parish, to find objects that were suitable for the historic building, and physically searched the White House for valuable items hidden away. She discovered that four Cézanne paintings originally intended for the White House were instead on display in the National Gallery of Art; she found 100-year-old busts in a downstairs men's bathroom; and after moving aside electrical equipment in the Broadcast Room, she uncovered the "Resolute" desk.


title: Resolute desk

text: When Jacqueline Kennedy discovered the desk, it was covered and obscured by green baize attached to it with Scotch Tape. The desk was being used to prop up camera equipment when films were shown in the Broadcast Room, and the baize was apparently there to protect it from the equipment. The discovery of the desk was announced in a White House press release titled "Discovery of the Table Desk from H.M.S. "Resolute"" on February 6, 1961, and led to a front-page article about the desk in the "New York Times" the next day. The article explained the choice to move the desk to the Oval Office as, "Feeling that the desk, with its connection with the sea, would perfectly complement the naval battle scenes and the model of the "Constitution" which she already had secured at her husband's suggestion, Mrs. Kennedy has given the desk to the president and it was placed in his office on Saturday, Feb. 4." Kennedy also wanted the ornate desk to be the most visible of the desks used by her husband. President Kennedy was said to be "delighted" by the return of the desk to "a place of honor in the White House." It was moved into the Oval Office and, according to the Smithsonian Institution, the desk "gained national prominence when President Kennedy's son, John, was photographed crawling through its trap door."


title: Resolute desk

text: President Kennedy had a taping system installed in the Oval Office which was designed and installed by Robert Bouck, a Secret Service agent, in July 1962. A microphone was located in the kneehole of the "Resolute" desk, and a button was installed under the desk for Kennedy to turn it on and off at will. A second microphone was disguised on the coffee table in the same room. Kennedy was the first president to make extensive use of recording as a means to document meetings, selectively recording over 238 hours of conversation between recording systems in both the Oval Office and Cabinet Room. This system was unknown to most of Kennedy's top aides until it was revealed during the Watergate hearings in 1973.


title: Resolute desk

text: After Kennedy's assassination, Lyndon B. Johnson did not move into the Oval Office for several days, possibly at the request of Robert Kennedy. He finally did begin using the room on November 26, 1963, and had the "Resolute" desk replaced with the Johnson desk, the desk that he had used throughout his time in the Senate and as vice president.


title: Resolute desk

text: On February 12, 1964, the "Resolute" desk was transferred, on loan, to the Smithsonian Institution. Under a law passed in 1961, the White House is considered a museum. Any donated items are property of the White House but cared for by the Smithsonian when not in use. After being placed on loan the desk went on tour around the country between 1964 and 1965 to help raise funds for the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. This traveling exhibit visited 27 American cities and 15 European ones including Warsaw and Belgrade, both Communist capital cities. On the American leg of the exhibit, it visited Atlantic City during the 1964 Democratic National Convention. When it traveled to Boston, 45,000 visitors were estimated to have viewed the desk in a single day. After this tour, the desk was put on view at the Smithsonian Institution beginning in 1966. The desk was originally displayed as an exhibit in its own right at the National Museum of History and Technology, now the National Museum of American History, with the independent exhibit opening on November 16, 1967, but it was later displayed as part of one of the five major United States Bicentennial exhibits the museum curated. The "We the People" exhibition, which the desk was displayed in, opened on June 4, 1975, and focused on the American people and American government.


title: Resolute desk

text: Jimmy Carter returned the "Resolute" desk to the Oval Office in 1977. On the afternoon of his January 20 inauguration, Carter made his first visit as president to the Oval Office. He later said he "...sat down at the President's desk and looked it over. It was a surprise to see that it was not the same one which had been photographed when John Kennedy was there, with his little son peeping out from the door underneath. My first decision: to replace this desk with the one I remembered." The next morning over breakfast he chose the "Resolute" desk from a set of images of desk options.


title: Resolute desk

text: Besides moving the "Resolute" desk back into the Oval Office, the Carters also established a trust fund to purchase American Art for a permanent collection in the White House. White House Curator Clement Conger noted that "The Carters really were surprisingly interested in American art and antiques... They were better informed than any president and first lady that I've known in this half century." The "Resolute" desk has been used by every president since in this room except for George H. W. Bush who used it for five months in the Oval Office before moving it to his Residence Office in the Treaty Room of the White House. Bush used the C&O desk in the Oval Office instead. Bill Clinton returned the "Resolute" desk to the Oval Office on his first day as president on January 20, 1993.


title: Resolute desk

text: In 2009, British Prime Minister Gordon Brown visited President Barack Obama and gave him the original framed commissioning papers for and an ornamental pen holder made from the timbers of the anti-slavery ship . "Gannet" began its service the same year that "Resolute" was broken up and the pen holder was made in the same Joiners Shop as the "Resolute" desk.


title: Resolute desk

text: Obama also found himself in a minor controversy when in 2013 photographs were released showing him with his foot resting on the "Resolute" desk. Multiple other presidents have also been photographed with their feet up on the desk.


title: Resolute desk

text: A failed attempt to switch out the "Resolute" desk with the Hoover desk was made during the transition to Joe Biden's presidency. Valerie Biden Owens, the sister of president Joe Biden and a member of the team tasked with redecorating the Oval Office for Biden's tenure, wrote in her memoir, "We tried to get FDR's Oval Office desk — I wanted everything Trump had touched out of there — but to this day, the desk resides at FDR's family home in Hyde Park. ... Thus, the desk Trump had sat behind remained."


title: Resolute desk

text: A button to call aides was noted as being on the "Resolute" desk since at least the George W. Bush presidency. This button sits in an approximately long by wide wooden box marked with a golden presidential seal. Donald Trump stated to one reporter that "everyone thinks it is [the nuclear button]".


title: Resolute desk

text: Below is a table with the location of the desk from 1880, when it arrived in America, to the present day. Each tenant of the desk is noted as well.


title: Resolute desk

text: Queen Victoria had a total of three tables built from the timbers of HMS "Resolute", of which the desk given to President Hayes was one. According to letters listed in Volume 40 of the Parliamentary Papers, two "memorial tables" made out of timbers from the "Resolute" were announced as "recently manufactured" by Robert Hall to the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury on November 18, 1880. Hall said that both tables were to be presented by the Queen, with one going to the president of the United States and the other given to the widow of Henry Grinnell. Four days later, on November 22, a second letter described how the Queen has "expressed a desire to have a table manufactured out of the same timbers" and that it was subsequently made by Morant, Boyd, & Blanford for a cost of 62 pounds ().


title: Resolute desk

text: The desk given to Henry Grinnell's widow, in recognition of the large sums of money her husband spent trying to find Sir John Franklin and his ships, is now known as the Grinnell desk. This desk is high, wide, and deep. Also designed and made by William Evenden in 1880, the desk has a leather-covered surface, fluted legs, and a leather footrest. The desk has an upper cabinet and two cupboards covered by paneled doors. The left door is carved with an anchor, and the right with a lion. A balustrade sits above these cupboards, and between them sits a shelf with a silver plaque. The plaque states, "This table... is presented by the Queen of Great Brittan and Ireland to Mrs. Grinnell as a memorial to the disinterested kindness and great exertions of her late husband Mr. Henry Grinnell in assisting in the search to ascertain the fate of Captain Sir John Franklin, who perished in the Arctic regions." This desk was donated to the New Bedford Whaling Museum in 1983 by Peter S. Grinnell.


title: Resolute desk

text: Queen Victoria's table was made for use on her steam-powered yacht, . This table is now part of the British Royal Collection and stored in Kensington Palace. It is high, wide, and deep. The rectangular side table has a plain top with a chamfered edge. The frieze contains two drawers. Both the frieze and legs have blind fretwork decorations. This table also has a brass plaque stating the "Resolute" "...was purchased, fitted out and sent as a gift to Her Majesty Queen Victoria by the President and people of the United States as a token of goodwill and friendship. The table was made from her timbers when she was broken up in 1880."


title: Resolute desk

text: While Parliamentary papers list expenditures for only three tables, Captain Michael Taylor, a docent at the New Bedford Whaling Museum who focuses his studies on the Grinnell desk, stated in a lecture that "it is believed a fourth may also have been made". Martin W. Sandler notes in his book, "Resolute: The Epic Search for the Northwest Passage and John Franklin, and the Discovery of the Queen's Ghost Ship" that Lady Jane Franklin, the widow of Sir John Franklin, may have also received a desk.


title: Resolute desk

text: The National Maritime Museum, one of the four-member intuitions of Royal Museums Greenwich, holds a few other objects created from the timbers of the "Resolute". These include three picture frames, a paper knife, and a box bearing a brass plaque. The museum also has a block of wood from the "Resolute" and the ship's figurehead, which is in the shape of a polar bear. Other parts of the ship are held by various museums, including the ship's clock at the Vancouver Maritime Museum and the ship's spyglass and sextant at the New London County Historical Society. The "Resolute"'s bell was given to President Lyndon Johnson by UK Prime Minister Harold Wilson in 1965.


title: Resolute desk

text: The first mention of creating a replica of the "Resolute " desk comes from a memo sent from Jacqueline Kennedy on April 2, 1963, only two years into John F. Kennedy's presidency. J. B. West, the White House Chief Usher at the time, included the text from this memo in his memoir "Upstairs at the White House; my life with the First Ladies". Jacqueline Kennedy wrote the following to him:


title: Resolute desk

text: This first attempt at creating a replica fell to the National Park Service but the techniques they chose to use turned out to be too expensive. This attempt to create a replica was abandoned.


title: Resolute desk

text: The first successful replica of the "Resolute" desk was commissioned in 1978 for a permanent display at the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library in Boston, Massachusetts. To build the replica, Robert C. Whitley, an American woodworker, spent three days measuring and photographing the original desk. This was done in the Oval Office while President Jimmy Carter was away in Germany. The replica desk took almost a full year to complete and is still found at the Kennedy Library.


title: Resolute desk

text: Six presidential libraries display replicas of the "Resolute" desk. Besides the Kennedy Library, the Clinton Presidential Center in Little Rock, Arkansas, the George W. Bush Presidential Center in University Park, Texas, the Jimmy Carter Library and Museum in Atlanta, Georgia, the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Museum in Simi Valley, California, and the Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center, in Fremont, Ohio all display a reproduction of the "Resolute" desk.


title: Resolute desk

text: Other museums and libraries also display replica "Resolute" desks. These include the New-York Historical Society's recreation of Reagan's Oval Office in New York City, The Presidents Hall of Fame in Clermont, Florida, the Treehouse Children's Museum in Ogden, Utah, the Star Spangled Center at The Magic House in Kirkwood, Missouri, the American Village Citizenship Trust in Montevallo, Alabama, and the George and Barbara Bush Center at the University of New England in Biddeford, Maine. A replica of the plaque affixed to the "Resolute" desk is displayed by the Kane Historic Preservation Society in Kane, Pennsylvania.


title: Resolute desk

text: Other tourist attractions across the United States exhibit replica "Resolute" desks. These include Madame Tussauds museums in Washington, D.C., Hollywood, Las Vegas, and New York. The Rogue Valley International–Medford Airport has an Oval Office meeting facility featuring a smaller replica of the "Resolute" desk, and Conservative Grounds, a Donald Trump-themed coffee shop in Largo, Florida, has a replica Oval Office and "Resolute" desk in the back of the store.


title: Resolute desk

text: Several private houses and replica Oval Offices display copies of the "Resolute" desk, including the Ron Wade House in Longview, Texas a 10,000-square-foot home in Kirtland Hills, Ohio, and Norton Manor, the Potomac, Maryland home of Frank Islam.


title: Resolute desk

text: There are multiple permanent Oval Office sets in Hollywood, all with a replica "Resolute" desk. The Castle Rock set was built in 1995 for "The American President" and the films "Nixon" (1995) and "Independence Day" (1996) used it. The set built for the 1993 film "Dave" subsequently hosted over 25 films, including "The Pelican Brief" (1993), "Clear and Present Danger" (1994), and "Absolute Power" (1997). The replica "Resolute" desk from "The West Wing" is in the Warner Bros. Prop House where it can be seen on studio tours. A replica of the desk was used in the 2007 film "", in which a secret compartment in the desk contained pieces of a clue to the location of treasure.


title: Resolute desk

text: Jim Warlick, the owner of American Presidential Experience, owns five Oval Office replicas, each with its own "Resolute" desk. The most recent of his replica rooms cost $60,000 to build. These replicas are rented out for approximately $30,000 a week and have been used for book cover images, the television show "Little People, Big World", the San Diego County Fair, television ads, and other media. The replicas are stored across the country including in Los Angeles, Virginia, and near Atlanta.


title: Resolute desk

text: A replica of the desk was on display during the 58th Venice Biennale as a part of Kenneth Goldsmith's exhibition "HILLARY: The Hillary Clinton Emails." Hillary Clinton sat at the replica for nearly an hour, leafing through over 60,000 of her emails that were printed out.


title: Resolute desk

text: The commercial sale of presidential furniture reproductions is a small but growing business. Companies such as New York First Co. and Victorian Replicas build or distribute replicas of the "Resolute" desk for commercial buyers. In a 2009 article in "Woodshop News", David Newton from Victorian Replicas said that he had sold more than fifty replica "Resolute" desks. According to him, "Some people use them in their homes, and a large number of people who are lawyers like to have them." Replicas were also on sale in 2015 through SkyMall for $5,499, through the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library's online store for $6,999.99, and in 2020, a full-scale replica of the Oval Office was put up for auction as part of Bonhams American Presidential Experience Auction for $40,000–$60,000.


title: Leo Howard

text: Leo Howard (born July 13, 1997) is an American actor and martial artist. Howard is known for incorporating his karate skills into his feature film and television roles; as "Young Snake-Eyes" in the 2009 action film "", as "Young Conan" in the 2011 fantasy film "Conan the Barbarian", and as Jack on the Disney XD comedy series "Kickin' It". Howard was certified as the youngest TV director ever by the Guinness World Records for his work on the episode "Fight at the Museum" in the fourth season of the "Kickin' It" TV series at age 16. He also played CeCe's rival Logan on "Shake it Up" in the third season.


title: Leo Howard

text: Howard was born July 13, 1997, in Newport Beach, California. He is the son of Randye and Todd "The Big Bulldog" Howard. His parents are professional dog breeders and operate The Big Bulldog Ranch, where they specialize in breeding English and French bulldogs. His father is also an eviction specialist and process server starring in Spike TV's "World's Worst Tenants". He attended Tri-City Christian Schools in Vista, California. Howard spent much of his childhood growing up in the small town of Fallbrook in Northern San Diego County, before devoting himself to a full-time acting career.


title: Leo Howard

text: Howard developed an interest in martial arts at age four and began studying when his parents enrolled him at a dojo in Oceanside, California. A year later, his parents enrolled him at another dojo which specialized in the Okinawan discipline of Shōrin-ryū and at the age of seven, he began developing his extreme martial arts skills by adding gymnastics to his routine. Howard began training under martial arts world champion Matt Mullins when Mullins made an exception allowing Howard to become the youngest student in his class. By the age of eight, Howard had won three world championships. His specialty is Shōrin-ryū, in which he holds two black belts.


title: Leo Howard

text: At age nine, Howard became the youngest member to perform with Mullins' Sideswipe Performance Team, a traveling martial arts-based group that entertains audiences across the country with a combination of martial arts, dance and acrobatics. In June 2011, Howard spoke of the experience performing with Sideswipe: "I think that's what really got me addicted to performing. My role changed as I've grown as a performer and just plain grown. I was OK, I wasn't that great at the start, so they would do cool moves and then poof! There'd be this cute kid running out there to do some karate. But for the last couple of years I've been one of the main performers."


title: Leo Howard

text: From a young age, Howard was a fan of Bruce Lee and Chuck Norris films, and admired their ability to incorporate martial arts into their acting. At the age of seven, Howard told his mother that he wanted to be an actor. It was at a martial arts tournament that Howard was first spotted by someone who thought he had the looks to go into show business and referred him to their talent agent. This led to work as a model for print advertorials and then as an actor in commercials. In 2010, Howard remembered his excitement about breaking into show business, saying, "The commercials were just insane to me. Getting a commercial was like getting a lead role in a movie to me."


title: Leo Howard

text: In 2005, Howard made his television debut shortly before his eighth birthday with a small guest-starring role on the USA Network series, "Monk" dressed as a "little karate kid" for Halloween, his one line in the episode being "Maybe he's afraid of karate". Howard would spend the next several years performing with Sideswipe Performance Team before returning to acting in 2009.


title: Leo Howard

text: In 2009, Howard landed his first steady job interviewing celebrities as "Leo Little", the host of the short-form Disney Channel talk show series, "Leo Little's Big Show" and made his feature film debut as "Eric Brooks" in the family film "Aussie and Ted". In August of that year, Howard gained notoriety for his martial arts skills when he appeared as "Young Snake-Eyes", performing all of his own stunts in a flashback scene for the Paramount action-adventure film "". Later that same month, he appeared in a co-starring role as "Laser", one of the three "Short" brothers in the family comedy film "Shorts", which earned the cast the Young Artist Award for that year as "Best Young Ensemble Cast". In November 2009, Howard began a recurring role as "Hart Hamlin" on the Disney XD series, "Zeke and Luther". In 2010, Howard landed in his first leading role playing "Logan Hoffman" in the independent feature film, "Logan".


title: Leo Howard

text: In August 2010, Howard starred as "Young Conan", once again performing all of his own stunts in the sword and sorcery film, "Conan the Barbarian". The film received mixed reviews, but Howard was praised for his performance, with film critic, Ty Burr of The Boston Globe writing, "The star (Jason Momoa) is arguably outshined by Leo Howard, the feral 13-year-old actor who plays the young Conan in the opening scenes." In an interview with "Empire Magazine", director Marcus Nispel spoke of working with Howard: "After we finished the film, I went to Lionsgate and said 'Y'know, the movie to do next is "Conan: The Early Years".' Leo absolutely blew me away. Almost the entire first act of "Conan" is the kid, which is unheard of. At the start, reading the script, everyone was like 'We have to cut that down to ten minutes'. And now everyone's like ‘Can we make that longer?!' He worked out like a charm. There aren't many young actors who could carry that sort of weight."


title: Leo Howard

text: In June 2010, Howard landed a starring role as "Jack", a teenage karate expert who befriends a group of high school misfits on the Disney XD comedy series, "Kickin' It". Howard recalled his reaction when he first got the script to audition for the show, saying, "I saw it was a martial arts show and I thought, 'Oh! I have to do this!'" With Howard receiving top billing and performing all of his own stunts, the series quickly became Disney XD's number 1 original series in the network's history, and would run for four seasons. Howard directed the Season 4 episode "Fight At The Museum."


title: Leo Howard

text: In 2014, Howard played one of main roles in the film "Andròn – The Black Labyrinth". In the film he played from Alec Baldwin and Danny Glover. He also guest starred on "". In March 2016, he directed an episode of "Gamer's Guide to Pretty Much Everything".


title: Leo Howard

text: In 2019, Howard landed a recurring role in "Why Women Kill" as "Tommy", an eighteen year-old butler who leads Simone, a woman dealing with a divorce after she realized her husband was gay, into having an affair with him. In 2019, he joined the second season of The CW television series "Legacies" in recurring capacity, before being promoted to a series regular role for the series' third season.


title: Leo Howard

text: In 2017, Howard and his Band - Ask Jonesy & Company, composed of Troy Romzek (lead vocals/guitar), Leo (lead guitar/vocals) and Ricky Ficarelli (bass/vocals), released their first single, Burning Fire. They are due out with their first album June 2018.


title: Leo Howard

text: Howard was home schooled to accommodate his busy work schedule on "Kickin' It" and spent most of his time living in the Howard family's home in Studio City, California when he worked, but still considered his childhood town of Fallbrook home. While still devoted to his passion for martial arts, Howard has stated that he has become more careful when it comes to "fighting" and "sparring" matches, due to the potential for injuries that could interfere with his obligations as an actor.


title: Leo Howard

text: Howard's hobbies include cooking, playing guitar and collecting antique weapons, including swords and knives. The centerpiece of his collection being the big "Conan" sword that was presented to him after filming was completed on "Conan the Barbarian". Howard has expressed a love for animals and has a pet sheepdog named "Murphy". He is also interested in veterinary medicine and volunteers at his local veterinary clinic in his free time.


title: Bipalium

text: Bipalium is a genus of large predatory land planarians. They are often loosely called "hammerhead worms" or "broadhead planarians" because of the distinctive shape of their head region. Land planarians are unique in that they possess a "creeping sole", a highly ciliated region on the ventral epidermis that helps them to creep over the substrate. Several species are considered invasive to the United States, Canada, and to Europe. Some studies have begun the investigation of the evolutionary ecology of these invasive planarians.


title: Bipalium

text: The name "Bipalium" comes from Latin "bi-", "two" + "pala", "shovel" or "spade", because species in this genus resemble a pickaxe.


title: Bipalium

text: The genus "Bipalium" was initially defined by Stimpson to include land planarians with the head broadened, forming a head plate. Later, in 1899, Ludwig von Graff divided it into three genera according to the shape of the head:


title: Bipalium

text: Josef Müller, in 1902, considered that no sufficient anatomical basis existed for this distinction, and reunited them under "Bipalium". Later, von Graff accepted Müller's conclusions.


title: Bipalium

text: Towards the end of the 20th century, Robert E. Ogren and Masaharu Kawakatsu started a series of publications called "The Land Planarian Index series" in which they reviewed and organized all taxonomic information regarding land planarians. At first, they retained all broad-headed planarians in the genus "Bipalium", but later split them into four genera based on the anatomy of the reproductive organs: "Bipalium", "Novibipalium", "Humbertium", and "Diversibipalium".


title: Bipalium

text: Under this scenario, the genus "Bipalium" is defined as containing broad-headed land planarians with simple copulatory organs, without accessory ducts or copulatory bursa, and with a fold of tissue separating the male and female exit ducts.


title: Bipalium

text: "Bipalium" species are predatory. Some species prey on earthworms, while others may also feed on mollusks. These flatworms can track their prey. When captured, earthworms begin to react to the attack, but the flatworm uses the muscles in its body, as well as sticky secretions, to attach itself to the earthworm to prevent escape. The planarians cover, or cap, the prostomium, peristomium, and anterior end to stop the violent reaction by the earthworm.


title: Bipalium

text: To feed on their prey, species of "Bipalium" often evert their pharynges from their mouths, located on the midventral portion of their bodies, and secrete enzymes that begin the digestion of the prey. The liquefied tissues are sucked into the branching gut of the flatworms by ciliary action.


title: Bipalium

text: "B. adventitium" reproduces sexually and creates egg capsules, which hatch around 3 weeks post-deposition. The egg capsules have a tough exterior and generally contain multiple juveniles.


title: Bipalium

text: "B. kewense" have rarely been observed using egg capsules as a primary method of reproduction. Asexual fragmentation is its main reproductive strategy in temperate regions and most individuals never develop sexual organs. Juveniles of this species, unlike "B. adventitium", do not appear the same coloration as parents in their early days.


title: Bipalium

text: In 2014, the presence of tetrodotoxin, a very dangerous neurotoxin, was recorded in "B. adventitium" and "B. kewense". It is the first record of tetrodotoxin in terrestrial invertebrates.


title: Bipalium

text: Little is known about the ecology of terrestrial planarians, but research has been done on different genera and species, including several native and invasive species in Brazil, "Arthurdendyus triangulatus", "Rhynchodemus" and "Bipalium".


title: Bipalium

text: Currently, four invasive species of "Bipalium" are known in the United States: "B. adventitium", "B. kewense", "B. pennsylvanicum", and "B. vagum". These planarians are thought to have come to the US on horticultural plants.


title: Bipalium

text: "Bipalium kewense" has been found commonly in American greenhouses since 1901. This species is a voracious predator of earthworms, and has been identified as a nuisance in the southern USA in earthworm-rearing beds. Control of the species is difficult due to the lack of predators. As noted by the University of Florida IFAS department,


title: Bipalium

text: Other animals rarely devour land planarians, since surface secretions appear distasteful, if not toxic. Protozoans, including flagellates, ciliates, sporozoans, and nematodes have been detected in land planarians. Because of their cannibalistic habit, land planarians may be their own worst enemy.


title: Bipalium

text: Specimens of "Bipalium adventitium" are characterized by a single dark dorsal stripe. They were first discovered in the US in California and New York but have been found in Illinois as well as most northern states and in 2019 were discovered in Montreal, Canada "B. kewense" have five dark dorsal stripes and a partial dark collar. They have undergone several name changes since their discovery in North America. "B. kewense" is commonly found across the southern regions of the US. "B. kewense" is found worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions." Bipalium pennsylvanicum" is characterized by its dark brown head and three dorsal stripes. Thus far, it has only been found in Pennsylvania and in coastal South Carolina in 2014. "Bipalium vagum" is characterized by two dark dorsal blotches on the head, a thick black band around the neck, and three dark dorsal stripes. This species has been found in several Gulf Coast states, and in 2022 specimens were located extending further north, into Arkansas. Recently it was found in Mumbai, India.


title: Chiara Ferragni

text: Chiara Ferragni () (born May 7, 1987) is an Italian blogger, businesswoman, fashion designer and model who has collaborated with fashion and beauty brands through her blog "The Blonde Salad".


title: Chiara Ferragni

text: Ferragni was born in Cremona in 1987. Ferragni is the oldest daughter of three girls, daughter of a dentist from the northern city of Cremona. Her mother Marina Di Guardo is an Italian writer from Sicily who also worked as deputy director of the Blumarine fashion house.


title: Chiara Ferragni

text: At the age of 16, she was hired by the Beatrice model agency in Milan, Italy. She modeled for the agency for a couple of years and then stopped, due to "other goals to reach in my life". She started her fashion blog "The Blonde Salad" in October 2009 with an ex-boyfriend, Riccardo Pozzoli. In December 2011, she was profiled as the Blogger of the Moment in "Teen Vogue", while still a law student at Bocconi University. She has not obtained her University degree.


title: Chiara Ferragni

text: In December 2013, she published an Italian language eBook, under "The Blonde Salad". She modelled for Guess in a November 2013 shoot that was subsequently marketed as an ad campaign. In December 2013 she collaborated with Steve Madden to design a 9-shoe collection for Spring 2014. Her business ventures grossed about $8 million (mostly from her Chiara Ferragni Collection footwear) in 2014.


title: Chiara Ferragni

text: Her television credits include the Italian TRL Awards as a presenter, and a guest appearance on the Italian variety show "Chiambretti Night". She also appeared on "Project Runway" as a guest judge during season 13 in August 2014.


title: Chiara Ferragni

text: In January 2015, her blog and shoe line, Chiara Ferragni Collection, became a case study at Harvard Business School. In March, Ferragni was selected for the cover of the April 2015 "Vogue España", making her the first fashion blogger to appear on any "Vogue" cover. Chiara appeared on "Lucky" magazine alongside Nicole Warrne and Zanita Whittington. In January 2016, Pantene announced Ferragni was its new global ambassador. Mattel Inc. created a Barbie version of Ferragni in September 2016, one wearing a white T-shirt, black leather jacket, jeans and Chiara Ferragni Collection shoes and the other wearing a head to toe Chanel look.


title: Chiara Ferragni

text: , Ferragni had 10 million followers on Instagram. Because of her broad following, she was able to earn about $12,000 for a sponsored post to Instagram. She also used her Social Media followership to campaign against the far right party in Italy. In 2017, Ferragni was chosen to design costumes for the 4th edition of Intimissimi on ice. On 26 July 2017, she opened her first Chiara Ferragni Collection store in Milan.


title: Chiara Ferragni

text: In June 2020, the Italian rapper Baby K published the summer hit "Non mi basta più" featuring Chiara Ferragni. Ferragni and her husband raised €3 million in 24 hours through a fundraiser to support the San Raffaele hospital in Milan during the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy. In April 2021, Ferragni joined the Board of Directors of Tod's Group. In May 2021, Ferragni unveiled the Nespresso x Chiara Ferragni collection on her social media. A temporary pop-up cafe was set up in celebration of the capsule. In 2022, she announced the launch of her own line of fragrance.


title: Chiara Ferragni

text: Chiara Ferragni's net worth is estimated to be 19 million euros from the income of her three companies.


title: Chiara Ferragni

text: Ferragni and Italian rapper Federico Lucia, known as Fedez, started dating in late 2016 and got married on 1 September 2018 in Noto, Sicily. They have two children, Leone (born 19 March 2018 in West Hollywood, California) and Vittoria (born 23 March 2021 in Milan). They live in Milan.


title: Windtalkers

text: Windtalkers is a 2002 American war film directed and co-produced by John Woo, starring Nicolas Cage, Adam Beach, Peter Stormare, Noah Emmerich, Mark Ruffalo, and Christian Slater. It is based on the real story of Navajo code talkers during World War II. C. O. Erickson was the executive producer. The film was released in the United States on June 14, 2002, and received mixed reviews and proved to be financially unsuccessful, grossing just $77.6 million worldwide against a production budget of $115 million.


title: Windtalkers

text: During World War II, US Marine corporal Joseph F. "Joe" Enders returns to active duty after having survived a gruesome battle on the Solomon Islands against the Imperial Japanese Army that killed his entire squad and wounded his left ear. Enders and Sgt. Pete "Ox" Henderson receive new assignments to protect Navajo code talkers Pvt. Ben Yahzee and Pvt. Charlie Whitehorse in a JASCO.


title: Windtalkers

text: Yahzee and Whitehorse, childhood friends from the Navajo tribe, are trained to send and receive coded messages that direct artillery fire. Enders and Henderson are instructed to kill their code talkers if capture is imminent so that the code cannot fall into enemy hands. Both Enders and Henderson are less than happy to be babysitting their Navajo codetalkers, and the Navajos also endure racial harassment by some of the white Marines, notably Private Chick. During their missions, however, Henderson and Whitehorse discover a mutual love of music. Enders and Yahzee also find that they have much in common, notably their Catholic upbringings.


title: Windtalkers

text: The invasion of Saipan in the Mariana Islands becomes Yahzee's and Whitehorse's first combat experience. After the beachhead is secured, the Marines come under friendly fire from U.S. artillery. With Yahzee's radio destroyed and the convoy unable to call off the bombardment, Yahzee suggests disguising himself as a Japanese soldier and slip behind enemy lines to commandeer a radio, with Enders as his prisoner. Yahzee is forced to kill for the first time before he can redirect U.S. artillery fire onto the Japanese position. For their bravery, Enders is awarded a Silver Star by the commanding officer, with Yahzee's role almost ignored until Enders points him out.


title: Windtalkers

text: That night, the Marines camp in the nearby village of Tanapag. As Yahzee is temporarily assigned back to the command post to translate a code, Enders becomes increasingly torn over killing Yahzee and following his orders, but his request to be relieved from duty is denied. The next morning, Japanese soldiers ambush the village. Henderson is killed and Whitehorse is about to be captured. Realizing that the Japanese will torture him for the code, Enders throws a grenade at Whitehorse, killing him and his captors. Yahzee returns to Tanapag and, seeing Whitehorse's body, screams at Enders to explain what happened. When Enders mutters that he killed Whitehorse, an outraged Yahzee aims his weapon at Enders but cannot bring himself to kill him. Enders later confesses that he hated having to kill Whitehorse and that, like Henderson, his mission was to protect the code above all else.


title: Windtalkers

text: The Marines are sent on another mission and once again ambushed, this time near a deadly minefield on Mount Tapochau, during which many Marines are killed. Enders, Yahzee, Chick, and Cpl. Pappas (the last of the Marines) take cover on a ridge and see Japanese artillery fire from the top of the ridge attacking a Marine convoy below their position. Still enraged over Whitehorse's death, Yahzee charges the Japanese line, killing many Japanese soldiers. Yahzee and Enders are both shot as they call in an airstrike on the Japanese artillery. However, surrounded and knowing the Japanese will capture and torture him for the code as they almost did with Whitehorse, Yahzee begs Enders to kill him. Enders, determined that no one else will die that day, manages to carry Yahzee to safety. Friendly planes arrive and the Japanese position is successfully destroyed. Yahzee rejoices in their success though Enders, mortally wounded, dies.


title: Windtalkers

text: Back in the U.S., Yahzee and his family sit atop Point Mesa in Monument Valley, Arizona, and, wearing the sacred necklaces and Navajo ceremonial dress, perform the Navajo ritual of paying their respects to Enders.


title: Windtalkers

text: An epilogue states that the Navajo code was crucial to America's successes against Japan across the Pacific theater during the war and that like all other Native American codes, the Navajo code was never broken.


title: Windtalkers

text: Filming locations on Hawaii included Kualoa Ranch, the location where "Lost" and "Jurassic Park" were shot. To portray the Marines in the film the producers recruited extras that were volunteers from Schofield Barracks Army Base, Hickam Air Force Base, Pearl Harbor Naval Station, and Kaneohe Marine Corps Air Station. Some of the actual Marines from 4th Force Recon Company were used in the film portraying their actual job. Some violence was trimmed in order to avoid an NC-17 rating. This violence trim was restored for the Director's cut released on DVD running 153 minutes. The film's release date was moved from November 9, 2001, to June 14, 2002.


title: Windtalkers

text: For the F6F Hellcat fighters that appear in the beach-landing scenes on Saipan, the producers used computer-generated versions.


title: Windtalkers

text: The film was a box office bomb, grossing only under $41 million at the US box-office and a total of $77.6 million worldwide, against a production budget of $115 million.


title: Windtalkers

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 32% based on reviews from 168 critics. The site's consensus states: "The action sequences are expertly staged. "Windtalkers", however, sinks under too many clichés and only superficially touches upon the story of the code talkers." On Metacritic the film has a score of 51% based on reviews from 25 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade B+ on scale of A to F.


title: Windtalkers

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, remarking that "the filmmakers have buried it beneath battlefield cliches, while centering the story on a white character played by Nicolas Cage". Robert Koehler of "Variety" called it "A powerful premise turned into a stubbornly flat, derivative war movie."


title: Windtalkers

text: The film was criticized for featuring the Navajo characters only in supporting roles; they were not the primary focus of the film. The film was ranked number four on Careeraftermilitary.com's "10 Most Inaccurate Military Movies Ever Made" which also included "The Patriot", "The Hurt Locker", "U-571", "The Green Berets", "Pearl Harbor", "Battle of the Bulge", "Red Tails", "Enemy at the Gates" and "Flyboys" on its list of falsified war movie productions.


title: Windtalkers

text: About the response, John Woo said: "The main themes of Windtalkers are friendship and understanding. Unfortunately, the studio wanted a John Wayne movie, just a typical American hero film with explosions every few minutes. I had to make them understand that this wasn't a story about heroes. It's a story about a man and his own demons, trying to redeem himself from war. I made the movie that way, but some people in the studio didn't appreciate it and, in the end, I guess neither did the audience."


title: A Black Lady Sketch Show

text: A Black Lady Sketch Show is an American television sketch comedy series created by Robin Thede for HBO. The show consists of comedy sketches performed by a main cast of Black women, currently consisting of producer and creator Thede, Gabrielle Dennis, Ashley Nicole Black, and Skye Townsend. Alumni cast members include Quinta Brunson and Laci Mosley. The show has featured guest stars such as Issa Rae, Vanessa Williams, Angela Bassett, Laverne Cox, Nicole Byer, Amber Riley, Miguel, Omarion, Raven-Symoné, Kelly Rowland, Tia Mowry, Tahj Mowry, Gabrielle Union, Kyla Pratt, Wanda Sykes, and Patti LaBelle.


title: A Black Lady Sketch Show

text: "A Black Lady Sketch Show" premiered with a season of six episodes on August 2, 2019, to "universal acclaim" according to review aggregator Metacritic. The first season received a 2020 TCA Award for Outstanding Achievement in Sketch/Variety Shows and season two won three Black Reel Awards. Seasons one and two hold a 100% rating on Rotten Tomatoes.


title: A Black Lady Sketch Show

text: The second season premiered April 23, 2021 after being delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In May 2021, the series was renewed for a third season, which debuted on April 8, 2022. In June 2022, the series was renewed for a fourth season.


title: A Black Lady Sketch Show

text: In the summer of 2018, Robin Thede invited her close friends and fellow comedians Quinta Brunson, Ashley Nicole Black, and Gabrielle Dennis to help her develop a comedy series. Thede then pitched the series to HBO as a way to address the dearth of Black women's representation in the American comedic landscape. Thede was encouraged by HBO executives to push boundaries and take risks with the show.


title: A Black Lady Sketch Show

text: The show was originally titled "The Black Lady Sketch Show" but the name was changed to communicate to audiences that the series is a single representation of Black women in comedy. The show is thought to be the first sketch comedy series written, produced by, and starring Black women.


title: A Black Lady Sketch Show

text: On January 28, 2019, it was announced that HBO had ordered a half-hour sketch show, "A Black Lady Sketch Show", written and created by Robin Thede. Issa Rae is the co-executive producer with Thede through Issa Rae Productions, known as Hoorae as of 2021. The season one director is Dime Davis. Season two was directed by Lacey Duke and Brittany Scott Smith. Bridget Murphy Stokes is the third season's director.


title: A Black Lady Sketch Show

text: On August 27, 2019, HBO announced that "A Black Lady Sketch Show" had been renewed for a second season. Filming of the second season was put on hold due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but on March 23, 2021 it was announced that the six-episode season would premiere on April 23, 2021.


title: A Black Lady Sketch Show

text: On May 24, 2019, it was announced that the show would star Thede along with comediennes Ashley Nicole Black, Gabrielle Dennis, and Quinta Brunson. Angela Bassett, Gina Torres, and Marsai Martin were announced as three guest stars.


title: A Black Lady Sketch Show

text: On March 23, 2021, it was announced that Brunson would not appear in season 2 due to scheduling conflicts. Additional changes for season 2 included the casting of Laci Mosley and Skye Townsend as main cast members. Confirmed guest stars include Gabrielle Union, Jesse Williams, Miguel, Skai Jackson, Laz Alonso, Omarion, Kim Wayans, Ayesha Curry, Lance Gross, and Wunmi Mosaku.


title: A Black Lady Sketch Show

text: On March 2, 2022, it was announced that Mosley would not appear in season 3 due to scheduling conflicts. Guest appearances include Ava DuVernay, Michaela Jaé Rodriguez, Raven-Symoné, Wanda Sykes, David Alan Grier, Kyla Pratt, Jemele Hill, and Holly Robinson Peete.


title: A Black Lady Sketch Show

text: Lauren Ashley Smith was the show's head writer for the first two seasons. Additional writers for season one are Brittani Nichols, Rae Sanni, Holly Walker, Amber Ruffin and Akilah Green. Cast member Ashley Nicole Black also wrote for the show. It is the first television series to have a writer's room entirely composed of Black women. For the second season, Ruffin, and Nichols left the writer's room, and Kindsey Young, Shenovia Large, and Kristin Layne Tucker joined as additional writers. The season three writer's room retained Large and brought on new writers.


title: A Black Lady Sketch Show

text: The series premiered on August 2, 2019. The second season premiered on April 23, 2021 on HBO and HBO Max. Season three will premiere on April 8, 2022.


title: A Black Lady Sketch Show

text: The first season of "A Black Lady Sketch Show" received critical acclaim. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the first season of "A Black Lady Sketch Show" holds an approval rating of 100%, with an average rating of 8.88/10 based on 20 reviews. The website's consensus reads, "Singular, subversive, and simply hilarious, "A Black Lady Sketch Show" finds universal humor in specific spaces to craft quick-witted sketches that perfectly showcase Robin Thede and her talented cast." According to review aggregator Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, the first season received an assigned score of 89 out of 100 based on reviews from 7 critics, indicating "universal acclaim." In a review by Ali Barthwell for "The A.V. Club", she wrote, ""A Black Lady Sketch Show" possesses a confidence in its first season that suggests the show is not interested in being chopped up into easily consumable chunks. "A Black Lady Sketch Show" seems more interested in creating a whimsical, loving world for its leads." Writing for Vulture, Jen Chaney stated: ""A Black Lady Sketch Show" isn’t just funny. Its sketches are consistently clever and surprising, often concluding with twist endings that add a whole other layer to the jokes that had us rolling a couple of minutes ago."


title: A Black Lady Sketch Show

text: In 2020, the show became the first Black women-led sketch show to receive a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Variety Sketch Series.


title: A Black Lady Sketch Show

text: The second season also received positive reception. It holds a score of 100% on Rotten Tomatoes based on eight critics' reviews. IndieWire journalist Kristen Lopez said that the season "once again delivers hilarity and absurdity in equal measure." Margaret Lyons of the "New York Times" wrote that the show "has such a fun ear for specifics and lyricism, and the new season grows seamlessly into itself; the show’s recurring characters are back, and Robin Thede, its star and creator, is as dynamic as ever." Danette Chavez of "The A.V. Club" noted the show "has an air of reinvention" and "retains the cohesion, rapid-fire energy, and mix of culturally specific and universal humor that made the first season uproarious and a joy to watch."


title: A Black Lady Sketch Show

text: The second season received five Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Variety Sketch Series and Outstanding Writing for a Variety Sketch Series. Daysha Broadway, Stephanie Filo, and Jessica Hernández received the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Picture Editing for Variety Programming, the first all-women of color ensemble to receive the award in Emmy history. Season two was named to "best" year-end lists published by "Paste", "The A.V. Club", "The Root", and "NPR".


title: A Black Lady Sketch Show

text: Kristen Baldwin of "EW" rated the season an A− and hailed it as "consistently, ridiculously funny." Similarly, "The A.V. Club"'s Jenna Scherer described the show: "In its third season, "A Black Lady Sketch Show" continues to blaze a trail as a show both by and for its titular demographic, unafraid to make cultural references that will gleefully whizz over the heads of white viewers." Scherer also complimented the chemistry of the cast members: "they share such an easy rapport, riffing off each other seemingly effortlessly whether the moment is scripted or improvised."


title: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, chevalier de Lamarck (1 August 1744 – 18 December 1829), often known simply as Lamarck (; ), was a French naturalist, biologist, academic, and soldier. He was an early proponent of the idea that biological evolution occurred and proceeded in accordance with natural laws.