title: Angie Tribeca

text: "Angie Tribeca" was met with positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has an approval rating of 89% based on 38 reviews, with an average rating of 7.71/10. The site's critical consensus reads, ""Angie Tribeca"s unique blend of sharp wit and broad humor – and the obvious fun being had by a talented cast – make for a consistent, charmingly absurd spoof of police procedurals." Metacritic gives it a weighted average score of 78 out of 100 based on 15 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: Harry Robbins Haldeman (October 27, 1926 – November 12, 1993) was an American political aide and businessman, best known for his service as White House Chief of Staff to President Richard Nixon and his consequent involvement in the Watergate scandal.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: Born in California, Haldeman served in the Navy Reserves in World War II and attended UCLA. In 1949, he joined the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency, where he worked for 20 years as a prominent advertising executive in both Los Angeles and New York City. He made a name for himself early in Los Angeles social circles from his work as chairman of the UCLA Alumni Association and a member of the University of California Board of Regents.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: A long family association with the Republican Party and his own interest drew Haldeman to politics. In the 1950s, he became acquainted with Nixon, for whom he developed both an intense respect and steadfast loyalty. He began as an advance man on President Dwight D. Eisenhower's reelection campaign in 1956, again worked as an advance man on Nixon's 1960 presidential campaign, and managed Nixon's 1962 run for governor of California. When Nixon was elected President in 1968, he selected Haldeman as his chief of staff.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: Haldeman is credited with implementing more significant changes to White House staffing systems and Executive Branch governance and operations than any chief of staff before him or since, and it is the "Haldeman system" that presidential administrations continue to operate on today. His intensity and no-nonsense management style earned him a reputation as a stern taskmaster who expected top-notch performance.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: After he left the Nixon administration in April 1973, Haldeman was tried on counts of perjury, conspiracy, and obstruction of justice for his role in the Watergate cover-up. He was found guilty and imprisoned for 18 months. Upon Haldeman's release, he returned to private life and was a successful businessman and real estate developer until his death from cancer in 1993 at the age of 67.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: Haldeman was born in Los Angeles on October 27, 1926, one of three children of socially prominent parents. His father, Harry Francis Haldeman, founded and ran a successful heating and air conditioning supply company, and gave time and financial support to local Republican causes, including the Richard Nixon financial fund that led to the so-called "Fund Crisis" during the 1952 presidential race. His mother, Katherine (née Robbins), was a longtime volunteer with the Salvation Army and other philanthropic organizations. His paternal grandfather, Harry Marston Haldeman, co-founded the Better America Federation of California, The Oz Film Manufacturing Company, and a gentleman's club named The Uplifters. Young Haldeman and his siblings were raised as Christian Scientists. Known to his peers as a "straight arrow", he sported his trademark flat-top haircut from his high school years – a look that he would adopt for most of his life until after his resignation as Chief of Staff – enjoyed discussions of ethics, and achieved the rank of Eagle Scout. He attended Harvard School, an elite boys prep school, during which time he met Joanne "Jo" Horton, who was attending Marlborough School, an elite, private secondary school which educated women in the 7th to 12th grades. The two married in 1949.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: During World War II he was in the United States Navy Reserve but did not see active combat. Haldeman attended the University of Redlands and the University of Southern California, then transferred to the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). He received his B.A. from UCLA in 1948, where he was a member of Beta Theta Pi fraternity. At UCLA, he met John Ehrlichman, who became a close friend and colleague in the Nixon administration.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: In 1949, he joined the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency, where he worked for 20 years in both Los Angeles and New York City; other employees of this firm during this period included Ronald Ziegler, who went on to serve as White House Press Secretary in the Nixon administration.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: A long family association with the Republican Party and his own interest drew Haldeman to politics and during this period he commenced working for Richard Nixon, for whom he developed both an intense respect and steadfast loyalty. Beginning as an advance man on Nixon's 1956 and 1960 campaigns, Haldeman managed Nixon's 1962 run for governor of California, and when Nixon was elected President in 1968, he chose Haldeman to be his chief of staff.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: When Haldeman's appointment to the White House was announced, Robert Rutland, a close friend and presidential scholar, urged him to start keeping a daily diary recording the major events of each day and Haldeman's thoughts on them. Haldeman took this suggestion and started keeping and maintaining a daily diary throughout his entire career in the Nixon White House (January 18, 1969 – April 30, 1973). The full text of the diaries is almost 750,000 words, and an abridged version was published as "The Haldeman Diaries" after Haldeman's death. A full version is available to researchers at the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: Gaining a reputation as a stern taskmaster who expected top-notch work, he and John Ehrlichman were called "the Berlin Wall" by other White House staffers in a play on their German family names and shared penchant for keeping others away from Nixon and serving as his "gatekeepers". They became Nixon's most loyal and trusted aides during his presidency. Both were keen in protecting what they regarded as Nixon's best interests. He and the president were very close – Haldeman was even dubbed "the president's son-of-a-bitch" – and Nixon relied on him to filter information that came into his office and to make sure that information was properly dispensed.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: The "Smoking Gun" tape revealed that Nixon instructed Haldeman to have the CIA pressure the FBI into dropping its Watergate investigation. Nixon instructed him to tell the CIA that the investigation would "open up the whole Bay of Pigs thing again". In his book, Haldeman later wrote: "It seems that in all those references to the Bay of Pigs, he was actually referring to the Kennedy assassination." He also said that Nixon might have been reminding CIA Director Richard Helms that the CIA assassination attempts on Fidel Castro may have triggered the assassination of Kennedy.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: The unexplained minute gap in Nixon's Oval Office recordings occurred during a discussion that included the President and Haldeman on June 20, 1972.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: Nixon requested the resignations of Haldeman and Ehrlichman in what has been described as a long and emotional meeting at Camp David. Haldeman resigned, and the resignations were announced on April 30, 1973. In a phone conversation shortly after the resignations, Nixon told Haldeman that he loved him like his brother. On the eve of Nixon's resignation, Haldeman asked for a full pardon along with a full pardon of Vietnam War draft dodgers. He argued that pardoning the draft dodgers would take some of the heat off him. Nixon refused.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: On January 1, 1975, Haldeman was convicted of conspiracy, obstruction of justice, and three counts of perjury. He was sentenced to serve to 8 years, subsequently commuted to 1 to 4 years. In Lompoc Federal Prison, Haldeman worked in a facility testing sewage. On December 20, 1978, after serving 18 months, Haldeman was released on parole.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: In 1978, Times Books published "The Ends of Power", written by Haldeman with the writer Joseph DiMona. Haldeman wrote in the book that Nixon had initiated the break-in and had participated in the cover-up from the onset.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: A passage in "The Ends of Power" has been claimed to support allegations linking Watergate to the assassination of John F. Kennedy.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: Oliver Stone's 1995 film "Nixon", in which Haldeman was portrayed by James Woods, presents the scenario that Nixon attempted to use the CIA's hidden anti-Castro history to help cover up his own misdeeds during Watergate. Stone credited the comments attributed to Haldeman in "The Ends of Power" as the source for his scenario.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: According to the political commentator Chris Matthews, Haldeman denied writing those words and said the theory of events actually belonged to DiMona. Matthews reported that Haldeman said he had no idea of what Nixon meant by the "whole Bay of Pigs thing" comments. Noting that Stone had implicated Nixon as having a role in planning a plot to kill Castro, Howard Rosenberg described it as "one of the most controversial themes of his movie". A response by "Nixon" writers Steven Rivele and Christopher Wilkinson stated that DiMona, Haldeman's ghostwriter, had confirmed that it was Haldeman's conclusion that "the Bay of Pigs thing" was a code for the Kennedy assassination.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: In his post-prison years, Haldeman went on to a successful career as a businessman, taking an interest in hotels, development, real estate, and chain restaurants in Florida.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: On November 12, 1993, after refusing medical treatment in accordance with his Christian Science beliefs, Haldeman died of abdominal cancer at his home in Santa Barbara, California. He was survived by his wife of almost 45 years, the former Joanne Horton, and their four children – Susan, Harry (Hank), Peter, and Ann.


title: H. R. Haldeman

text: Upon Haldeman's death, Richard Nixon said in a statement, "I have known Bob Haldeman to be a man of rare intelligence, strength, integrity and courage. He played an indispensable role in turbulent times as our Administration undertook a broad range of initiatives at home and abroad." His White House diaries were released posthumously as "The Haldeman Diaries" in 1994.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: The Martin B-57 Canberra is an American-built, twin-engined tactical bomber and reconnaissance aircraft that entered service with the United States Air Force (USAF) in 1953. The B-57 is a license-built version of the British English Electric Canberra, manufactured by the Glenn L. Martin Company. Initial Martin-built models were virtually identical to their British-built twinjet counterparts; Martin later modified the design to incorporate larger quantities of US-sourced components and produced the aircraft in several different variants.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: The B-57 Canberra holds the distinction of being the first jet bomber in U.S. service to drop bombs during combat. The Canberra was used extensively during the Vietnam War in a bombing capacity; dedicated versions of the type were also produced and served as high-altitude aerial reconnaissance platforms (the Martin RB-57D Canberra), and as electronic warfare aircraft. The B-57 Canberra was also sold to export customers abroad; further combat use was seen by the Pakistani Air Force during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: In 1983, the USAF opted to retire the type; the B-57 Canberra's retirement marked the ending of the era of the tactical bomber. The three remaining flightworthy WB-57Fs are technically assigned to the NASA Johnson Space Center, next to Ellington Field in Houston, as high-altitude scientific research aircraft, but have also been used for testing and electronic communications in the U.S. and Afghanistan.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: At the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, the USAF found itself in dire need of an all-weather interdiction aircraft. The existing inventory of piston-engined Douglas B-26 Invaders had been dispatched in this capacity at the very start of the conflict; however, within only a few months within the theatre, the B-26 had suffered a very high rate of attrition and successes with the type were typically limited. In response to these needs, the USAF requested the British government to provide a private demonstration of the English Electric Canberra, a newly developed jet-powered bomber. On 17 August 1950, the Canberra demonstration was performed at RAF Burtonwood in Warrington, Cheshire, England; during the following month, a team of US test pilots and engineers visited English Electric's Warton factory to perform a series of flight tests and a detailed technical assessment of the aircraft.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: On 16 September 1950, the USAF formally issued a request for a jet-powered bomber; the sought aircraft had to possess a top speed of , ceiling of , and range of . Full all-weather capability and a secondary reconnaissance role also had to be included in the design. The American contenders included the Martin XB-51, the North American B-45 Tornado and AJ Savage. To expedite the process, only projects based on existing aircraft were considered and, unusually, the service considered foreign aircraft. These included the Canadian Avro Canada CF-100 and the British English Electric Canberra, which had not yet officially entered service with the Royal Air Force (RAF). Aviation authors Bill Gunston and Peter Gilchrist commented that "It seems likely that this first batch of trials convinced the Americans that the Canberra was ideal for the job, but in order to satisfy the US Senate a competitive evaluation of all likely contenders had to be arranged".


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: As part of the USAF's evaluation process, all five aircraft were submitted to a series of fly-offs to determine their performance. On 21 February 1951, a British Canberra B.2 (WD932), flown by Roland Beamont, made the transatlantic journey, arriving in the United States to participate in the competition; by making this journey, the Canberra thus became the first jet aircraft to perform a non-stop unrefueled flight across the Atlantic Ocean, travelling from Warton, England, to Gander, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, in the record time of 4 hours 37 minutes. On 26 February 1951, the flyoff took place at Andrews Field, Prince George's County, Maryland; each aircraft was tasked with performing a set sequence of maneuvers within a ten-minute window, directly demonstrating its agility and performance against its rivals. According to Gunston and Gilchrist, the Canberra proved to be significantly superior to any of the competing aircraft, and its selection was beyond doubt by the end of the competition.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: The Canberra was a foreign aircraft, which meant its superiority in terms of performance did not guarantee political support in spite of the urgent need, particularly in light of there being several rival indigenous aircraft designs. There were also doubts about production availability with English Electric being able to mesh with USAF demands, as well as questions over continued spares support. In March 1951, many of these questions were answered; with production lines already at full capacity meeting Royal Air Force orders and those emerging from other export customers, English Electric entered into discussions with Glenn L. Martin Company. It was proposed that Martin would receive a license to domestically build the Canberra in the United States. According to Gunston and Gilchrist, the Americanization of the Canberra program proved effective at dismissing much of the political opposition to the project.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: On 23 March 1951, the USAF issued a contract to Martin, requesting the manufacturing of an initial quantity of 250 Canberras, which had received the USAF designation "B-57A" (Martin internally designated the type as the Model 272). On 3 April 1951, English Electric and Martin both signed a formal licensing agreement to cover the Canberra's production.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: During August 1951, a second British-built Canberra (WD940) was flown to the US to act as a pattern aircraft for Martin, as well as to perform assorted trials and to support performance validation of airframe changes. On 21 December 1951, one of the British pattern aircraft (WD932) was lost in an accident; although this was subsequently discovered to be caused by incorrect fuel scheduling having led to the tail-heavy aircraft exceeding its design limits during a maneuver, the crash jeopardized the entire program and invigorated the anti-Canberra political opposition. The crash did lead to some design changes in the face of political pressure, but these were not implemented on the first 75 aircraft to be produced.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: Due to the great urgency placed on delivering the B-57A Canberra, the initial phase of manufacturing performed by Martin used a minimum-change formula to expedite production; thus the first B-57As to be produced were largely identical to the Canberra B.2. As such, more than 30 changes that had been requested by the Wright Air Development Center (WADC) were rejected on program schedule or cost grounds. One noticeable exception was the adoption of more powerful Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire engines capable of producing 7,200 lbf (32 kN) of thrust, which were license-built in the United States as the Wright J65. The Sapphire-based J65 powerplant had been selected in place of the British-built Canberra's Rolls-Royce Avons as the USAF had placed an emphasis on operations within hot climates and intended to fly at a slightly higher maximum gross weight than the RAF's operating practices.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: Several other minor differences were also present between early US-built and UK-built Canberras. These changes included the canopy and fuselage windows being slightly revised, the crew being reduced from three to two, the adoption of wingtip fuel tanks, engine nacelles were modified with additional cooling scoops, and the conventional "clamshell" bomb bay doors were replaced with a low-drag rotating door originally designed for the XB-51. As a result of these changes, the bomb bay of the US-built aircraft was slightly smaller than its UK-built counterparts in order to allow the American aircraft to carry more fuel; however, the overall external shape of the Canberra remained unchanged.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: In early July 1953, the first US-built production aircraft (52-1418) rolled out; it conducted its maiden flight on 20 July 1953. One month later, this initial production aircraft was accepted by the USAF, by which point a cessation of hostilities had come into effect in Korea. This was one of only eight B-57A Canberras to be manufactured; the remaining 67 aircraft from this first batch, deemed no longer to be required as bombers, were converted on the assembly line to serve as medium-altitude reconnaissance aircraft while retaining all the basic Canberra features, and were accordingly re-designated as the "RB-57A" Canberra.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: In place of the curtailed B-57A, a more refined bomber variant, the "B-57B", was developed. Having a more lengthy development time, this model incorporated the structural and system changes that had been recommended by WADC, which resulted in the aircraft being more adaptable than its B-57A predecessor. Of the external changes, the most significant was the adoption of a fighter-style canopy accompanied by a flat-panel windshield and a tandem seating arrangement, providing for greater transparency and an improved view for both the pilot and navigator, as well as allowing for a gunsight to be equipped. The corresponding glazed bombing nose of the B-57A was deleted along with the starboard crew entrance to the cockpit.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: The B-57B introduced several other major changes. In terms of armaments, a total of four hardpoints attached to the outer wing panels were installed on this variant, capable of mounting external bombs and rockets. The B-57B was also furnished with a gun armament for strafing attacks. The first 90 aircraft to be produced were equipped with a total of eight 0.50 cal (12.7 mm) Browning machine guns installed within the wings; on later aircraft these were replaced by an arrangement of four 20 mm M39 cannon. A new rotary bomb door was adopted on the B-57B, which had originally been designed for the XB-51, replacing the hinged doors; this proved to be faster to open/close and reduced buffeting, which in turn improved accuracy and allowed for faster attack speeds. The redesigned bomb bay also enabled faster turnaround times on the ground.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: In addition, hydraulically-operated triangular air brakes were installed on the rear fuselage, which worked in addition to the existing 'finger'-type brakes installed in the wings; the new brakes gave the pilots a greater level of controllability, improving the accuracy of low-level bombing runs. The B-57B was equipped with an APW-11 Bombing Air Radar Guidance System for target approach guidance, as well as an APS-54 radar warning receiver. The engines were also furnished with a new cartridge starting system, eliminating the reliance on ground start carts.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: The substantial design changes between the B-57A and B-57B models resulted in delays to the overall program, as well as incurring substantial costs on the fixed-price contract. Gunston and Gilchrist stated of the consequences to the program: "This was clearly not the manufacturer's fault, but the money effectively ran out after 177 of the planned 250-aircraft order had been completed". In 1954, in response to the sound performance offered by the B-57B, the USAF elected to place a large second order; this included a further 100 B-57B bombers, 38 "B-57C" trainers, and 20 "RB-57D" high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft. In 1955, a final batch of 68 "B-57E" target tugs was ordered.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: In 1969, in response to demands for a capable night interdiction aircraft for combat operations in the Vietnam theatre, a total of 16 B-57B Canberras were substantially rebuilt during a lengthy upgrade program. These aircraft received an entirely new nose section containing an AN/ANQ-139 forward-looking radar, a low-light television system, and an AN/AAS-26 forward-looking infrared detector. A laser rangefinder/designator was also installed, and the wing pylons modified to accommodate laser-guided Paveway bombs, while all the guns were removed to save weight. During the production run from 1953 to 1957, a total of 403 B-57s were built.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: The B-57A was not considered combat-ready by the USAF and the aircraft were used solely for testing and development. One of the aircraft was given to the U.S. Weather Bureau which fitted it with a new nose radome and used it to track hurricanes. The aircraft was placed into limited production. Particularly contentious were the cockpit arrangement and the lack of guns, the Canberra having been designed as a high-speed, high altitude bomber rather than for close air support. The definitive "B-57B", which introduced numerous improvements, made its first flight on 18 June 1954. The aircraft initially suffered from the same engine malfunctions as the RB-57As and several were lost in high-speed low-level operations due to a faulty tailplane actuator which caused the aircraft to dive into the ground. The USAF came to consider the B-57B as being inadequate for the night intruder role and thus Martin put all aircraft through an extensive avionics upgrade in response. Regardless, by the end of 1957, the USAF tactical squadrons were being re-equipped with supersonic North American F-100 Super Sabres. The complete retirement was delayed, however, by the start of the Vietnam War.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: While the USAF found the B-57A lacking, the photo reconnaissance "RB-57A" saw some operational use. First flying in October 1953, RB-57As fully equipped the 363rd Tactical Reconnaissance Wing at Shaw Air Force Base by July 1954. The aircraft were also deployed with USAF squadrons in Germany, France, and Japan. However, operational readiness was poor and the aircraft suffered from significant production delays because of engine problems. Wright had subcontracted production of J65 engines to Buick, which resulted in slow deliveries and a tendency for engine oil to enter the bleed air system, filling the cockpit with smoke. The problems were ameliorated when Wright took over engine production in 1954. RB-57As also suffered from a high accident rate caused in part by poor single-engine handling. This resulted in the entire fleet spending much of 1955 on the ground. By 1958, all RB-57A craft were replaced in active service by the Douglas RB-66B and McDonnell RF-101A. Air National Guard units extensively used the RB-57A for photographic surveys of the United States until 1971.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: A number of modified RB-57As were used by the 7499th Support Group at Wiesbaden AB, West Germany in Operation "Heart Throb" reconnaissance missions over Europe. Ten aircraft were pulled off Martin's production line and modifications were performed in August 1955 by the Wright Air Development Center and by Martin. All equipment not absolutely essential for the daytime photography role was eliminated. The bomb bay door was removed and the area was skinned over. The seat for the system operator/navigator was removed, and an optical viewfinder was installed in the nose so that the pilot could perform all the reconnaissance duties without the assistance of the navigator. The clear plexiglass nose cone was replaced by an opaque fiberglass cone, but with a small optical glass window cut for the viewfinder. The plane's J65-BW-5s were replaced by higher-thrust J65-W-7s. The aircraft was referred to as RB-57A-1. The weight reduction program shaved 5665 pounds off the weight of the RB-57A, and the ceiling was increased by 5000 feet.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: Two RB-57A-1s were used by the Republic of China Air Force for reconnaissance missions over China; one was shot down by a Chinese Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 on 18 February 1958 and the pilot killed. In 1959, two RB-57Ds were delivered to replace the A-types; one of them was shot down over China by a SA-2 Guideline missile, marking the first successful operational engagement of surface-to-air missiles. Two other RB-57As were used by the Federal Aviation Administration to plan high-altitude airways for the upcoming jet passenger aircraft.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: Starting in 1959, Martin began to modify retired RB-57As with electronic countermeasures (ECM) equipment in the bomb bay. Redesignated "EB-57A", these aircraft were deployed with Defense Systems Evaluation Squadrons which played the role of aggressors to train the friendly air defense units in the art of electronic warfare. Subsequent bomber variants were also modified to fulfill this role. Although initially conducted by active duty Air Force units, the EB-57 mission eventually migrated to selected units of the Air National Guard. The ANG's EB-57s were replaced, in the 1980s, by the USAF's more advanced General Dynamics/Grumman EF-111A Raven operated by the active-duty USAF.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: Strategic Air Command employed 20 "RB-57D" aircraft from 1956 until 1964. Little is known about their use. The aircraft were retired due to structural fatigue and the advent of the U-2 and SR-71.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: For many years two WB-57F Canberras (NASA 926 and NASA 928) were flown and maintained by NASA for high altitude atmospheric research. These same two aircraft have also been deployed alternately to Afghanistan for use as communications platforms that fly high over an area linking various communications devices on the battlefield and to other airborne assets, they were known as the Battlefield Airborne Communications Node system (BACN). In 2011 it was determined that a third aircraft was needed to satisfy mission requirements and an additional WB-57 was removed from the 309th AMARG after over 40 years at Davis-Monthan AFB and returned to flight status in August 2013 as NASA 927.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: Although intended as a bomber and never before deployed by the USAF to a combat zone, the first B-57s to be deployed to South Vietnam were not operated in an offensive role. The need for additional reconnaissance assets, especially those capable of operating at night, led to the deployment of two RB-57E aircraft on 15 April 1963. The USAF had awarded General Dynamics a contract to modify two B-57E Canberras (55-4243, 55–4245) as all-weather high-altitude strategic reconnaissance aircraft. Under project "Patricia Lynn" these aircraft provided infrared coverage using their Reconofax VI cameras.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: General Dynamics was chosen to modify the B-57E as it had extensive experience modifying Canberras with the RB-57D and RB-57F projects and turning the B-57 into a high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft. The forward nose section of the B-57Es were modified to house a KA-1 36-inch forward oblique camera and a low panoramic KA-56 camera used on the Lockheed U-2. Mounted inside the specially configured bomb bay door was a KA-1 vertical camera, a K-477 split vertical day-night camera, an infrared scanner, and a KA-1 left oblique camera. The modified aircraft were redesignated RB-57E.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: The 2nd Air Division was desperate for tactical intelligence and on arrival the pilots that ferried in the RB-57Es were immediately assigned to the Division as combat crews and briefed on missions by Divisional intelligence officers on the reconnaissance flights they would make.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: The first mission was flown on 7 May 1963 by the highly classified Patricia Lynn squadron (Detachment 1, 33d Tactical Group, later 6250th Combat Support Group, later 460th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing) operating from Tan Son Nhut AB. The Detachment flew nighttime reconnaissance missions to identify Viet Cong (VC) base camps, small arms factories, and storage and training areas. The sorties yielded results that heretofore only had been wished for. The nighttime imagery showed VC training and base camps; small, hidden factories and storage dumps that RF-101 Voodoo crews had flown over during the day and had been unable to locate from the air. The existing RF-101s in 1963 could only photograph a few kilometers (they had to fly very low) per flight with their cameras. The RB-57Es could image the whole border with Cambodia in 2 1/2 flights at 16,000 to 17,000 feet with superior results.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: From then on, Patricia Lynn crews flew both night and day missions over South Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and areas of North Vietnam until 1971, being some of the last USAF tactical aircraft to be withdrawn from the country. The RB-57Es carried the call-sign "Moonglow". Some missions were flown at low-level over single targets, others consisted of 4–6 specific targets. At night RB-57Es flew the canals and rivers in the Mekong Delta and southern part of South Vietnam. The sampans were easy to spot with the "real time" IR if the crew could keep over the canal which was difficult in the darkness.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: The United States began Operation Steel Tiger over the Laos Panhandle and the DMZ on 3 April 1965, to locate and destroy enemy forces and materiel being moved southward at night into South Vietnam, and to fly bomb damage assessment reconnaissance runs over targets attacked in the secret war the United States fought there. These flights teamed with B-57B bombers operating out of Bien Hoa Air Base and a C-130 Hercules flare ship. Three more aircraft were subsequently modified in 1964/65 bringing the number of aircraft to five.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: Two RB-57Es were lost in combat operations. The first (S/N 55-4243) was lost as a result of a fuselage fire caused by small arms while on a low level reconnaissance mission in August 1965. The crew ejected safely when near Tan Son Nhut Air Base. The second aircraft (S/N 55-4264) was lost on 21 October 1968, after an engine fire started by ground fire forced the crew to eject.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: A sixth Patricia Lynn aircraft (55–4257) joined the team in 1968, as a replacement for the combat losses. This aircraft had a Terrain-following radar designed to allow the aircraft to fly at a constant altitude, which would, in theory, produce better reconnaissance photos. Unfortunately, the aircraft flew so low (500–1000 feet) that the infrared film was used up before the entire assessment area could be photographed.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: A 1968 update, under the Compass Eagle program, gave the back-seater a video display to monitor the IR scanner system. This allowed the crew to call in strikes on targets in real time, instead of having to return to base to get imagery developed, by which time the enemy would have likely moved on.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: There were frequent changes and updating of the equipment, including the installation of 12-inch focal length KA-82 and 24-inch focal length KA-83 cameras. The infrared equipment was useful in spotting VC river traffic at night along the Mekong Delta southeast of Saigon.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: In 1969/70, Patricia Lynn missions were flown into Laos and into Cambodia including Operation Barrel Roll strikes in 1969. The Patricia Lynn operation was terminated in mid-1971 with the inactivation of the 460th TRW and the four surviving aircraft returned to the United States.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: Later in August 1965, a single RB-57F would be deployed to Udorn, RTAB in an attempt to gather information about North Vietnamese SAM sites, first under "project Greek God" and then under "project Mad King". In December another RB-57F would be deployed for this purpose, under "project Sky Wave". Neither project garnered useful results and they were terminated in October 1965 and February 1966 respectively.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: The deployment of actual combat capable B-57Bs from 8th and 13th Bomb Squadrons to Bien Hoa Air Base in August 1964 began with two aircraft lost and one damaged in collisions on arrival. An additional five aircraft were destroyed with another 15 damaged by a Viet Cong mortar attack in November of the same year. Low level sorties designated as training flights were conducted with the hope of it having a psychological effect. As a result, the first combat mission was only flown on 19 February 1965. The first excursion into North Vietnam took place on 2 March as part of Operation Rolling Thunder. The aircraft typically carried nine 500 lb (227 kg) bombs in the bomb bay and four 750 lb (340 kg) bombs under the wings. In April, Canberras began flying night intruder missions supported by USAF's Fairchild C-123 Provider or Lockheed C-130 Hercules flare ships and USN's EF-10B Skyknight electronic warfare aircraft.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: U.S. B-57 Canberras were primarily used for dive bombing and strafing, with the early models mounting eight .50 caliber machine guns, four per wing. Later models mounted four 20mm cannons, two per wing, for strafing. These weapons combined with their bomb loads and four hours of flight time made them excellent ground support aircraft, as well as exceptional truck killers along the Ho Chi Minh trail. Deployed along the notorious "trail" for much of their eight years in Vietnam, Canberras participated in truck hunting campaigns during operations Barrel Roll, Steel Tiger, and "Tiger Hound", gaining reputations with their "Centurion Club" which consisted of Canberra crews which attained 100 truck kills.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: On 16 May 1965, an armed B-57B exploded on the runway at Biên Hòa, setting off a chain reaction that destroyed 10 other Canberras, 11 Douglas A-1 Skyraiders, and one Vought F-8 Crusader. Due to combat attrition, in October 1966, B-57Bs were transferred to Phan Rang where they supported operations in the Iron Triangle along with Australian-built Canberra B.20s of No. 2 Squadron RAAF. The aircraft also continued to fly night interdiction missions against the Ho Chi Minh trail. Of the 94 B-57Bs deployed to Southeast Asia, 51 were lost in combat and seven other Canberras were lost to other causes. Only nine were still flying by 1969.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: B-57s returned to Southeast Asia in the form of the "Tropic Moon III" B-57G, deployed to Thailand during the fall of 1970. Intended as a night intruder to help combat movement along the Ho Chi Minh trail, these aircraft were equipped with a variety of new sensors and other equipment, and were capable of dropping laser guided munitions. The relative kill rates per sortie during Operation Commando Hunt V between the B-57G and the AC-130A/E showed that the former was not as suited to the role of truck hunter. An attempt to combine both led to one B-57G being modified to house a special bomb bay installation of one Emerson TAT-161 turret with a single M61 20mm cannon as a gunship under project "Pave Gat". After delays in testing at Eglin AFB, Florida, due to competition for mission time from the "Tropic Moon III" B-57Gs, "Pave Gat" tests proved "that the B-57G could hit stationary or moving targets with its 20mm gun, day or night. Loaded with 4,000 rounds of ammunition, the "Pave Gat" B-57G could hit as many as 20 targets, three times as many as the bomb-carrying B-57G. The "Pave Gat" aircraft could avoid antiaircraft fire by firing from offset positions, while the bomb carrier had to pass directly over the target." Deployment to SEA was resisted, however, by the Seventh and Thirteenth Air Forces and others as the decision had been made in August 1971 to return the B-57G squadron to the U.S. in early 1972, leaving insufficient evaluation time. "Project Pave Gat" was terminated 21 December 1971. The B-57G was removed from Thailand in May 1972. Plans remained for the continuation of the B-57G program but post-conflict spending cuts forced the abandonment of these plans.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: For a short period Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) personnel operated four B-57B aircraft. The RVNAF never officially took control of the aircraft, and, after accidents and other problems, including apparent claims by RVNAF pilots that the B-57 was beyond their physical capabilities, the program was terminated in April 1966, and the aircraft were returned to their original USAF units.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: A total of 58 B-57 Canberras were recorded as having been lost during the Vietnam War; of these, 26 were lost to ground fire, five were lost to mortar fire and ground attack, four were lost to mid-air collision, ten were lost to airfield accidental bomb explosion, seven were lost to operational causes, and six were lost due to unknown causes. These figures include two B-57E Canberras from the first Det 33rd Tactical Group.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: The Pakistan Air Force was one of the main users of the B-57 and made use of it in two wars with India. In the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, B-57s flew 167 sorties, dropping over 600 tons of bombs. Three B-57s were lost in action (only one as a result of enemy action), along with one RB-57F electronic intelligence aircraft. During the war, the bomber wing of the PAF was attacking the concentration of airfields in north India. In order to avoid enemy fighter-bombers, the B-57s operated from several different airbases, taking off and returning to different bases to avoid being attacked. The B-57 bombers would arrive over their targets in a stream at intervals of about 15 minutes, which led to achieving a major disruption of the overall IAF effort. The then unknown Pakistani flying ace, 8-Pass Charlie, (Squadron Leader Najeeb Ahmad Khan, Sitara-e-Jurrat) was named by his adversaries for making eight passes in the moonlight, to bomb different targets with each of the B-57's bombs.


title: Martin B-57 Canberra

text: During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the PAF again made use of the B-57. On the first night, 12 IAF runways were targeted and a total of 183 bombs were dropped rendering the Indian airfields useless for 6 hours to 6 days. As the war progressed, PAF B-57s carried out many night missions. There was a higher attrition rate than in 1965, with at least five B-57s being put out of service by the end of the war.


title: Leland Stanford

text: Amasa Leland Stanford (March 9, 1824June 21, 1893) was an American industrialist and politician. A member of the Republican Party, he served as the 8th governor of California from 1862 to 1863 and represented California in the United States Senate from 1885 until his death in 1893. He and his wife Jane were also the founders of Stanford University, which they named after their late son. Prior to his political career, Stanford was a successful merchant and wholesaler who built his business empire after migrating to California during the Gold Rush. As president of the Central Pacific Railroad and later the Southern Pacific from 1885 to 1890, he held tremendous power in the region and a lasting impact on California.


title: Leland Stanford

text: Leland Stanford was born in 1824 in what was then Watervliet, New York (now the Town of Colonie). He was one of eight children of Josiah and Elizabeth Phillips Stanford. Among his siblings were New York State Senator Charles Stanford (1819–1885) and Australian businessman and spiritualist Thomas Welton Stanford (1832–1918). His immigrant ancestor, Thomas Stanford, settled in Charlestown, Massachusetts, in the 17th century. Later ancestors settled in the eastern Mohawk Valley of central New York about 1720.


title: Leland Stanford

text: Stanford's father was a farmer of some means. Stanford was raised on family farms in the Lisha Kill and Roessleville (after 1836) areas of Watervliet. The family home in Roessleville was called Elm Grove. The Elm Grove home was razed in the 1940s. Stanford attended the common school until 1836 and was tutored at home until 1839. He attended Clinton Liberal Institute, in Clinton, New York, and studied law at Cazenovia Seminary in Cazenovia, New York, in 1841 to 1845. In 1845, he entered the law office of Wheaton, Doolittle, and Hadley in Albany.


title: Leland Stanford

text: After being admitted to the bar in 1848, Stanford moved with many other settlers to Port Washington, Wisconsin, where he began a law practice with Wesley Pierce. His father presented him with a law library said to be the finest north of Milwaukee. In 1850, Stanford was nominated by the Whig Party as Washington County, Wisconsin district attorney.


title: Leland Stanford

text: On September 30, 1850, Stanford married Jane Elizabeth Lathrop in Albany, New York. She was the daughter of Dyer Lathrop, a merchant of that city, and Jane Anne (Shields) Lathrop. The couple did not have any children for years, until their only child, a son, Leland DeWitt Stanford, was born in 1868 when his father was forty-four.


title: Leland Stanford

text: In 1852, having lost his law library and other property to a fire, Stanford followed his five brothers to California during the California Gold Rush. His wife, Jane, returned temporarily to Albany and her family. He went into business with his brothers and became the keeper of a general store for miners at Michigan City, California, later the name changed to Michigan Bluff in Placer County; later he had a wholesale house. He served as a justice of the peace and helped organize the Sacramento Library Association, which later became the Sacramento Public Library. In 1855, he returned to Albany to join his wife, but found the pace of Eastern life too slow after the excitement of developing California.


title: Leland Stanford

text: The Central Pacific's first locomotive, named "Gov. Stanford" in his honor, is preserved on static display at the California State Railroad Museum, in Sacramento.


title: Leland Stanford

text: Stanford ran unsuccessfully for governor of California in 1859. He was nominated again in 1861 and won the election. Due to the Great Flood of 1862, he had to row to his inauguration in a rowboat. He served one term, then limited to two years.


title: Leland Stanford

text: In May 1868, he joined Lloyd Tevis, Darius Ogden Mills, H.D. Bacon, Hopkins, and Crocker in forming the Pacific Union Express Company. It merged in 1870 with Wells Fargo and Company. Stanford was a director of Wells Fargo and Company from 1870 to January 1884. After a brief retirement from the board, he served again from February 1884 to his death in June 1893.


title: Leland Stanford

text: Also in May 1868, he started the Pacific Mutual Life Insurance Company (now Pacific Life) and served as its first president from 1868 to 1876.


title: Leland Stanford

text: While the Central Pacific was under construction, Stanford and his associates in 1868 acquired control of the Southern Pacific Railroad. Stanford was elected president of the Southern Pacific, a post he held until 1890 (except for a brief period in 1869–1870 when Tevis was acting president) when he was ousted by Collis Huntington.


title: Leland Stanford

text: As head of the railroad company that built the western portion of the "First Transcontinental Railroad" from Sacramento eastward over the Sierra Nevada mountains in California to Nevada and Utah, Stanford presided at the ceremonial driving of "Last Spike" in Promontory, Utah on May 10, 1869. The grade of the CPRR met that of the Union Pacific Railroad, which had been built westward from its eastern terminus at Council Bluffs, Iowa/Omaha, Nebraska. He was even given the honor of driving the final spike.


title: Leland Stanford

text: Stanford moved with his family from Sacramento to San Francisco in 1874, where he assumed presidency of the Occidental and Oriental Steamship Company, the steamship line to Japan and China associated with the Central Pacific.


title: Leland Stanford

text: The Southern Pacific Company was organized in 1884 as a holding company for the Central Pacific-Southern Pacific system. Stanford was president of the Southern Pacific Company from 1885 until 1890 when he was forced out of that post (as well as the presidency of the Southern Pacific Railroad) by Collis Huntington, the company's ranking vice president and the corporate directorate. That was thought to be retaliation for Stanford's election to the US Senate in 1885 over Huntington's friend, Aaron A. Sargent.


title: Leland Stanford

text: Stanford was elected chairman of the Southern Pacific Railroad's executive committee in 1890, and he held this post and the presidency of the Central Pacific Railroad until his death.


title: Leland Stanford

text: He owned two wineries, the Leland Stanford Winery in Alameda County founded in 1869, and run and later inherited by his brother Josiah, and the Great Vina Ranch in Tehama County, containing what was then the largest vineyard in the world at and given to Stanford University.


title: Leland Stanford

text: Stanford was also interested in horses and owned the Gridley tract of in Butte County. In Santa Clara County, he founded his Palo Alto Stock Farm. He bred Standardbred horses to be raced as trotters, including his chief sire, Electioneer (sired by Hambletonian) and his winning offspring: Arion, Sunol, Palo Alto, and Chimes (out of Stanford's best known dam Beautiful Bells); and Thoroughbreds for flat racing. In 1872, Stanford commissioned the photographer Eadweard Muybridge to undertake scientific studies of the gaits of horses at a trot and gallop at the Agricultural Park race track in Sacramento. Images of the horses' feet were captured there, later moving to his Palo Alto Stock Farm. He wanted to determine if the horses ever had all four feet off the ground at the same time. The result was the proto-film "Sallie Gardner at a Gallop" (1878). As the Palo Alto breeding farm was later developed into the Stanford University, the university was nicknamed "The Farm."


title: Leland Stanford

text: The Stanfords retained ownership of their mansion in Sacramento, where their only son was born in 1868. Now the Leland Stanford Mansion State Historic Park, the house museum is also used for California state social occasions. The Stanfords' home in San Francisco's Nob Hill district was destroyed in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake; the site is now occupied by the Stanford Court Hotel. The Stanford residence at the Palo Alto Stock Farm became a convalescent home for children in 1919 (the forerunner of the Lucille Packard Children's Hospital) and was torn down in 1965.


title: Leland Stanford

text: Stanford was politically active and became a leading member of the Republican Party. In 1856, he met with other Whig politicians in Sacramento on April 30 to organize the California Republican Party at its first state convention. He was chosen as a delegate to the Republican Party convention that selected US presidential electors in both 1856 and 1860. Stanford was defeated in his 1857 bid for California state treasurer, and his 1859 bid for the office of governor of California. In 1860, he was named a delegate to the Republican National Convention in Chicago, but did not attend. He was elected governor in a second campaign in 1861.


title: Leland Stanford

text: He was the eighth Governor of California, serving from January 1862 to December 1863, and the first Republican governor. Due to the Great Flood of 1862, the governor was said to have needed to row in a boat to his own inauguration. A large, slow-speaking man who always read from a prepared text, he impressed his listeners as being more sincere than a glib, extemporaneous speaker.


title: Leland Stanford

text: During his gubernatorial tenure, he cut the state's debt in half and advocated for the conservation of forests. He also oversaw the establishment of the California's first state normal school in San Jose, later to become San Jose State University. Following Stanford's governorship, the term of office changed from two years to four years, in line with legislation passed during his time in office.


title: Leland Stanford

text: The ongoing eradication of the Native Americans living in California continued under his administration. He did sign into law an act reversing part of the 1850 Act for the Government and Protection of Indians that allowed the enslavement of Native Americans. However, he also continued the prosecution of the Bald Hills War in Northern California.


title: Leland Stanford

text: The gold strike in California had brought a large influx of newcomers into the territory, including Chinese immigrants, who faced persecution. Anti-Chinese sentiment became a political issue over time. In a message to the legislature in January 1862, Governor Stanford said:


title: Leland Stanford

text: Stanford was initially acclaimed for such statements, but lost support when it was revealed that his Central Pacific Railroad was also importing Chinese workers to construct the railroad.


title: Leland Stanford

text: Later, he served in the United States Senate from 1885 until his death in 1893. He served for four years as chairman of the U.S. Senate Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds and on the Naval Committee. He was president and director of the Central Pacific Railroad the entire time he sat in the Senate. He authored several Senate bills that advanced ideas advocated by the People's Party: a bill to foster the creation of worker-owned cooperatives, and a bill to allow the issuance of currency backed by land value instead of only the gold standard. Neither bill made it out of committee. In Washington, DC, he had a residence on Farragut Square near the home of Baron Karl von Struve, Russian minister to the US.


title: Leland Stanford

text: With his wife Jane, Stanford founded Leland Stanford Junior University as a memorial for their only child, Leland Stanford Jr., who died as a teenager of typhoid fever in Florence, Italy, in 1884 while on a trip to Europe. The university was established by March 9, 1885, Endowment Act of the California Assembly and Senate, and the Grant of Endowment from Leland and Jane Stanford signed at the first meeting of the board of trustees on November 14, 1885.


title: Leland Stanford

text: The Stanfords donated approximately 40 million United States Dollars (equivalent to $ today) to develop the university, which held its opening exercises on October 1, 1891, and was intended for agricultural studies. Its first student, admitted to Encina Hall that day, was Herbert Hoover, who went on to become the 31st US president. The wealth of the Stanford family during the late 19th century is estimated at $50 million (equivalent to $ today).


title: Leland Stanford

text: Stanford had ideas of Stanford University employee ownership for more than thirty years before giving them expression in his plans for the university, proposals as a Senator, and in interviews with the news media.


title: Leland Stanford

text: Stanford was an active Freemason from 1850 to 1855, joining the Prometheus Lodge No. 17 in Port Washington, Wisconsin. After moving west, he became a member of the Michigan City Lodge No. 47 in Michigan Bluff, California. He was also a member of the Independent Order of Odd Fellows in California.


title: Leland Stanford

text: Long-suffering from locomotor ataxia, Leland Stanford died of heart failure at home in Palo Alto, California, on June 21, 1893. He was buried in the family mausoleum on the Stanford campus. Jane Stanford died in 1905 after being poisoned with strychnine.


title: Leland Stanford

text: Leland Stanford and Stanford University, fictionalized as Grover Linden and Linden University respectively, feature in Michael Nava, "Lay Your Sleeping Head" (2016), a mystery novel, the plot of which revolves in part around the fate of the Linden, i.e., Stanford, fortune.


title: Malagasy people

text: The Malagasy () are an Austronesian-speaking African ethnic group native to the island country of Madagascar. Traditionally, the population have been divided by subgroups (tribes or ethnicities). Examples include "Highlander" (ethnically Austronesian/Malay-Indonesian with less Bantu ancestry) groups such as the Merina and Betsileo of the central highlands around Antananarivo, Alaotra "(Ambatondrazaka)" and Fianarantsoa, and the "coastal dwellers" (ethnically Bantu with less Austronesian ancestry) with tribes like the Sakalava, Bara, Vezo, Betsimisaraka, Mahafaly, etc. The Merina are also further divided into two subgroups. The “Merina A” are the Hova and Andriana, and have an average of 30–40% Bantu ancestry. The second subgroup is the “Merina B”, the Andevo, who have an average of 40-50% Bantu ancestry. They make up less than 1/3 of Merina society. The Malagasy population was 2,242,000 in the first census in 1900. Their population experienced a massive growth in the next hundred years, especially under French Madagascar.


title: Malagasy people

text: The genetics element about the dual origin of the Malagasy can be traced to the mid-20th century with results regarding blood group distribution. An expansive island-wide survey of the genetic diversity has been performed from 2008 to 2018. This project was called "MAGE" (for Madagascar, Anthropology Genetics Ethno-linguistic). Around 3000 inhabitants of Madagascar have participated in this study and provided their saliva for a genetic study. 300 villages across Madagascar have been sampled in terms of genetic, linguistic and cultural diversity. This research was led and performed by Malagasy and European researchers and academics. This study demonstrated that all Malagasy people have mixed African and Asian ancestry.


title: Malagasy people

text: But the proportion of ancestral genes differs. Coastal Malagasy populations, including the Temoro, Vezo, and Mikea, etc. have approximately 70% African ancestry and 30% Asian ancestry, while highlander tribes tend to have lower African ancestry at around 45%. In a recent island-wide survey the male-only Y chromosomes of African origin are more common than those of East Asian origin, but it varies depending on the study (70.7 vs. 20.7 or 51% vs 34%). However the mtDNA lineages, passed down from mother to child, are the opposite (42.4% African origin vs. 50.1% East Asian origin).


title: Malagasy people

text: Due to the proximity to Africa, the connection with Asian populations exhibited the most curiosity. Around 1996, a study was launched in an attempt to identify the presence of the Polynesian motif in the Malagasy population (mtDNA haplotype B4a1a1a). A more recent study to identify two additional mutations (1473 and 3423A) found in all Polynesian motif carriers of Madagascar, hence named the Malagasy motif. The frequency varied among three ethnic groups: 50% in Merina, 22% in Vezo, and 13% in Mikea. Based on this result, a study suggested that Madagascar was settled approximately 2,200 years ago by a very small group, which consisted of approximately 30 women, where 28 (93%) of them have maritime Southeast Asian descent and 2 (7%) of them have African descent. The Malagasy population existed through the intermixing of the first small founding population. The closest Asian parental population of the Malagasy are the Banjar and other South Kalimantan Dayak people of south east Borneo. Language footprints of their ancestors from Southeastern Asia can presently be witnessed by many shared basic vocabulary with Ma'anyan, a language from the region of the Barito River in southern Borneo.


title: Malagasy people

text: The difference in origins remains somewhat evident between the highland and coastal regions . In addition to the distinction in term of ancestral proportion between highland and coastal Malagasy, one may speak of a political distinction as well. Merina monarchs in the late 18th and early 19th century, united the Merina principalities and brought the neighbouring Betsileo people under their administration first. They later extended Merina control over the majority of the coastal areas. The neighbouring island of Moheli was also ruled by a Muslim Merina dynasty founded by Abderremane, Sultan of Mohéli, who was a brother-in-law of King Radama I. The military resistance and eventual defeat of most of the coastal communities assured their subordinate position vis-à-vis the Merina-Betsileo alliance. During the 19th and 20th centuries, the French colonial administration capitalized on and further exacerbated these political inequities by appropriating existing Merina governmental infrastructure to run their colony.This legacy of political inequity dogged the people of Madagascar after gaining independence in 1960; candidates' ethnic and regional identities have often served to help or hinder their success in democratic elections.


title: Malagasy people

text: Within these two broad ethnic and political groupings, the Malagasy were historically subdivided into specifically named ethnic groups, who were primarily distinguished from one another on the basis of cultural practices. These were namely agricultural, hunting, or fishing practices; construction style of dwellings; music; hair and clothing styles; and local customs or taboos, the latter was known in the Malagasy language as "fady". The number of such ethnic groups in Madagascar has been debated. The practices that distinguished many of these groups are less prevalent in the 21st century than they were in the past. But, many Malagasy are proud to proclaim their association with one or several of these groups as part of their own cultural identity.


title: Malagasy people

text: Countries with a significant Malagasy diaspora include France (specifically the overseas departments of Mayotte and Réunion), Comoros (specifically the island of Moheli), South Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean and the United States.


title: Malagasy people

text: The Malagasy diaspora in the United States includes those descended from people who, slave or free, came during the 18th and 19th centuries. Other Americans of Malagasy ancestry are recent immigrants from Madagascar. Some notable Americans who have Malagasy ancestry include Andy Razaf, Katherine Dunham, Regina M. Anderson, William H. Hastie, George Schuyler and Philippa Schuyler, Muhammad Ali, Robert Reed Church and Mary Church Terrell, Frederick D. Gregory, Thomas P. Mahammitt, Paschal Beverly Randolph, Maya Rudolph, Claude McKay, Jess Tom, Ben Jealous, and Keenan Ivory Wayans.


title: Malagasy people

text: Malagasy were also brought to Latin America, notably Peru, during the Transatlantic Slave Trade. A community of descendants of these Malagasy reside in Morropón (Piura), a city in northern Peru; the Afro-Peruvians of Malagasy descent number about 7,000. Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro, the Peruvian army officer who served as the 48th President of Peru from 1931 to 1933, as well as Interim President of Peru, was a notable descendant of this community. They call themselves "Mangaches" or "Malgaches." This section of Piura is called la Mangachería.


title: Malagasy people

text: The first recorded African slave in Canada, Olivier Le Jeune, was taken from Madagascar to New France in 1628.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: Phenomena is a 1985 Italian supernatural horror giallo film directed by Dario Argento and starring Jennifer Connelly, Daria Nicolodi, and Donald Pleasence. The plot concerns an American girl at a remote Swiss boarding school who discovers she has psychic powers that allow her to communicate with insects, and uses them to pursue a serial killer who is butchering young women at and around the school.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: After its release in Italy, "Phenomena" was purchased for distribution in the United States by New Line Cinema, who excised over 20 minutes of the original cut, releasing it under the alternate title Creepers. This shortened version was also released in the United Kingdom the following year in the spring of 1986.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: After missing a bus in the Swiss countryside, a 14-year-old Danish tourist, Vera Brandt, tries looking for help. She comes across a cottage and is attacked and beheaded by a stranger. Eight months later, her case is being inspected by forensic entomologist John McGregor and Inspector Rudolf Geiger of the Kantonpolizei, who note that Brandt is but the first of a series of murders against young girls, including McGregor's former assistant.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: Meanwhile, Jennifer Corvino, the daughter of a famous American actor, arrives at the Swiss Richard Wagner Academy for Girls, chaperoned by Frau Brückner, who places her with roommate Sophie. While sleepwalking through the academy and out onto the roof, Jennifer witnesses a student being murdered. She awakens and flees into the woods, where McGregor's chimpanzee, Inga, finds her and leads her to him. Upon noticing the affection his captive insects have for Jennifer, McGregor comes to believe that she has a telepathic link with them. Back at the academy, the headmistress has Jennifer medically tested via EEG for her sleepwalking. The procedure makes Jennifer uneasy when she gets brief visions of the previous night's events.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: The following night, the murderer kills Sophie, mistaking her for Jennifer as she is wearing the same sweater she wore when she witnessed the prior murder. Jennifer sleepwalks again and is led by a firefly to the scene of Sophie's death, where she finds a maggot-infested glove. She shows it to McGregor, who identifies the maggots as the larvae of Great Sarcophagus flies, which are drawn to decaying human flesh. He theorises that the killer is a necrophile who has been keeping his victims close to him post-mortem, unintentionally collecting the maggots on himself.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: Later, when the other students taunt Jennifer over her connection to insects, she summons a swarm of flies that covers the entire building, then faints. Convinced that Jennifer is "diabolic" and possibly responsible for the killings, the headmistress arranges for her to be transferred to a mental hospital. Jennifer flees to McGregor's home, where the entomologist gives her a glass case with a Great Sarcophagus fly, suggesting she use it to find the murderer's lair. The fly leads her to the same cottage Brandt had found earlier and Inspector Geiger talks to the real estate agent in order to learn the identity of the house's previous occupant.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: That night, McGregor is murdered in his home. With nowhere left to go, Jennifer calls her father's lawyer Morris Shapiro to take her back to America. He alerts Brückner, who offers to let the girl stay at her house overnight. Meanwhile, Geiger's investigation leads him to a mental hospital in Basel where he learns that a former staff member had been attacked 15 years before by one of the male inmates.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: Upon arriving at Brückner's house, Jennifer notices that all the mirrors are covered, with Brückner explaining that she has a son who cannot stand to see his own reflection. Brückner insists that Jennifer take pills before she goes to bed; when she does so, she becomes sick and, assuming that the pills are poisonous, coughs them up. She attempts to call Morris but is knocked unconscious by Brückner. Geiger arrives and questions Brückner, who confirms that she had worked at the Basel mental hospital and been raped. She leads him to the basement and imprisons him.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: After waking, Jennifer engineers her escape through the basement. There, she finds Geiger and falls into a pool filled with maggot-infested corpses. Brückner taunts Jennifer, but Geiger frees himself and furiously beats Brückner long enough to let Jennifer escape.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: Jennifer finds Brückner's son, who has a hideously deformed face. He chases Jennifer onto a motorboat and tries to kill her with a spear, which perforates the boat's fuel tank and causes a leak. Jennifer summons a swarm of flies that attack the killer, causing him to fall into the water. Jennifer is also forced to jump into the water as the leaking petrol ignites, whereupon the child grabs her, but he is immolated by the flames.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: Jennifer reaches the shore just as Morris appears. A severely injured and disfigured Brückner decapitates him from behind with a metal sheet and confesses that she murdered McGregor and Geiger to protect her son. Before she can murder Jennifer, a wrathful Inga attacks Brückner and kills her with a straight-razor in retribution for McGregor's death. With the ordeal over, Jennifer and Inga embrace.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: Argento became inspired to write and direct "Phenomena" after hearing a French radio broadcast detailing a murder case that had been solved thanks to the study of insects present on the corpse. In an interview with "La Stampa", Argento said he saw the film as a personal challenge to American cinema. Screenwriter Franco Ferrini stated that, visually, Argento was inspired by Caspar David Friedrich paintings, noting the artist's purely Romantic portrayal of people and nature. Argento later stated that he imagined the movie taking place in a world where Nazism had triumped during the Second World War.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: The film's budget went in excess of six million lire, largely on account of the insects and arachnids used. Spiders, including black widows, and scorpions were imported from Africa, while flies, grasshoppers and wasps were raised in various parts of Rome. For the scene where Jennifer follows the fly, Argento, recalling a trick learned from his childhood, had a real fly leashed with a nylon string.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: Originally, Argento wanted Connelly's character to be portrayed as the daughter of Al Pacino, and planned to have photos and video clips of him included in the film. Pacino, however, refused to allow this, as, according to Argento, he "didn't appreciate telling the story of a daughter he doesn't have".


title: Phenomena (film)

text: The chimpanzee, Tanga, who had previously starred in "Bingo Bongo", proved difficult to direct, as Argento wanted to avoid its performance seeming comical. During the film's climax, the hand wielding the straight razor hitting Daria Nicolodi was in fact Tanga's own, which managed to scar her despite the object being blunted. It then proceeded to attack Jennifer Connelly and bit off part of one of her fingers. Connelly stated on "Late Night with Conan O'Brien" that Tanga continued to act aggressively toward her from that point on, thus necessitating a body double for some scenes. Further problems arose when Tanga escaped during an outdoor scene and did not return for three days until forest rangers attracted it with food.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: For the swarming scenes, special effects artist Sergio Stivaletti superimposed slowed-down footage of coffee granules floating down a fish tank over the film shot. Stivaletti also created a mechanical firefly prop for close up shots, but it was rejected by Argento.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: For Frau Brückner's son, Stivaletti drew inspiration from photographs he saw of sufferers of Patau syndrome. In a 2015 interview, actor Davide Marotta, who played Brückner's son, recalled the lengthy process of making a mold of his head, and stated that his death scene involved being smeared in glucose before having 40 million insects released on him.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: Unlike Argento's previous films, "Phenomena" adopts a mid-1980s trend of containing popular songs in the soundtrack. This includes original compositions from artists such as Bill Wyman and Claudio Simonetti, with the solo soprano voice of Pina Magri, heavy metal music by artists like Iron Maiden as well as goth favorites such as Sex Gang Children. The band Goblin is credited as contributing to the score, including two cues from their score from "Dawn of the Dead", which are faintly heard when the character Sophie watches television in the film as well as a handful of original themes recorded for the film and credited to the group.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: Cinevox released the soundtrack to the film in 1985 on vinyl, which included parts of the film's score and the rock music tracks. A compact disc edition was released by Cinevox in 1987. Enigma Records issued a vinyl release in 1985 bearing the "Creepers" title in the United States.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: In 2018, the complete soundtrack was released for the first time by Waxwork Records on a double LP. It included alternate, bonus, and unused tracks.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: "Phenomena" was released theatrically in Italy on 31 January 1985 with a 116-minute running time. This version of "Phenomena" is often referred to as the "integral cut". A shorter version of the film was prepared for international release that had a 110-minute running time. This version of the film only cuts out minor material from the "integral cut" with most being a few frames at the end and beginning of shots. "Phenomena" was a big hit in Italy earning 2.7 billion lire at the box office, which had it out gross films like "Gremlins", "Dune" and "The Terminator".


title: Phenomena (film)

text: In the United States, the film was acquired for distribution by New Line Cinema, who released it on 30 August 1985 under the alternative title "Creepers". This version of the film was truncated to 83 minutes, with scenes cut entirely and other scenes being re-ordered. "Creepers" also had music segue between scenes where previously they had no music and the loss of the song "Locomotive" by Motörhead. Troy Howarth, author of "So Deadly, So Perverse: 50 Years of Italian Giallo Films" described "Creepers" as being the last of Argento's films to receive "any kind of meaningful theatrical release" in the United States. The film was released in the United Kingdom in its shortened cut as "Creepers" in April 1986.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: Jon Pareles of "The New York Times" reviewed the "Creepers" cut of the film, finding that it "creaks along for its first hour or so, failing to work up any chills" and found the acting poor, writing that "The best acting is by an expressive, resourceful chimpanzee - definitely the year's Best Supporting Primate." Kim Newman ("Monthly Film Bulletin") said the film contained "astonishingly awful performances" and that the dialogue contained several unintentionally humorous lines, which Newman attributed to a language problem. Newman discussed the film's look and style, opining that "Argento's films have their stylishness to fall back on, but here he is experimenting with a washed-out blue look influenced by "Possession" that works in short scenes but becomes wearying after a few minutes". Newman commented that Argento "goes for sickness after the manner of Lucio Fulci", noting gross-out scenes involving vomiting and violent deaths of actors portrayed by Argento's daughter and wife. "The Guardian" declared that "Creepers" was "Argento at his most throw away" and that the film paled in comparison to earlier efforts such as "The Bird with the Crystal Plumage" (1970) or "Suspiria" (1977). Commenting on the acting, the review stated that "Pleasence does his best with the script, Jennifer Connelly doesn't even bother to do battle".


title: Phenomena (film)

text: The "New York Daily News" published a review in which they deemed "Creepers" "a boring, poorly told exercise in gratuitous nausea and Grand Guignol gore, padded with seemingly interminable stretches of static filler," though they conceded that it "boasts a semi-original premise for a slasher movie." "The Times" found that the film contained traces of previous Argento films, "But the march of time and commercial success seem to have dulled the director's previous panache: "Creepers" just drags its feet from one absurdity to the next." The "Sunday Times" found "Creepers" "only intermittently frightening" and an audience with "a taste for discreetly revealed schoolgirl thigh and/or insects will not be completely disappointed".


title: Phenomena (film)

text: Malcolm Johnson of the "Hartford Courant" criticized some of the film's special effects, but concluded: "Otherwise, Argento displays his customary skill at horror chic. He plays Old World elegance against horrific sights as electronic scoring and macabre rock songs by Bill Wyman, Iron Maiden, and others give "Creepers" a loud, mad buzz."


title: Phenomena (film)

text: In retrospective reviews, John Kenneth Muir discussed the film in his overview of horror films from the 1980s, finding "Phenomena" to be "unusual" as well as "strangely stirring", and that the imagery in the film is "nothing short of amazing, even if the narrative is muddled."


title: Phenomena (film)

text: "Creepers" was released in the United States on VHS and Betamax in 1986 by Media Home Entertainment. This release still had the shorter theatrical run time. By March 29, "Creepers" entered "Billboard"'s Top Videocassettes Rentals chart. This chart was compiled from a national sample of retail store rental reports. By April 5, the release was at number 29 in the charts.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: The film was first released on DVD in North America by Anchor Bay Entertainment as "Phenomena", where it used the 110 minute version of the film. Synapse Films released the film on Blu-ray in the United States on 15 November 2016, which included the shorter version titled "Creepers" as well as the 116 and 110 minute versions of "Phenomena". Arrow Video released "Phenomena" in the United Kingdom in 2017 including the integral version, the international cut and the "Creepers" version. Arrow's Blu-ray was among the top ten top-selling home video releases in the United Kingdom on its initial release. In February 2022, Arrow reissued the film in 4K UHD Blu-ray format in three different limited editions, each featuring alternate artwork; one of the editions, available only through Arrow's online store, features artwork bearing the "Creepers" title. Synapse Films also reissued a 4K UHD Blu-ray in North America.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: After "Phenomena", Daria Nicolodi repudiated the film, labeling it "reactionary" on account of its portrayal of handicapped people, and stated on interview that she would no longer work with Argento.


title: Phenomena (film)

text: Japanese video game developer Hifumi Kono created his video game "Clock Tower" (1995) which borrows many ideas from "Phenomena".


title: Phenomena (film)

text: A novelisation of the film was written by Luigi Cozzi for the horror anthology "Terrore profondo" in 1997.


title: Salinas, California

text: Salinas (; Spanish for "Salt Marsh or Salt Flats") is a city in California and the county seat of Monterey County. With a population of 163,542 in the 2020 Census, Salinas is the most populous city in Monterey County. Salinas is an urban area located along the northern limits of the Monterey Bay Area, lying just south of the San Francisco Bay Area and southeast of the mouth of the Salinas River. The city is located at the mouth of the Salinas Valley, about from the Pacific Ocean, and it has a climate more influenced by the ocean than the interior.


title: Salinas, California

text: Salinas serves as the main business, governmental, and industrial center of the region. The marine climate is ideal for the floral industry, grape vineyards, and vegetable growers. Salinas is known as the "Salad Bowl of the World" for its large, vibrant agriculture industry.


title: Salinas, California

text: It was the hometown of writer and Nobel laureate John Steinbeck (1902–68), who set many of his stories in the Salinas Valley and Monterey. Salinas has a high Hispanic proportion, which at 79.6%, is the highest proportion of Hispanic Americans out of any city in California, and 8th largest overall in the nation. The city also has a sizable Asian-American population, with a large and historic Filipino population. The city once also had the 2nd biggest Chinatown in the nation behind only San Francisco.


title: Salinas, California

text: The land that Salinas sits on is thought to have been settled by Native Americans known as the Esselen prior to 200 AD. Between 200 and 500 AD, they were displaced by the Rumsen group of Ohlone speaking people. The Rumsen-Ohlone remained as the inhabitants of the area for approximately another 1,200 years, and in the 1700s, were the group of native inhabitants contacted and recorded by the first Spanish explorers of the Salinas area.


title: Salinas, California

text: Upon the arrival of the Spanish, large Spanish land grants were initially issued for the Catholic Missions and also as bonuses to soldiers. Later on after Mexican independence, smaller land grants continued to be issued for ranchos where mostly cattle were grazed. One of the many land grants was the Rancho Las Salinas land grant, part of which included the area of modern-day Salinas. As a result of the many new cattle ranches, a thriving trade eventually developed in cattle hide shipments, shipping primarily out of the Port of Monterey.


title: Salinas, California

text: In 1848 California officially became a part of the United States of America. This transition followed several years of battles in the Salinas area with John Fremont flying the American flag on the highest peak of the Gabilan Mountains and claiming California for the United States. Before the transition to American administration, Monterey had been the capital of California. For a short while after the transition, California was ruled by martial law. On September 9, 1850, California was admitted to the Union and became a State, celebrated as California Admission Day.


title: Salinas, California

text: In the 1850s a junction of two main stage coach routes was located east of Monterey and along the big bend of what is locally referred to as the Alisal Slough. In 1854, six years after becoming a part of the United States, a group of American settlers living in the vicinity of this route-junction opened a post office at the junction, naming their town "Salinas," apparently a reference to the original "Rancho Las Salinas" name for the area, which in turn was named in Spanish for the salt marshes of the area around the central Salinas slough, which was drained. Soon thereafter, in 1856, a traveler's inn called the Halfway House was opened at that junction in Salinas. (The nearby Salinas River, was apparently only later named by an American cartographer, after the nearest town of Salinas in 1858. Previously that river had gone by the name: "Rio de Monterey."). The streets of Salinas were laid out in 1867, and the town was incorporated in 1874.


title: Salinas, California

text: The conversion of grazing land to crops and the coming of the rail road in 1868 to transport goods and people was a major turning point in the history and economic advancement of Salinas. Dry farming of wheat, barley, and other grains as well as potatoes and mustard seed was common in the 1800s. Chinese labor drained thousands of acres of swampland to become productive farmland, and as much early farm labor was done by Chinese immigrants, Salinas boasted the second largest Chinatown in the state, slightly smaller than San Francisco. Irrigation changed farming in Salinas to mainly row crops of root vegetables, grapes and sugar beets. Many major vegetable producers placed their headquarters in Salinas. Driven by the profitable agricultural industry, Salinas had the highest per capita income of any city in the United States in 1924.


title: Salinas, California

text: During World War II, the Salinas Rodeo Grounds was one of the locations used as a temporary detention camp for citizens and immigrant residents of Japanese ancestry, before they were relocated to more permanent and remote facilities. One of seventeen such sites overseen by the Wartime Civilian Control Administration, the Salinas Assembly Center was built after President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, authorizing the removal and confinement of Japanese Americans living on the West Coast. The camp opened on April 27, 1942, and held a total of 3,608 people before closing two months later on July 4.


title: Salinas, California

text: Following World War II major urban and suburban development converted much farmland to city. The city experienced two particularly strong growth spurts in the 1950s and 1960s, and again in the 1990s and early 2000s. Aerial photographic interpretation indicate such major conversion of cropland to urban uses over the time period 1956 to 1968, while the city annexed the adjacent communities of Alisal and Santa Rita during this time. The Harden Ranch, Creekbridge and Williams Ranch neighborhoods constituting much of the city's North-East were built almost exclusively between 1990 and 2004.


title: Salinas, California

text: Salinas was also the birthplace of writer and Nobel Prize laureate John Steinbeck. The historic downtown, known as "Oldtown Salinas", features much fine Victorian architecture, and is home to the National Steinbeck Center, the Steinbeck House and the John Steinbeck Library.


title: Salinas, California

text: Major development took place in the 1990s, with the construction of Creekbridge, Williams Ranch, and Harden Ranch.


title: Salinas, California

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , 99.84% of it land and 0.16% of it water.


title: Salinas, California

text: Prior to mass agricultural and urban development, much of the city consisted of rolling hills bisected by wooded creeks and interspersed with marsh land. Today, the city is located mostly on leveled ground, with some rolling hills and wooded gulches with creeks remaining in the north-eastern Creekbridge and Williams Ranch neighborhoods, as well as the Laurel Heights section of East Salinas. The natural ecosystems accompanying the area's topography and environment have been recreated in Natividad Creek Park and adjacent Upper Carr Lake.


title: Salinas, California

text: The city rests about above sea level, and it is located roughly eight miles from the Pacific Ocean. The Gabilan and Santa Lucia mountain ranges border the Salinas Valley to the east and to the west, respectively. Both mountain ranges and the Salinas Valley run approximately south-east from Salinas towards King City.


title: Salinas, California

text: The Salinas River runs the length of the Salinas Valley and empties into the Pacific Ocean at the center of the Monterey Bay. During the summer months the river flows partially underground and it is this extensive underground aquifer that allows for irrigation of cropland in an area without much annual rainfall.


title: Salinas, California

text: Salinas has cool and moderate temperatures, due to the "natural air conditioner" that conveys ocean air and fog from the Monterey Bay to Salinas, while towns to the north and south of Salinas experience hotter summers, as mountains block the ocean air. Thus, Salinas weather is closer to that of the Central Coast of California, rather than that of inland valleys, and thus has a mild Mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csb") with typical daily highs ranging from around in the winter to around in the summer. According to the Weather Channel, monthly average temperature highs range from . The record highest temperature was on September 14, 1971. The record lowest temperature was on December 21, 1937. Annually, there are an average of 5.5 days with + highs, and an average of 11.7 days with lows reaching the freezing mark or lower.


title: Salinas, California

text: Between 1958 and 2018, the coldest measured daytime high in Salinas was in 1990, with the coldest day averaging for the last set of normals between 1981 and 2010. The warmest night during the station's operation was in 2017, with the warmest annual night standing at a mild .


title: Salinas, California

text: In 2015 Salinas was in the top ten American cities for cleanest air quality, It is thought that the offshore marine layer generates winds that blow smog further inland.


title: Salinas, California

text: The difference between ocean and air temperature also tends to create heavy morning fog during the summer months, known as the marine layer, driven by an onshore wind created by the local high pressure sunny portions of the Salinas Valley, which extend north and south from Salinas and the Bay.


title: Salinas, California

text: The average annual rainfall for the city is approximately . The wettest "rain year" since records at the present station began in 1959 was from July 1997 to June 1998 with of precipitation, and the driest from July 1971 to June 1972 with . The most precipitation in one month was in February 1998. The record maximum 24-hour precipitation was on January 23, 2000. Occasionally, there is snowfall on the peaks of the Gabilan and Santa Lucia mountain ranges, but snow in the city itself is extremely rare, occurring about once every 5 to 15 years on average. An inch of snow fell in Salinas on February 26, 2011.


title: Salinas, California

text: The 2020 United States census reported that Salinas had a population of 163,542. The racial makeup of Salinas was 32% white (12% for white alone, not Hispanic or Latino), 79% Hispanic or Latino, 1% African American, 6% Asian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian and other pacific Islander, 1% American Indian and Alaska native, 7% Two or more races. The median household income is $67,914, and the medium income per capita is $23,707. The poverty percentage is at 14%.


title: Salinas, California

text: The 2010 United States Census reported that Salinas had a population of 150,441. The population density was . The racial makeup of Salinas was 68,973 (45.8%) White, down from 90.3% in 1970, 2,993 (2.0%) African American, 1,888 (1.3%) Native American, 9,438 (6.3%) Asian, 478 (0.3%) Pacific Islander, 59,041 (39.2%) from other races, and 7,630 (5.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 112,799 persons (75.0%).


title: Salinas, California

text: The Census reported that 147,976 people (98.4% of the population) lived in households, 658 (0.4%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 1,807 (1.2%) were institutionalized.


title: Salinas, California

text: There were 40,387 households, out of which 21,435 (53.1%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 21,380 (52.9%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 6,835 (16.9%) had a female householder with no husband present, 3,300 (8.2%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 3,271 (8.1%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 271 (0.7%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 6,895 households (17.1%) were made up of individuals, and 2,587 (6.4%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.66. There were 31,515 families (78.0% of all households); the average family size was 4.05.


title: Salinas, California

text: The population was spread out, with 47,180 people (31.4%) under the age of 18, 18,049 people (12.0%) aged 18 to 24, 44,978 people (29.9%) aged 25 to 44, 28,976 people (19.3%) aged 45 to 64, and 11,258 people (7.5%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28.8 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.8 males.


title: Salinas, California

text: There were 42,651 housing units at an average density of , of which 18,198 (45.1%) were owner-occupied, and 22,189 (54.9%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.5%; the rental vacancy rate was 4.6%. 65,108 people (43.3% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 82,868 people (55.1%) lived in rental housing units. The majority of residents were living in single-unit detached homes, built between 1950 and 2000, while one third of the housing stock had three or more units per structure.


title: Salinas, California

text: The 2000 United States Census reported that Salinas had a population of 151,060. The population density was . There were 39,659 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 65.2% Hispanic or Latino of any race, 49.1% White, 6.2% Asian American, 3.3% African American, 1.3% Native American, 38.7% from other races, and 5.1% from two or more races. 49.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.6% were married couples living together, 14.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21.6% were non-families. 17.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.69 and the average family size was 4.08


title: Salinas, California

text: Age distribution was 33.0% under the age of 19 or younger, 11.8% from 18 to 24, 33.7% from 25 to 44, 15.5% from 45 to 64, and 7.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females, there were 117.7 males. For every 102 females age 18 and over, there were 117.4 males.


title: Salinas, California

text: The median household income was $43,728, and the median family income was $44,669. Males had a median income of $35,641 versus $27,013 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,495. About 12.8% of families and 16.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.1% of those under age 18 and 9.4% of those age 65 or over.


title: Salinas, California

text: Median household income in the city tended to be significantly higher alongside the city limits, especially in the northern Harden Ranch and Creekbridge neighborhoods. East Salinas and the downtown area suffered from a very low median household income as well as high crime rates. South and North Salinas featured roughly the same level of median households income with the latter being home to city's wealthiest newly constructed neighborhoods.


title: Salinas, California

text: Salinas has a significant, but declining problem with organized street gangs, such as Nortenos and Surenos, and associated violent crime. According to the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, the city's overall violent crime and homicide rates are above those for California and the nation overall. However, the violent crime rate in Salinas has declined by almost 75 percent since 2015. Gang activity and violent crime are focused in Central and East Salinas and exacerbated by the city's comparatively low tax base and consequently limited policing resources. A hypothesis to explain the city's particularly intense problem with gang related violent crime cites the city's proximity to Salinas Valley State Prison. The prison was an early launch pad for street operations of the notorious prison gang, "Nuestra Familia". This in turn, is seen as having spawned a legacy of multi-generational gang membership among the poorer and less educated residents of East Salinas. In a depiction of crime and active policing within the city, since 2018, Salinas police officers have been shadowed by camera crews for broadcast on the TV show Live PD.


title: Salinas, California

text: Major employers in Salinas include Taylor Farms, Tanimura & Antle, Salinas Valley Memorial Hospital, Natividad Medical Center, Mann Packing, Hilltown Packing, Newstar Fresh Foods, Matsui Nursery and Monterey County.


title: Salinas, California

text: Salinas is known for its AgTech industry, and is known as the emerging AgTech Capital of the nation and a global hub for agricultural technology. Its close proximity to Silicon Valley and large number of agricultural employers give forth to an ideal location for developing high tech agricultural innovations.


title: Salinas, California

text: Since 2015, Forbes has hosted the yearly Forbes AgTech Summit in Salinas. The event draws agricultural technology entrepreneurs from around the world and includes speakers, group discussions, tours, on site demonstrations.


title: Salinas, California

text: Salinas has an emerging arts scene led by the First Fridays Art Walk and the innovative use of non-traditional or business venues to exhibit art and host live local music. The oldest gallery in Salinas, the Valley Art Gallery, has been active for over 30 years. The Hartnell College Gallery hosts world-class exhibitions of art during the school year. The National Steinbeck Center has two galleries with changing exhibits, and the city's newest @Risk Gallery features humdrum exhibitions. The Art Walk, held in the downtown area, features 50 venues.


title: Salinas, California

text: Live theater companies in Salinas include ARIEL Theatrical located in the Karen Wilson's Children's Theater in Oldtown Salinas, and The Western Stage, based at Hartnell College.


title: Salinas, California

text: Live local music is available at many restaurants in the downtown area, and during the First Fridays Art Walk. Concerts are held at the historic Fox California Theater, Steinbeck Institute for Arts and Culture and the Salinas Sports Complex, as well as at Hartnell College.


title: Salinas, California

text: Salinas is home to many public murals, including work by John Cerney which can be viewed in the agricultural fields surrounding the city. Claes Oldenburg placed his sculpture, "Hat in Three Stages of Landing", in Sherwood Park at the center of the city.


title: Salinas, California

text: The city contains several art deco buildings, including the Monterey County Courthouse and the Salinas Californian Building.


title: Salinas, California

text: El Grito is a free annual event held every September in the Alisal Neighborhood of Salinas. The event draws up to 65,000 people and features a parade, performances, vendors, Mexican cuisine, and cultural exhibits. El Grito is a celebration of the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence.


title: Salinas, California

text: Salinas Founders Day is an annual event held since 1869, that celebrates the history of Salinas. The 2017 event was held at the Salinas Train Station Plaza in downtown Salinas, and included tours of the First Mayor's House and the Monterey and Salinas Valley Railroad Museum, music, and historical talks.


title: Salinas, California

text: Ciclovía Salinas is an annual event that has taken place in the Alisal neighborhood of Salinas since 2013, and features a 1.5 mile stretch of Alisal Street that is closed off to automobiles, and exclusively for use of pedestrians, bicyclists, and other non-motorized forms of transportation. The goal of the event is to promote youth leadership, walking, biking, and other recreational activities that promote a healthy lifestyle.


title: Salinas, California

text: The event is led entirely by Salinas youth volunteers and in 2018, it featured a 3-kilometer run, Cross Fit activities, soccer, zumba, boxing, community created murals, disc golf, folklorico dancing, and Oaxacan cultural dancing.


title: Salinas, California

text: As the host of a PRCA-sanctioned rodeo, Salinas is a major stop on the professional rodeo circuit. The California Rodeo Salinas began in 1911 as a Wild West Show on the site of the old race track ground, now the Salinas Sports Complex. Every third week of July is Big Week, when cowboys and fans come for the traditional rodeo competitions, including bull riding. Rodeo-related events held in Salinas and Monterey include cowboy poetry, wine tasting, a carnival, barbecues and a gala cowboy ball.


title: Salinas, California

text: The Kiddie Kapers Parade began in 1930 and is an annual parade with only children in costume, held in conjunction with "Big Week" and the annual Rodeo.


title: Salinas, California

text: The Salinas Asian Festival is a free annual event in Salinas held since 2009 that celebrates the culture and history of Chinese, Filipino, and Japanese immigrants in Salinas. The Salinas Buddhist Temple, the Salinas Chinese Association, and the Filipino Cultural Center of Salinas are open to tour. The event includes food, demonstrations of tai chi, Filipino folk dancing, kendo, and a bonsai display. The 2017 festival the Salinas Chinatown Virtual Walking Tour.