title: Headhunting

text: Headhunting is the practice of hunting a human and collecting the severed head after killing the victim, although sometimes more portable body parts (such as ear, nose or scalp) are taken instead as trophies. Headhunting was practiced in historic times in parts of Europe, East Asia, Oceania, Southeast Asia, South Asia, Mesoamerica, West and Central Africa.


title: Headhunting

text: The headhunting practice has been the subject of intense study within the anthropological community, where scholars try to assess and interpret its social roles, functions, and motivations. Anthropological writings explore themes in headhunting that include mortification of the rival, ritual violence, cosmological balance, the display of manhood, cannibalism, dominance over the body and soul of his enemies in life and afterlife, as a trophy and proof of killing (achievement in hunting), show of greatness, prestige by taking on a rival's spirit and power, and as a means of securing the services of the victim as a slave in the afterlife.


title: Headhunting

text: Today's scholars generally agree that headhunting's primary function was ritual and ceremonial. It was part of the process of structuring, reinforcing, and defending hierarchical relationships between communities and individuals. Some experts theorize that the practice stemmed from the belief that the head contained "soul matter" or life force, which could be harnessed through its capture.


title: Headhunting

text: Headhunting was practiced by many Austronesian people in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands. Headhunting has at one time or another been practiced among most of the peoples of Melanesia, including New Guinea. A missionary found 10,000 skulls in a community longhouse on Goaribari Island in 1901.


title: Headhunting

text: Historically, the Marind-anim in New Guinea were famed because of their headhunting. The practice was rooted in their belief system and linked to the name-giving of the newborn. The skull was believed to contain a mana-like force. Headhunting was not motivated primarily by cannibalism, but the dead person's flesh was consumed in ceremonies following the capture and killing.


title: Headhunting

text: The Korowai, a Papuan tribe in the southeast of Irian Jaya, live in tree houses, some nearly 40 metres high. This was originally believed to be a defensive practice, presumably as protection against the Citak, a tribe of neighbouring headhunters. Some researchers believe that the American Michael Rockefeller, who disappeared in New Guinea in 1961 while on a field trip, may have been taken by headhunters in the Asmat region. He was the son of New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller.


title: Headhunting

text: In "The Cruise of the Snark" (1911), the account by Jack London of his 1905 adventure sailing in Micronesia, he recounted that headhunters of Malaita attacked his ship during a stay in Langa Langa Lagoon, particularly around Laulasi Island. His and other ships were kidnapping villagers as workers on plantations, a practice known as blackbirding. Captain Mackenzie of the ship "Minolta" was beheaded by villagers as retribution for the loss of village men during an armed labour "recruiting" drive. The villagers believed that the ship's crew "owed" several more heads before the score was even.


title: Headhunting

text: In Southeast Asia, anthropological writings have explored headhunting and other practices of the Murut, Dusun Lotud, Ilongot, Igorot, Iban, Dayak, Berawan, Wana, and Mappurondo tribes. Among these groups, headhunting was usually a ritual activity rather than an act of war or feuding. A warrior would take a single head. Headhunting acted as a catalyst for the cessation of personal and collective mourning for the community's dead. Ideas of manhood and marriage were encompassed in the practice, and the taken heads were highly prized. Other reasons for headhunting included capture of enemies as slaves, looting of valuable properties, intra and inter-ethnic conflicts, and territorial expansion.


title: Headhunting

text: Italian anthropologist and explorer Elio Modigliani visited the headhunting communities in South Nias (an island to the west of Sumatra) in 1886; he wrote a detailed study of their society and beliefs. He found that the main purpose of headhunting was the belief that, if a man owned another person's skull, his victim would serve as a slave of the owner for eternity in the afterlife. Human skulls were a valuable commodity. Sporadic headhunting continued in Nias island until the late 20th century, the last reported incident dating from 1998.


title: Headhunting

text: Headhunting was practiced among Sumba people until the early 20th century. It was done only in large war parties. When the men hunted wild animals, by contrast, they operated in silence and secrecy. The skulls collected were hung on the skull tree erected in the center of village.


title: Headhunting

text: Kenneth George wrote about annual headhunting rituals that he observed among the Mappurondo religious minority, an upland tribe in the southwest part of the Indonesian island of Sulawesi. Heads are not taken; instead, surrogate heads in the form of coconuts are used in a ritual ceremony. The ritual, called "pangngae," takes place at the conclusion of the rice-harvesting season. It functions to bring an end to communal mourning for the deceased of the past year; express intercultural tensions and polemics; allow for a display of manhood; distribute communal resources; and resist outside pressures to abandon Mappurondo ways of life.


title: Headhunting

text: United States authorities in the Philippines suppressed headhunting among the Ilongot in the 1930s. The Igorot in the Philippines also practiced headhunting.


title: Headhunting

text: The Wa people, whose domain straddles the Burma-China border, were once known to Europeans as the "Wild Wa" for their "savage" behavior. Until the 1970s, the Wa practiced headhunting.


title: Headhunting

text: In Sarawak, the north-western region of the island of Borneo, "White Rajah" James Brooke and his descendants established a dynasty. They eradicated headhunting in the hundred years before World War II. Before Brooke's arrival, the Iban had migrated from the middle Kapuas region into the upper Batang Lupar river region by fighting and displacing the small existing tribes, such as the Seru and Bukitan. Another successful migration by the Iban was from the Saribas region into the Kanowit area in the middle of the Batang Rajang river, led by the famous Mujah "Buah Raya". They fought and displaced such tribes as the Kanowit and Baketan.


title: Headhunting

text: Brooke first encountered the headhunting Iban of the Saribas-Skrang in Sarawak at the Battle of Betting Maru in 1849. He gained the signing of the Saribas Treaty with the Iban chief of that region, who was named Orang Kaya Pemancha Dana "Bayang". Subsequently, the Brooke dynasty expanded their territory from the first small Sarawak region to the present-day state of Sarawak. They enlisted the Malay, Iban, and other natives as a large unpaid force to defeat and pacify any rebellions in the states. The Brooke administration prohibited headhunting ("ngayau" in Iban language) and issued penalties for disobeying the Rajah-led government decree. During expeditions sanctioned by the Brooke administration, they allowed headhunting. The natives who participated in Brooke-approved punitive expeditions were exempted from paying annual tax to the Brooke administration and/or given new territories in return for their service. There were intra-tribal and intertribal headhunting.


title: Headhunting

text: The most famous Iban warrior to resist the authority of the Brooke administration was Libau "Rentap". The Brooke government had to send three successive punitive expeditions in order to defeat Rentapi at his fortress on the top of Sadok Hill. Brooke's force suffered major defeats during the first two expeditions. During the third and final expedition, Brooke built a large cannon called "Bujang Sadok" (Prince of Sadok Mount) to rival Rentap's cannon nicknamed "Bujang Timpang Berang" (The One Arm Bachelor) and made a truce with the sons of a famous chief, who supported Rentap in not recognizing the government of Brooke due to his policies.


title: Headhunting

text: The Iban performed a third major migration from upper Batang Ai region in the Batang Lupar region into the Batang Kanyau (Embaloh) onwards the upper Katibas and then to the Baleh/Mujong regions in the upper Batang Rajang region. They displaced the existing tribes of the Kayan, Kajang, Ukit, etc. The Brooke administration sanctioned the last migrations of the Iban, and reduced any conflict to a minimum. The Iban conducted sacred ritual ceremonies with special and complex incantations to invoke god's blessings, which were associated with headhunting. An example was the Bird Festival in the Saribas/Skrang region and Proper Festival in the Baleh region, both required for men of the tribes to become effective warriors.


title: Headhunting

text: During the Japanese occupation during the Second World War, headhunting was revived among the natives. The Sukarno-led Indonesian forces fought against the formation of the Federation of Malaysia. Forces of Malaya, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak fought in addition, and headhunting was observed during the communist insurgency in Sarawak and what was then Malaya. The Iban were noted for headhunting, and were later recognised as good rangers and trackers during military operations, during which they were awarded fourteen medals of valour and honour.


title: Headhunting

text: Since 1997 serious inter-ethnic violence has erupted on the island of Kalimantan, involving the indigenous Dayak peoples and immigrants from the island of Madura. Events have included the Sambas riots and Sampit conflict. In 2001, during the Sampit conflict in the Central Kalimantan town of Sampit, at least 500 Madurese were killed and up to 100,000 Madurese were forced to flee. Some Madurese bodies were decapitated in a ritual reminiscent of the Dayak headhunting tradition.


title: Headhunting

text: The Moluccans, an ethnic group of mixed Austronesian-Papuan origin living in the Moluccas, were fierce headhunters until the Dutch colonial rule in Indonesia suppressed the practice.


title: Headhunting

text: In what is now known as New Zealand, the Māori preserved the heads of some of their ancestors as well as certain enemies in a form known as "mokomokai." They removed the brain and eyes, and smoked the head, preserving the moko tattoos. The heads were sold to European collectors in the late 1800s, in some instances having been commissioned and "made to order". Currently the Māori are attempting to reclaim the heads of their own ancestors held in museums outside New Zealand. Twenty heads were returned to them by French authorities in January 2012, repatriated from museums.


title: Headhunting

text: During the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States period, Qin soldiers frequently collected their defeated enemies' heads as a means to accumulate merits. After Shang Yang's reforms, the Qin armies adopted a meritocracy system that awards the average soldiers, most of whom were conscripted serfs and were not paid, an opportunity to earn promotions and rewards from their superiors by collecting the heads of enemies, a type of body count. In this area, authorities also displayed heads of executed criminals in public spaces up to the early 20th century.


title: Headhunting

text: Samurai also sought glory by headhunting. When a battle ended, the warrior, true to his mercenary origins, would ceremoniously present trophy heads to a general, who would variously reward him with promotions in rank, gold or silver, or land from the defeated clan. Generals displayed the heads of defeated rivals in public squares.


title: Headhunting

text: Headhunting was a common practice among Taiwanese aborigines. All tribes practiced headhunting except the Yami people, who were previously isolated on Orchid Island, and the Ivatan people. It was associated with the peoples of the Philippines.


title: Headhunting

text: Taiwanese Plains Aborigines, Han Taiwanese and Japanese settlers were choice victims of headhunting raids by Taiwanese Mountain Aborigines. The latter two groups were considered invaders, liars, and enemies. A headhunting raid would often strike at workers in the fields, or set a dwelling on fire and then kill and behead those who fled from the burning structure. The practice continued during the Japanese occupation of Taiwan, but ended in the 1930s due to brutal suppression by the Japanese colonial government.


title: Headhunting

text: The Taiwanese Aboriginal tribes, who were allied with the Dutch against the Chinese during the Guo Huaiyi Rebellion in 1652, turned against the Dutch in turn during the Siege of Fort Zeelandia. They defected to Koxinga's Chinese forces. The Aboriginals (Formosans) of Sincan defected to Koxinga after he offered them amnesty. The Sincan Aboriginals fought for the Chinese and beheaded Dutch people in executions. The frontier aboriginals in the mountains and plains also surrendered and defected to the Chinese on May 17, 1661, celebrating their freedom from compulsory education under Dutch rule. They hunted down Dutch people, beheading them and trashing their Christian school textbooks.


title: Headhunting

text: At the Battle of Tamsui in the Keelung Campaign during the Sino-French War on 8 October 1884, the Chinese took prisoners and beheaded 11 French marines who were injured, in addition to "La Galissonnière's" captain Fontaine. The heads were mounted on bamboo poles and displayed to incite anti-French feelings. In China, pictures of the beheading of the Frenchmen were published in the "Tien-shih-tsai Pictorial Journal" in Shanghai.


title: Headhunting

text: Han and Taiwanese Aboriginals revolted against the Japanese in the Beipu Uprising in 1907 and Tapani Incident in 1915. The Seediq aboriginals revolted against the Japanese in the 1930 Wushe Incident and resurrected the practice of headhunting, beheading Japanese during the revolt.


title: Headhunting

text: Headhunting has been a practice among the Khasis, Kukis, the Wild Wa, Mizo, the Garo and the Naga ethnic groups of India, Bangladesh and Myanmar till the 19th century. Kafirs in eastern Afghanistan were headhunters until the late 19th century.


title: Headhunting

text: Several tribes of the Jivaroan group, including the Shuar in Eastern Ecuador and Northern Peru, along the rivers Chinchipe, Bobonaza, Morona, Upano, and Pastaza, main tributaries of the Amazon, practiced headhunting for trophies. The heads were shrunk, and were known locally as "Tzan-Tzas". The people believed that the head housed the soul of the person killed.


title: Headhunting

text: In the 21st century, the Shuar produce Tzan-tza replicas. They use their traditional process on heads of monkeys and sloths, selling the items to tourists. It is believed that splinter groups in the local tribes continue with these practices when there is a tribal feud over territory or as revenge for a crime of passion.


title: Headhunting

text: A "tzompantli" is a type of wooden rack or palisade documented in several Mesoamerican civilizations. It was used for the public display of human skulls, typically those of war captives or other sacrificial victims.


title: Headhunting

text: A tzompantli-type structure has been excavated at the La Coyotera, Oaxaca, site. It is dated to the Proto-Classic Zapotec civilization, which flourished from c. 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. "Tzompantli" are also noted in other Mesoamerican pre-Columbian cultures, such as the Toltec and Mixtec.


title: Headhunting

text: Based on numbers given by the conquistador Andrés de Tapia and Fray Diego Durán, Bernard Ortiz de Montellano has calculated in the late 20th century that there were at most 60,000 skulls on the "Hueyi Tzompantli" (great Skullrack) of Tenochtitlan. There were at least five more skullracks in Tenochtitlan, but, by all accounts, they were much smaller.


title: Headhunting

text: Other examples are indicated from Maya civilization sites. A particularly fine and intact inscription example survives at the extensive Chichen Itza site.


title: Headhunting

text: The Nazca used decapitated heads, known as trophy heads, in various religious rituals. Late Nazca iconography suggests that the prestige of the leaders of Late Nazca society was enhanced by successful headhunting.


title: Headhunting

text: The Celts of Europe practiced headhunting as the head was believed to house a person's soul. Ancient Romans and Greeks recorded the Celts' habits of nailing heads of personal enemies to walls or dangling them from the necks of horses. Headhunting was still practiced for a great deal longer by the Celtic Gaels. In the "Ulster Cycle," Cúchulainn is described as beheading the three sons of Nechtan and mounting their heads on his chariot. This is believed to have been a traditional warrior, rather than religious, practice. The practice continued approximately to the end of the Middle Ages in Ireland and the Anglo-Scottish marches. The religious reasons for collecting heads were likely lost after the Celts' conversion to Christianity.


title: Headhunting

text: In former Celtic areas, cephalophore representations of saints (miraculously carrying their decapitated heads) were common.


title: Headhunting

text: The Scythians were excellent horsemen. Ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that some of their tribes practiced human sacrifice, drinking the blood of victims, scalping their enemies, and drinking wine from the enemies' skulls.


title: Headhunting

text: The Montenegrins are an ethnic group in Southeastern Europe who are centered around the Dinaric mountains. They practiced headhunting until 1876, allegedly carrying the head from a lock of hair grown specifically for that purpose.


title: Headhunting

text: In the 1830s, Montenegrin ruler Petar II Petrović-Njegoš started building a tower called ""Tablja"" above Cetinje Monastery. The tower was never finished, and Montenegrins used it to display Turkish heads taken in battle, as they were in frequent conflict with the Ottoman Empire. In 1876 King Nicholas I of Montenegro ordered that the practice should end. He knew that European diplomats considered it to be barbaric. The "Tablja" was demolished in 1937.


title: Headhunting

text: Many Chinese soldiers and civilians were beheaded by some Japanese soldiers, who even made contests to see who would kill more people (see contest to kill 100 people using a sword), and took photos with the piles of heads as souvenirs.


title: Headhunting

text: During World War II, Allied (specifically including American) troops occasionally collected the skulls of dead Japanese as personal trophies, as souvenirs for friends and family at home, and for sale to others. (The practice was unique to the Pacific theater; United States forces did not take skulls of German and Italian soldiers.) In September 1942, the Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet mandated strong disciplinary action against any soldier who took enemy body parts as souvenirs. But such trophy-hunting persisted: "Life" published a photograph in its issue of May 22, 1944, of a young woman posing with the autographed skull sent to her by her Navy boyfriend. There was public outrage in the US in response.


title: Headhunting

text: Historians have suggested that the practice related to Americans viewing the Japanese as lesser people, and in response to mutilation and torture of American war dead. In Borneo, retaliation by natives against the Japanese was based on atrocities having been committed by the Imperial Japanese Army in that area. Following their ill treatment by the Japanese, the Dayak of Borneo formed a force to help the Allies. Australian and British special operatives of Z Special Unit developed some of the inland Dayak tribesmen into a thousand-strong headhunting army. This army of tribesmen killed or captured some 1,500 Japanese soldiers.


title: Headhunting

text: During the Malayan Emergency, British and Commonwealth forces hired Iban (Dayak) headhunters from Borneo to decapitate suspected MNLA members, arguing that this was done so for identification purposes. Iban headhunters were also permitted by British military leaders to take the scalps of corpses to be kept as trophies. However in practice this led to British troops taking the decapitated heads of Malayan people as trophies. After the practice of headhunting in Malaya by Ibans had been exposed to the public, the Foreign Office first tried to deny that the practice existed, before then trying to justify Iban headhunting and conduct damage control in the press. Privately, the Colonial Office noted that "there is no doubt that under international law a similar case in wartime would be a war crime". One of the trophy heads was later found to have been displayed in a British regimental museum.


title: Headhunting

text: In 1952, April, the British communist newspaper the "Daily Worker" (today known as the "Morning Star") published a photograph of British Royal Marines in a British military base in Malaya openly posing with decapitated human heads. Initially British government spokespersons belonging to the Admiralty and the Colonial Office claimed the photograph was fake. In response to the accusations that their headhunting photograph was fake, the "Daily Worker" released yet another photograph taken in Malaya showing British soldiers posing with a decapitated head. However, Colonial Secretary Oliver Lyttelton (after confirmation from Gerald Templer) confirmed to parliament that the photos were indeed genuine. In response to the "Daily Worker" articles exposing the decapitation of MNLA suspects, the practice was banned by Winston Churchill who feared that such photographs would give ammunition to communist propaganda.


title: Headhunting

text: Despite the shocking imagery of the photographs of soldiers posing with decapitated heads in Malaya, the "Daily Worker" was the only newspaper to publish them and the photographs were virtually ignored by the mainstream British press.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: The Ford Focus (third generation), also known as the Focus Mk III, (Code name: C346) debuted at the 2010 North American International Auto Show as a 2012 model. The cars shown were a 4-door sedan and 5-door hatchback, also debuting a new 2.0-litre direct injection I4 engine. A 5-door estate (wagon) was previewed at the Geneva auto show a month later.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: This generation of Focus would be the first Ford vehicle designed under the tenure of CEO Alan Mulally and his "One Ford" plan, which aimed to leverage Ford's global resources into creating more competitive vehicles that could be sold globally in each segment with minimal changes.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: The "One Ford" plan would reunite the North American and global Focus line. The previous North American version was thus discontinued, and the new model was launched simultaneously in North America and Europe on March 2, 2011, both having started production near the end of 2010. Production in Asia, Africa, and South America followed later.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: Ford debuted the all-electric Ford Focus Electric at the Consumer Electronics Show in 2011 to compete with the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt and announced the hot hatch ST model at the Paris Motor Show in September 2010.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: The third generation Focus originally was intended to spawn a compact sedan that was to be sold by the Mercury division, following Ford confirming its 2012 lineups with its dealers. While not officially confirmed by Ford, two Mercury dealers stated that the car would be sold as the Mercury Tracer. It would've given Mercury two sedans again following the discontinuation of the Grand Marquis after the 2011 model year, and would've slotted below the larger Milan. It was to go on sale in 2011 for the 2012 model year. The plans for the new Tracer, however, were scrapped after Ford announced the closure of the Mercury division in the summer of 2010.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: The design was built on Ford's Kinetic Design. The lights at the front have a different shape. The trapezoidal grille has triangular features. At the rear, the hatchback tail lights are positioned lower, similar to the Ford Fiesta. The interior has been changed from the second generation in the NA and International versions. Ford wanted to make the Focus more upmarket so it offers two types of central consoles: the basic is associated with smaller engines and the premium is available to more powerful engines.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: This generation of Focus incorporated a redesigned cabin, changed materials, and a new "infotainment" system. Following the industry trend towards contending, and in keeping with the sedan's downmarket "economy car" image vs. the "premium" hatchback, the earlier sedan's space-saving gas strut trunk hinges are replaced with cheaper, intrusive gooseneck hinges. The Focus also has Ford's patented capless fuel tank, which doesn't require a cap to prevent siphoning.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: In designing the Ford Focus, a group of young designers used what's called the Third Age Suit in order to simulate the physical limitations of an elderly person. The suit, which restricts the wearer's movements, allowed for insights that were implemented into the car's design.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: The Focus is being promoted as a global car, built in several different factories around the world, with changes to engine line-ups and trim levels to suit regional markets and regulations. Production locations include:


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: Along with the Ford Fiesta, the Focus equipped with the Ford "DPS6 PowerShift" transmission has received much criticism due to transmission shuddering, including several lemon law claims. The issue is due to the dry type clutches associated with gasoline models. Ford's current response is to replace the clutch pack assembly (with updated parts) when shuddering exceeds 250 rpm (upon customer complaint).


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: There have been at least 6 revisions of clutch packs and transmission control modules since inception. Newer clutch packs and transmissions are more resistant to wear and fluid contamination, as the source of many shudder issues involved an improperly installed seal which was leaking transmission fluid onto the dry clutches. Ford also claims there are "Changes to the clutch material for better performance across temperature ranges (new for 2016)." Some consumer complaints are due to the normal operating characteristics of the transmission, because the DPS6 does not contain a torque converter fluid coupling and does not behave similarly to traditional torque converter transmissions, instead sharing some characteristics found in traditional manual transmissions.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: Like in most other non-European markets, only the 4-door sedan and 5-door hatchback are offered in the United States and Canada. The EPA rated fuel economy at 28 city/38 hwy MPG for the 6-speed automatic, and 26 city/ 36 hwy MPG for the 5-speed manual. The SFE package, which can only be added to the sedan SE trim with "PowerShift" automatic dual-clutch transmission, improves highway fuel economy to 40 MPG. The platform that the new Focus is based on is 25% stronger than the previous North American version.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: The Focus was launched with only one engine option, a 2.0-litre Duratec 20 direct injected, Ti-VCT 4-cylinder, producing . Mid-2012, Flex Fuel capability was added, except for states in the United States that adhere to partial zero-emissions vehicle regulations. The engine is a derivative of the port fuel-injected 2.0-liter engine in the previous generation Focus. In late 2012, the range was joined by the Focus ST, with a turbocharged 2.0-litre producing (available only with a manual transmission).


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: For the 2015 refresh, the EcoBoost 1.0-litre three-cylinder began to be offered in North America as an extra-cost option for SE trim level. The 2016 model added 2.3-litre EcoBoost for the new RS trim level.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: Color choices were restricted during summer 2011, due to supply issues caused by the 2011 Japanese earthquake/tsunami. When black and dark blue returned they were replaced by different shades, although the phaseout of Kona Blue in favor of Sonic Blue had been planned.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: In 2012, the formerly automatic-only Titanium model was offered with a manual transmission. In March 2012, Ford revised the ordering guide for the Titanium models to also have a MyFord Touch delete option, replacing it with the non-touch version of MyFord. Although MyFord Touch is a $995 option on SEL models and the "PowerShift" automatic a $1095 option on S and SE, no discount is applied to either manual or non-Touch Titanium models.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: 2013 model year changes for non-STs are; SE models gain standard SYNC and alloy wheels, the SEL trim is discontinued in favor of an "SE Appearance package" that includes most of the SEL features but with standard trim choices limited to black leather, while Titanium models also pick up standard leather upholstery and lost the auto-dimming rearview mirror and rain-sensing windshield wipers. All now come standard with the 5-speed manual leaving the SFE pack as the last remaining automatic-only Focus (apart from the direct-drive electric), and color choices are rearranged.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: Along with the Ford Fiesta, the Focus equipped with the Ford "PowerShift" transmission has received much criticism due to transmission shuddering, including several lemon law claims. The issue is due to the dry type clutches associated with petrol models. Ford's current response is to replace the clutch pack assembly (with updated parts) when shuddering exceeds 250 rpm (upon customer complaint).


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: Ford claims that the transmission, a dual-clutch automatic transmission, is designed to improve fuel economy and has issued several software upgrades for the transmission. To date, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has not required Ford to issue a recall, nor has Ford done so voluntarily. Focus models equipped with the conventional manual transmission have not been affected by the reliability issues.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: A significant amount of the new models of the first year experiences problems with rust underneath the front bonnet, partly due to issues with the seam sealer used between the structural part of the bonnet and the skin, which allowed water to seep in and create corrosion (similarly to other Ford models of the period). Other issues included rust developing on the trunk lid of the hatchback model due to vibrations of a plastic insert creating friction and wearing out the paint on the metal skin of the lid. Later models included a relocated park brake lever, redesigned adjustable front head rest and a redesigned accessory 12v plug that is more ergonomic.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: The UK range is available in hatchback and estate (wagon) in a large number of trim variants including. Most other European countries, including the Republic of Ireland, also include the four-door saloon, unlike Britain, as previous generation sales did not sell as well in comparison with the hatchback and estate.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: In 2017, Ford recalled Ford Focus with 1.6 EcoBoost engines because of a risk of engine fires caused by a “lack of coolant circulation”. There were 29 fires related to the engine in the U.S. and Canada reported to Ford. The recall partly contributed to a charge of US$300 million by Ford.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: Announced in 2010, the Australian Focus was set for arrival in August 2011. Going on sale would be a hatch and a sedan, in 4 trim levels and 3 powertrains. The Focus range starts with the base Ambiente, Trend, mid-range Sport, and top-of-the-line Titanium. Powering the Ford Focus are 2 petrol, a 1.6 petrol with 92 kW and 159 Nm, a 2.0 petrol with 118 kW and 198 Nm, and one diesel, a 2.0 turbo diesel with 120 kW and 340 Nm. Ambiente coming with the 1.6, and the Trend, Sport and Titanium standard with the 2.0 petrol, with the 2.0 diesel available as an option. Power was sent through a 5 speed manual on all models except the Titanium, and a 6-speed dual-clutch "PowerShift" automatic transmission is standard on the Titanium and optional on all others (standard with diesel).


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: In March 2012, the Focus was launched to the ASEAN markets at the Bangkok International Motor Show. The Thailand range included: 1.6 Ambiente, 1.6 Trend, 2.0 Sport 5-door, 2.0 Titanium sedan, 2.0 Sport+ 5-door and 2.0 Titanium+ sedan trim levels, while in Malaysia, it is offered in both sedan and hatchback body-styles. Two trim are available for both body-style, the sedan got Titanium and Titanium+ trim while the hatchback got Sport and Sport+ trim.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: In Taiwan, Assembly started by the end of 2012. 2 petrol engines (1.6L Ti-VCT 125 PS and 2.0L GDI 170 PS) and 1 diesel engine (2.0L TDCi 163 PS) available, all come with "PowerShift" transmission as the manual transmission model was unavailable. 8 trim levels:


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: In the Korean market, 2.0L TDCi Duratorq Diesel is the only available engine (available in 140 hp and 163 hp configuration), and all come with the "PowerShift" transmission as the manual transmission model was unavailable. 3 Trim Levels: Trend (140 hp), Sport (163 hp), Titanium (163 hp), all available in both hatchback and sedan body style.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: In Japan, the 2.0L Ti-VCT GDI Sport five door hatchback with either the five speed, dual clutch manual transmission, or the six speed "Power Shift" automatic transmission was the only model currently offered. The assembly changed from the Saarlouis Body & Assembly to the AutoAlliance Thailand facility. Its width dimensions at are not within the favorable Japanese compact car tax classification.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: The Focus in its most basic Latin American configuration received 5 stars for adult occupants and 4 stars for toddlers from Latin NCAP in 2013.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: The Ford Focus mid-cycle facelift (Mk 3.5) was shown at the 2014 Geneva Motor Show, and features a raft of changes made to both the exterior, interior and engine line up.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: Revisions made to the body were thinner and sharper headlights, a new trapezoidal grille, giving the front more sporting intent than the previous model. The new front end is similar to that of the 2014 Mondeo as well as the facelifted 2013 Fiesta, while also inspired by the 2011 Ford Evos concept as well as various Aston Martin vehicles. (Ford owns an 8% interest in Aston Martin.) The 2015 facelifted Ford C-Max and Grand C-Max, the 2015 S-Max and Galaxy, have also incorporated the new family face. On Titanium and Titanium X the grille is chrome, and on other versions, it is black mesh. The ST features a Black honeycomb grille. The front fog-lights were also changed. At the rear on the hatchback, the rear lights were changed, so that they appear sharper, and less clumsy. The estate and saloon, (saloon is not available in Britain), also had subtle revisions to their rears too.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: For the 2015 model year the Focus range was offered with a 1.5-litre turbocharged four-cylinder "EcoBoost" powerplant available in outputs in place of the current older 1.6-litre and 2.0-litre offerings. Another new feature is the 2016 Ford Focus RS's "Drift Mode", which allows the driver to more easily and safely drift the car.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: Inside, the multitude of buttons on the dashboard was removed and replaced by an all-new eight-inch touchscreen. The quality of plastics improved, and the steering wheel was changed to a three-spoke. Trim levels in the UK consist of Studio, Style (instead of Edge due to the Ford Mondeo based SUV), Zetec, Zetec S (including special Red and Black editions) - later replaced in 2016 by Zetec Edition, ST-Line (and later ST-Line X), Titanium, Titanium X and ST. Trim levels in Europe are similar to the pre-facelift model including Ambiente, Trend, Trend +, Titanium, and ST. The new 1.5 TDCi Duratorq diesel (95 and 120 hp) and 1.5 EcoBoost (150 and 180 hp) has been added to the line-up. The 2.0 TDCi Duratorq diesel has been updated to produce 150 and 185 hp.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: The new third-generation RS model went on sale in 2016, with pricing from around £31,000 and the new 2.3 EcoBoost from the Ford Mustang, but updated to produce 350 hp. It was revealed in the production variant at the 2015 Geneva Motor Show and featured at the 2015 Goodwood Festival of Speed.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: Mechanical improvements to the facelifted Ford Focus are chassis revisions to all versions, to make the car more planted on the road, and the steering is also sharper than the pre-facelift model, while also offering greater feedback for greater driving pleasure and fun, which has been the trademark of the Focus since it launched back in 1998.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: This engine - an updated version of the same engine from the previous model, allowing it to breathe better with improved intake and exhaust manifolds. The improvements also mean that the engine has been updated to EU5 norms (from 2015 - EU6 norms). From 2014, the 1.6 Ti-VCT was available in three versions: , , but in some European markets also as with factory LPG (i.e.: German market - as 1.6 LPG Bivalenten Autogasmotor/ English: BiFuel LPG Engine). It was discontinued in 2016.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: This all-new engine replaces the 1.6-litre EcoBoost with the same power, but with an improved economy. The engine comes equipped with either Ford-Getrag's Durashift B6 manual gearbox or with a new Torque Converter automatic (6F35) available on the Focus for the first time. In the Focus it is available with and of torque, the only engine on offer in the Australian Trend, Sport and Titanium models.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: Exclusive to the ST range, this engine continues to produce , and is available only with the 6-speed manual, producing of torque.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: This all-new engine is already used in the new-generation Ford Mustang and used by the third-generation Focus RS since 2016 with an output of .


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: Just like the petrol Duratec, this diesel engine was upgraded for emissions and economy for the third-generation Focus. It produced and in the basic version and and of torque in the more potent version. For the Focus Econetic model, the engine produced . The engine as of 2016 has been replaced by the 1.5-litre TDCi engine.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: An all-new engine as of 2014, replaces the older 1.6-litre Duratorq diesel (despite running side-by-side for a few years) from 2016, and comes in three variants: with of torque, and with of torque. An Econetic option is also available, with , but tuned for economy rather than performance.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: The top of the range diesel engine is highly revised and updated and available with Ford "PowerShift" transmission, and the 6-speed manual. It now comes in two new versions, with of torque and with of torque, the latter also available in the ST.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: The second generation Focus ECOnetic for 2011 includes new technologies as Auto-Start-Stop system, Smart Regenerative Charging, Eco mode, Active Grille Shutter, ultra-low rolling resistance tyres, Shift Indicator Light and revised final drive ratio targeting 95g/km average CO emissions and 80mpg. Third generation Focus ECOnetic will have improved Ford's Duratorq 1.6-litre 105 hp engine with standard coated Diesel particulate filter (cDPF).


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: In January 2011 Ford launched its pre-production version based on the Focus Mark III under the new name of Ford Focus Electric at the Consumer Electronics Show, rather than the traditional North American Auto Show. with sales scheduled in the U.S. market by late 2011 and in Europe by 2013. The concept electric car was unveiled at the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show as the Ford Focus BEV. The Focus BEV was based on the European second generation Focus.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: For the Focus Electric, Ford used a complete electric drive train developed and supplied by Magna Steyr, and uses a 23 kWh, liquid-cooled lithium-ion battery pack, has a range of on a charge, and a top speed of .


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: The Focus Electric was built at the Michigan Assembly Plant in Wayne, Michigan on the same line as the gasoline-powered version of the Focus, the C-Max Energi plug-in hybrid and the C-Max Hybrid. Initial production will be limited, with production to be ramped up in 2012.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: Sales of the Ford Focus Electric were slated for late 2011, and it was available initially only in 19 metropolitan areas including Atlanta, Houston and Austin, Texas, Boston, Chicago, Denver, Detroit, Los Angeles, San Francisco, San Diego, New York City, Orlando, Florida, Phoenix and Tucson, Arizona, Portland, Oregon, Raleigh-Durham, Richmond, Virginia, Seattle, and Washington, D.C.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: The Ford Focus Electric was awarded the 2011 Green Car Vision Award at the 2011 Washington Auto Show.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: For 2017 and 2018 the Ford Focus Electric came standard in North America and Europe with DC fast charging utilizing a CCS instead of a standard J plug. As well as a larger 33.5KWh battery


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: Ford ended European series production of the full-electric version of its Focus by April 2017.North American Ford Focus production ended in May 2018 effectively ending full-electric production with it.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: As of 2021, Ford has confirmed plans for an all new Focus EV as it moves toward full electrification.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: Beginning Summer 2012 (UK)/late 2012 in the US, Ford offered a new performance-oriented hot hatch Focus ST, as first revealed at the 2010 Paris Motor Show and then at the 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show when more details were announced, including the availability of an estate(wagon) version for European markets, and the possibility of a sports sedan version for North American markets.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: The ST features a new, more aggressive exterior design, including a redesigned front bumper with larger air intakes and grille, larger rear wing, wider side sills, center-exit exhaust, and alloy wheels. Inside, the car receives a trio of additional gauges mounted in the dashboard, faux-carbon fiber trim, and sport seats with body-colored inserts and stitching. The car will be offered three trim options: ST1, ST2, and ST3; the same three options that were available with the MkII ST.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: The ST will use a & version of the 4-cylinder 2.0L EcoBoost engine, a gain of 25 hp above the previous Focus ST which used a larger 2.5L 5-cylinder engine. It is resultantly estimated that the ST will reach in 6.1 seconds, while its top speed will be . Compared to the previous ST, the new model has the same 0 to 100 km/h time and has a 2 mph higher top speed. Another significant improvement is weight; the new car is lighter than its 5-cylinder powered predecessor.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: The ST was featured in the 2012 film "The Sweeney", a remake of the 1970s TV series of the same name. Ford gave six ST-badged Focuses to the production team.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: For the 2015 model year, the ST continued to use the 2.0L EcoBoost with a 6-speed manual gearbox in ST1, ST2 and ST3 trims for the European and US markets, and the single ST trim in the Australian market. Updates were made to the front and rear fascias to coincide with the changes implemented in the standard Focus, including the lights, grille, and rear diffuser. The availability of 5-door hatchback and estate (wagon) body styles remained unchanged. For the European markets, a 2.0L TDCi Duratorq Diesel engine was available for the ST with a 6-speed "PowerShift" automatic gearbox to rival the likes of the Volkswagen Golf GTD and the SEAT León FR. The 2.0L Duratorq's rated output is , and of torque in the ST. Pricing and badging is the same for petrol and diesel models.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: Following the merger of Ford's North American Special Vehicle Team (SVT), the European TeamRS and the Australian FPV divisions to the development of Ford's global performance vehicles, Ford's Advanced Product Creation and Performance Vehicles director Hermann Salenbauch said that the decision to sell Ford Focus RS/SVT to North America depended on feedback from the media and customers. However, the product would only appear 2 years after the release of the third generation Focus models. On August 4, 2011 Ford's global boss for small cars, Gunnar Herrmann, revealed to magazine "Drive" that the third iteration of the hot-hatch was in the works. The new RS was expected to arrive towards the end of 2015 in Europe and the rest of the world; in North America it will arrive after 2015. On January 21, 2015, Ford released a teaser video previewing the 2015 Ford Focus RS and on February 3, hosted a web-streaming reveal event from Cologne, Germany.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: At the 2015 Geneva Motor Show the production-ready MKIII Ford Focus RS was unveiled packing the turbocharged EcoBoost engine found in the Mustang with over . In the Focus RS, the engine itself produces at 6000 rpm and at 3200 rpm of torque. Power is sent to all four wheels via Ford's all-new Torque-Vectoring All-Wheel-Drive system with a rear-drive unit designed by GKN, as well as upgraded suspension and brakes. As well as that, the new Focus RS will be fitted with Drive Modes – including an industry-first Drift Mode that allows controlled oversteer drifts – and Launch Control. The RS will boast a model-specific aerodynamic package that helps to differentiate it from other Focus models. The RS is capable of accelerating to in 4.7 seconds. 2018 marked the final model year for the Ford Focus RS. Ford Performance released Final Edition vehicles with a new Quaife mechanical limited-slip differential. However, there were no upgrades to the power and torque figures from previous model years. The 2018 Focus RS was only available in 2 colors, Race Red and Nitrous Blue. Gloss black roof, spoiler, and mirror caps were added to differentiate the Final Edition. Only 1,000 2018 Ford Focus RS were available for U.S drivers and 500 for Canada. As a final tribute to the RS, the UK only Heritage Edition was revealed to celebrate the strong bond between the UK market and Ford's performance vehicles. Finished in a unique Deep Orange color, and fitted from the factory with the Mountune FPM 375 package boosting power from to and fitted with the Quaife LSD, only 50 were made and cost £7k more than the standard UK Focus RS.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: The Ford Focus was promoted in The Amazing Race, a reality show featuring 11 teams racing around the world. The Focus was used in a few seasons as the mode of transportation for the racers. In the 18th installment, the 2012 Ford Focus was also used as a prize for the first team that completes a leg of the race.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: Chip Ganassi Racing with Felix Sabates entered a Ford Focus in the IMSA Continental Tire SportsCar Challenge Street Tuner class in 2014.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: Hoonigan Racing Division fields two Ford Focus RS rallycross cars in the 2016 FIA World Rallycross Championship, with drivers Andreas Bakkerud and Ken Block.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: A 2017 Focus RS appeared in Season 4, Episode 2 (A Massive Hunt) of the Amazon Prime Video original show The Grand Tour. It was driven by Richard Hammond, who modified the car by removing the wheels and putting on caterpillar tracks. He also repainted the car from blue to black.


title: Ford Focus (third generation)

text: On May 4, 2018, the final 2018 Ford Focus was assembled at Ford Motor Company's Michigan Assembly Plant in Wayne, Michigan. The Michigan Assembly Plant will continue to produce the all-new 2019 Ford Ranger for North America. A crossover named the Ford Focus Active was planned to be imported from China. It was planned to be sold in North America for the 2020 model year. In August 2018, Ford canceled its plans to import the Chinese-built Focus Active to North America, citing tariff concerns.


title: Free trade

text: Free trade is a trade policy that does not restrict imports or exports. It can also be understood as the free market idea applied to international trade. In government, free trade is predominantly advocated by political parties that hold economically liberal positions, while economic nationalist and left-wing political parties generally support protectionism, the opposite of free trade.


title: Free trade

text: Most nations are today members of the World Trade Organization multilateral trade agreements. Free trade was best exemplified by the unilateral stance of Great Britain who reduced regulations and duties on imports and exports from the mid-nineteenth century to the 1920s. An alternative approach, of creating free trade areas between groups of countries by agreement, such as that of the European Economic Area and the Mercosur open markets, creates a protectionist barrier between that free trade area and the rest of the world. Most governments still impose some protectionist policies that are intended to support local employment, such as applying tariffs to imports or subsidies to exports. Governments may also restrict free trade to limit exports of natural resources. Other barriers that may hinder trade include import quotas, taxes and non-tariff barriers, such as regulatory legislation.


title: Free trade

text: Historically, openness to free trade substantially increased from 1815 to the outbreak of World War I. Trade openness increased again during the 1920s, but collapsed (in particular in Europe and North America) during the Great Depression. Trade openness increased substantially again from the 1950s onwards (albeit with a slowdown during the 1973 oil crisis). Economists and economic historians contend that current levels of trade openness are the highest they have ever been.


title: Free trade

text: Economists are generally supportive of free trade. There is a broad consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare while free trade and the reduction of trade barriers has a positive effect on economic growth and economic stability. However, in the short run, liberalization of trade can cause significant and unequally distributed losses and the economic dislocation of workers in import-competing sectors.


title: Free trade

text: Two simple ways to understand the proposed benefits of free trade are through David Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage and by analyzing the impact of a tariff or import quota. An economic analysis using the law of supply and demand and the economic effects of a tax can be used to show the theoretical benefits and disadvantages of free trade.


title: Free trade

text: Most economists would recommend that even developing nations should set their tariff rates quite low, but the economist Ha-Joon Chang, a proponent of industrial policy, believes higher levels may be justified in developing nations because the productivity gap between them and developed nations today is much higher than what developed nations faced when they were at a similar level of technological development. Underdeveloped nations today, Chang believes, are weak players in a much more competitive system. Counterarguments to Chang's point of view are that the developing countries are able to adopt technologies from abroad whereas developed nations had to create new technologies themselves and that developing countries can sell to export markets far richer than any that existed in the 19th century.


title: Free trade

text: If the chief justification for a tariff is to stimulate infant industries, it must be high enough to allow domestic manufactured goods to compete with imported goods in order to be successful. This theory, known as import substitution industrialization, is largely considered ineffective for currently developing nations.


title: Free trade

text: The chart at the right analyzes the effect of the imposition of an import tariff on some imaginary good. Prior to the tariff, the price of the good in the world market and hence in the domestic market is P. The tariff increases the domestic price to P. The higher price causes domestic production to increase from Q to Q and causes domestic consumption to decline from Q to Q.


title: Free trade

text: This has three effects on societal welfare. Consumers are made worse off because the consumer surplus (green region) becomes smaller. Producers are better off because the producer surplus (yellow region) is made larger. The government also has additional tax revenue (blue region). However, the loss to consumers is greater than the gains by producers and the government. The magnitude of this societal loss is shown by the two pink triangles. Removing the tariff and having free trade would be a net gain for society.


title: Free trade

text: An almost identical analysis of this tariff from the perspective of a net producing country yields parallel results. From that country's perspective, the tariff leaves producers worse off and consumers better off, but the net loss to producers is larger than the benefit to consumers (there is no tax revenue in this case because the country being analyzed is not collecting the tariff). Under similar analysis, export tariffs, import quotas and export quotas all yield nearly identical results.


title: Free trade

text: Sometimes consumers are better off and producers worse off and sometimes consumers are worse off and producers are better off, but the imposition of trade restrictions causes a net loss to society because the losses from trade restrictions are larger than the gains from trade restrictions. Free trade creates winners and losers, but theory and empirical evidence show that the gains from free trade are larger than the losses.


title: Free trade

text: A 2021 study found that across 151 countries over the period 1963–2014, "tariff increases are associated with persistent, economically and statistically significant declines in domestic output and productivity, as well as higher unemployment and inequality, real exchange rate appreciation, and insignificant changes to the trade balance."


title: Free trade

text: According to mainstream economics theory, the selective application of free trade agreements to some countries and tariffs on others can lead to economic inefficiency through the process of trade diversion. It is efficient for a good to be produced by the country which is the lowest cost producer, but this does not always take place if a high cost producer has a free trade agreement while the low cost producer faces a high tariff. Applying free trade to the high cost producer and not the low cost producer as well can lead to trade diversion and a net economic loss. This reason is why many economists place such high importance on negotiations for global tariff reductions, such as the Doha Round.


title: Free trade

text: The literature analysing the economics of free trade is rich. Economists have done extensive work on the theoretical and empirical effects of free trade. Although it creates winners and losers, the broad consensus among economists is that free trade provides a net gain for society. In a 2006 survey of American economists (83 responders), "87.5% agree that the U.S. should eliminate remaining tariffs and other barriers to trade" and "90.1% disagree with the suggestion that the U.S. should restrict employers from outsourcing work to foreign countries".


title: Free trade

text: Quoting Harvard economics professor N. Gregory Mankiw, "[f]ew propositions command as much consensus among professional economists as that open world trade increases economic growth and raises living standards". In a survey of leading economists, none disagreed with the notion that "freer trade improves productive efficiency and offers consumers better choices, and in the long run these gains are much larger than any effects on employment".


title: Free trade

text: Most economists would agree that although increasing returns to scale might mean that a certain industry could settle in a particular geographical area without any strong economic reason derived from comparative advantage, this is not a reason to argue against free trade because the absolute level of output enjoyed by both winner and loser will increase, with the winner gaining more than the loser, but both gaining more than before in an absolute level.


title: Free trade

text: An overwhelming number of people internationally – both in developed and developing countries – support trade with other countries, but are more split when it comes to whether or not they believe trade creates jobs, increases wages, and decreases prices. The median belief in advanced economies is that trade increase increases wages, with 31 percent of people believing they do, compared to 27 percent who they decrease wages. In emerging economies, 47 percent of people believe trade increases wages, compared to 20 percent who says it lowers wages. There is a positive relationship of 0.66 between the average GDP growth rate for the years 2014 to 2017 and the percentage of people in a given country that says trade increases wages. Most people, in both advanced and emerging economies, believe that trade increases prices. 35 percent of people in advanced economies and 56 percent in emerging economies believe trade increases prices, and 29 percent and 18 percent, respectively, believe that trade lowers prices. Those with a higher level of education are more likely than those with less education to believe that trade lowers prices.


title: Free trade

text: The notion of a free trade system encompassing multiple sovereign states originated in a rudimentary form in 16th century Imperial Spain. American jurist Arthur Nussbaum noted that Spanish theologian Francisco de Vitoria was "the first to set forth the notions (though not the terms) of freedom of commerce and freedom of the seas". Vitoria made the case under principles of "jus gentium". However, it was two early British economists Adam Smith and David Ricardo who later developed the idea of free trade into its modern and recognizable form.


title: Free trade

text: Economists who advocated free trade believed trade was the reason why certain civilizations prospered economically. For example, Smith pointed to increased trading as being the reason for the flourishing of not just Mediterranean cultures such as Egypt, Greece and Rome, but also of Bengal (East India) and China. Netherlands prospered greatly after throwing off Spanish Imperial rule and pursuing a policy of free trade. This made the free trade/mercantilist dispute the most important question in economics for centuries. Free trade policies have battled with mercantilist, protectionist, isolationist, socialist, populist and other policies over the centuries.


title: Free trade

text: The Ottoman Empire had liberal free trade policies by the 18th century, with origins in capitulations of the Ottoman Empire, dating back to the first commercial treaties signed with France in 1536 and taken further with capitulations in 1673, in 1740 which lowered duties to only 3% for imports and exports and in 1790. Ottoman free trade policies were praised by British economists advocating free trade such as J. R. McCulloch in his "Dictionary of Commerce" (1834), but criticized by British politicians opposing free trade such as Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who cited the Ottoman Empire as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in the 1846 Corn Laws debate, arguing that it destroyed what had been "some of the finest manufactures of the world" in 1812.


title: Free trade

text: Trade in colonial America was regulated by the British mercantile system through the Acts of Trade and Navigation. Until the 1760s, few colonists openly advocated for free trade, in part because regulations were not strictly enforced (New England was famous for smuggling), but also because colonial merchants did not want to compete with foreign goods and shipping. According to historian Oliver Dickerson, a desire for free trade was not one of the causes of the American Revolution. "The idea that the basic mercantile practices of the eighteenth century were wrong", wrote Dickerson, "was not a part of the thinking of the Revolutionary leaders".


title: Free trade

text: Free trade came to what would become the United States as a result of the American Revolution. After the British Parliament issued the Prohibitory Act in 1775, blockading colonial ports, the Continental Congress responded by effectively declaring economic independence, opening American ports to foreign trade on 6 April 1776 – three months before declaring sovereign independence. According to historian John W. Tyler, "[f]ree trade had been forced on the Americans, like it or not".


title: Free trade

text: In March 1801, the Pope Pius VII ordered some liberalization of trade to face the economic crisis in the Papal States with the "motu proprio" "Le più colte". Despite this, the export of national corn was forbidden to ensure the food for the Papal States.


title: Free trade

text: In Britain, free trade became a central principle practiced by the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846. Large-scale agitation was sponsored by the Anti-Corn Law League. Under the Treaty of Nanking, China opened five treaty ports to world trade in 1843. The first free trade agreement, the Cobden-Chevalier Treaty, was put in place in 1860 between Britain and France which led to successive agreements between other countries in Europe.


title: Free trade

text: Many classical liberals, especially in 19th and early 20th century Britain (e.g. John Stuart Mill) and in the United States for much of the 20th century (e.g. Henry Ford and Secretary of State Cordell Hull), believed that free trade promoted peace. Woodrow Wilson included free-trade rhetoric in his "Fourteen Points" speech of 1918:


title: Free trade

text: According to economic historian Douglas Irwin, a common myth about United States trade policy is that low tariffs harmed American manufacturers in the early 19th century and then that high tariffs made the United States into a great industrial power in the late 19th century. A review by the "Economist" of Irwin's 2017 book "Clashing over Commerce: A History of US Trade Policy" notes:


title: Free trade

text: Political dynamics would lead people to see a link between tariffs and the economic cycle that was not there. A boom would generate enough revenue for tariffs to fall, and when the bust came pressure would build to raise them again. By the time that happened, the economy would be recovering, giving the impression that tariff cuts caused the crash and the reverse generated the recovery. Mr Irwin also methodically debunks the idea that protectionism made America a great industrial power, a notion believed by some to offer lessons for developing countries today. As its share of global manufacturing powered from 23% in 1870 to 36% in 1913, the admittedly high tariffs of the time came with a cost, estimated at around 0.5% of GDP in the mid-1870s. In some industries, they might have sped up development by a few years. But American growth during its protectionist period was more to do with its abundant resources and openness to people and ideas.


title: Free trade

text: According to Paul Bairoch, since the end of the 18th century, the United States has been "the homeland and bastion of modern protectionism". In fact, the United States never adhered to free trade until 1945. For the most part, the Jeffersonians strongly opposed protectionism. In the 19th century, statesmen such as Senator Henry Clay continued Alexander Hamilton's themes within the Whig Party under the name American System. The opposition Democratic Party contested several elections throughout the 1830s, 1840s and 1850s in part over the issue of the tariff and protection of industry. The Democratic Party favored moderate tariffs used for government revenue only while the Whigs favored higher protective tariffs to protect favored industries. The economist Henry Charles Carey became a leading proponent of the American System of economics. This mercantilist American System was opposed by the Democratic Party of Andrew Jackson, Martin Van Buren, John Tyler, James K. Polk, Franklin Pierce and James Buchanan.


title: Free trade

text: The fledgling Republican Party led by Abraham Lincoln, who called himself a "Henry Clay tariff Whig", strongly opposed free trade and implemented a 44% tariff during the Civil War, in part to pay for railroad subsidies and for the war effort and in part to protect favored industries. William McKinley (later to become President of the United States) stated the stance of the Republican Party (which won every election for president from 1868 until 1912, except the two non-consecutive terms of Grover Cleveland) as thus:


title: Free trade

text: During the interwar period, economic protectionism took hold in the United States, most famously in the form of the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act which is credited by economists with the prolonging and worldwide propagation of the Great Depression. From 1934, trade liberalization began to take place through the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act.


title: Free trade

text: Since the end of World War II, in part due to industrial size and the onset of the Cold War, the United States has often been a proponent of reduced tariff-barriers and free trade. The United States helped establish the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and later the World Trade Organization, although it had rejected an earlier version in the 1950s, the International Trade Organization. Since the 1970s, United States governments have negotiated managed-trade agreements, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement in the 1990s, the Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement in 2006 and a number of bilateral agreements (such as with Jordan).


title: Free trade

text: In Europe, six countries formed the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951 which became the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1958. Two core objectives of the EEC were the development of a common market, subsequently renamed the single market, and establishing a customs union between its member states. After expanding its membership, the EEC became the European Union in 1993. The European Union, now the world's largest single market, has concluded free trade agreements with many countries around the world.


title: Free trade

text: Most countries in the world are members of the World Trade Organization which limits in certain ways but does not eliminate tariffs and other trade barriers. Most countries are also members of regional free trade areas that lower trade barriers among participating countries. The European Union and the United States are negotiating a Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership. in 2018, the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership came into force, which includes eleven countries that have borders on the Pacific Ocean.


title: Free trade

text: Free trade may apply to trade in goods and services. Non-economic considerations may inhibit free trade as a country may espouse free trade in principle but ban certain drugs, such as ethanol, or certain practices, such as prostitution, and limiting international free trade.


title: Free trade

text: Some degree of protectionism is nevertheless the norm throughout the world. Most developed nations maintain controversial agricultural tariffs. From 1820 to 1980, the average tariffs on manufactures in twelve industrial countries ranged from 11 to 32%. In the developing world, average tariffs on manufactured goods are approximately 34%. The American economist C. Fred Bergsten devised the bicycle theory to describe trade policy. According to this model, trade policy is dynamically unstable in that it constantly tends towards either liberalisation or protectionism. To prevent falling off the bike (the disadvantages of protectionism), trade policy and multilateral trade negotiations must constantly pedal towards greater liberalisation. To achieve greater liberalisation, decision makers must appeal to the greater welfare for consumers and the wider national economy over narrower parochial interests. However, Bergsten also posits that it is also necessary to compensate the losers in trade and help them find new work as this will both reduce the backlash against globalisation and the motives for trades unions and politicians to call for protection of trade.


title: Free trade

text: In "Kicking Away the Ladder", development economist Ha-Joon Chang reviews the history of free trade policies and economic growth and notes that many of the now-industrialized countries had significant barriers to trade throughout their history. The United States and Britain, sometimes considered the homes of free trade policy, employed protectionism to varying degrees at all times. Britain abolished the Corn Laws which restricted import of grain in 1846 in response to domestic pressures and reduced protectionism for manufactures only in the mid 19th century when its technological advantage was at its height, but tariffs on manufactured products had returned to 23% by 1950. The United States maintained weighted average tariffs on manufactured products of approximately 40–50% up until the 1950s, augmented by the natural protectionism of high transportation costs in the 19th century. The most consistent practitioners of free trade have been Switzerland, the Netherlands and to a lesser degree Belgium. Chang describes the export-oriented industrialization policies of the Four Asian Tigers as "far more sophisticated and fine-tuned than their historical equivalents".


title: Free trade

text: The Global Enabling Trade Report measures the factors, policies and services that facilitate the trade in goods across borders and to destinations. The index summarizes four sub-indexes, namely market access; border administration; transport and communications infrastructure; and business environment. As of 2016, the top 30 countries and areas were the following:


title: Free trade

text: Academics, governments and interest groups debate the relative costs, benefits and beneficiaries of free trade.


title: Free trade

text: Arguments for protectionism fall into the economic category (trade hurts the economy or groups in the economy) or into the moral category (the effects of trade might help the economy, but have ill effects in other areas). A general argument against free trade is that it represents colonialism or imperialism in disguise. The moral category is wide, including concerns about:


title: Free trade

text: However, poor countries that have adopted free-trade policies have experienced high economic growth, with China and India as prime examples. Free trade allows companies from rich countries to directly invest in poor countries, sharing their knowledge, providing capital and giving access to markets.


title: Free trade

text: Economic arguments against free trade criticize the assumptions or conclusions of economic theories. Sociopolitical arguments against free trade cite social and political effects that economic arguments do not capture, such as political stability, national security, human rights and environmental protection. Some products are important to national security and governments may deem it dangerous to allow domestic producers of these products to go out of business, especially if otherwise they might come to depend on producers who operate in a country that may one day become an enemy. Countries that allow low wages have a competitive advantage in attracting industry, which may lead to a general lowering of wages for workers in all countries. Some countries may facilitate low-cost production of goods in their countries by allowing pollution of the environment: their pricing ignores environmental full-cost accounting and hidden costs are paid by their local, national and international neighbours.


title: Free trade

text: Domestic industries often oppose free trade on the grounds that it would lower prices for imported goods would reduce their profits and market share. For example, if the United States reduced tariffs on imported sugar, sugar producers would receive lower prices and profits, and sugar consumers would spend less for the same amount of sugar because of those same lower prices. The economic theory of David Ricardo holds that consumers would necessarily gain more than producers would lose. Since each of the domestic sugar producers would lose a lot while each of a great number of consumers would gain only a little, domestic producers are more likely to mobilize against the reduction in tariffs. More generally, producers often favor domestic subsidies and tariffs on imports in their home countries while objecting to subsidies and tariffs in their export markets.


title: Free trade

text: Socialists frequently oppose free trade on the ground that it allows maximum exploitation of workers by capital. For example, Karl Marx wrote in "The Communist Manifesto" (1848): "The bourgeoisie [...] has set up that single, unconscionable freedom – free trade. In one word, for exploitation, veiled by religious and political illusions, it has substituted naked, shameless, direct, brutal exploitation". Marx supported free trade, however, solely because he felt that it would hasten the social revolution.


title: Free trade

text: Many anti-globalization groups oppose free trade based on their assertion that free-trade agreements generally do not increase the economic freedom of the poor or of the working class and frequently make them poorer.


title: Free trade

text: Some opponents of free trade favor free-trade theory, but oppose free-trade agreements as applied. Some opponents of NAFTA see the agreement as materially harming the common people, but some of the arguments are actually against the particulars of government-managed trade, rather than against free trade "per se". For example, it is argued that it would be wrong to let subsidized corn from the United States into Mexico freely under NAFTA at prices well below production cost (dumping) because of its ruinous effects to Mexican farmers. Indeed, such subsidies violate free-trade theory, so this argument is not actually against the principle of free trade, but rather against its selective implementation.


title: Free trade

text: Research shows that support for trade restrictions is highest among respondents with the lowest levels of education. Hainmueller and Hiscox find


title: Free trade

text: that the impact of education on how voters think about trade and globalization has more to do with exposure to economic ideas and information about the aggregate and varied effects of these economic phenomena, than it does with individual calculations about how trade affects personal income or job security. This is not to say that the latter types of calculations are not important in shaping individuals' views of trade – just that they are not being manifest in the simple association between education and support for trade openness A 2017 study found that individuals whose occupations are routine-task-intensive and who do jobs that are offshorable are more likely to favor protectionism.


title: Free trade

text: Research suggests that attitudes towards free trade do not necessarily reflect individuals' self-interests.


title: Free trade

text: Various proponents of economic nationalism and of the school of mercantilism have long portrayed free trade as a form of colonialism or imperialism. In the 19th century, such groups criticized British calls for free trade as cover for British Empire, notably in the works of American Henry Clay, architect of the American System and of the German-American economist Friedrich List (1789–1846):


title: Free trade

text: Had the English left everything to itself – "Laissez faire, laissez aller", as the popular economical school recommends – the [German] merchants of the Steelyard would be still carrying on their trade in London, the Belgians would be still manufacturing cloth for the English, England would have still continued to be the sheep-farm of the Hansards, just as Portugal became the vineyard of England, and has remained so till our days, owing to the stratagem of a cunning diplomatist.


title: Free trade

text: have periodically (such as in 1846 and 1906) caused ructions in the British Conservative (Tory) Party (Corn Law issues in the 1820s to the 1840s, Irish Home Rule issues throughout the 19th and early-20th centuries).


title: Free trade

text: Ecuadorian President Rafael Correa (in office from 2007 to 2017) denounced the "sophistry of free trade" in an introduction he wrote for a 2006 book, "The Hidden Face of Free Trade Accords", which was written in part by Correa's Energy Minister Alberto Acosta. Citing as his source the 2002 book "Kicking Away the Ladder" written by Ha-Joon Chang, Correa identified the difference between an "American system" opposed to a "British System" of free trade. The Americans explicitly viewed the latter, he says, as "part of the British imperialist system". According to Correa, Chang showed that Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton (in office 1789–1795), rather than List, first presented a systematic argument defending industrial protectionism.


title: Free trade

text: The following alternatives to free trade have been proposed: protectionism, imperialism, balanced trade, fair trade, and industrial policy.


title: Free trade

text: The value of free trade was first observed and documented in 1776 by Adam Smith in "The Wealth of Nations", writing:


title: Free trade

text: This statement uses the concept of absolute advantage to present an argument in opposition to mercantilism, the dominant view surrounding trade at the time which held that a country should aim to export more than it imports and thus amass wealth. Instead, Smith argues, countries could gain from each producing exclusively the goods in which they are most suited to, trading between each other as required for the purposes of consumption. In this vein, it is not the value of exports relative to that of imports that is important, but the value of the goods produced by a nation. However, the concept of absolute advantage does not address a situation where a country has no advantage in the production of a particular good or type of good.


title: Free trade

text: This theoretical shortcoming was addressed by the theory of comparative advantage. Generally attributed to David Ricardo, who expanded on it in his 1817 book "On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation", it makes a case for free trade based not on absolute advantage in production of a good, but on the relative opportunity costs of production. A country should specialize in whatever good it can produce at the lowest cost, trading this good to buy other goods it requires for consumption. This allows for countries to benefit from trade even when they do not have an absolute advantage in any area of production. While their gains from trade might not be equal to those of a country more productive in all goods, they will still be better off economically from trade than they would be under a state of autarky.


title: Free trade

text: Exceptionally, Henry George's 1886 book "Protection or Free Trade" was read out loud in full into the Congressional Record by five Democratic congressmen. American economist Tyler Cowen wrote that "Protection or Free Trade" "remains perhaps the best-argued tract on free trade to this day"." Although George is very critical towards protectionism, he discusses the subject in particular with respect to the interests of labor:


title: Free trade

text: We all hear with interest and pleasure of improvements in transportation by water or land; we are all disposed to regard the opening of canals, the building of railways, the deepening of harbors, the improvement of steamships as beneficial. But if such things are beneficial, how can tariffs be beneficial? The effect of such things is to lessen the cost of transporting commodities; the effect of tariffs is to increase it. If the protective theory be true, every improvement that cheapens the carriage of goods between country and country is an injury to mankind unless tariffs be commensurately increased.


title: Free trade

text: George considers the general free trade argument inadequate. He argues that the removal of protective tariffs alone is never sufficient to improve the situation of the working class, unless accompanied by a shift towards land value tax.


title: Barbara Alyn Woods

text: Barbara Alyn Woods (born ) is an American actress. She is known for her roles in television series "One Tree Hill" and "". She is the mother of actresses Natalie Alyn Lind, Emily Alyn Lind, and Alyvia Alyn Lind.


title: Barbara Alyn Woods

text: Woods has acted professionally since 1988. She is known for portraying Deborah "Deb" Scott on the WB/CW teen drama series "One Tree Hill". She starred in the show from 2003 to 2009 and appeared on the final season in 2012. She started out recurring in season 1 and was upgraded to full series regular status in November sweeps. Due to the format change of the show she only appeared in four episodes of season 5 but returned as a series regular in season 6.


title: Barbara Alyn Woods

text: Woods played the lead role in the 1993 USA Network prime-time soap opera "Eden", which was canceled after 26 episodes. Woods posed nude for the June 1993 issue of "Playboy" as part of a promotion for the television series "Eden". She is also known for the role as Diane Szalinski on "" which ran from 1997 to 2000.


title: Barbara Alyn Woods

text: In the early 1990s, Woods starred in several films such as "Circuitry Man" (1990), "The Terror Within II" (1991), "Delusion" (1991), "The Waterdance" (1992), "Flesh and Bone" (1993), "Ghoulies IV" (1994) and "Frankie Starlight" (1995). She also appeared in Demi Moore's film "Striptease" in 1996.


title: Barbara Alyn Woods

text: Woods also has appeared in guest roles on numerous television series, including "", "Married... with Children", "The Golden Girls", "Picket Fences", "Seinfeld", "Murder, She Wrote", "Touched by an Angel", "Dream On", "Desperate Housewives" and was recurring on ABC's "The Gates" in 2010.


title: Barbara Alyn Woods

text: Woods attended Hinsdale South High School in Darien, Illinois and Northern Illinois University. She is married to John Lind (an assistant director), whom she met on the set of "". They were married in 1999. They have three daughters, Natalie, Emily and Alyvia, who are all film and television actresses.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: The Black Hole is a 1979 American science fiction film directed by Gary Nelson and produced by Walt Disney Productions. The film stars Maximilian Schell, Robert Forster, Joseph Bottoms, Yvette Mimieux, Anthony Perkins and Ernest Borgnine, while the voices of the main robot characters are provided by Roddy McDowall and Slim Pickens (both uncredited). The music for the film was composed by John Barry. With a production budget of $20 million, plus another $6 million for advertising, it was at the time the most expensive picture ever produced by Disney.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: In the early 1970s, the film was initially conceived as a space-themed disaster film. However, the script went through numerous iterations from various screenwriters. Additionally, Disney's effects department used computerized camera technology to create the visual effects. The film was released on December 18, 1979, in the United Kingdom and on December 21, 1979, in the United States. It was the first film from Walt Disney Productions to receive a PG rating. The film received mixed reviews from film critics and grossed $35 million at the US box office. The film was nominated for two Academy Awards for Best Cinematography and Best Visual Effects.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: The spacecraft USS "Palomino" has nearly completed its mission exploring deep space. The crew consists of Captain Dan Holland, First Officer Lieutenant Charlie Pizer, journalist Harry Booth, ESP-sensitive scientist Dr. Kate McCrae, the expedition's civilian leader Dr. Alex Durant and the diminutive robot V.I.N.CENT. ("Vital Information Necessary CENTralized").


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: As it is returning to Earth, the "Palomino" discovers a black hole with the apparently abandoned and long-lost USS "Cygnus" nearby, the same ship that McCrae's father was aboard when it vanished 20 years ago. (Cygnus X-1 is the first-known black hole, discovered in 1964, after which this scientific vessel is presumably named.) The "Palomino" decide to investigate and finds that there is a mysterious null gravity field surrounding the "Cygnus" that allows it to defy the massive gravitational pull of the black hole. The "Palomino" briefly strays outside the field and is damaged by the intense gravity, forcing it to emergency dock with the "Cygnus", which no longer appears abandoned.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: The cautious "Palomino" crew soon encounter Dr. Hans Reinhardt (one of Earth's most brilliant scientists, according to Durant). Reinhardt explains he has been alone on the "Cygnus" since it encountered a meteor field and was disabled. He ordered the human crew to return to Earth without him, but Kate's father chose to remain aboard and has since died. To replace the crew, Reinhardt built faceless, black-robed drones, sentry robots and his sinister bodyguard robot, Maximilian. Reinhardt says he intends to fly the "Cygnus" through the black hole because 20 years of study has shown that it's possible. Only an enamoured Durant believes him and asks if he can accompany Reinhardt.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: However, the rest of the "Palomino" crew start to become suspicious of Reinhardt. Booth sees a drone limping, while Holland witnesses an android funeral and discovers personal items in the "Cygnus" crew quarters. V.I.N.CENT. meets a battered earlier model of his type named BO.B. ("BiO-sanitation Battalion"). BO.B explains the drones are actually what's left of the human crew, who mutinied when Reinhardt refused to return to Earth after the "Cygnus" was damaged. McCrae's father was killed leading the mutiny, and the crew was lobotomized and "reprogrammed" to serve Reinhardt. V.I.N.CENT. uses telepathy to tell Kate. After she informs Durant what really happened, he removes a drone's faceplate, revealing the zombie-like face of a crew member. Durant tries to flee with Kate, but is killed by Maximilian.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: Reinhardt orders his robots to lobotomize Kate, but just as the process begins, she is rescued by Holland, V.I.N.CENT. and BO.B. Harry Booth tries to escape alone in the "Palomino", but is shot down and fatally crashes into the "Cygnus". A subsequent meteor storm and the explosion of the ship's overstressed main power plant cause the anti-gravity generator to fail. Without its null-gravity bubble, the "Cygnus" quickly starts to break apart under the black hole's huge gravitational forces.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: Reinhardt and the "Palomino" survivors separately plan their escape in the probe ship used to study the black hole. Reinhardt orders Maximilian to prepare the ship for launch, but then a large viewscreen falls on Reinhardt, pinning him to the deck, surrounded by his lobotomized crew. Maximilian encounters the "Palomino" crew and fatally damages BO.B. before being disabled by V.I.N.CENT and left to drift. Holland, Pizer, McCrae and V.I.N.CENT. launch the probe, which has a pre-programmed flight path that takes them into the black hole.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: Within the black hole, Reinhardt and Maximilian merge together above a burning, hellish landscape populated by dark-robed spectres resembling "Cygnus" drones. Meanwhile, the probe ship is led through a cathedral-like arched crystal tunnel by a floating, angelic figure. After the ship emerges from a white hole, Holland, Pizer, McCrae and V.I.N.CENT. fly towards a planet near a bright star.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: In the wake of several successful disaster films such as "The Poseidon Adventure" (1972) and "The Towering Inferno" (1974), writers Bob Barbash and Richard Landau approached Disney Studios executive story editor Frank Paris with the idea for a space-themed disaster film tentatively titled "Space Station One". The writers showed Paris a preliminary sketch of their idea, and the idea was later pitched to Ron Miller, who assigned longtime studio producer Winston Hibler to help develop the project. An idea of Hibler was for a black hole to be featured in the story. After nearly a year of work on the project, Hibler was not satisfied with the later story drafts, so William Wood was added to rework the script. Ultimately, Hibler retired from the Disney studios. The project was later shelved until late 1975 when development resumed on the project now re-titled "Space Probe One". In 1976, Hibler returned from retirement, and suggested to Miller to hire conceptual artist Robert McCall to create some pre-production visuals to help focus the story and explore some possible ideas.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: Hibler also brought matte designer Peter Ellenshaw out of retirement to create conceptual designs on the proposed film.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: Four months later, director John Hough, who had just directed "Escape to Witch Mountain" (1975), was approached to direct the film. Although he liked the premise, he felt the script needed more revisions, so he brought in Sumner Arthur Long for an additional rewrite. However, by summer 1976, the production team was still unsatisfied with the script, and audiences' interest in the disaster genre was steadily declining.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: Hibler died in August 1976, but with the amount of work already invested in the project, Miller took over the project. In October, writer Ed Coffey was added to rewrite the script. By February 1977, Jeb Rosebrook was included to restructure the story, in which the script was then changed to focus on a small core group of astronauts who would encounter a black hole, which was a phenomenon that had been a growing discussion within the scientific community.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: While the script was again being rewritten, Hough left the project and decided to direct "Brass Target" (1978). In December 1977, Miller then approached Gary Nelson, who had just been nominated for a Primetime Emmy on the political miniseries "", to direct the project. Nelson read a draft of the script and declined the offer. However, he was called back to the studio, and after observing the miniatures and matte paintings created by Ellenshaw, he agreed to direct.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: Rosebrook finished his final draft in March 1978, but because Disney was still displeased with the script, Gerry Day was hired for some script doctoring. After scientific research headed by marketing director Martin Rabinovitch, the title "The Black Hole" was selected to convey the power and mystique of the film.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: Nelson initially considered casting Sigourney Weaver in the role of Kate McCrae, but the head of the casting department balked at the actress' unusual name and rejected her. By October 1978, most of the actors had been cast, with the exception for Jennifer O'Neill cast as Kate McCrae. O'Neill had been told she needed to cut her hair because it would be easier to film zero-gravity scenes. Initially hesitant, she eventually agreed and brought her personal hairstylist Vidal Sassoon to the studio. O'Neill consumed multiple glasses of wine during the haircut, then left the studio noticeably inebriated and was subsequently hospitalized following a car crash, which cost her the role. Yvette Mimieux was cast the following day and agreed to have her own long hair cropped.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: Although "Star Wars" (1977) had revolutionized the use of computerized motion control miniature effects, "The Black Hole" was shot using a blend of traditional camera techniques and newly developed computer-controlled camera technology. Disney wanted to rent equipment from Industrial Light and Magic, but it was unavailable during the film's production period and was prohibitively expensive. In the end, Disney turned to its own engineering department, which created the ACES (Automated Camera Effects System). The computerized system allowed for the camera to take double exposure photographs of the miniature models as it moves convincingly across the matte painting. It also permitted the actors to move unrestrictedly within a matte painting, and the camera tracks them within a non-existent set that would be painted in later. The Mattescan system was then used to composite live-action shots onto a single matte painting while the camera is in motion on several axes. In total, 150 matte paintings were created for the film under the supervision of Harrison Ellenshaw, but only 13 were used in the film.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: Disney hired John Barry, famous as the composer of the "James Bond" films, to compose the film's score. It was the first film score ever to be recorded digitally.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: An album of highlights from the score was released on LP by Disneyland Records in 1979. The 1979 album master was made available digitally on iTunes in 2007. On August 23, 2011, Intrada Records released the complete score on compact disc. The release overcame many technical hurdles, because the format the score was recorded on, the 32-track 3M Digital Recorder, was so obscure and obsolete.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: "The Black Hole" premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on December 18, 1979. It was then released in the United States on December 21, 1979. Along with "", released the same month, "The Black Hole" was one of the last mainstream Hollywood films to have an overture at the start of the film. Although this was cut on subsequent television airings, the overture is included on Disney's 2004 DVD release, Blu-ray release (2019) and Disney's streaming service, Disney+ (2019).


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: "The Black Hole" is notable for being the first Disney film to earn a PG rating because of the frequent use of "hell" and "damn" and the violent death of Dr. Alex Durant (which is also notable for being the first non-family-oriented Disney film). Buena Vista Distribution had released the PG-rated sports drama film "Take Down" earlier the same year, but it was produced by an independent production studio. The version of the film broadcast on the Disney Channel was edited for language, with all uses of the words "damn" and "hell" removed. The film also features some subtext and metaphysical and religious themes that reflected the company's interest in developing more adult-oriented and mainstream films. This trend eventually led the studio to create the distribution company Touchstone Pictures, under which films considered too mature for the Buena Vista Distribution label could be released.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: The film had a record opening weekend for Disney with a gross of $4,738,000 from 889 theatres. During its theatrical release, the movie grossed $35.8 million in the United States and Canada, from which it returned $25 million in box office rentals.


title: The Black Hole (1979 film)

text: Coinciding with the film's release, Alan Dean Foster wrote a novelization based on the film. In a retrospective interview, Foster remarked that his novelization had to rationalize the scientific inaccuracies depicted in the film; the novelization also changes the final outcome: the probe ship is destroyed, but the three humans and robot merge together and become, aided by Kate McRae's psychic abilities, non-substantial beings that retain their separate identities while becoming one: ""They were themselves...and yet somehow strange and new, a galactic sea change that produced all of the above and a new unified mindthing that was KateCharlieDanVincent also."" Around the same time, Disney used their comic strip "Walt Disney's Treasury of Classic Tales" to promote their latest film releases. Comic book artist Mike Royer suggested fellow artist Jack Kirby draw a comic strip adaptation of the film, and Kirby accepted. The comic strip adaptation, which ran for twenty-six weeks, was scripted by Carl Fallberg with the inking done by Royer.