title: Rainbow Six (novel)

text: Clark and his colleagues become suspicious about the sudden rise in terrorist attacks. Unbeknownst to them, the first two attacks are part of an intricate plan to wipe out nearly all of humanity, codenamed "the Project". Dr. John Brightling, a staunch radical environmentalist who heads a biotechnology firm called the Horizon Corporation, ordered the attacks through ex-KGB officer Dmitriy Popov to raise global concern over terrorism, which would then allow co-conspirator Bill Henriksen's security firm Global Security to land a key contract for the Olympic Games in Sydney, Australia. Henriksen would then ensure the release of "Shiva"—a manmade Ebola biological agent more deadly than the one that spread a year prior, developed by Horizon and tested on kidnapped human test subjects—through the fog-cooling system of Stadium Australia, infecting almost everyone present, who would then return to their home countries, spreading Shiva across the world. The resulting pandemic would kill millions; Horizon would distribute a "vaccine" (actually a slow-acting version of the virus itself) which would kill the rest of the world's population. The "chosen few", having been provided with the real vaccine, would then inherit the emptied world, justifying their genocidal actions as "saving the world" from the environmentally-destructive nature of humanity.


title: Rainbow Six (novel)

text: Popov, unaware of the Project, discovers the existence of Rainbow as he reviews the "police tactical teams" (actually Rainbow in disguise) that responded to his attacks, and brings it to Brightling's attention. Brightling and Henriksen task Popov with orchestrating an attack on Rainbow to prevent them from being deployed to the Sydney Olympics. He persuades breakaway members of the Provisional Irish Republican Army, led by Sean Grady, to attack a hospital near Rainbow's base and take Clark and Chavez's wives (who work there as a nurse and a doctor, respectively) hostage. When Rainbow arrives, a team of IRA militants ambush them, killing two Rainbow troopers and injuring several others, including Stanley. Despite sustaining the first losses in their history, Rainbow manages to repel the ambush, retake the hospital without further casualties, and capture some of the terrorists, including Grady. Using trickery to interrogate the surviving IRA members, Clark and Chavez learn of Popov's involvement, and Brightling evacuates Popov to Horizon's secret OLYMPUS base in Kansas.


title: Rainbow Six (novel)

text: However, this turns out to have been a fatal miscalculation: Popov was unaware of the genocidal plans of his employers, but the people at OLYMPUS talk openly about them. Learning the truth about the Project, Popov, appalled by what he has unknowningly assisted, escapes and reveals his knowledge to Clark and the FBI, who have already been investigating the kidnappings of the Shiva test subjects. Popov's warning comes just in time for Chavez and his team, who were deployed to the Olympics to oversee venue security, to thwart Shiva's release at the last minute.


title: Rainbow Six (novel)

text: Their plans in shambles, Brightling and the remaining Project members escape to a smaller Horizon base in the Amazon rainforest near Manaus, Brazil. Clark personally leads Rainbow there, and they dispatch the guards and destroy the facility. Knowing that there is not enough evidence to convict them, Clark instead has the survivors stripped naked and left to fend for themselves in the jungle, taunting them to "reconnect with nature".


title: Rainbow Six (novel)

text: Six months later, Chavez reads news articles about Popov discovering a gold deposit on a Project member's former property, and Horizon's revolutionary medical breakthroughs under new management. Chavez asks if the Project members have survived; Clark informs him that no human activity has been detected in the area since, and remarks that nature does not distinguish between friends and enemies. Wondering who humanity's natural enemy must be, Chavez decides it must be humanity itself.


title: Rainbow Six (novel)

text: "Rainbow Six" explores the issue of radical environmentalism. According to Marc Cerasini's essay on the novel, the philosophy of the antagonists are considered as an extreme form of naturalism, based on Jean-Jacques Rousseau's view that society's functions corrupt mankind and that "a natural or primitive state is actually morally superior to civilization". The novel shares elements found in James Bond movies: a biological weapon being used to end or rather cull the human race, mad scientists plotting world domination, and high-tech secret bases hidden from civilization. Clancy makes the plot relevant and morally ambiguous by incorporating motivations similar to those of real-life radical ecocentric environmentalists and deep ecologists, such as Pentti Linkola and Paul R. Ehrlich, rather than blanket hunger for power and brash misanthropic resentment. In several regards, critics have noted similarities in the population control regard to the later-released "" and Dan Brown's "Inferno", as well as those of Thanos in Marvel's "" and "".


title: Rainbow Six (novel)

text: The concept of "Rainbow Six" was conceived from a discussion between Clancy and Doug Littlejohns, a former Royal Navy submarine commander and CEO of Red Storm Entertainment, a video game developer co-founded by Clancy in 1996. Their discussion occurred during a Red Storm company outing in Colonial Williamsburg, when Littlejohns suggested a strategy shooter game based on the FBI Hostage Rescue Team. When Clancy mentioned that he was writing a novel about a hostage rescue team, their conversation led to Littlejohns noting the protracted diplomatic delays in authorizing a foreign counterterrorist unit's deployment overseas, and he suggested the concept of a permanent counterterrorist unit that already had authorization to deploy internationally. The name "Rainbow" came from the term "Rainbow nation", a term coined by Desmond Tutu to describe post-apartheid South Africa under Nelson Mandela's presidency. "Six" came from the American rank code for captain (O-6); though Clark would more accurately be described as a major general (O-8) in the novel, "Rainbow Six" read better than "Rainbow Eight". The strategy shooter game Littlejohns suggested was eventually developed into "Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six".


title: Rainbow Six (novel)

text: The book received mixed reviews. "Entertainment Weekly" praised the novel's "sprawling, Bondesque plot" as well as its action scenes that are "vivid and cinematic—and notably lacking in the clichés and B-movie tone of his dialogue". "Publishers Weekly " also hailed the scenes as "immensely suspenseful, breathtaking combos of expertly detailed combat and primal emotion".


title: Rainbow Six (novel)

text: Criticism was focused on flat characters and the implausibility of the plot. A review from "Orlando Sentinel" stated: "Clancy may have crossed the line into the realm of the unbelievable...I suspect even some of his most rabid fans will shake their heads at parts of this novel." "Entertainment Weekly" also noted that "some of [Clancy's] secondary characters have a flat, dime-novel feel". Canadian environmentalist Paul Watson condemned the book as "a vicious defamation of the Environmentalist Movement, embodying, amplifying and packaging all the worst stereotypes and prejudices."


title: Rainbow Six (novel)

text: "Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six" was released on August 21, 1998, about two weeks after the release of the novel. It was developed alongside the novel and bases its plot on an early manuscript of the story. The game was developed by Red Storm Entertainment (which was co-founded by Clancy in 1996) based on their preexisting concept of the FBI Hostage Rescue Team in an international setting. "Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six" was a commercial success for Red Storm and spawned a number of sequels, now developed by Ubisoft. It revolutionized the first-person shooter genre by forcing the player to think tactically and realistically in every mission, unlike the arcade games of the time.


title: Rainbow Six (novel)

text: In July 2017, Paramount Pictures announced plans to make a film adaptation of the novel with Akiva Goldsman as producer. Ryan Reynolds was reported to be in early talks to play Clark. In September 2018, Michael B. Jordan was announced to be playing the main character in a two-part film series, with "Rainbow Six" as the intended sequel to a film adaptation of another Clancy novel featuring Clark, "Without Remorse".


title: Technical University of Munich

text: The Technical University of Munich (TUM or TU Munich; ) is a public research university in Munich, Germany. It specializes in engineering, technology, medicine, and applied and natural sciences.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: Established in 1868 by King Ludwig II of Bavaria, the university now has additional campuses in Garching, Freising, Heilbronn, Straubing, and Singapore, with the Garching campus being its largest. The university is organized into eight schools and departments, and is supported by numerous research centers. It is one of the largest universities in Germany, with 50,000 students and an annual budget of €1,770.3 million (including university hospital).


title: Technical University of Munich

text: A "University of Excellence" under the German Universities Excellence Initiative, TUM is considered the top university in Germany according to major rankings as of 2022 and is among the leading universities in the European Union. Its researchers and alumni include 18 Nobel laureates and 23 Leibniz Prize winners.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: In 1868, King Ludwig II of Bavaria founded the "Polytechnische Schule München" with Karl Maximilian von Bauernfeind as founding director. The new school had its premises at Arcisstraße, where it is still located today. At that time, around 350 students were supervised by 24 professors and 21 lecturers. The institution was divided into six departments: The "General Department" (mathematics, natural sciences, humanities, law and economics), the "Engineering Department" (civil engineering and surveying), the "Building Construction Department" (architecture), the "Mechanical-Technical Department" (mechanical engineering), the "Chemical-Technical Department" (chemistry), and the "Agricultural Department".


title: Technical University of Munich

text: In 1877, the "Polytechnische Schule München" became the "Technische Hochschule München" (TH München), and in 1901 it was granted the right to award doctorates. With an average of 2,600 to 2,800 students, the TH München became for a time Germany's largest technical university, ahead of the TH Berlin. In 1970 the institution was renamed "Technische Universität München".


title: Technical University of Munich

text: In 1906, Anna Boyksen became the first female student to enroll in electrical engineering, after the Bavarian government had allowed women to study at technical universities in the German Empire.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: Martha Schneider-Bürger became the first German female civil engineer to graduate from the university in 1927.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: During the Weimar Republic, the TH München had to manage with scarce resources and was drawn into radical political struggles in the years of the November Revolution, the Great Depression, and Adolf Hitler's rise to power. In the winter semester of 1930/31, the National Socialist German Students' League became the strongest faction in the General Students' Committee (AStA) for the first time.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: In Nazi Germany, the Führerprinzip was also imposed on the universities. The autonomy of the TH München was substantially restricted. In 1933, the newly passed Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service removed "non-Aryan" staff or those married to "non-Aryans" from their positions, together with politically "undesirable" professors. Jewish students no longer had equal rights and were not allowed to be enrolled after 1938.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: During World War II, the TH München conducted large scale armaments research in support of the war effort. Notable professors during this time include aircraft designer Willy Messerschmitt and Walther Meissner. Basic research continued to be conducted at a high level in many institutes, as individual professors, staff members and students dared disobedience and obstruction. Nobel prize laureate Hans Fischer protected Jewish students from Nazi prosecution. He committed suicide shortly before the end of the war.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: During the war, 80 percent of the university's facilities in Munich had been destroyed. Under these difficult conditions, teaching resumed in April 1946.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: In 1956, the construction of a research reactor in Garching was the beginning of the Garching campus. In 1969, the physics department building was opened there, followed in 1977 by new buildings for the chemistry, biology and geoscience departments.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: In 1967, a Faculty of Medicine was founded with campuses in Haidhausen (Rechts der Isar Hospital) and Schwabing. By 1968, the TH München comprised six faculties, 8,400 students, and 5,700 staff. In 1972, the Zentrale Hochschulsportanlage, a 45-hectare sports center, was built on the grounds of the 1972 Summer Olympics.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: In 1970, the TH München was renamed to its present name "Technische Universität München". When the Bavarian Higher Education Act came into force in 1974, the six faculties were replaced by eleven departments. In 1992, the field of computer science was established as an independent Department of Informatics, having previously been part of the Department of Mathematics since 1967.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: In 2002, TUM Asia was founded in Singapore, in cooperation with the Nanyang Technological University and the National University of Singapore. It was the first time that a German university had established a subsidiary abroad.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: The Department of Sport and Health Sciences and the School of Management were established in 2002. The Weihenstephan departments were combined into the "Weihenstephan Centre of Life and Food Sciences" (WZW), which would later become the School of Life Sciences. With the establishment of the School of Education in 2009, the School of Governance in 2016 and the Department of Aerospace and Geodesy in 2018, the university comprises 15 schools and departments.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: Since the inception of the German Universities Excellence Initiative in 2006, TUM has won every round of evaluation and the title "University of Excellence".


title: Technical University of Munich

text: The historic Main Campus ("Stammgelände") is located in Maxvorstadt, the central borough of Munich. Today, the departments of Architecture, Civil, Geo and Environmental Engineering, Electrical and Computer Engineering and the Schools of Management, Governance, Education are located here.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: The TUM School of Medicine is located at the site of its university hospital, the Rechts der Isar Hospital, in the district of Haidhausen.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: The TUM Department of Sport and Health Sciences is located in the Olympiapark, the former site of the 1972 Summer Olympics.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: The campus in Garching, located around 10 km north of Munich, has grown to become the largest TUM campus. In the last decades, the departments of Physics, Chemistry, Mechanical Engineering, Informatics and Mathematics have all relocated from their former buildings in the Main Campus. They have since been joined by numerous research institutes, including the Max Planck Institutes for Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, Extraterrestrial Physics and Quantum Optics, the Forschungsreaktor München II (FRM II), the headquarters of the European Southern Observatory (ESO), and the Leibniz Supercomputing Centre, one of the fastest supercomputers in Europe.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: A landmark of the Garching campus is the Oskar von Miller Tower, a meteorological measurement tower with a height of 62 m. The Garching campus is connected to Munich by the Autobahn and the Munich U-Bahn. It has its own fire department.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: The third TUM campus is located 35 km north of Munich in Weihenstephan, Freising. It hosts the School of Life Sciences.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: Additional TUM facilities are located in Ottobrunn (Department of Aerospace and Geodesy), Straubing, Heilbronn, and Singapore.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: TUM operates a subsidiary in Singapore. In 2001, the "German Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) – TUM Asia" was founded in partnership with the National University of Singapore and the Nanyang Technological University, offering a range of Master's programs. In 2010, TUM Asia started offering bachelor's degrees in collaboration with the Singapore Institute of Technology.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: In 2010, TUM and the Nanyang Technological University founded "TUMCREATE", a research platform for the improvement of Singapore's public transportation.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: As a technical university, the university specializes in engineering, technology, medicine, and the applied and natural sciences. Compared to a "Volluniversität" (a universal university), it lacks the "Geisteswissenschaften", including law and many branches of the social sciences.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: Other institutions include the Rechts der Isar Hospital, the TUM Graduate School and the Bavarian School of Public Policy.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: The Technical University of Munich is one of the most research-focused universities in Europe. This claim is supported by relevant rankings, such as the funding ranking of the German Research Foundation and the research ranking of the Centre for Higher Education.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: Under the German Universities Excellence Initiative, TUM has obtained funding for multiple research clusters, including "e-conversion" (energy technology), "MCQST" (quantum mechanics), "ORIGINS" (astrophysics, biophysics and particle physics), and "SYNERGY" (neurology).


title: Technical University of Munich

text: In addition to the schools and departments, TUM has set up numerous research centers with external cooperation partners.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: Integrative research centers (IRCs) combine research with teaching. They include the TUM Institute for Advanced Study (TUM-IAS), the Munich Center for Technology in Society (MCTS), the Munich Data Science Institute (MDSI), the Munich School of Engineering (MSE), the Munich School of BioEngineering (MSB), and the Munich School of Robotics and Machine Intelligence (MSRM).


title: Technical University of Munich

text: Corporate research centers (CRCs) carry out research independently of the schools and departments, cooperating with industry partners for application-driven research. They include the research reactor FRM II, the Center for Functional Protein Assemblies (CPA), the Catalysis Research Center (CRC), the center for translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), the Walter Schottky Institute (WSI), the Hans Eisenmann-Zentrum for Agricultural Science, and the Institute for Food & Health (ZIEL).


title: Technical University of Munich

text: As of 2022, TUM is ranked first in Germany by the three most influential rankings. In the QS World Rankings, TUM is placed 19th worldwide in engineering and technology, 28th in the natural sciences, 29th in computer science, and 49th place overall. It is the highest ranked German university in those subject areas. In the Times Higher Education World University Rankings, TUM stands at 30th place worldwide and ranks 10th in computer science, 20th in engineering and technology, and 23rd in the physical sciences, being the highest ranked German university in those subject areas. In the Academic Ranking of World Universities, TUM is ranked 56th in the world and first in Germany. In the subject areas of computer science and engineering, electrical engineering, aerospace engineering, food science, biotechnology, and chemistry, TUM is ranked first in Germany.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: In the 2022 Nature Index of academic institutions, TUM ranks 64th worldwide and 1st in Germany. In the 2022-2023 U.S. News & World Report Best Global Universities Ranking, TUM is ranked 79th worldwide and 4th in Germany.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: In the 2021 Global University Employability Ranking of the Times Higher Education World Rankings, TUM was ranked 13th in the world and 4th in Europe. TUM is ranked 7th overall in Reuters' 2019 European Most Innovative University ranking.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: The TUM School of Management is triple accredited by the European Quality Improvement System (EQUIS), the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) and the Association of MBAs (AMBA).


title: Technical University of Munich

text: TUM has over 160 international partnerships, ranging from joint research activities to international study programs. Partners include:


title: Technical University of Munich

text: Through the Erasmus+ program and its international student exchange program "TUMexchange", TUM students are provided by opportunities to study abroad.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: As of 2022, 50,000 students are enrolled at TUM, of whom 36% are female and 41% are international students.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: Various initiatives are run by students, including TEDxTUM, the "TUM Speaker Series" (past speakers having included Ban Ki-moon, Tony Blair, Bill Gates and Eric Schmidt), and "IKOM", a career fair.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: A notable student group is the Workgroup for Rocketry and Space Flight (WARR), which won all SpaceX Hyperloop pod competitions in 2017 through 2019.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: In 2021, TUM Boring, won the tunnel-boring competition sponsored by The Boring Company in Las Vegas, Nevada.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: The Student Council is the main body for university-wide student representation. It elects the General Student Committee (AStA), which represents the professional, economic and social interests of the students, by the Bavarian Higher Education Act. Each school or department will also have a separate Departmental Student Council.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: Every year, university elections are held to elect student representatives in the Senate (the university's highest academic authority) and in the faculty councils.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: The Student Council organizes a number of annual festivals. "TUNIX" and "GARNIX" are week-long open air festivals held every summer. "TUNIX" is held at the Königsplatz near the Munich campus, while "GARNIX" is held at the Garching campus. "GLÜHNIX" is a christmas market held in front of the Department of Mechanical Engineering every December. "MaiTUM" is a Bavarian Maifest, held at the Main Campus in May each year.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: The Student Council also organizes numerous events, including the student-run "TU Film" cinema, the "Hörsaal Slam", the "Benefizkabarett", and the MeUP party. Departmental Student Councils also organize their own events, such as "Unity", "esp", and the "Brückenfest".


title: Technical University of Munich

text: The Zentrale Hochschulsportanlage (ZHS) is the largest university sports facility in Germany, offering hundreds of different sports programs.


title: Technical University of Munich

text: Music ensembles at TUM include the TUM Chamber Orchestra, the TUM Jazz Band, the TUM Choir, and the "Symphonisches Ensemble München", a full-size symphony orchestra.


title: Crystallization

text: Crystallization is the process by which solid forms, where the atoms or molecules are highly organized into a structure known as a crystal. Some ways by which crystals form are precipitating from a solution, freezing, or more rarely deposition directly from a gas. Attributes of the resulting crystal depend largely on factors such as temperature, air pressure, and in the case of liquid crystals, time of fluid evaporation.


title: Crystallization

text: Crystallization occurs in two major steps. The first is nucleation, the appearance of a crystalline phase from either a supercooled liquid or a supersaturated solvent. The second step is known as crystal growth, which is the increase in the size of particles and leads to a crystal state. An important feature of this step is that loose particles form layers at the crystal's surface and lodge themselves into open inconsistencies such as pores, cracks, etc.


title: Crystallization

text: The majority of minerals and organic molecules crystallize easily, and the resulting crystals are generally of good quality, i.e. without visible defects. However, larger biochemical particles, like proteins, are often difficult to crystallize. The ease with which molecules will crystallize strongly depends on the intensity of either atomic forces (in the case of mineral substances), intermolecular forces (organic and biochemical substances) or intramolecular forces (biochemical substances).


title: Crystallization

text: Crystallization is also a chemical solid–liquid separation technique, in which mass transfer of a solute from the liquid solution to a pure solid crystalline phase occurs. In chemical engineering, crystallization occurs in a crystallizer. Crystallization is therefore related to precipitation, although the result is not amorphous or disordered, but a crystal.


title: Crystallization

text: The crystallization process consists of two major events, "nucleation" and "crystal growth" which are driven by thermodynamic properties as well as chemical properties.


title: Crystallization

text: "Nucleation" is the step where the solute molecules or atoms dispersed in the solvent start to gather into clusters, on the microscopic scale (elevating solute concentration in a small region), that become stable under the current operating conditions. These stable clusters constitute the nuclei. Therefore, the clusters need to reach a critical size in order to become stable nuclei. Such critical size is dictated by many different factors (temperature, supersaturation, etc.). It is at the stage of nucleation that the atoms or molecules arrange in a defined and periodic manner that defines the crystal structure – note that "crystal structure" is a special term that refers to the relative arrangement of the atoms or molecules, not the macroscopic properties of the crystal (size and shape), although those are a result of the internal crystal structure.


title: Crystallization

text: The "crystal growth" is the subsequent size increase of the nuclei that succeed in achieving the critical cluster size. Crystal growth is a dynamic process occurring in equilibrium where solute molecules or atoms precipitate out of solution, and dissolve back into solution. Supersaturation is one of the driving forces of crystallization, as the solubility of a species is an equilibrium process quantified by K. Depending upon the conditions, either nucleation or growth may be predominant over the other, dictating crystal size.


title: Crystallization

text: Many compounds have the ability to crystallize with some having different crystal structures, a phenomenon called polymorphism. Certain polymorphs may be metastable, meaning that although it is not in thermodynamic equilibrium, it is kinetically stable and requires some input of energy to initiate a transformation to the equilibrium phase. Each polymorph is in fact a different thermodynamic solid state and crystal polymorphs of the same compound exhibit different physical properties, such as dissolution rate, shape (angles between facets and facet growth rates), melting point, etc. For this reason, polymorphism is of major importance in industrial manufacture of crystalline products. Additionally, crystal phases can sometimes be interconverted by varying factors such as temperature, such as in the transformation of anatase to rutile phases of titanium dioxide.


title: Crystallization

text: Crystal formation can be divided into two types, where the first type of crystals are composed of a cation and anion, also known as a salt, such as sodium acetate. The second type of crystals are composed of uncharged species, for example menthol.


title: Crystallization

text: Crystal formation can be achieved by various methods, such as: cooling, evaporation, addition of a second solvent to reduce the solubility of the solute (technique known as antisolvent or drown-out), solvent layering, sublimation, changing the cation or anion, as well as other methods.


title: Crystallization

text: The formation of a supersaturated solution does not guarantee crystal formation, and often a seed crystal or scratching the glass is required to form nucleation sites.


title: Crystallization

text: A typical laboratory technique for crystal formation is to dissolve the solid in a solution in which it is partially soluble, usually at high temperatures to obtain supersaturation. The hot mixture is then filtered to remove any insoluble impurities. The filtrate is allowed to slowly cool. Crystals that form are then filtered and washed with a solvent in which they are not soluble, but is miscible with the mother liquor. The process is then repeated to increase the purity in a technique known as recrystallization.


title: Crystallization

text: For biological molecules in which the solvent channels continue to be present to retain the three dimensional structure intact, microbatch crystallization under oil and vapor diffusion methods have been the common methods.


title: Crystallization

text: The crystallization process appears to violate the second principle of thermodynamics. Whereas most processes that yield more orderly results are achieved by applying heat, crystals usually form at lower temperaturesespecially by supercooling. However, due to the release of the heat of fusion during crystallization, the entropy of the universe increases, thus this principle remains unaltered.


title: Crystallization

text: The molecules within a pure, "perfect crystal", when heated by an external source, will become liquid. This occurs at a sharply defined temperature (different for each type of crystal). As it liquifies, the complicated architecture of the crystal collapses. Melting occurs because the entropy ("S") gain in the system by spatial randomization of the molecules has overcome the enthalpy ("H") loss due to breaking the crystal packing forces:


title: Crystallization

text: Regarding crystals, there are no exceptions to this rule. Similarly, when the molten crystal is cooled, the molecules will return to their crystalline form once the temperature falls beyond the turning point. This is because the thermal randomization of the surroundings compensates for the loss of entropy that results from the reordering of molecules within the system. Such liquids that crystallize on cooling are the exception rather than the rule.


title: Crystallization

text: The nature of a crystallization process is governed by both thermodynamic and kinetic factors, which can make it highly variable and difficult to control. Factors such as impurity level, mixing regime, vessel design, and cooling profile can have a major impact on the size, number, and shape of crystals produced.


title: Crystallization

text: As mentioned above, a crystal is formed following a well-defined pattern, or structure, dictated by forces acting at the molecular level. As a consequence, during its formation process the crystal is in an environment where the solute concentration reaches a certain critical value, before changing status. Solid formation, impossible below the solubility threshold at the given temperature and pressure conditions, may then take place at a concentration higher than the theoretical solubility level. The difference between the actual value of the solute concentration at the crystallization limit and the theoretical (static) solubility threshold is called supersaturation and is a fundamental factor in crystallization.


title: Crystallization

text: Nucleation is the initiation of a phase change in a small region, such as the formation of a solid crystal from a liquid solution. It is a consequence of rapid local fluctuations on a molecular scale in a homogeneous phase that is in a state of metastable equilibrium. Total nucleation is the sum effect of two categories of nucleation – primary and secondary.


title: Crystallization

text: Primary nucleation is the initial formation of a crystal where there are no other crystals present or where, if there are crystals present in the system, they do not have any influence on the process. This can occur in two conditions. The first is homogeneous nucleation, which is nucleation that is not influenced in any way by solids. These solids include the walls of the crystallizer vessel and particles of any foreign substance. The second category, then, is heterogeneous nucleation. This occurs when solid particles of foreign substances cause an increase in the rate of nucleation that would otherwise not be seen without the existence of these foreign particles. Homogeneous nucleation rarely occurs in practice due to the high energy necessary to begin nucleation without a solid surface to catalyze the nucleation.


title: Crystallization

text: Secondary nucleation is the formation of nuclei attributable to the influence of the existing microscopic crystals in the magma. Simply put, secondary nucleation is when crystal growth is initiated with contact of other existing crystals or "seeds". The first type of known secondary crystallization is attributable to fluid shear, the other due to collisions between already existing crystals with either a solid surface of the crystallizer or with other crystals themselves. Fluid-shear nucleation occurs when liquid travels across a crystal at a high speed, sweeping away nuclei that would otherwise be incorporated into a crystal, causing the swept-away nuclei to become new crystals. Contact nucleation has been found to be the most effective and common method for nucleation. The benefits include the following:


title: Crystallization

text: Once the first small crystal, the nucleus, forms it acts as a convergence point (if unstable due to supersaturation) for molecules of solute touching – or adjacent to – the crystal so that it increases its own dimension in successive layers. The pattern of growth resembles the rings of an onion, as shown in the picture, where each colour indicates the same mass of solute; this mass creates increasingly thin layers due to the increasing surface area of the growing crystal. The supersaturated solute mass the original nucleus may "capture" in a time unit is called the "growth rate" expressed in kg/(m*h), and is a constant specific to the process. Growth rate is influenced by several physical factors, such as surface tension of solution, pressure, temperature, relative crystal velocity in the solution, Reynolds number, and so forth.


title: Crystallization

text: The first value is a consequence of the physical characteristics of the solution, while the others define a difference between a well- and poorly designed crystallizer.


title: Crystallization

text: The appearance and size range of a crystalline product is extremely important in crystallization. If further processing of the crystals is desired, large crystals with uniform size are important for washing, filtering, transportation, and storage, because large crystals are easier to filter out of a solution than small crystals. Also, larger crystals have a smaller surface area to volume ratio, leading to a higher purity. This higher purity is due to less retention of mother liquor which contains impurities, and a smaller loss of yield when the crystals are washed to remove the mother liquor. In special cases, for example during drug manufacturing in the pharmaceutical industry, small crystal sizes are often desired to improve drug dissolution rate and bio-availability. The theoretical crystal size distribution can be estimated as a function of operating conditions with a fairly complicated mathematical process called population balance theory (using population balance equations).


title: Crystallization

text: This division is not really clear-cut, since hybrid systems exist, where cooling is performed through evaporation, thus obtaining at the same time a concentration of the solution.


title: Crystallization

text: A crystallization process often referred to in chemical engineering is the fractional crystallization. This is not a different process, rather a special application of one (or both) of the above.


title: Crystallization

text: Most chemical compounds, dissolved in most solvents, show the so-called "direct" solubility that is, the solubility threshold increases with temperature.


title: Crystallization

text: So, whenever the conditions are favorable, crystal formation results from simply cooling the solution. Here "cooling" is a relative term: austenite crystals in a steel form well above 1000 °C. An example of this crystallization process is the production of Glauber's salt, a crystalline form of sodium sulfate. In the diagram, where equilibrium temperature is on the x-axis and equilibrium concentration (as mass percent of solute in saturated solution) in y-axis, it is clear that sulfate solubility quickly decreases below 32.5 °C. Assuming a saturated solution at 30 °C, by cooling it to 0 °C (note that this is possible thanks to the freezing-point depression), the precipitation of a mass of sulfate occurs corresponding to the change in solubility from 29% (equilibrium value at 30 °C) to approximately 4.5% (at 0 °C) – actually a larger crystal mass is precipitated, since sulfate entrains hydration water, and this has the side effect of increasing the final concentration.


title: Crystallization

text: The simplest cooling crystallizers are tanks provided with a mixer for internal circulation, where temperature decrease is obtained by heat exchange with an intermediate fluid circulating in a jacket. These simple machines are used in batch processes, as in processing of pharmaceuticals and are prone to scaling. Batch processes normally provide a relatively variable quality of the product along with the batch.


title: Crystallization

text: The "Swenson-Walker" crystallizer is a model, specifically conceived by Swenson Co. around 1920, having a semicylindric horizontal hollow trough in which a hollow screw conveyor or some hollow discs, in which a refrigerating fluid is circulated, plunge during rotation on a longitudinal axis. The refrigerating fluid is sometimes also circulated in a jacket around the trough. Crystals precipitate on the cold surfaces of the screw/discs, from which they are removed by scrapers and settle on the bottom of the trough. The screw, if provided, pushes the slurry towards a discharge port.


title: Crystallization

text: A common practice is to cool the solutions by flash evaporation: when a liquid at a given T temperature is transferred in a chamber at a pressure P such that the liquid saturation temperature T at P is lower than T, the liquid will release heat according to the temperature difference and a quantity of solvent, whose total latent heat of vaporization equals the difference in enthalpy. In simple words, the liquid is cooled by evaporating a part of it.


title: Crystallization

text: In the sugar industry, vertical cooling crystallizers are used to exhaust the molasses in the last crystallization stage downstream of vacuum pans, prior to centrifugation. The massecuite enters the crystallizers at the top, and cooling water is pumped through pipes in counterflow.


title: Crystallization

text: Another option is to obtain, at an approximately constant temperature, the precipitation of the crystals by increasing the solute concentration above the solubility threshold. To obtain this, the solute/solvent mass ratio is increased using the technique of evaporation. This process is insensitive to change in temperature (as long as hydration state remains unchanged).


title: Crystallization

text: Most industrial crystallizers are of the evaporative type, such as the very large sodium chloride and sucrose units, whose production accounts for more than 50% of the total world production of crystals. The most common type is the "forced circulation" (FC) model (see evaporator). A pumping device (a pump or an axial flow mixer) keeps the crystal slurry in homogeneous suspension throughout the tank, including the exchange surfaces; by controlling pump flow, control of the contact time of the crystal mass with the supersaturated solution is achieved, together with reasonable velocities at the exchange surfaces. The Oslo, mentioned above, is a refining of the evaporative forced circulation crystallizer, now equipped with a large crystals settling zone to increase the retention time (usually low in the FC) and to roughly separate heavy slurry zones from clear liquid. Evaporative crystallizers tend to yield larger average crystal size and narrows the crystal size distribution curve.


title: Crystallization

text: Whichever the form of the crystallizer, to achieve an effective process control it is important to control the retention time and the crystal mass, to obtain the optimum conditions in terms of crystal specific surface and the fastest possible growth. This is achieved by a separation – to put it simply – of the crystals from the liquid mass, in order to manage the two flows in a different way. The practical way is to perform a gravity settling to be able to extract (and possibly recycle separately) the (almost) clear liquid, while managing the mass flow around the crystallizer to obtain a precise slurry density elsewhere. A typical example is the DTB ("Draft Tube and Baffle") crystallizer, an idea of Richard Chisum Bennett (a Swenson engineer and later President of Swenson) at the end of the 1950s. The DTB crystallizer (see images) has an internal circulator, typically an axial flow mixer – yellow – pushing upwards in a draft tube while outside the crystallizer there is a settling area in an annulus; in it the exhaust solution moves upwards at a very low velocity, so that large crystals settle – and return to the main circulation – while only the fines, below a given grain size are extracted and eventually destroyed by increasing or decreasing temperature, thus creating additional supersaturation. A quasi-perfect control of all parameters is achieved as DTF crystallizers offer superior control over crystal size and characteristics. This crystallizer, and the derivative models (Krystal, CSC, etc.) could be the ultimate solution if not for a major limitation in the evaporative capacity, due to the limited diameter of the vapor head and the relatively low external circulation not allowing large amounts of energy to be supplied to the system.


title: Father Knows Best

text: Father Knows Best is an American sitcom starring Robert Young, Jane Wyatt, Elinor Donahue, Billy Gray and Lauren Chapin. The series, which began on radio in 1949, aired as a television show for six seasons and 203 episodes. Created by Ed James, "Father Knows Best" follows the lives of the Andersons, a middle-class family living in the town of Springfield. The state in which Springfield is located is never specified, but it is generally accepted to be located in the Midwestern United States.


title: Father Knows Best

text: The television series debuted on CBS in October 1954. It ran for one season and was canceled by CBS but picked up by NBC, where it remained for three seasons. After cancellation by NBC in 1958, the series returned to CBS, where it aired until May 1960.


title: Father Knows Best

text: The series began on August 25, 1949 on NBC Radio. Set in the Midwest, it starred Robert Young as the General Insurance agent Jim Anderson. His wife Margaret was first portrayed by June Whitley and later by Jean Vander Pyl. The Anderson children were Betty (Rhoda Williams), Bud (Ted Donaldson) and Kathy (Norma Jean Nilsson). Others in the cast were Eleanor Audley, Herb Vigran, and Sam Edwards. Sponsored through most of its run by General Foods, the series was heard Thursday evenings on NBC until March 25, 1954.


title: Father Knows Best

text: On the radio program, the character of Jim differs from the later television character. The radio Jim is far more sarcastic and shows he really rules over his family. Jim also calls his children names, something common on radio but lost in the TV series. For example, Jim says, "What a bunch of stupid children I have." Margaret is portrayed as a paragon of solid reason and patience, unless the plot calls for her to act a bit off; for example, in a Halloween episode, Margaret cannot understand how a table floats in the air. But that is a rare exception.


title: Father Knows Best

text: Betty, on radio, is portrayed as a status-seeking, boy-crazy teenage girl. To her, every little thing is "the worst thing that could ever happen." Bud, on radio, is portrayed as an "all-American" boy who always seems to need "just a bit more" money, though he receives $1.25 (nearly $14.00 in 2021) per week in allowance. Bud is expected to always answer the phone, which he hates. He is also shown as a somewhat dim boy who takes everything literally; for example, Jim might say, "Go jump in the lake," to which Bud would reply, "Okay, Dad; which lake should I go jump into?" He also uses the phrase "Holy Cow!" to express displeasure. On radio, Kathy often is portrayed as a source of irritation. She whines, cries and complains about her status in the family. She often is a source of money for her brother and sister, although she is in hock several years on her own allowance.


title: Father Knows Best

text: In an interview published in the magazine "Films of the Golden Age" (Fall 2015), Young revealed about the radio program: "I never quite liked it because it had to have laughs. And I wanted a warm relationship show... When we moved to TV I suggested an entirely new cast and different perspective."


title: Father Knows Best

text: The May 27, 1954 episode of "The Ford Television Theatre" show was called "Keep It in the Family." This 26-minute episode stars Robert Young as Jim Warren, head of the Warren family. With him was wife Grace (Ellen Drew), older daughter Peggy (Sally Fraser), younger daughter Patty (Tina Thompson) and son Jeff (Gordon Gebert). Developed by Young and his partner Eugene Rodney, it was intended as a pilot for a "Father Knows Best" television series. In the episode, Peggy dreams of making it as an actress, but a talent scout who has raised her hopes just wants people for his acting school.


title: Father Knows Best

text: The series premiered on October 3, 1954 on CBS, where it aired Sundays at 10:00 p.m. (ET). Lorillard's Kent cigarettes sponsored the show in its first season and Scott Paper Company became the primary sponsor when the series moved to NBC in the fall of 1955, where it aired Wednesdays at 8:30 p.m. (ET) for the next three seasons. Scott Paper remained as sponsor even after the show returned to CBS in September 1958, where it aired Mondays at 8:30 p.m. (ET) for the last two seasons, with Lever Brothers as an alternate sponsor from 1957 through 1960. A total of 203 episodes were produced, running until September 17, 1960, and appearing on all three of the television networks of the time, including prime-time repeats from September 1960 through April 1963.


title: Father Knows Best

text: As before, the character of Margaret was portrayed as a voice of reason, but Jim's character was softened to that of a thoughtful, yet Caspar Milquetoast-type father who offered sage advice in response to his children's problems. Jim was a salesman and manager of the General Insurance Company in Springfield, while Margaret was a housewife. Their home was located at 607 Maple Avenue. One history of the series characterized the Andersons as "truly an idealized family, the sort that viewers could relate to and emulate." As the two eldest children aged from teenager to young adult, Betty (1956) and Bud (1959) graduated from high school and attended Springfield Junior College.


title: Father Knows Best

text: "Father Knows Best" had become so ingrained in American pop culture as its idyllic presentation of family life that in 1959, the U.S. Department of the Treasury commissioned a special 30-minute episode of the show titled "24 Hours in Tyrant Land". Never aired on television, the episode—distributed to schools, churches and civic groups—promoted the purchase of savings bonds. The episode was later included on the Season 1 DVD.


title: Father Knows Best

text: Young left the series in 1960 at the height of the show's popularity to work on other projects, but reruns continued to air in primetime for another three years, on CBS from 1960 to 1962 and on ABC from 1962 to 1963. Following that, reruns were shown on ABC-TV in the early afternoon for several years.


title: Father Knows Best

text: On November 22, 1963, at 1:42 p.m. EST during a rerun of the third-season episode "Man About Town" on several ABC affiliates, mostly in the Mountain Time Zone (WABC-TV in New York was airing a local repeat of "The Ann Sothern Show"), ABC News broke into the program with the first bulletin of the news of the assassination of President Kennedy in Dallas, Texas.


title: Father Knows Best

text: The façade of the Anderson house depicted in the series' opening credits is the same structure used as Mr. George Wilson's home in the television series "Dennis the Menace" and again, in remodeled form, as Captain/Major Anthony Nelson's residence in "I Dream of Jeannie". Originally built in 1941 during the production of a series of "Blondie" movies, this theatrical property continued to serve for many more years as part of the backlot of Columbia Pictures (now Warner Brothers Ranch in Burbank, California). The house can also be seen in both its familiar "Father Knows Best" style and later renovated variations in episodes of "Hazel," "Bewitched," "The Monkees," "The Partridge Family" and in numerous other television comedies and dramas.


title: Father Knows Best

text: The TV cast reunited for a pair of TV movies on NBC: "Father Knows Best Reunion" on May 15, 1977 and "Father Knows Best: Home for Christmas" on December 18, 1977. In the 17 years since the series had ended, the characters of Betty and Bud had both married and had families of their own. Betty was the widowed mother of two girls, Jenny (Cari Anne Warder) and Ellen (Kyle Richards), while Bud and his wife Jean (Susan Adams) were the parents of a son, Robert "Robby" (Christopher Gardner). Kathy had become engaged to a doctor, Jason Harper (Hal England).


title: Father Knows Best

text: "Shout! Factory" has released all six seasons of "Father Knows Best" on DVD in Region 1. Season 5 and 6 were released as Shout! Select titles, available exclusively through their online store. Season 5 was re-released on April 11, 2017. Season 6 was re-released on July 18, 2017.


title: Father Knows Best

text: The series finished in the Nielsen ratings at No. 25 for the 1957–1958 season, No. 14 for 1958–1959 and No. 6 for 1959–1960.


title: Father Knows Best

text: "Father Knows Best" aired in the 1980s on Superstation WTBS and in the 1990s on The Family Channel. The show also aired on TV Land from 1998 to 1999 and 2002–2004. Reruns of "Father Knows Best" have aired on Antenna TV as part of that channel's regular programming schedule since January 3, 2011, and it also aired weekday afternoons on digital subchannel ME-TOO in Chicago. "Father Knows Best" is currently broadcast weekday mornings on fetv, GAC Family and GAC Living. It is also available for free streaming on the Vudu and Amazon Prime Video services.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: The Chevrolet Cavalier is a line of compact cars produced by Chevrolet. Serving as the replacement of the Chevrolet Monza, the Cavalier was the second Chevrolet model line to adopt front-wheel drive. Three versions of the Cavalier have been sold, including three generations sold in North America sold from the 1982 to 2005 model years, a version produced by SAIC-GM for China from 2016 to 2021, and a SAIC-GM version produced for Mexico since the 2019 model year.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: The Cavalier was among the inaugural vehicles of the GM J platform. One of the first "world cars" of General Motors, the J platform was developed for use by each North American GM division (with the exception of GMC), alongside models from Opel, Vauxhall, and Holden. Though sharing chassis underpinnings, J-body cars from Europe and Australia used slightly different body designs and different powertrains; in Europe, the Vauxhall Cavalier and Opel Ascona were marketed as mid-size cars. Initially a divisional counterpart of the Buick Skyhawk, Cadillac Cimarron, Oldsmobile Firenza, and Pontiac J2000, the Cavalier was primarily marketed alongside the Pontiac Sunbird (renamed the Pontiac Sunfire for 1995).


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: The 1982-2005 Cavalier was produced by multiple GM facilities across North America. For 2005, the Chevrolet Cobalt replaced the model line in North America.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: The Cavalier began development in the late 1970s, as Chevrolet sought to replace the compact Monza with a front-wheel drive model line sized between the Chevrolet Chevette subcompact and the front-wheel drive Nova replacement (which was renamed the Chevrolet Citation for production). Serving as a replacement for the Vega, the Monza was offered as a 2-door notchback coupe, 3-door hatchback, and 3-door station wagon (sharing the body of the Vega wagon). Initially developed for the stillborn GM Wankel rotary engine, the rear-wheel drive Monza was reengineered to accommodate V6 and V8 engines up to .


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: Marketed as one of the smallest and lowest-price American cars, the Chevette hatchback was closer in size to the Volkswagen Beetle, competing primarily against subcompacts from Japanese-brand manufacturers, including the Honda Civic, Datsun B210 and Toyota Corolla. Following the introduction of the Dodge Omni and Ford Fiesta, American manufacturers began transitioning towards front-wheel drive in compacts and subcompacts, through domestically produced vehicles and through the use of captive imports.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: Along with developing up-to-date chassis underpinnings to replace the Monza, GM sought to expand the market appeal of new model line by expanding the number of available body styles. The notchback coupe and three-door hatchback would make a return, joined by a four-door sedan and five-door station wagon (two body styles offered in mid-size and full-size Chevrolets).


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: The Cavalier first went on sale in May 1981 as a 1982 model with front-wheel-drive, a choice of two carbureted versions of the GM 122 series four-cylinder pushrod engines, and 2 and 4-door sedan, hatchback, and station wagon body styles. Convertibles were added in 1983, initial production totaling less than 1000. The Cavalier name originated from GM's then-British subsidiary Vauxhall, who applied it to badge engineered variants of the Opel Ascona, the third generation of which was the first J-body car to be released.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: For 1982, the 1.8 liter carbureted L46 inline 4 was the sole engine available, and it could be mated to either a 4-speed manual, or 3-speed automatic transmission. The Cavalier could be bought in 4 body styles; a 2-door coupe, 3-door hatchback, 4-door sedan, and a 4-door station wagon and was offered with three trim packages to include the entry level Cadet, the mid-level Base and the upscale CL, which could be optioned with two-tone paint, accent stripes and aluminum alloy wheels. The suspension was shared with the front-wheel-drive Citation and Celebrity, which consisted of MacPherson struts, lower control arms, coil springs and a stabilizer bar for the front, while a solid beam axle, trailing arms, variable-rate coil springs for the rear suspension on all body styles were unique to the Cavalier.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: For 1983, the 2.0 liter throttle body fuel-injected LQ5 inline 4 replaced the L46 engine found in the 1982 Cavalier, and a 5-speed manual transmission was made available. A convertible model produced by American Sunroof was added to the lineup late in the model year. This Cavalier model was the first convertible produced by Chevrolet since the Caprice convertible was discontinued in 1975.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: For 1984, the Cavalier's styling was lightly refreshed, featuring a new grill and quad headlight design. The Type 10 package, initially offered on only the hatchback, was added to the coupe and convertible models. 5,161 Cavaliers that originated from South Gate Assembly were equipped with an Olympic special appearance package to celebrate the 1984 Summer Olympics.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: For 1985, the 2.8 liter LB6 V6 was added as an option for the Cavalier. It was meant to debut with the Z24 package, but the Z24 package was delayed until 1986. The V6 was available as an option on all trim levels.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: For 1986, the Z24 package was added as on option for the coupe and hatchback models. It features digital gauges, sport wheels, a ground effects kit, and a specific front facia. The Type 10 package was discontinued and replaced with the RS series, which was now available on all body styles.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: For 1987, both available engines were refreshed for their second generation. The LQ5 inline-four was updated to the LL8 designation, which added 5 horsepower and replaced the distributor with a coil pack ignition system. The LB6 V6 added aluminum cylinder heads, different fuel injectors, and electronic spark control.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: The Cavalier was restyled in 1987 for the 1988 model year. The 3-door hatchback was dropped, while the coupe, sedan, wagon and convertible carried over. The sedan and wagon were unchanged from the doors back, while the coupe's exterior was completely redesigned. This resulted in different trunk designs for the coupe and sedan. Three trim levels were available for 1988: VL for Value Leader, RS, and Z24. The convertible was only available as a Z24, and the dashboard unit from the Type 10 was installed in coupes and convertibles with the Z24 appearance, while the VL and RS used the dashboard unit shared with the Sunbird and Cimarron. The VL and RS came standard with the 2.0 L OHV L4 engine, now upgraded to throttle-body injection, or TBI, producing , while the 2.8 L V6 producing was optional on the RS and standard on the Z24. With two-door models, a 5-speed manual transmission was standard and a 3-speed automatic was optional, however the 3-speed automatic was made standard on sedans and wagons. An electronic dashboard was available with the RS and Z24 trims, while the front suspension carried over from the previous generation and the rear suspension adopted the torsion-beam rear axle, along with coil springs and rear stabilizer bars from the discontinued Buick Skyhawk, Oldsmobile Firenza and Cadillac Cimarron.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: For 1989, the steering column was redesigned. The new self-aligning steering wheel was designed so as to reduce injuries in a collision by bending to conform to the driver's chest. Also, rear shoulder belts became standard on all models. RS and Z24 custom cloth seating received a new style of front bucket seats with integral headrests. The optional V6 was retooled to 130 hp.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: For 1990, the base engine was enlarged to a 2.2 L OHV L4, and power increased to . Door-mounted automatic front seatbelts were added due to US passive restraint legislation. The optional V6 engine was also upgraded to the 3.1 L V6 and 140 horsepower. The convertible was dropped from availability to prevent internal competition with a planned Beretta convertible. However, the Beretta convertible was shelved at the eleventh hour, before a 1990 Cavalier convertible could be prepared.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: The 1991 Cavalier got a more extensive restyling that involved a new hood, bumpers, headlights, taillights, wheel covers and a redesigned interior; however, the body style remained unchanged. Most notably, the cooling system was redesigned to draw air from the bumper, giving it a Ford Taurus-style bumper and grille-less nose. The new bumpers were unpainted, with the option to have them colored grey, black or white, the latter only available on white-colored models. The RS and the Z24 eschewed this for a color keyed body package. Z24 models also gained the options for a height-adjustable driver's seat and a CD player. The platform and trim lines were carried over, while the convertible was brought back mid-year in the RS trim only with the V6 standard.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: Minor changes for 1991 also included the Alpha Tech ignition lock cylinder, which incorporated a dual-bit key that was larger and thicker in size in comparison to the old single-bit lock cylinder system that had been used for years. The lock system was intended to be a stronger deterrent to vehicle theft, but constant problems were reported with the lock jamming. It was dropped after an improved dual-bit single key system was introduced for the 1995 model year and redesign.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: For 1992, the 2.2 L OHV standard engine adopted multi-point fuel injection, or MPFI to improve output to , however unlike the SFI version of the 2.2L in the Chevrolet Corsica. The convertible was now available in both RS and Z24 trims, with the V6 standard in the Z24 and optional with the RS. Anti-lock brakes were added as a standard feature, as Delco Moraine had managed to develop a low-cost system. Power locks were also standard, and were designed to automatically lock when the car is shifted out of park, or if the car is traveling at least 8 miles per hour in manual transmission equipped coupe models.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: Model year 1993 brought minimal changes to the Cavalier line. The convertibles received a glass rear window, allowing rear window defrost as an option. Also, the RS trim received a minor styling change, doing away with its grille slot.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: The 1994 models were also carryovers, as a redesign of the Cavalier was in development. Both of the wagon's trim levels—the VL and RS—were dropped, but the body style continued to be marketed in an unnamed base trim that was essentially the same as the VL. The 2.2 L OHV L4 was now converted to the SFI version found in the Corsica, which delivered an output of 120 horsepower. Additional changes included a slightly redesigned climate control interface and the power locking system being again redesigned: the doors would still lock automatically when put into gear, but they would also unlock automatically when the ignition was switched off.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: The Chevrolet Cavalier was introduced in Mexico in model year 1990 to replace the Chevrolet Celebrity, which had been until then the entry point to the Mexican GM lineup. The initial offering consisted only of a 4-door sedan with a 2.8 L MPFI V6 with a 5-speed manual gearbox, or a 3-speed automatic as an option.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: For 1991, it got the same redesign as in the United States and was now also offered as a coupé. The coupé Cavalier Z24 was also introduced in Mexico with a 3.1 L V6, with both manual or automatic transmissions. For 1992, the Mexican Cavalier continued unchanged.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: For 1993, the Mexican Chevrolet Cavalier adopted the aesthetics from the Pontiac Sunbird. For 1993 and 1994, the Cavaliers sold there featured Sunbird body panels, as opposed to US-spec Cavalier panels and the Mexican Chevrolet Cavalier Z24 took on the appearance of the Pontiac Sunbird GT sold in the United States. No wagons and convertibles were offered in Mexico.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: The Cavalier received its first total redesign for 1995, with expanded dimensions and more aerodynamic styling, incorporating minor design cues from the fourth generation Chevrolet Camaro. Some of the basic styling cues remained however, such as the bumper-integrated grille and the coupes' dipped beltline. Coupe, sedan, and convertible options were offered, however the wagon model was discontinued, and later replaced with the Chevrolet HHR in 2005. The car now had the available option of 15 and 16-inch wheels. By 1997, the Cavalier became the best selling car within the entire GM lineup.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: For the third generation, powertrain options were limited to inline-four engines. The option for a V6 engine, which had been available in the first and second generation, was dropped and replaced by a new four-cylinder of similar power output. Base and RS models still retained the 2.2-litre pushrod four-cylinder engine (2.2 L OHV) of the previous models, which was primarily mated to a 3-speed automatic, but was available with 5-speed manual in the two-door models, in particular the RS models. As of 1996 a new 4-speed automatic became available in any trim; this had originally been intended to be introduced along with the redesign but General Motors' cash shortage delayed it. The Z24 and LS convertible used the 2.3 L LD2 Quad-4 engine in 1995, but they received a new engine in 1996, the 2.4 liter DOHC LD9. This engine could also be special ordered on a 4-door LS model. This engine produced and of torque and was used until 2002.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: In 2000, the car gained a minor facelift consisting of bigger headlights and an improved grille, lost the "CHEVROLET" text badge at the trunklid and gained a new "CAVALIER" badge along with new "five spoke" hubcaps. The 2.4-litre engine came mated standard with the Getrag F23 5-speed manual transmission on the Z24 models, or with the optional 4-speed automatic on both the Z24 and the LS models. The Z24 only came in 2-door coupe models until 2001 and featured a sport-tuned suspension, 16-inch tires, alloy wheels and improved interior electronics. Aesthetically little changed from the other models other than a ground effects kit and taller rear spoiler. In 2000, a 4-door Z24 Sedan debuted, featuring the same mechanics but having a less sporty body. The Z24 trim also received several other upgrades including a wider front sway bar and FE2 Sports Suspension for better handling characteristics, and less aggressive ABS anti-lock braking system.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: In 2002, the 3-speed automatic was dropped from the base models equipped with the 2.2, and the 4-speed automatic became the main offering across the entire lineup, with 5-speed still available in the two-door cars. Also, the RS was replaced by the LS Sport line, which featured the new Ecotec L61 motors with and torque. These engines improved fuel economy, featuring the same displacement as the GM 122 Pushrod Engine (2.2 L OHV) while maintaining most of the power of the older LD9 motors. The new Ecotec motors replaced the GM 122 Pushrod Engine (2.2 L OHV) in base models in 2003, and became the sole engine choice in the entire Cavalier line-up until 2005 when the Chevrolet Cavalier was replaced by the Chevrolet Cobalt.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: A GM Eaton M45 Supercharger kit was also offered for the Z24 trim as well. The supercharger kit was developed and tested by General Motors and could only be installed at a GM dealer. This upgrade increased performance considerably due to a pressure of 4.7 PSI which in turn added approximately and of torque increase; raising the Z24's ratings to approximately and of torque.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: The third generation Cavalier had two facelifts. There was a minor one in 1999 with new front and rear bumper fascias which included revised headlamps and taillamps for 2000 models. There was a more extensive refresh in 2002 for the 2003 model year, which included a complete new front end design, revised taillamps with a full-width rear reflector, a new rear spoiler and rear bumper fascia.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: The third-generation Cavalier earned several low scores in crash tests by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety and National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Also, IIHS fatality risks statistics rated the Cavalier among the "highest rates of driver deaths", with 150 (four-door) to 171 (two-door) driver deaths per million registered vehicle years. Average for the Cavalier class (small) was 103 (four-door) to 134 (two-door) driver deaths per million registered vehicle years.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: As part of a wider effort to avoid additional restrictions on exports to the US, the third generation model was briefly sold in Japan by Toyota under an agreement with GM, badged as the .


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: Aside from the fact that it was right hand drive, the Toyota Cavalier also featured a leather-wrapped shift knob, steering wheel and park brake lever, wider front fenders, amber turn signals for Japanese regulations, power folding side mirrors, side turn signal repeater lights on the front fenders, and carpeting on the inside of the trunk lid. Interior seats were often flecked with color, and the rear seat had a fold-down armrest. Vehicles produced from February through December 1998 were available with a leather interior equipped with an automatic transmission only.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: All models featured wheels borrowed from the Pontiac Sunfire. The Toyota Cavalier was available in 2.4G and 2.4Z trim levels. While all Chevrolet-badged Cavaliers received a facelift for 2000, the Toyota did as well with the updated center console, head-lights/hood/front bumper, tail-lights, and colors available. TRD made a body kit and rear wing for the Cavalier, available exclusively in Japan. The car was sold only at Toyota Store Japanese dealerships.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: The Cavalier was not the only GM product sold in Japan; the Saturn S-series was sold at Saturn dealerships (some former Isuzu dealerships) from 1996 until 2003, and some Toyota Vista Stores also retailed Saturns.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: The Cavalier was entirely produced by GM in the US at the Lordstown Assembly location, and sold from 1995 to 2000. The 1996-2000 Toyota Cavaliers came equipped with the 2.4 L LD9 engine, while the 1995 used the 2.3 L Quad 4. Due to the engine displacement and width dimensions ( for the coupe, for the sedan) exceeding Japanese government regulations concerning exterior dimensions and maximum engine displacement, it was not considered a "compact" so it was sold as a "normal-class car" like the Toyota Mark II and Nissan Skyline. Prices for the coupe started at 2 million yen for the coupe, and 1.81 million yen for the sedan. the final Toyota Cavalier was imported in 2000.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: The introduction of the Toyota Cavalier was not the first time the Cavalier was sold in Japan. Yanase Co., Ltd., a Japanese retail dealership that started importing European and North American vehicles soon after the end of World War II, sold various GM products including the Cavalier. When the decision was made to sell the Cavalier as a Toyota, this disrupted operations at Yanase. When the Toyota Cavalier was cancelled, Yanase continued to sell Chevrolet and other GM products. Yanase also provides complete maintenance services for all vehicles sold.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: Due to higher than typically average vehicle inspection costs, a fair number of these vehicles are re-exported as Japanese used cars, most notably to Australia and New Zealand. Production of the Toyota Cavalier ceased in June 2000. Despite Toyota making considerable efforts to sell the Cavalier on the domestic market, the Japanese public perceived the quality of workmanship to not be up to the standard typically expected of locally built cars. The car was also introduced while Japan was in a recession following the 1991 collapse of the Japanese asset price bubble or "bubble economy."


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: Most Cavaliers were built at Lordstown Assembly, although they have also been produced at South Gate Assembly (1982 model year only), Lansing Car Assembly (1995-1998 coupes), Lansing Craft Centre (1996-2000 convertibles), Janesville Assembly, Ramos Arizpe, and Leeds Assembly. The Cavalier was discontinued in 2005.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: Chevrolet reintroduced the Cavalier name on a new China-only compact sedan below the Cruze, with the Chinese name being Chevrolet Kewozi (科沃兹). The Cavalier was introduced at the 2016 Chengdu Auto Show on September 2, 2016. It was developed on the same platform as the first generation Cruze, the Delta II platform, and uses the 1.5-liter four-cylinder engine that powers many compact GM models in China, including the Chevrolet Sail. Its pricing sets the Cavalier exactly between the smaller Sail and the more modern second generation Cruze. Deliveries started in September, with almost 10,000 units sold in its first month, but there are indications the Cavalier cannibalizes sales of the similarly priced first-generation Cruze, which continues to be sold in China. As of 2018, the fourth-generation Cavalier is also sold in Mexico with the same name, replacing the Chevrolet Sonic. There, the 1.5 L engine produces and torque.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: The Cavalier was updated for the 2020 model year for Mexico with minor changes, adding three new colors, new alloy design, four airbags and ABS brakes, three-point seatbelts, and stability control as well as minor changes to the interior for the LT trim line including a 7" with Chevrolet myLink and Smartphone Integration for Apple CarPlay. The 2020 Cavalier went on sale on 23 September 2019. In 2019, the car was discontinued in the Chinese domestic market after being replaced by the Chevrolet Monza (科鲁泽), although it continued to be built for export. The 科沃兹 (kewozi) name is now used on the Chevrolet Onix, which is positioned below the Monza.


title: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: The fifth-generation Cavalier is marketed in Mexico since in late 2021 as a 2022 model. It is a rebadged version of the Chevrolet Monza sedan produced in China. Reflecting the new engine, it is marketed as the Cavalier Turbo. The engine is a 1,298 cc inline-four producing and .


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: The Bosnian pyramid complex is a pseudoarchaeological notion to explain the formation of a cluster of natural hills in the area of Visoko in central Bosnia and Herzegovina. Since 2005, Semir Osmanagić, a Bosnian-American businessman based in Houston, Texas, has claimed that these hills are the largest human-made ancient pyramids on Earth. His claims have been overwhelmingly refuted by scientists but he has proceeded to promote the area as a tourist attraction.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: Direct study of the site by geologists, archaeologists, and other scientists has demonstrated that the hills are natural formations known as flatirons, and that there is no evidence that they were shaped by human construction. The European Association of Archaeologists has condemned the so-called 'Bosnian pyramids' as a "cruel hoax"; along with various other scholars they are also concerned about damage being done to genuine archaeological and paleontological sites: a medieval Bosnian castle, Roman fortifications, and some even more ancient remains. Osmanagić initiated excavations in 2006 and has since reshaped one of the hills, making it look like a stepped pyramid. The academic community has called for the government to end funding of excavations and disruption of the site because of the damage to true archaeological resources.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: Many scholars have noted that the claims have been used for serious ideological, political and economic gains by various factions in Bosnia. Although Osmanagić's claims have been completely disproved by the scientific community, the Visoko area in recent years has attracted pseudoscience enthusiasts; the so-called Bosnian pyramids and the Ravne tunnels have been morphed into "New Age pilgrimage sites." By June 2016, Osmanagić had completed an "archaeological park" at one of the hills, where he attracts volunteers who are constructing botanical gardens; meditation sessions have been held at the site. It has been noted that tourist traffic has aided the economy of the city of Visoko, located near the front of the war that destroyed so much of the country in the late 20th century. As of 2017, Osmanagić continued to make alterations to the hills and add to his marketing about them. His work at the time was based on private funding.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: The hills are located near the town of Visoko, northwest of Sarajevo. The town was Bosnia's capital during the Middle Ages, and ruins of a medieval fortress are located atop Visočica hill. Given the defensive strategic value of hilltop locations, other civilizations built facilities at this site: the fortress was built over an old observation post of the Roman Empire, which, in turn, had been constructed on top of the ruins of a further more ancient settlement. The hills are a type known as flatirons. Archaeological geologist Paul Heinrich of Louisiana State University has said that such formations are common throughout the world, for example, the so-called 'Russian Twin Pyramids' in Vladivostok, and there are many in the nearby region.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: In October 2005, Osmanagić and his supporters initiated a long-running media campaign to promote the pseudo-scientific belief that Visočica hill and the surrounding hills are an ancient pyramid complex. In an interview with Philip Coppens in "Nexus" (April–May 2006), Osmanagić suggested that they were most likely constructed by the Illyrians, who (according to Osmanagić) lived in the area from 12,000 BC to 500 BC. He has since argued that Visočica is an example of cultures building on top of other cultures. In 2017 Osmanagić was reported to have claimed that the structures date back 34,000 years.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: In addition, Osmanagić claims that tunnels around the hill complex, which have been named Ravne tunnels, are an ancient man-made underground network. They are claimed to be 2.4 miles (3.8 km) long. He claims to have found fossilised leaves in them dating back 34,000 years.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: Osmanagić supports a number of fringe claims, saying he discovered 'standing waves' at the top of the largest of the hills; waves which he asserts travel faster than light and prove the existence of a 'cosmic internet' that allows for intergalactic communication. He also promotes the idea of ancient astronauts, and claims that human beings are the product of genetic engineering.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: Osmanagić has given his own names to the hills. He has named the two largest hills as the 'Pyramid of the Sun' and the 'Pyramid of the Moon' (not to be confused with the genuine pyramids of the Sun and the Moon in Teotihuacan, Mexico). Other hills have been named by Osmanagić as the pyramids of 'Love,' 'the Earth,' and 'the Dragon.'


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: Local authorities have funded his excavations, and authorized visits to the 'pyramids' by school children, with guides telling them the hills are part of their Bosnian heritage. The site has become a tourist destination.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: According to Osmanagić, the dig in 2006 involved an international team of archaeologists from Australia, Austria, Ireland, United Kingdom and Slovenia. However, many archaeologists whom he named have stated they did not agree to participate and were never at the site. Osmanagić also claimed the support of an "Oxford archaeologist," who was found to be an unqualified undergraduate. His foundation's website claimed support of a British Member of Parliament; the name given was not that of any sitting member.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: Osmanagić claims that the direction of the hills reveals alignment to support ancient human cosmology. According to Enver Buza, a surveyor from Sarajevo’s Geodetic Institute, the "Pyramid of the Sun" is perfectly oriented to the north. Osmanagić has said that the sides of the pyramid are oriented toward the cardinal points, and has claimed that this could not be produced by natural processes.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: Osmanagić's claims have also centred on alleged evidence concerning satellite photography, thermal analysis and radar detection. An article by Ian Traynor for "The Guardian" in 2006 reported that Osmanagić and his team alleged that their results from such research showed that the hills were not natural formations and that tunnels may exist inside the hills.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: According to Osmanagić, his excavations have produced evidence of blocks that he claims may be part of a man-made outer surface. Osmanagić claims that these blocks are made of a concrete poured on-site that was stronger than today's versions.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: Osmanagić's claims have been repeatedly condemned by qualified scientists and archaeologists. Seven leading European archaeologists issued a European Association of Archaeologists "Declaration" stating:


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: The Declaration was signed by Hermann Parzinger, President of German Archaeological Institute in Berlin; Willem Willems, Inspector General of Rijksinspectie Archeologie in The Hague; Jean-Paul Demoule, President of the "Institut national de recherches archéologiques préventives" (INRAP) in Paris; Romuald Schild, Director of the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw; Vassil Nikolov, Director of the Institute of Archaeology of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences in Sofia; Anthony Harding, President of the European Association of Archaeologists; and Mike Heyworth, Director of the Council for British Archaeology in York.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: Osmanagić's assertions have been categorically refuted by a number of experts, who have accused him of promoting pseudo-scientific notions and damaging valuable archaeological sites with his excavations. Amar Karapuš, a curator at the Historical Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Sarajevo, said, "When I first read about the pyramids I thought it was a very funny joke. I just couldn't believe that anyone in the world could believe this." Garrett Fagan of Penn State University is quoted as saying, "They should not be allowed to destroy genuine sites in the pursuit of these delusions[...] It’s as if someone were given permission to bulldoze Stonehenge to find secret chambers of lost ancient wisdom underneath."


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: Enver Imamović of the University of Sarajevo, a former director of the National Museum of Sarajevo, concerned that the excavations will damage historic sites such as the medieval royal capital Visoki, said that the excavations would "irreversibly destroy a national treasure".


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: Excavations in the summer of 2008 by archaeologists who are not related to Osmanagić's Foundation uncovered medieval artifacts, which led to renewed calls for the government to cancel Osmanagić's digging permits.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: A former employee, Nadija Nukić, told a Bosnian newspaper that carvings on stones that Osmanagić characterizes as dating from ancient times were not present when the stones were first uncovered. They were later inscribed by Osmanagić's team. Osmanagić has denied this statement.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: Curtis Runnels, an American expert on prehistoric Greece and the Balkans from Boston University, states that the inhabitants of the area, to whom Osmanagić credits the building of the 'pyramids', were a primitive people who were small in number and who "did not have the tools or skills to engage in the construction of monumental architecture." Runnels has said that cultures able to build large structures of that type emerged in the region only around 2,500 years ago, but did not construct such earthworks. He has also pointed out that a pyramidal shape is resistant to certain forces; it is a surviving, common form produced by natural causes.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: After visiting Visočica hill, British professor Anthony Harding, president of the European Association of Archaeologists, wrote a letter to "The Times" (published 25 April 2006), referring to Osmanagić's theories as "wacky" and "absurd". He expressed concerns that the government of Bosnia had insufficient safeguards in place to protect the country's "rich heritage" from "looting and unmonitored or unauthorised development".


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: Brian Stewart, assistant curator at the Museum of Anthropological Archaeology at the University of Michigan, said that "There were very worrying reports that he [Osmanagić] and his team have essentially sculpted the sides of these natural hills into something they think resembles pyramids, in the process stripping away sediment which contains layers of actual archaeology from mediaeval and earlier periods".


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: In June 2006, archaeologist Zahi Hawass, former Egyptian Minister of State for Antiquities Affairs, wrote a letter to "Archaeology Magazine" after his name became linked to the excavations. Osmanagić had allegedly said that Hawass had recommended Egyptian geologist Aly Abdullah Barakat to investigate the hills. Hawass denied all involvement, accusing Osmanagić of spreading falsehoods; in his letter he noted that Barakat had no archaeological knowledge or standing. He further noted that Osmanagić was totally wrong to claim that the Mayan civilization of Mesoamerica originated in Atlantis or the Pleiades constellation.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: The Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation commissioned a geological team from the University of Tuzla to investigate Visočica. On 8 May 2006, members held a press conference in Tuzla to present the results of their research. The academics, from the Faculty of Mining and Geology and led by Sejfudin Vrabac, concluded that the hill is a natural geological formation, made of clastic sediments of layered composition and varying thickness, and that its shape is a consequence of endodynamical and exodynamical processes in the post-Miocene era. The 'pyramid' is composed of the same matter as mountains in the area; layers of conglomerate, clay and sandstone.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: According to Professor Vrabac, who specializes in palaeogeology, there are dozens of similar morphological formations in the Sarajevo-Zenica mining basin alone. The geological team report on Visočica, based on the data collected in six drill holes at 3- to 17-metre depths, is supported by the Research and Teaching Council of the Faculty of Mining and Geology, as well as by the Association of Geologists of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: In 2006, self-styled geologist from Egypt, Aly Abdullah Barakat, claiming to be an expert on pyramids, inspected some blocks at the hills and announced at first look that they were evidence of pyramids. In a geological report dated 3 November 2007, Barakat denied that nature produces pyramidal shapes and suggested that the main formation seen today may have been a natural hill shaped into a pyramid by human efforts. He described his own results as inconclusive. The very same blocks were inspected by British archaeologist Anthony Harding shortly afterwards, who concluded they did not constitute evidence of pyramids.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: The 2006 dig uncovered fractured conglomerate and sandstone plates, which are naturally occurring. Following a visit to the site, American geologist Robert Schoch concluded that these were common natural geological formations of little interest. He accused the workers of carving the hillside to make impressions of stepped sides on the so-called 'Pyramid of the Moon', and drew attention to testimony by workers at the site that the alleged ancient inscriptions at the site were freshly made. Schoch's website documents the alleged damage being done by Osmanagić's digs, and accuses Osmanagić of "a deliberate smear campaign".


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: Colin Woodard, writing for the "Smithsonian Magazine" in December 2009, has suggested that the 'Bosnian pyramid' phenomenon may be a societal reaction to the widespread destruction and horrors of the Bosnian War which ended in 1995. He notes that Bosnian leaders, including one prime minister and two presidents, and many Bosnian news outlets have welcomed the theory. It appears to flatter a large and receptive domestic audience with an idea that their homeland was once the seat of a great ancient civilization, and holds out a kind of promise of a bright economic future. Conversely, Woodard notes, those in Bosnia who have attempted to expose the project as a nationalist hoax "have been shouted down and called anti-Bosnian".


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: Archaeologist Carl Fegan has similarly suggested that Osmanagić appeals to Bosnian nationalists at a time of continuing struggle with economic and social difficulties since the war. Thousands of people in the region were killed in the war, and "authorities estimate the Visoko region suffered about $200 million in damage with the destruction of infrastructure and factories."


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: With a current population of 11,000, the town of Visoko has many shop owners who are glad to have tourist traffic to help generate revenue in the local and regional economy. Some Bosnians who have volunteered to dig or otherwise work at the site are glad to have something positive to work for.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: Osmanagić claimed to have attracted 200,000 tourists in the first year of his operations at the site. In 2006 he was seeking funding from investors in Malaysia to construct an archaeological park. He also intended to establish parks around other landmarks which he claims as ancient monuments and scientists say are natural features. Attendance has declined somewhat at the Bosnian hills since the early years, but souvenir sellers say they still depend on the steady business.


title: Bosnian pyramid claims

text: Osmanagić has added events claimed to enhance the spiritual atmosphere at the site; for instance, meditation sessions are held in the so-called Ravne tunnels, which he claims to have discovered. In August 2016, Osmanagić claimed that 5,000 people had visited the archeological park since it opened in June of that year. In 2016 Osmanagić's foundation opened Ravne 2 park. The park is visited by tens of thousands of tourists on a yearly basis, but also by a large number of locals and visitors from the surrounding area. It is supported by the Visoko municipal government and Zenica-Doboj canton. The Visoko municipal council declared it as a park of significance.


title: Partition function (statistical mechanics)

text: In physics, a partition function describes the statistical properties of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium. Partition functions are functions of the thermodynamic state variables, such as the temperature and volume. Most of the aggregate thermodynamic variables of the system, such as the total energy, free energy, entropy, and pressure, can be expressed in terms of the partition function or its derivatives. The partition function is dimensionless.


text: Each partition function is constructed to represent a particular statistical ensemble (which, in turn, corresponds to a particular free energy). The most common statistical ensembles have named partition functions. The canonical partition function applies to a canonical ensemble, in which the system is allowed to exchange heat with the environment at fixed temperature, volume, and number of particles. The grand canonical partition function applies to a grand canonical ensemble, in which the system can exchange both heat and particles with the environment, at fixed temperature, volume, and chemical potential. Other types of partition functions can be defined for different circumstances; see partition function (mathematics) for generalizations. The partition function has many physical meanings, as discussed in Meaning and significance.


text: Initially, let us assume that a thermodynamically large system is in thermal contact with the environment, with a temperature "T", and both the volume of the system and the number of constituent particles are fixed. A collection of this kind of system comprises an ensemble called a canonical ensemble. The appropriate mathematical expression for the canonical partition function depends on the degrees of freedom of the system, whether the context is classical mechanics or quantum mechanics, and whether the spectrum of states is discrete or continuous.


text: For a canonical ensemble that is classical and discrete, the canonical partition function is defined as


text: To obtain formula_21, we differentiate formula_18 with respect to the average energy formula_23 and apply the first law of thermodynamics, formula_24:


text: where formula_28 is defined as the thermodynamic beta. Finally, the probability distribution formula_15 and entropy formula_18 are respectively


text: In classical mechanics, the position and momentum variables of a particle can vary continuously, so the set of microstates is actually uncountable. In "classical" statistical mechanics, it is rather inaccurate to express the partition function as a sum of discrete terms. In this case we must describe the partition function using an integral rather than a sum. For a canonical ensemble that is classical and continuous, the canonical partition function is defined as


text: To make it into a dimensionless quantity, we must divide it by "h", which is some quantity with units of action (usually taken to be Planck's constant).


text: The reason for the factorial factor "N"! is discussed below. The extra constant factor introduced in the denominator was introduced because, unlike the discrete form, the continuous form shown above is not dimensionless. As stated in the previous section, to make it into a dimensionless quantity, we must divide it by "h" (where "h" is usually taken to be Planck's constant).


text: For a canonical ensemble that is quantum mechanical and discrete, the canonical partition function is defined as the trace of the Boltzmann factor:


text: For a canonical ensemble that is quantum mechanical and continuous, the canonical partition function is defined as


text: In systems with multiple quantum states "s" sharing the same energy "E", it is said that the energy levels of the system are degenerate. In the case of degenerate energy levels, we can write the partition function in terms of the contribution from energy levels (indexed by "j") as follows:


text: where "g" is the degeneracy factor, or number of quantum states "s" that have the same energy level defined by "E" = "E".


text: The above treatment applies to "quantum" statistical mechanics, where a physical system inside a finite-sized box will typically have a discrete set of energy eigenstates, which we can use as the states "s" above. In quantum mechanics, the partition function can be more formally written as a trace over the state space (which is independent of the choice of basis):


text: where is the quantum Hamiltonian operator. The exponential of an operator can be defined using the exponential power series.


text: are regarded as negligible. Formally, using bra–ket notation, one inserts under the trace for each degree of freedom the identity:


text: A coherent state is an approximate eigenstate of both operators formula_68 and formula_69, hence also of the Hamiltonian , with errors of the size of the uncertainties. If and can be regarded as zero, the action of reduces to multiplication by the classical Hamiltonian, and reduces to the classical configuration integral.


text: For simplicity, we will use the discrete form of the partition function in this section. Our results will apply equally well to the continuous form.


text: Consider a system "S" embedded into a heat bath "B". Let the total energy of both systems be "E". Let "p" denote the probability that the system "S" is in a particular microstate, "i", with energy "E". According to the fundamental postulate of statistical mechanics (which states that all attainable microstates of a system are equally probable), the probability "p" will be inversely proportional to the number of microstates of the total closed system ("S", "B") in which "S" is in microstate "i" with energy "E". Equivalently, "p" will be proportional to the number of microstates of the heat bath "B" with energy "E" − "E":


text: Assuming that the heat bath's internal energy is much larger than the energy of "S" ("E" ≫ "E"), we can Taylor-expand formula_71 to first order in "E" and use the thermodynamic relation formula_72, where here formula_73, formula_74 are the entropy and temperature of the bath respectively:


text: Since the total probability to find the system in "some" microstate (the sum of all "p") must be equal to 1, we know that the constant of proportionality must be the normalization constant, and so, we can define the partition function to be this constant:


text: In order to demonstrate the usefulness of the partition function, let us calculate the thermodynamic value of the total energy. This is simply the expected value, or ensemble average for the energy, which is the sum of the microstate energies weighted by their probabilities: