title: Abscam

text: At his trial, lawyers for Williams argued that he had not actually been bribed because the stock in the titanium mining company was worthless. Other defenses attempting to have the charges dismissed included that he was a victim of selective prosecution by the Justice Department because he had supported the presidential bid of Ted Kennedy over Jimmy Carter in the Democratic primary. These premises were not accepted by the jury, who convicted Williams after 28 hours of deliberation on May 1, 1981. Later appeals made by Williams included arguments that a main prosecution witness had perjured himself and that Williams had been a victim of entrapment. The guilty verdict was upheld, and Williams was sentenced to three years in prison.


title: Abscam

text: Because of the convictions, the Senate Ethics Committee voted to censure Williams and put a motion to the floor to expel him for charges of bringing dishonor upon the Senate and his "ethically repugnant behavior". Supporters of Williams moved that the censure was enough, and that the expulsion was unnecessary. The Senate voted to censure Williams, but before the vote on his expulsion could occur, Williams resigned his seat. In his resignation speech, Williams proclaimed his innocence and argued that the investigation into his activities was a grievous assault on the rights of the Senate, and that other senators should be wary of unchecked investigations into their activities by other branches of the government.


title: Abscam

text: Williams served two years of his three-year sentence at a federal penitentiary in Newark, New Jersey. He served the remainder of his term at the Integrity House halfway house, where he later became a member of the board of directors until his death by cancer on November 17, 2001. He also attempted to receive a presidential pardon from President Bill Clinton but his request was denied. Williams was the first Senator to be imprisoned in almost 80 years and, had the expulsion motion been approved, would have been the first Senator to be expelled from the Senate since the Civil War.


title: Abscam

text: Linguistics expert Roger Shuy is convinced of Williams' innocence. In a recording of Williams' encounter with an agent disguised as a sheikh, "At one point, the sheikh put the bribe directly to Williams: 'I would like to give you...some money for, for permanent residence.' The first four words of Williams's reply were 'No, no, no, no.'" A prosecution memo at the time stated that there was no case against Williams but the judge, who in his ruling decried "the cynicism and hypocrisy of corrupt government officials", set it aside. After trial, the lead juror said that had he known all the facts he would not have found Williams guilty.


title: Abscam

text: Frank Thompson (D-NJ) was a member of the House from Trenton, New Jersey, who was indicted and convicted of accepting a bribe from an FBI agent posing as an Arab sheik. Thompson was offered money in exchange for helping the Arabs overcome certain immigration laws. Well-liked by his constituents, he was the longest-serving member of Congress convicted in Operation Abscam.


title: Abscam

text: Thompson abstained on the vote to expel Representative Myers, the first Congressman to be indicted. While most of the politicians resigned, Myers was expelled from the House, and Williams did not resign until the vote on his expulsion was almost to take place. Thompson himself was not expelled from the House of Representatives because he lost his re-election campaign in 1980 to Republican Chris Smith, a relatively unknown candidate who in 1978 had run against Thompson as a sacrificial lamb candidate. Smith won the 1980 election by a margin of 20,000 votes. On December 29, 1980, Thompson resigned his seat in the US House of Representatives. Smith has since represented Thompson's former district continuously through the 117th United States Congress.


title: Abscam

text: On December 2, 1980, Thompson was indicted on bribery charges. Thompson spent $24,000 of campaign funds fighting the charges and appealing his conviction on grounds of entrapment. Thompson was convicted of bribery and conspiracy charges and served three years in prison, his sentence starting in 1983. He served two years before being released, and worked as a consultant in Washington until his death in 1989.


title: Abscam

text: Thompson introduced John Murphy to the operation. Murphy is from Staten Island, New York. He was chairman for the Committee on the Merchant Marine and Fisheries. He accepted monetary bribes in exchange for his resources. Murphy's conviction differed from the other Congressmen. His conviction was considered "receiving an unlawful gratuity" instead of bribery but he served three years in prison for conspiracy charges only. Murphy was not filmed taking the $50,000 that most other participants took that day, instead arguing on tape with attorney Howard Criden about who would pick up Murphy's money for him, which Criden at a John F. Kennedy airport hotel.


title: Abscam

text: In 1982 the conviction of Richard Kelly was overturned on the grounds of entrapment. Kelly, the sole Republican, said that he was only pretending to be involved with the bribery from Abdul Enterprises. He claimed that he was conducting his own operation dealing with corruption and that the FBI was ruining his own investigation. However, an appeals court upheld the conviction and Kelly served 13 months in prison.


title: Abscam

text: John Jenrette was one of the few who resigned before they were expelled from the House. During the operation, Jenrette was asked by an undercover FBI agent if he would take the bribe from the Sheikh. He replied, "I've got larceny in my blood. I'd take it in a goddamn minute."


title: Abscam

text: John Murtha (D-PA) was one of the Congressmen who refused to take the bribe from the undercover agents. He too was videotaped in his encounter with undercover FBI operatives. Although he was never convicted or prosecuted, he was named an unindicted co-conspirator in the scandal. As such, he testified against Frank Thompson (D-NJ) and John Murphy (D-NY), the two Congressmen mentioned as participants in the deal at the same meeting. A short clip from the videotape shows Murtha stating "I'm not interested, I'm sorry. At this point..." in direct response to an offer of $50,000 in cash.


title: Abscam

text: In November 1980, the Justice Department announced that Murtha would not face prosecution for his part in the scandal. The U.S. Attorney's Office reasoned that Murtha's intent was to obtain investment in his district. Full length viewing of the tape shows Murtha citing prospective investment opportunities that could return "500 or 1,000" miners to work. In July 1981, the House Ethics Committee also chose not to file charges against Murtha following a mostly party-line vote. The resignation later that day of attorney E. Barrett Prettyman Jr., the panel's special counsel and a Democrat, has been interpreted as an act of protest.


title: Abscam

text: Murtha remained prominent in Congress, and was re-elected by his constituency 19 times over the course of 36 years before his death on February 8, 2010.


title: Abscam

text: Senator Larry Pressler (R-SD) refused to take the bribe, saying at the time, "Wait a minute, what you are suggesting may be illegal." He immediately reported the incident to the FBI. When Senator Pressler was told that Walter Cronkite referred to him on the evening news as a "hero" he stated, "I do not consider myself a hero... what have we come to if turning down a bribe is 'heroic'?"


title: Abscam

text: Bob Guccione, publisher of "Penthouse", was also approached with a bribe from the undercover FBI agents. Guccione was in the process of building the Penthouse Boardwalk Hotel and Casino in Atlantic City and needed financing. Guccione was associated with Abscam's interest in Atlantic City, so Weinberg approached Guccione and told him that an Arab sheikh wanted to invest $150 million in the casino project, but only if the casino had obtained a gaming license. Weinberg wanted Guccione to pay a $300,000 bribe to New Jersey gaming officials to get the license. Guccione refused and responded by saying "Are you out of your mind?" After the Abscam scandal came to light, Guccione sued the federal government but lost.


title: Abscam

text: In 1980, New Jersey State Senator Joseph A. Maressa accepted $10,000 from a group of FBI agents who were part of the Abscam undercover operation. The money was given to Maressa to obtain his support on behalf of a fictional Arab sheikh in exchange for Maressa's efforts to get legislative support to obtain a gambling license for a casino in Atlantic City. Maressa justified accepting what he described as legal fees, saying that "I felt like it would be patriotic to take some of this OPEC oil money and get it back to the United States." Maressa was not prosecuted for his actions.


title: Abscam

text: When the investigation became public in the early 1980s, ethical controversy focused on the use of the "sting" technique and Weinberg's involvement in selecting targets. Although Weinberg was a previously convicted criminal and had been involved in previous scams, he avoided a three-year prison sentence and was paid $150,000 in concurrence with the operation. Ultimately, all of the Abscam convictions were upheld on appeal, although some judges criticized the tactics used by the FBI and lapses in FBI and DOJ supervision.


title: Abscam

text: In the wake of Abscam, Attorney General Benjamin Civiletti issued "The Attorney General Guidelines for FBI Undercover Operations" ("Civiletti Undercover Guidelines") on January 5, 1981. These were the first Attorney General Guidelines for undercover operations and formalized procedures necessary to conduct undercover operations to avoid future controversy. Following the initial press accounts about the Abscam investigation, Congress held a series of hearings to examine FBI undercover operations and the new Civiletti Undercover Guidelines. The House Subcommittee on Civil and Constitutional Rights began hearings on FBI undercover operations in March 1980 and concluded with a report in April 1984. Among the concerns expressed during the hearings were the undercover agents' involvement in illegal activity, the possibility of entrapping individuals, the prospect of damaging the reputations of innocent civilians, and the opportunity to undermine legitimate rights to privacy.


title: Abscam

text: In March 1982, after the Senate debated a resolution to expel Senator Williams for his conduct in Abscam, the Senate established the Select Committee to Study Undercover Activities. In December 1982, the Committee issued its final report, which was generally supportive of the undercover technique but observed that its use "creates serious risks to citizens' property, privacy, and civil liberties, and may compromise law enforcement itself".


title: Abscam

text: FBI documents later disclosed in accordance with the Freedom of Information Act, consisting of newspaper clippings and letters written to the FBI, revealed a mixed response of the American public. Some Americans supported the FBI, but others argued that Abscam was an entrapment scenario ordered by a revenge-minded FBI, which earlier had been stung by Congressional inquiries into acts of police brutality and similar widespread abuses. Congressional concern about sting operations persisted, creating numerous additional guidelines in the ensuing years:


title: Abscam

text: During the course of Abscam, the FBI handed out more than $400,000 in "bribes" to Congressmen and middlemen.


title: Abscam

text: In his book, "The Dangers of Dissent", historian Ivan Greenberg suggests that the FBI's aggressive investigation of political corruption might have been a response to the years of criticism the agency had received from Congressional investigations: "Was this [ABSCAM] payback for the Church Committee hearings? The FBI wanted to punish the Congress for exposing its past corruption." Greenberg cites FBI Director William Webster's 1980 speech to the Atlanta Bar Association as evidence, in which Webster stated that "In the FBI we've been under attack for past incidents and circumstances. It's quite understandable for those in Congress who love their institution, who are trying to rebuild its reputation and the confidence of the American people, to have an encounter and deal with a situation of this kind, and emotions run high. It's my sense that the good sense of the Congress, similar to the emotions in the Bureau when they had their times, that now people are saying, well, let's wait and see what the facts are..." However, Greenberg does not provide evidence beyond this public comparison for his allegation.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: Rebekah Mary Brooks (; born 27 May 1968) is a British media executive and former journalist and newspaper editor. She has been chief executive officer of News UK since 2015. She was previously CEO of News International from 2009 to 2011 and was the youngest editor of a British national newspaper at "News of the World", from 2000 to 2003, and the first female editor of "The Sun", from 2003 to 2009. Brooks married actor Ross Kemp in 2002. They divorced in 2009 and she married former racehorse trainer and author Charlie Brooks.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: Brooks was a prominent figure in the News International phone hacking scandal, having been the editor of "News of the World" from 2000 to 2003 when one of the stories which involved illegal phone hacking was published by the newspaper. Following a criminal trial in 2014 she was found not guilty of conspiracy to hack voicemails, two counts of conspiracy to pay public officials and two counts of conspiracy to pervert the course of justice by a jury at the Old Bailey.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: In September 2015, Brooks was confirmed as CEO of News UK, the renamed News International, re-establishing a working relationship with Rupert Murdoch, founder and chairman of News Corp, and founder and executive chairman of American conservative cable news channel Fox News.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: Rebekah Mary Wade was born in 1968 in Warrington. She grew up in Daresbury, where her parents ran a tree pruning business. Her father, John Robert Wade, died aged 50 in 1996.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: When she was 14, she decided she wanted to be a journalist and would make tea at her local newspaper and help out generally. She attended Appleton Hall High School – a state comprehensive school that had previously been a grammar school – in Appleton, Warrington. A childhood friend, Louise Weir, described her as "more emotionally intelligent than academic", charming and always able to get what she wanted out of people.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: In Brooks's entry in "Who's Who", she stated that she had studied at the Sorbonne in Paris, but did not claim to have a degree, and did not later answer questions about this. In a 2003 "Spectator" article, Stephen Glover suggested that, since she was working at the age of 20 for the "News of the World", "we can safely assume that she did not study at the Sorbonne in any meaningful way". In 2010, Brooks was awarded an honorary Fellowship from the University of the Arts, London, for contributions to journalism. She briefly attended the London College of Communication, now part of the university, as a student but did not graduate.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: The commentator Henry Porter claims little is known of Brooks personally. Tim Minogue, who was one of her first co-editors before becoming a journalist at "Private Eye" magazine, recalled a "likeable, skinny, hollow-eyed girl who was very ambitious".


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: After school, she worked for the French magazine "L'architecture d'aujourd'hui" in Paris, before returning to Britain to work for Eddy Shah's Messenger Group. Graham Ball, the then features editor at "The Post" newspaper, recalled that she was a notably astute and intelligent staff member. When "The Post" was disbanded, Brooks then moved to the "News of the World".


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: Brooks joined the Sunday newspaper "News of the World" in 1989 as a secretary, before working as a feature writer for its magazine, eventually becoming the paper's deputy editor. In 1994, she prepared for the "News of the World"s interview with James Hewitt, a lover of Diana, Princess of Wales, by reserving a hotel suite and hiring a team to "kit it out with secret tape devices in various flowerpots and cupboards", Piers Morgan, her former boss, wrote in his memoir "", "The New York Times" relayed in July 2011. In 1998, she transferred to the "News of the World"s daily counterpart, "The Sun" for a short time. She then returned to the "News of the World" in 2000 as editor; at the time, she was the youngest editor of a national British newspaper.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: While at the "News of the World", Brooks oversaw its campaign of "naming and shaming" individuals suspected to be convicted child sex offenders — a campaign launched in the wake of the murder of Sarah Payne, while hacking Payne's mother's voicemail. The paper's decision led to angry mobs terrorising those they suspected of being child sex offenders, which included several cases of mistaken identity and one instance where a paediatrician had her house vandalised, apparently by people who thought her occupation meant she was a paedophile.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: The campaign was described as "grossly irresponsible" journalism by the Chief Constable of Gloucestershire, Tony Butler, but Brooks defended the paper's actions on the BBC's "Breakfast with Frost", claiming that it was "only right that the public have controlled access" to information on sex offenders. The paper's already strong sales held up well under her leadership, while those of rival Sunday newspapers "The People" and the "Sunday Mirror" fell more sharply.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: In January 2003, she returned to "The Sun", replacing her former boss David Yelland, to become its first female editor. On Brooks's first day as editor, the "Page 3" girl was Rebekah Parmar-Teasdale – the caption to the picture was "Rebekah from Wapping". Soon after becoming editor, Brooks ran the headline "Bonkers Bruno Locked Up" concerning the mental health problems of former heavyweight boxing champion Frank Bruno. The next day "The Sun" ran a 600-word reply from the head of the mental health charity SANE and since then has adopted a style guide on covering mental health stories prepared by the same charity. Brooks and her husband spent a day with the head of SANE and made donations to the charity.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: On her appointment as editor of "The Sun", she said, "It's the best job in newspapers." It was said of her by David Yelland, a former editor of "The Sun", "She's good at schmoozing showbusiness people. She can turn people over and have dinner with them the next day".


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: During a March 2003 appearance before the House of Commons Select committee on Culture, Media and Sport as part of an inquiry into privacy issues, Brooks stated that her newspaper had paid police for information. Alison Clark, the director of corporate affairs at News International, later stated, "It is not company practice to pay police for information."


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: Brooks has been chairman of the organisation Women in Journalism and has served as a judge for the "Guardian Student Media Awards" in November 2003 and the tenth annual Police Bravery Awards in July 2005, the latter sponsored by "The Sun".


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: In June 2009, it was announced that she would leave "The Sun" in September 2009, to become chief executive of the newspaper's parent company, News International. Dominic Mohan was named her successor as editor of "The Sun".


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: A police enquiry revealed that the "News of the World" had a routine practice of intercepting mobile phone messages of celebrities, politicians and other public figures. The newspaper's reporter, Clive Goodman, and Glenn Mulcaire, a hired investigator, were convicted and jailed for intercepting the phone messages of members of the Royal Family in 2006.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: In 2003, under questioning by Chris Bryant MP of the Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee of the House of Commons, Brooks and Andy Coulson were asked whether either of their newspapers had ever been involved in various improper acts. Brooks replied "We have paid police for information in the past". Coulson added that payments were only made lawfully. "The Sun", of which Brooks was editor, subsequently ridiculed Chris Bryant in a number of articles, starting with one about a photograph of him in his underpants from a gay dating website. Bryant has publicly alleged that his phone was hacked in 2003 by the "News of the World". News International was ordered to pay Bryant £30,000 by a High Court judge in 2012 after Bryant filed a lawsuit. Brooks later claimed that in her response to Bryant's question she had merely been speaking about the widespread belief that payments had been made to police and denied having any knowledge of specific payments.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: According to MPs, Brooks refused three times to attend the committee again to be questioned further, resulting in four committee members considering asking the Serjeant at Arms to issue a warrant forcing Brooks to attend. It was claimed by Adam Price, a Plaid Cymru MP, that the committee members subsequently dropped this proposal because they were warned by the chair of the committee, John Whittingdale, that their private lives would be investigated if they did so. However, this account is disputed by Whittingdale, who has stated there was a conversation about the possible repercussions of issuing a warrant for Brooks but said that did not have any bearing on his decision and he did not believe News International would target committee members.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: In 2011, "The Guardian" and a solicitor alleged that in 2002, when Brooks was editor, the paper had hacked the voicemail of missing schoolgirl Milly Dowler (later found to be murdered), to access messages left by her parents. It was later established that Brooks had been on holiday and out of the country when the story which referred to a message on the schoolgirl's phone was published and that, consequently, she did not edit the paper that day or read the article in question and, therefore, could not have known about the phone hacking. She was found not guilty of phone hacking at her trial in 2014.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: In July 2011, Labour Party leader Ed Miliband said Brooks should "consider her position" after the Milly Dowler allegations. Prime Minister David Cameron said that if Brooks had offered her resignation to him, he would have accepted it. Milly Dowler's parents also called for Brooks's resignation.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: When Brooks told "News of the World" staff that the newspaper was being closed down, some reportedly said that all of their jobs had been sacrificed to save hers. Andreas Whittam Smith suggested that Brooks's decision not to resign was symptomatic of "the self-serving, conceited thesis that 'only I, who was at the helm during the disaster, can steer us to safety.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: On 14 July, News Corporation's second largest shareholder, Prince Al-Waleed bin Talal Al-Saud, called for her resignation in a BBC interview.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: Having previously had an offer of resignation rejected, Brooks resigned from News International on 15 July 2011. She said: "As chief executive of the company, I feel a deep sense of responsibility for the people we have hurt and I want to reiterate how sorry I am for what we now know to have taken place. I have believed that the right and responsible action has been to lead us through the heat of the crisis. However my desire to remain on the bridge has made me a focal point of the debate. This is now detracting attention from all our honest endeavours to fix the problems of the past. Therefore I have given Rupert and James Murdoch my resignation. While it has been a subject of discussion, this time my resignation has been accepted".


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: "The Daily Telegraph" reported that despite resigning from her position, Brooks remained on the company payroll and continued to receive her salary from News International, having been told by Rupert Murdoch to "travel the world on him for a year".


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: "The Guardian" newspaper, citing official company accounts, claims Brooks received a £10.8 million payoff for leaving News International.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: On 17 July 2011, Brooks was arrested by police on suspicion of conspiring to intercept communications and on suspicion of corruption allegations. She was arrested by detectives working on Operation Weeting, the Metropolitan Police's phone hacking probe, and Operation Elveden, the probe examining illicit payments to police officers. Brooks's public relations agent Dave Wilson told CNN that she did not know she was going to be arrested when she arrived for a pre-arranged interview with London's Metropolitan Police Service. After 12 hours in custody, Brooks was released on bail until October 2011. On 13 March 2012, Brooks was rearrested, together with her husband, on suspicion of conspiracy to pervert the course of justice. Ninety people have been arrested in conjunction with illegal acquisition of confidential information since police renewed investigations in 2011, many of them employees or agents of newspapers for which Brooks had responsibilities. Sixteen have been formally charged with crimes.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: On 15 May 2012, the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) charged Brooks and five others with conspiring to pervert the course of justice. Charged along with Brooks regarding removal of documents and computers to conceal them from investigating detectives were her husband, her personal assistant, her bodyguard, her chauffeur, and the head of security at News International. These charges were made about after the Metropolitan Police Service reopened its dormant investigation into phone hacking, about 3 years after the then Assistant Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police Service told the Commons Culture, Media and Sport Committee that "no additional evidence has come to light," five years after News International executives began claiming that phone hacking was the work of a single "rogue reporter", 10 years after "The Guardian" began reporting that the Met had evidence of widespread illegal acquisition of confidential information, and 13 years after the Met began accumulating "boxloads" of that evidence, including information sources for "News of the World" journalists, but kept it unexamined in rubbish bags at Scotland Yard.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: On 31 October 2013, it was revealed she had had an affair lasting at least six years with Andy Coulson, another key figure in the phone-hacking scandal.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: In September 2015, Brooks was reappointed as CEO of the company, now named News UK. In January 2020, it was announced she would become a board member at Tremor International Limited.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: The press have noted social ties between Brooks and various members of the Establishment. In 2008, she borrowed a retired police horse from the Metropolitan Police which she kept on her Oxfordshire farm, where it was ridden by David Cameron.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: Brooks was once also a friend of Tony and Cherie Blair; and Gordon and Sarah Brown. Her wedding to Charlie Brooks in 2009 was attended by Gordon Brown and David Cameron.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: Shortly before her arrest, she had an hour-long telephone conversation with Tony Blair. He offered to act as an unofficial advisor to Brooks and to Rupert and James Murdoch. Blair told Brooks that this arrangement should remain private. He offered her advice on how to deal with the phone hacking scandal. Making reference to the Hutton Inquiry, which had cleared his government of wrongdoing related to the death of a biological warfare expert, Blair advised Brooks to set up an internal inquiry which would clear her of wrongdoing in the phone hacking scandal.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: On 3 November 2005, it was reported that Brooks had been arrested following an alleged assault on her husband. She was released without charge, and the police took no further action. "The Sun" had been running a campaign against domestic violence at the time. The couple had spent the previous evening in the company of the former Cabinet Minister David Blunkett, who had resigned for the second time on that day. At her trial in 2013, it was revealed that Brooks and her colleague Andy Coulson had an affair for several years, during her marriage to Kemp.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: "Private Eye" and "The Independent" reported the couple had separated; this was not widely reported in the remainder of the British press. The 7 March 2008 issue of "Private Eye" refers to her "paramour", former racehorse trainer and author Charlie Brooks. She and Kemp divorced in 2009. "The Guardian" reported on 5 June 2009 that she was to marry Brooks. "The Independent" reported Brooks and her fiancé had married in a lakeside ceremony in June 2009. The couple are key members of the so-called Chipping Norton set, which includes Jeremy Clarkson, David Cameron, and others. They live in Churchill, Oxfordshire, and London.


title: Rebekah Brooks

text: It was announced by Bell Pottinger that Rebekah and Charlie Brooks were expecting a daughter in early 2012 via a surrogate mother. A daughter was born at the private Portland Hospital in London on 25 January 2012.


title: Cardiomegaly

text: Cardiomegaly (sometimes megacardia or megalocardia) is a medical condition in which the heart is enlarged. As such, it is more commonly referred to simply as "having an enlarged heart". It is usually the result of underlying conditions that make the heart work harder, such as obesity, heart valve disease, high blood pressure (hypertension), and coronary artery disease. Cardiomyopathy is also associated with cardiomegaly.


title: Cardiomegaly

text: Cardiomegaly can be serious depending on what part of the heart is enlarged, and can result in congestive heart failure. Recent studies suggest that cardiomegaly is associated with a higher risk of sudden cardiac death.


title: Cardiomegaly

text: Cardiomegaly may improve over time, but many people with an enlarged heart (dilated cardiomyopathy) need lifelong treatment with medication. Having an immediate family member who has or had cardiomegaly may indicate that a person is more susceptible to getting this condition.


title: Cardiomegaly

text: For many people, cardiomegaly is asymptomatic. For others, if the enlarged heart begins to affect the body's ability to pump blood effectively, then symptoms associated with congestive heart failure may arise, including:


title: Cardiomegaly

text: There is not much variation in these symptoms because they are mostly specific to the chest area. However, some are more common than others depending on each patient.


title: Cardiomegaly

text: The causes of cardiomegaly are not well understood and many cases of cardiomegaly have no known cause. Prevention of cardiomegaly starts with detection. If a person has a family history of cardiomegaly, one should let one's doctor know so that treatments can be implemented to help prevent the worsening of the condition. In addition, prevention includes avoiding certain lifestyle risk factors such as tobacco use and controlling one's high cholesterol, high blood pressure, and diabetes. Non-lifestyle risk factors include a family history of cardiomegaly, coronary artery disease (CAD), congenital heart failure, atherosclerotic disease, valvular heart disease, exposure to cardiac toxins, sleep-disordered breathing (such as sleep apnea), sustained cardiac arrhythmias, abnormal electrocardiograms, and cardiomegaly on chest X-ray. Lifestyle factors that can help prevent cardiomegaly include eating a healthy diet, controlling blood pressure, exercise, medications, and not abusing alcohol and cocaine. Current research and the evidence of previous cases link the following (below) as possible causes of cardiomegaly.


title: Cardiomegaly

text: The most common known causes of cardiomegaly are congenital (patients are born with the condition based on a genetic inheritance), high blood pressure (which can enlarge the left ventricle causing the heart muscle to weaken over time), and coronary artery disease. In the latter case, the disease creates blockages in the heart's blood supply, leading to tissue death which causes other areas of the heart to work harder, causing the heart to expand in size.


title: Cardiomegaly

text: Cardiomegaly is a condition affecting the cardiovascular system, specifically the heart. This condition is strongly associated with congestive heart failure. Within the heart, the working fibers of the myocardial tissue increase in size. As the heart works harder the actin and myosin filaments experience less overlap which increases the size of the myocardial fibers. If there is less overlap of the protein filaments within the sarcomeres of the muscle fibers, they will not be able to effectively pull on one another. If the heart tissue gets too big and stretches too far, then those filaments cannot effectively pull on one another to shorten the muscle fibers, impacting the heart's sliding filament mechanism. If fibers cannot shorten properly and the heart cannot contract properly, then blood cannot be effectively pumped to the lungs to be re-oxygenated or to the body to deliver oxygen to the working tissues of the body.


title: Cardiomegaly

text: A person with an enlarged heart is more susceptible to forming blood clots in the lining of their heart. These clots can also be formed in other parts of the body. Once they enter the bloodstream, it makes it difficult for the organs in the body to receive blood, due to the blockage caused by the clots. This can impact other body systems as well and lead to other problems.


title: Cardiomegaly

text: There are many techniques and tests used to diagnose an enlarged heart. The results of these tests can often be used to see how efficiently the heart is pumping, determine which chambers of the heart are enlarged, look for evidence of previous heart attacks and determine if a person has congenital heart disease.


title: Cardiomegaly

text: Cardiomegaly can be classified by the main enlarged location of the heart, and/or by the structure of the enlargement.


title: Cardiomegaly

text: There are also specific additional subtypes. For example, the athletic heart syndrome is a non-pathological condition commonly seen in sports medicine in which the human heart is enlarged, and the resting heart rate is lower than normal.


title: Cardiomegaly

text: Dilated cardiomyopathy is the most common type of cardiomegaly. In this condition, the walls of the left and/or right ventricles of the heart become thin and stretched. The result is an enlarged heart.


title: Cardiomegaly

text: In the other types of cardiomegaly, the heart's large muscular left ventricle becomes abnormally thick. Hypertrophy is usually what causes left ventricular enlargement. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is typically an inherited condition.


title: Cardiomegaly

text: Treatments for cardiomegaly include a combination of medication treatment and medical/surgical procedures. Below are some of the treatment options for individuals with cardiomegaly:


title: Peter Buck

text: Peter Lawrence Buck (born December 6, 1956) is an American musician and songwriter. He was a co-founder and the lead guitarist of the alternative rock band R.E.M. He also plays the banjo and mandolin on several R.E.M. songs. Throughout his career with R.E.M. (1980–2011), as well as during his subsequent solo career, Buck has also been at various times an official member of numerous 'side project' groups. These groups included Arthur Buck (with Joseph Arthur), Hindu Love Gods, The Minus 5, Tuatara, The Baseball Project, Robyn Hitchcock and the Venus 3, Tired Pony, The No-Ones and Filthy Friends, each of which have released at least one full-length studio album. Additionally, the experimental combo Slow Music (which also features Fred Chalenor, Hector Zazou, Matt Chamberlain, Robert Fripp, and Bill Rieflin) have released an official live concert CD. Another side project group called Full Time Men released an EP while Buck was a member. As well, ad hoc "supergroups" Bingo Hand Job (Billy Bragg and R.E.M.), Musical Kings (Michelle Malone, Peter Buck, John Keane) and Nigel & The Crosses (Robyn Hitchcock, Peter Buck, Glenn Tilbrook and others) have each commercially released one track.


title: Peter Buck

text: "Richard M. Nixon", a band Buck founded in 2012 to support the release of his solo album with live gigs, has never issued an official recording. Richard M. Nixon consists of Buck, Scott McCaughey and Bill Rieflin, the same three musicians who comprise The Venus 3.


title: Peter Buck

text: Buck also has a career as a record producer including releases by Uncle Tupelo, Vigilantes of Love, Dreams So Real, The Fleshtones, The Feelies, and The Jayhawks, as well as a session musician (for the likes of The Replacements, Billy Bragg, Decemberists and Eels).


title: Peter Buck

text: Peter Lawrence Buck was born on December 6, 1956, in Berkeley, California, to Peter and Violet Buck. After spending time in Los Angeles and San Francisco, the Buck family moved, via Roswell, Georgia, to Atlanta. After graduating with honors from Crestwood High School in 1975, Buck attended Emory University and joined Delta Tau Delta fraternity. He eventually dropped out of Emory. Buck moved to Athens, Georgia, and attended the University of Georgia as well. While in Athens, Buck worked at the Wuxtry Records store, where he met future bandmate Michael Stipe as well as R.E.M.'s future manager, Bertis Downs.


title: Peter Buck

text: Buck's style of guitar playing is simple and yet distinctive. He makes wide use of open strings while chording to create chiming and memorable pop melodies. His sound, especially on mid-period R.E.M. albums that saw the band break through to international popularity, has been associated with Rickenbacker guitars, particularly a Jetglo (black) model 360. He has also used a wide variety of other instruments as the group has continued to experiment and develop. On some more recent R.E.M. releases prior to "Accelerate" (2008), his guitar parts have been less prominent.


title: Peter Buck

text: "When Peter plays guitar, there's a strong sense of "fuck off" that comes from his side of the stage. And you feel that he wants to be in a band because he likes what they do... but that's all," explained U2's lead singer Bono in 2003. "And it's almost like performing and having to deal with all of that is a bit of a compromise for him, so just fuck off. And I like that energy a little bit, and that gives them their aggression."


title: Peter Buck

text: Buck has produced many bands, including Uncle Tupelo, Dreams So Real, Drivin N Cryin, The Fleshtones, Charlie Pickett, and The Feelies. Buck also has made contributions on many other musicians' albums, including The Replacements, Billy Bragg, The Decemberists, Robyn Hitchcock, and several Eels albums.


title: Peter Buck

text: Peter, Mike Mills, Bill Berry and Warren Zevon recorded an album under the band name Hindu Love Gods, while the R.E.M. bandmates and Zevon were recording tracks for Zevon's 1987 album "Sentimental Hygiene". Hindu Love Gods is one of many names the members of R.E.M. have used performing around the Athens area. Buck also continued to play live locally with the Normaltown Flyers, performing country and rock standards in local bars.


title: Peter Buck

text: The three instrumentalists from R.E.M. all performed on Nikki Sudden's 1991 album "The Jewel Thief", including the single "I Belong to You".


title: Peter Buck

text: Buck also coproduced the 1992 Vigilantes of Love album, "Killing Floor", with songwriter Mark Heard. He co-wrote, produced, and performed on Mark Eitzel's 1997 album "West". He recorded an EP with Keith Streng of The Fleshtones as Full Time Men in 1985, and along with R.E.M. sideman Scott McCaughey has been a partner in The Minus 5 and a member of the instrumental band Tuatara. Additionally, In October 2005, he joined R.E.M. studio drummer Bill Rieflin, King Crimson guitarist Robert Fripp and three others in forming an improvisational performance band called Slow Music. His voice can be heard on one R.E.M. song: "I Walked with a Zombie" from the Roky Erickson tribute album "". In 2006, Buck toured with Robyn Hitchcock, McCaughey, and Rieflin as lead guitarist for Robyn Hitchcock and the Venus 3 in the wake of the band's first release, "Olé! Tarantula". In 2008, after McCaughey and Steve Wynn decided to work together, the duo asked Buck to be the bass player in their new band, The Baseball Project, along with drummer Linda Pitmon.


title: Peter Buck

text: Buck has contributed liner notes to compilations, reissues, and special editions, both of R.E.M.'s own material (the best-of compilations "Eponymous" and "", the rarities, B-sides and out-takes collection "Dead Letter Office", and the special edition of "New Adventures in Hi-Fi") and of other artists' work (such as The Beach Boys' "Love You").


title: Peter Buck

text: On September 9, 2008, immediately following the band's concert in Helsinki, Buck's signature Rickenbacker guitar, used live and in the studio since "Chronic Town" in 1982, was stolen from the stage. It was returned on September 18, 2008, by an anonymous source.


title: Peter Buck

text: In March 2012, six months after R.E.M.'s September 2011 dissolution, Buck, now signed to Mississippi Records, announced intentions of working on a solo album, backed by singer-songwriter Joseph Arthur. The first track from the self-titled solo album, "10 Million BC," was released via SoundCloud on June 21, 2012. His eponymous first album was released later that same year.


title: Peter Buck

text: In the final days of 2013, Buck announced he would be releasing his second solo album soon. The new project, titled "I Am Back to Blow Your Mind Once Again", was released on February 18, 2014, again on vinyl only.


title: Peter Buck

text: In April 2017, Buck released the first single "Any Kind of Crowd" from his latest collaborative project with Filthy Friends, a super group with long time associates Scott McCaughey, Bill Rieflin, Kurt Bloch and Corin Tucker of Sleater-Kinney. The same month also saw another new release with Buck and McCaughey teaming up with Frode Strømstad and Arne Kjelsrud Mathisen of Norwegian band I Was A King to form the group The No Ones. The first song from their Sun Station EP was released, with the EP set to follow later in the year.


title: Peter Buck

text: Arthur Buck, a side project with singer-songwriter Joseph Arthur in which Buck and Arthur share songwriting duties, released their eponymous debut album in June 2018. The following year, the Luke Haines collaboration "Beat Poetry for Survivalists" was released.


title: Peter Buck

text: Starting in the 1990s, Buck relocated to the Pacific Northwest and divided time between Portland, Oregon, and Seattle, Washington. Buck currently lives in Todos Santos, Baja California Sur, Mexico.


title: Peter Buck

text: The guitarist is twice divorced. He was once married to Barrie Buck, the owner of Athens' 40 Watt Club. He has twin daughters with his ex-wife Stephanie Dorgan, Zelda and Zoe, born in June 1994. During his marriage to Dorgan, Buck became a partner in the music venue that she owned in Seattle, Crocodile Café, and often played there with his other band, The Minus 5. Buck married his third wife, Chloe Johnson, on June 1, 2013, in Portland, Oregon.


title: Peter Buck

text: Buck is known for his encyclopedic knowledge of music, as well as his extensive personal record collection. Buck estimated his record collection to be around 25,000 in the late 1990s (he estimated he had 10,000 vinyl singles, 6,000 LPs and 4,000 CDs).


title: Peter Buck

text: On April 21, 2001, Buck was aboard a transatlantic flight (British Airways #48) from Seattle to London to play a concert at Trafalgar Square. Witnesses alleged that Buck exhibited various bizarre behaviors on the flight, including shoving a CD into a drinks trolley thinking it was a CD player, tearing up the "yellow card" warning notice handed to him by the flight crew, claiming "I am R.E.M." and being involved in a struggle over a yogurt cup with two flight attendants, which resulted in the cup exploding. Buck's actions led to two charges of common assault on the flight attendants, one charge of being drunk on a plane and one charge of damaging British Airways cutlery and crockery.


title: Peter Buck

text: At the ensuing trial in London, Buck's defense claimed that the moderate amount of wine he had drunk had reacted adversely with the brand of sleeping pill he was taking and rendered him unable to control his actions. The prosecution argued that he was simply intoxicated from supposedly consuming 15 glasses of wine. After the trial, which included testimony from Bono, the lead singer of the Irish rock band U2, Buck was cleared on the grounds of non-insane automatism.


title: Shraddha Arya

text: Shraddha Arya Nagal (born 17 August 1987) is an Indian actress. She made her film debut as a lead role in SJ Suryah's Tamil film "Kalvanin Kadhali" along with Nayantara in 2006, in Hindi film "Nishabd" and in Telugu film "Godava" with Vaibhav Reddy. She is known for her performances in the Life OK serials "Main Lakshmi Tere Aangan Ki", "Tumhari Paakhi" and "Dream Girl". Since 2017, she has been portraying the role of Dr. Preeta Arora in Zee TV's "Kundali Bhagya". In 2019, she simultaneously participated in "Nach Baliye 9" as a contestant along with Alam Makkar.


title: Shraddha Arya

text: In 2015, Arya got engaged to an NRI named Jayant Ratti but the duo called off their engagement due to compatibility issues. She revealed her relationship with Alam Singh Makkar when the couple decided to participate in dance reality show "Nach Baliye" in 2019. The couple broke up soon after the show finished.


title: Shraddha Arya

text: On 16 November 2021, Arya married Indian Navy Officer, Rahul Nagal in an intimate ceremony in her hometown New Delhi.


title: Shraddha Arya

text: Arya started her career with Zee TV's talent hunt show "India's Best Cinestars Ki Khoj"; she became the first runner-up.


title: Shraddha Arya

text: She made her acting debut in 2006 with the Tamil movie "Kalvanin Kadhali" opposite actor-director S. J. Surya. After that, she ventured into Bollywood with Ram Gopal Varma's "Nishabd". She also appeared in the Shahid Kapoor-starrer "Paathshaala". She simultaneously ventured into the Telugu industry and did substantial roles in films like "Godava", opposite Vaibhav Reddy, "Kothi Muka" and "Romeo". She also performed in Tamil cinema in "Kalvanin Kadhali". She has also done two Kannada movies and a Malayalam movie.


title: Shraddha Arya

text: In 2011, Arya made her television debut with the Indian soap opera "Main Lakshmi Tere Aangan Ki". Her breakthrough performance came in the role of Paakhi in Life OK's "Tumhari Pakhi". She further rose to prominence with the role of Ayesha in "Dream Girl - Ek Ladki Deewani Si."


title: Shraddha Arya

text: She won many awards for her performances in "Dream Girl" and "Tumhari Paakhi", including Indian Telly Award for Best Actress in a Negative Role for "Dream Girl", Best Jodi Award at the Zee Gold Awards, Hero of the Month Award by Life OK, and the Women Achievers Award in 2016.


title: Shraddha Arya

text: In 2016, Arya hosted a comedy show called "Mazaak Mazaak Mein", produced by Ekta Kapoor and Shobha Kapoor.


title: Shraddha Arya

text: She is currently appearing in Zee TV's "Kundali Bhagya", a spinoff of "Kumkum Bhagya". She plays Dr. Preeta Luthra, a physiotherapist. Her performance won her many awards and nominations including Kalakar Award for Best Actress and Best Actress Popular at Gold Awards. Arya has also won Favourite Popular Character Female twice in a row at the Zee Rishtey Awards.


title: Shraddha Arya

text: Shraddha Arya was ranked in The Times 20 Most Desirable Women on Television at No. 16 in 2017, at No. 15 in 2018, at No. 18 in 2019, at No. 14 in 2020.


title: Rick Nielsen

text: Richard Alan Nielsen (born December 22, 1948) is an American musician best known as the lead guitarist, primary songwriter, and leader of the rock band Cheap Trick. He is well-known for his numerous custom-made guitars from Hamer Guitars, including his famous five-neck guitar.


title: Rick Nielsen

text: Nielsen was born into a musical family, with both parents being opera singers. His father, Ralph Nielsen, also directed symphonies, choirs and recorded over forty solo albums. During Rick's teens, the family owned a music store in Rockford, Illinois, and he learned to play a number of instruments. After playing drums for six years, Rick changed direction, learning how to play guitar and keyboards.


title: Rick Nielsen

text: His first school band was The Phaetons, which mutated into The Grim Reapers (which later included Tom Petersson in its line up). The Grim Reapers became Fuse which released one poorly received studio album before disbanding in 1970. Nielsen joined Nazz for a short time (replacing Todd Rundgren) before forming the short-lived Sick Man of Europe in Philadelphia in 1972 with Tom Petersson, and drummer Bun E. Carlos joining soon after. In 1973, Nielsen, together with Carlos, formed Cheap Trick. Petersson joined later that year, and Robin Zander joined in the fall of 1974. Nielsen wrote almost all of the songs for Cheap Trick's first few albums.


title: Rick Nielsen

text: Nielsen has enjoyed many highlights with Cheap Trick, including having a #1 US single, "The Flame." Nielsen and Carlos were invited to record a session on August 12, 1980, with John Lennon for his upcoming "Double Fantasy" album. Their contributions did not appear on the released album, only becoming officially available in 1998.


title: Rick Nielsen

text: Nielsen's on-stage appearance is influenced by Huntz Hall of The Bowery Boys; he wears a flipped up old style ball cap, his face resembles Hall's, and some of Nielsen's on-stage antics have been compared to Hall's. Nielsen is also well known for wearing a bowtie.


title: Rick Nielsen

text: Nielsen's image moved away from the cartoonish look of the ‘70s in the mid 1990s, when he sported a mustache, goatee beard (often with a long braid) and dark glasses which gave him a mildly sinister look. That image changed again on March 9, 2001, when he shaved the beard and mustache off during the encore break at a show at hometown Rockford's Coronado Theater. Since then, Nielsen has retained the clean shaven look, together with designer suits. In the late 2000s, he started wearing bowties again on stage.


title: Rick Nielsen

text: Nielsen has made countless TV appearances and radio broadcasts over the years with Cheap Trick, on music shows around the world, as well as American late night shows with Conan O'Brien, Jay Leno and David Letterman.


title: Rick Nielsen

text: Outside of Cheap Trick, Nielsen's credits include appearing as a hijacked car driver in the 1987 movie "Disorderlies". He and his wife appeared on HGTV's "Homes of Note" in the early 1990s. In 1997, he appeared in Michael Moore's documentary "The Big One". Nielsen appeared on an episode of The History Channel's show "American Pickers" Season 8, Episode 9, that originally aired on March 11, 2013. The show followed the standard format with the show's two stars, Mike Wolfe and Frank Fritz, picking Nielsen's various storage units full of items he has acquired through his years on tour.


title: Rick Nielsen

text: On April 6, 2013 Nielsen appeared on an episode of NPR's "Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me!" show as a guest on the segment called "Not My Job".


title: Rick Nielsen

text: In 2013, Nielsen appeared in Dave Grohl's documentary "Sound City". In 2014, he appeared on the first episode of "", which focused on the city of Chicago. On October 17, 2014, Nielsen appeared on CBS's "Late Show with David Letterman", playing with the Foo Fighters.


title: Rick Nielsen

text: In 2016, Nielsen made an appearance on the 75th episode of "Live from Daryl's House" with Robin Zander, and Tom Petersson. The episode aired May 5 on MTV Live and May 15 on LFDH.com.


title: Rick Nielsen

text: Rick has guested on albums by artists such as Glen Campbell, Buck Satan and the 666 Shooters, The Yardbirds, John Lennon, Hall & Oates ('Alley Katz' from the "Along the Red Ledge" LP), Mötley Crüe, Foo Fighters, Miles Nielsen & the Rusted Hearts, Alice Cooper, Gene Simmons, Material Issue, House of Lords, Hanson and others, while Nielsen-written songs have been recorded by artists such as Rick Derringer, and House of Lords.


title: Rick Nielsen

text: Rick displayed 34 of his guitars at a free exhibition "Customised Culture – Cars, Guitars, and Lowbrow Art" at the Rockford Art Museum, in Rockford, Illinois in February and April 2002.


title: Rick Nielsen

text: On April 23, 2012, Nielsen and the Board of the Burpee Museum of Natural History in Rockford unveiled plans for "Rick's Picks: A Lifelong Affair with Guitars and Music”, an ambitious exhibit displaying Nielsen's passions for guitars, music and rock & roll. The exhibit ran from August 11, 2012 to April 14, 2013, attracting people from all over the world. Visitors were able to see a huge collection of Nielsen's guitars, personal items, stage clothing and Cheap Trick memorabilia, and listen to rare audio material.


title: Rick Nielsen

text: Nielsen involves himself widely in the local community in hometown Rockford, for example, being involved with the Rockford Icehogs charitable foundation. In addition, he was a major supporter of the renovation of the Coronado Theater, and one balcony seat is covered in black and white checkerboard in his honour.


title: Rick Nielsen

text: Rick Nielsen is a celebrity co-owner of ROCK'N Vodka. ROCK'N Vodka also partnered with Rick Nielson, Josh Bilicki and Insurance King at the Daytona International Speedway on August 15, 2020 where Bilicki drove the Insurance King and ROCK'N Vodka car during the Daytona Road Course and placed 12th.


title: Rick Nielsen

text: Nielsen has owned about two thousand guitars over the years and as of 2018 had about 500 instruments.


title: Bob Bradley

text: Robert Frank Bradley (born March 3, 1958) is an American soccer coach who is the head coach and sporting director of Toronto FC.


title: Bob Bradley

text: A native of New Jersey and graduate of Princeton University, Bradley coached in the American college game and Major League Soccer (MLS), managing the Chicago Fire, MetroStars, and Chivas USA over nine seasons. In 2006, he was appointed manager of the United States men's team, winning the CONCACAF Gold Cup in 2007 and finishing runner-up in 2009 and 2011 as well as in the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup. His team also reached the last 16 of the 2010 FIFA World Cup. He then managed Egypt.


title: Bob Bradley

text: He then became the first American to manage a team in a European first division with Stabæk of Norway in 2014. He moved on to French club Le Havre and Welsh side Swansea City, becoming the first American to manage a Premier League club, but was fired less than three months later. He returned to MLS, managing Los Angeles FC and Toronto FC.


title: Bob Bradley

text: Bradley was born and raised in New Jersey, playing soccer at West Essex High School and Princeton University. Following his graduation from Princeton, Bradley briefly worked in the Procter & Gamble executive training program before entering the Ohio University sports management graduate school in 1981. While there, Bradley's managing career began when he was named head coach of the Ohio University Bobcats's NCAA Division I soccer program at the age of 22. After two seasons with Ohio, Bradley worked as an assistant coach and scout for University of Virginia manager Bruce Arena for two years before taking the top job at his alma mater, Princeton. Bradley led the Tigers from 1984 to 1995, winning two Ivy League titles and reaching the NCAA Final Four in 1993.


title: Bob Bradley

text: In 1996, Bradley was hired again as Arena's assistant, this time with D.C. United of Major League Soccer, the then newly formed U.S. professional league. After back-to-back championship seasons with DC, he became the first head coach of the Chicago Fire, an expansion team that began play in 1998. Bradley steered the newly assembled squad to the MLS Cup and U.S. Open Cup double in its first season and was named MLS Coach of the Year for his achievements. He won a third trophy in 2000, when the Fire again won the Open Cup.


title: Bob Bradley

text: After the 2002 MLS season, Bradley resigned as manager of the Fire to return to New Jersey as head coach of the MetroStars (now the New York Red Bulls). Bradley began his tenure with the historically underachieving team headed in the right direction as the MetroStars advanced to the U.S. Open Cup final for the first time in club history in 2003 as well as earning a playoff berth. Bradley also gained attention for an infamous incident in a match against D.C. United that season in which he exploited an MLS rule allowing a 4th substitution for a goalkeeper by switching starting goalkeeper Tim Howard into an outfield player so that midfielder Eddie Gaven (who would go on to score the winning goal) could enter the game classified as a goalkeeper, before switching positions with Howard after ten seconds of play.


title: Bob Bradley

text: Bradley stayed with the MetroStars for three years before he was fired with three games left in the 2005 regular season. The club had suffered losses in back-to-back fixtures and diminishing playoff prospects prior to Bradley's firing. Shortly after leaving the MetroStars, Bradley was named the manager at Los Angeles club Chivas USA for the 2006 season. Bradley revived a Chivas USA team that had endured a poor inaugural season in 2005, discovering young talents such as Sacha Kljestan and Jonathan Bornstein and leading the team to a third-place finish in the Western Conference before losing in the playoffs to eventual champions Houston Dynamo.


title: Bob Bradley

text: Following the U.S. men's national team's disappointing showing at the 2006 FIFA World Cup, U.S. Soccer appointed Bradley the interim coach of the team, succeeding Arena in December 2006. On his debut on January 20, his team defeated Denmark 3–1 in a friendly in Los Angeles. In May, having won three out of four games, he was appointed permanently. His team won the 2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup in June, with a 2–1 final win over Mexico. Weeks later at the 2007 Copa América in Venezuela, the team lost all three games, his first defeats in charge.


title: Bob Bradley

text: Bradley led the U.S. team to an unlikely second-place finish in the 2009 Confederations Cup, including a 2–0 semi-final victory over European champions Spain, ending the Spaniards' 35-game unbeaten streak and 15-game winning streak. In the final, Bradley's U.S. team opened up a 2–0 lead on Brazil before losing 3–2. With the 2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup taking place immediately following the Confederations Cup, Bradley selected a largely second-tier squad, which advanced to the final before losing 5–0 to Mexico. With a 3–2 away win against Honduras on October 10, the team secured qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup.


title: Bob Bradley

text: At the World Cup finals in South Africa, the U.S. finished on top of Group C after a 1–1 draw with England, a 2–2 draw with Slovenia, and a 1–0 victory over Algeria through a dramatic late goal by Landon Donovan. In the knockout round, Bradley and the U.S. faced Ghana, who eliminated the Americans for the second consecutive World Cup with a 2–1 victory in extra time following a 1–1 draw.


title: Bob Bradley

text: Following the World Cup, Bradley signed a contract extension in August 2010 to remain as the U.S. coach until the 2014 World Cup after a reported approach from English club Aston Villa. In June 2011 he led the U.S. to the final of the 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup, but an early 2–0 lead in the final was overturned by Mexico, who eventually won 4–2. On July 28, 2011, he was relieved of his duties by the United States Soccer Federation to be replaced by former Germany national team manager Jürgen Klinsmann.


title: Bob Bradley

text: On September 14, 2011, Bradley reached a deal to take over as manager of the Egypt national team beginning October 15, 2011. He made his debut on November 14, in a friendly against Brazil, losing 2–0. Bradley was praised for choosing to live in Egypt despite the unrest following the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 and continuing to guide the Pharaohs despite the suspension of the Egyptian Premier League following the Port Said Stadium riot.


title: Bob Bradley

text: Egypt was perfect in its first six matches of qualifying for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, but fell decisively to Ghana in the third round playoffs. Bradley was not retained following Egypt's elimination. "American Pharaoh", a documentary by Hossam Aboul-Magd about Bradley's tenure in Egypt, aired on PBS on June 16, 2014.


title: Bob Bradley

text: It was reported on January 2, 2014, that Bradley had agreed to manage Stabæk Fotball in Norway, making him the first American to manage a club in a European top flight. His competitive debut came on March 30, in a 3–0 home win over Sogndal. During this tenure the club reached the qualifying phase of the Europa League, also a first for an American coach. On November 5, 2015, Stabæk announced that Bradley would be leaving the club at the end of the season to pursue other jobs.


title: Bob Bradley

text: On November 10, 2015, Bradley was officially named as the new manager of French Ligue 2 side Le Havre AC, signing a two-year contract. He recorded his first win at the club on December 1 against Evian TG in a 3–2 victory at home. Bradley led the team to a tie on points with FC Metz for third place in the league and the final promotion place, but the team was left in fourth based on the goals scored tiebreaker.


title: Bob Bradley

text: Bradley managed his final match on October 3, 2016, a league home game against Sochaux, which Le Havre won 2–1.


title: Bob Bradley

text: On October 3, 2016, Bradley was appointed as the new Swansea City manager after Francesco Guidolin's dismissal. The Swansea supporters trust – who own a 21% stake in the club – issued a statement saying they were 'disappointed' in the new appointment given Bradley had been appointed without them being consulted. With the appointment, Bradley became the first American to manage a Premier League club. Many fans and pundits criticized the appointment, suggesting that he had been given the job by the club's new American owners by virtue of being American.


title: Bob Bradley

text: On December 27, 2016, following a 1–4 defeat by West Ham United, Bradley was sacked by Swansea after only 85 days and 11 games in charge of the club, the fourth shortest reign of any manager in the history of the Premier League. He left with a record, conceding 29 goals – the most goals conceded by any Premier League club in the same time period, with Swansea gaining only 8 (24.2%) out of a maximum 33 points available for the 11 game period – an average of 0.73 points per game. In a club statement, Huw Jenkins, the Swansea chairman, said: "We are sorry to lose Bob after such a short period of time. Unfortunately things haven't worked out as planned and we felt we had to make the change with half the Premier League season remaining. Personally, I have nothing but praise for Bob. He is a good man; a good person who gave everything to the job. His work-rate is phenomenal and we wish him well for the future."


title: Bob Bradley

text: Following his sacking, Bradley said that the club's owners Steve Kaplan and Jason Levien were swayed by a "negative atmosphere" at the club and failed to realize this was a project and that they needed to stick to the plan. He also said: "You can look at even top managers and recognize that in a league as competitive as the Premier League, anyone can go through a stretch of 10 or 11 games where you don't get the results you should.<nowiki>"</nowiki>


title: Bob Bradley

text: At Swansea, Bradley had been criticized for using American soccer vocabulary such as "PK" for a penalty kick and "road game" for what the British call an away game. He defended himself by saying that the vocabulary for the game varies in every country. Sky Sports program "Soccer AM" parodied him as the character "Brad Bobley", an American coach who uses exaggeratedly American words. Analysis by "The Wall Street Journal" found that Bradley in fact used British terms such as training, supporters and clean sheet far more frequently than their American equivalents practice, fans and shutout, and had never once called the sport soccer in a British interview.


title: Bob Bradley

text: On July 27, 2017, Bradley was announced as the team's first head coach for the inaugural season of Los Angeles FC, an expansion MLS team that started playing in the 2018 season. On March 4, 2018, Los Angeles FC won 1–0 against the Seattle Sounders in the team's first ever game. It was Bradley's first domestic club job since leaving Chivas USA for the USMNT in 2006.


title: Bob Bradley

text: During Bradley's time in Los Angeles, he established LAFC as a leading club in the league, guiding the club to the post-season in their first three seasons of existence. In 2019, the Black and Gold amassed the most points at that time in MLS history with 72, winning the Supporters' Shield in the process. The club lost to the Seattle Sounders in that year's conference final, 2–1.


title: Bob Bradley

text: On November 18, 2021, 11 days after LAFC failed to qualify for the playoffs for the first time, Bradley and Los Angeles FC parted ways.


title: Bob Bradley

text: On November 24, 2021, Bradley was announced as head coach and sporting director of Toronto FC, reuniting with his son Michael, who has been the club's captain since 2015. He tied 1–1 at FC Dallas on his debut the following February 26, concluding his first season in second-from-bottom in the Eastern Conference; the team signed Italian international trio Domenico Criscito, Lorenzo Insigne and Federico Bernardeschi in July 2022.


title: Bob Bradley

text: Bradley's Toronto FC won the delayed 2020 Canadian Championship on June 5, 2022 with a penalty shootout win over Forge FC in Hamilton, Ontario. The following month, they lost the 2022 edition to Vancouver Whitecaps FC on the same method.


title: Bob Bradley

text: Bob Bradley is the eldest of three brothers. The middle sibling, Scott, played for the Seattle Mariners and three other Major League Baseball teams in the 1980s and 1990s, and is the current baseball coach at Princeton University. The youngest, Jeff, is a sports journalist who has worked for ESPN and the "New York Daily News".


title: Bob Bradley

text: Bradley is married to Lindsay (née Sheehan), a former University of Virginia lacrosse player. Their son, Michael, was drafted by the MetroStars in the 2004 MLS SuperDraft, and played in the Eredivisie, Bundesliga, Premier League and Serie A before transferring to Toronto FC in January 2014. Bob also has a daughter named Ryan, who is married to Andy Rose, a former professional soccer player for Vancouver Whitecaps FC and current assistant coach for Seattle Sounders.


title: Pelli SandaD

text: Pelli SandaD () is a 2021 Indian Telugu-language musical romantic comedy film directed by debutant Gowri Ronanki under the supervision of K. Raghavendra Rao. Produced by Madhavi Kovelamudi, Shobu Yarlagadda and Prasad Devineni, the film features Roshan Meka and Sreeleela in lead roles.


title: Pelli SandaD

text: The film is a spiritual sequel of the 1996 film of the same name. It marks the acting debut of Raghavendra Rao who directed the previous film and Sree Leela in Telugu . It was released on 15 October 2021.


title: Pelli SandaD

text: The film received highly negative reviews for its outdated story & screenplay, dialogues & direction, but praised the performances (especially Roshan’s & Sreeleela’s) & picturization of songs.


title: Pelli SandaD

text: Maya is an aspirant filmmaker, who expresses interest to helm the biopic of Dronacharya awardee Vasishta. She threatens to commit suicide in case Vasishta doesn't authorize the project and tell his story. The reluctant Vashshta budges and goes down the memory to narrate his story of how he won over his love interest Sahasra. Many years ago, Vasishta and Sahasra meet at a wedding and it is love at first sight for both of them. The main obstacle to their union is Sahasra's father Pattabhi Ramayya, who is the strict family patriarch who is completely against love marriages. How Vasishta convinces a headstrong father and proves that he's a worthy match for his daughter forms the rest of the story.


title: Pelli SandaD

text: The film was planned in October 2020 as sequel to 1996 film "Pelli Sandadi" that starred Srikanth, Ravali and Deepthi Bhatnagar. K. Raghavendra Rao decided to supervise the direction of the sequel with Gowri Ronanki making her directorial debut. Incidentally Srikanth's elder son, Roshan Meka, was selected to play the male lead in the sequel.


title: Pelli SandaD

text: Initially, it was reported that actor Sridevi's daughter Khushi Kapoor will be female lead opposite Roshan, but it was not finalized. In October 2020, actress Malavika Nair was signed to pair opposite Meka, but she was later replaced by Sree Leela in January 2021. Filming was completed in July 2021 and post production began in the same month.


title: Pelli SandaD

text: The film was initially planned for release in September 2021, but was postponed due to COVID-19 pandemic in India. It was released on 15 October 2021. Later, it premiered on ZEE5 on 24 June 2022.


title: Pelli SandaD

text: The soundtrack is composed by M. M. Keeravani and lyrics are penned by Chandrabose. "Premante Enti" first track of the soundtrack was released on 27 April 2021 by Aditya Music. "Bujjulu Bujjulu" the second song was unveiled on 23 May. Title track "Pelli SandaD" was released on 12 August 2021, and fourth track "Madhura Nagarilo" was released on 29 September 2021, along with audio album.


title: Pelli SandaD

text: Thadhagath Pathi reviewing for "The Times of India" rated the film with 2.5 stars out of 5 and wrote, ""Pelli SandaD" remains a strictly watchable fare with the lead actors coming into their own. But don't expect anything fresh or remotely logical." Y Sunita Chowdhary of "The Hindu" felt that "the film is a Manmohan Desai style of ending with a battle between the divine and the evil where a young, small-built Roshan has a showdown with big-bodied men amidst spears, colour and a Hanuman idol. The film can be touted as a costly showreel for Roshan and Sree Leela". "Eenadu" stated that soundtrack and performance of lead actors are the positives, and, screenplay, story and first-half are the negatives of the film. A reviewer of "NTV" criticized film's screenplay and felt that it has an outdated story. They also stated that Raghavendra Rao's acting is a minus for the film.


title: Jeremy Sochan

text: Jeremy Juliusz Sochan (; born May 20, 2003) is a Polish-American professional basketball player for the San Antonio Spurs of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He is also a member of Poland men's national basketball team. He played college basketball for the Baylor Bears.


title: Jeremy Sochan

text: Sochan was born in the United States, in Guymon, Oklahoma. His mother Aneta was a Polish basketball player for Polonia Warsaw who played Division II college basketball at Panhandle State. While there, she met Sochan's father, Ryan Williams who played for the men's basketball team. Sochan comes from a family with rich sporting traditions. His grandfather Juliusz Sochan, after whom he received his middle name, was a director of the basketball section of AZS AWF Warsaw and the president of the Warsaw Regional Basketball Association, his great-grandfather Zygmunt Sochan was a soccer player for Warszawianka, making 94 appearances in the Ekstraklasa (Polish top division) before World War II, when he joined the Polish resistance against the German occupiers and was Stutthof concentration camp survivor.


title: Jeremy Sochan

text: Sochan took his first steps in basketball while living in England, first being coached by Worthing Thunder basketball player Ishmael Fontaine as a youth. Sochan played for the MK Trojans in Milton Keynes, before moving to Southampton and playing for the Solent Kestrels youth team and Itchen College.


title: Jeremy Sochan

text: Sochan began his high school career at La Lumiere School in Indiana, but due to the COVID-19 pandemic, he left America.


title: Jeremy Sochan

text: On January 8, 2022, Sochan sprained his ankle during a game against TCU and missed several games. Following the season, he earned the Big 12 Sixth Man Award and was named to the Big 12 All-Freshman Team. His team would later get a #1 seed in the 2022 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament, but lose in the second round. As a freshman, he averaged 9.2 points, 6.4 rebounds and 1.3 steals per game. On April 15, 2022, Sochan declared for the 2022 NBA draft, forgoing his remaining college eligibility.


title: Jeremy Sochan

text: Sochan was selected by the San Antonio Spurs with the ninth overall pick in the 2022 NBA Draft. Sochan joined the Spurs' roster in the 2022 NBA Summer League, but later was ruled out after being placed in the NBA's Health and Safety Protocol after testing positive for coronavirus. On July 8, 2022, Sochan signed a rookie-scale contract with the Spurs.


title: Jeremy Sochan

text: Sochan had represented both Poland and England nationally at the junior level. As part of Poland's under-16 national basketball team, he led his team to the title at the 2019 FIBA U16 European Championship Division B in Montenegro. There, he became tournament MVP.


title: Jeremy Sochan

text: Sochan has been a member of the Polish national basketball team. In his first game at the EuroBasket 2022 qualification, he led Poland over Romania 88–81 when he became the youngest player to ever play for Poland. He played 29 minutes in which he scored 18 points, including a four-point play (3 pointer plus foul and free throw) at the end and a game-deciding block.


title: Baked potato

text: A baked potato, known in some parts of the United Kingdom (though not generally Scotland) as a jacket potato, is a preparation of potato. It may be served with fillings, toppings or condiments such as butter, cheese, sour cream, gravy, baked beans, and even ground meat or corned beef.


title: Baked potato

text: Some varieties of potato, such as Russet and King Edward, are more suitable for baking than others, owing to their size and consistency. Despite the popular misconception that potatoes are fattening, baked potatoes can be part of a healthy diet.


title: Baked potato

text: Potatoes can be baked in a conventional gas or electric oven, a convection oven, a microwave oven, on a barbecue grill, or on (or in) an open fire. Some restaurants use special ovens designed specifically to cook large numbers of potatoes, then keep them warm and ready for service.


title: Baked potato

text: Prior to cooking, the potato should be scrubbed clean, washed and dried with eyes and surface blemishes removed, and basted with oil (usually olive oil) or butter and/or salt. Pricking the potato with a fork or knife allows steam to escape during the cooking process. Potatoes cooked in a microwave oven without pricking the skin might split open due to built up internal pressure from unvented steam. It takes between one and two hours to bake a large potato in a conventional oven at . Microwaving takes from six to twelve minutes depending on oven power and potato size, but does not generally produce a crisp skin. Some recipes call for use of both a microwave and a conventional oven, with the microwave being used to vent most of the steam prior to the cooking process.


title: Baked potato

text: Wrapping the potato in aluminium foil before cooking in a standard oven will help to retain moisture, while leaving it unwrapped will result in a crisp skin. When cooking over an open fire or in the coals of a barbecue, it may require wrapping in foil to prevent burning of the skin. A potato buried directly in coals of a fire cooks very nicely, with a mostly burned and inedible skin. A baked potato is fully cooked when its internal temperature reaches .


title: Baked potato

text: Once a potato has been baked, some people discard the skin and eat only the softer and moister interior, while others enjoy the taste and texture of the crisp skin, which is rich in dietary fiber. Potatoes baked in their skins may lose between 20 and 40% of their vitamin C content because heating in air is slow and vitamin inactivation can continue for a long time. Small potatoes bake more quickly than large ones and therefore retain more of their vitamin C.


title: Baked potato

text: Some people bake their potatoes and then scoop out the interior, leaving the skin as a shell. The white interior flesh can then be mixed with various other food items such as cheese, butter, or bacon bits. This mixture is then spooned back into the skin shells and they are replaced in the oven to warm through. In America, these are known variously as loaded potato skins, filled potatoes and twice-baked potatoes. In Great Britain, toppings or fillings tend to be more varied than they are in America: baked beans, curried chicken, coronation chicken, chilli con carne, tuna, and prawn fillings are popular, and in Scotland even haggis is used as a filling for jacket potatoes.


title: Baked potato

text: A variation is Hasselback potatoes, where the potato is cut into very thin slices almost down the bottom, so that the potato still holds together, and is then baked in the oven, occasionally scalloped with cheese. The proper noun "Hasselback" refers to the luxurious Hasselbacken hotel and restaurant in Stockholm which originated this dish.


title: Baked potato

text: Many restaurants serve baked potatoes with sides such as butter, sour cream, chives, shredded cheese, and bacon bits. These potatoes can be a side item to a steak dinner, or some similar entree. Sides are usually optional and customers can order as many or as few as they wish.


title: Baked potato

text: Large, stuffed baked potatoes may be served as an entree, usually filled with meat in addition to any of the ingredients mentioned above. Barbecued or smoked meat or chili is substituted. Vegetables such as broccoli may also be added.


title: Baked potato

text: Idaho is the major producing state of potatoes. The Idaho baked potato was heavily promoted by the Northern Pacific Railroad in the early 20th century, often using Hollywood movie stars.


title: Baked potato

text: Hazen Titus was appointed as the Northern Pacific Railway's dining car superintendent in 1908. He talked to Yakima Valley farmers who complained that they were unable to sell their potato crops because their potatoes were simply too large. They fed them to hogs. Titus learned that a single potato could weigh from two to five pounds, but that smaller potatoes were preferred by the end buyers of the vegetable and that many considered them not to be edible because their thick, rough skin made them difficult to cook.


title: Baked potato

text: Titus and his staff discovered the "inedible" potatoes were delicious after baking in a slow oven. He contracted to purchase as many potatoes as the farmers could produce that were more than two pounds in weight. Soon after the first delivery of "Netted Gem Bakers", they were offered to diners on the North Coast Limited beginning in 1909. Word of the line's specialty offering traveled quickly, and before long it was using "the Great Big Baked Potato" as a slogan to promote the railroad's passenger service. When an addition was built for the Northern Pacific's Seattle commissary in 1914, reporter wrote, "A large trade mark, in the shape of a baked potato, 40 ft.long and 18 ft. in diameter, surmounts the roof. The potato is electric lighted and its eyes, through the electric mechanism, are made to wink constantly. A cube of butter thrust into its split top glows intermittently." Premiums such as postcards, letter openers, and spoons were also produced to promote "The Route of the Great Big Baked Potato"; the slogan served the Northern Pacific for about 50 years. The song "Great Big Baked Potato" (words by N.R. Streeter and H. Caldwell; Music by Oliver George) was written about this potato.


title: Baked potato

text: A baked potato is sometimes called a "jacket potato" in the United Kingdom. The baked potato has been popular in the UK for many years. In the mid-19th century, jacket potatoes were sold on the streets by hawkers during the autumn and winter months. In London, it was estimated that some 10 tons of baked potatoes were sold each day by this method. Common jacket potato fillings (or "toppings") in the United Kingdom include grated cheddar cheese, baked beans, tuna mayonnaise, chili con carne and chicken and bacon.


title: Baked potato

text: Baked potatoes are often eaten on Guy Fawkes Night; traditionally they were often baked in the glowing embers of a bonfire.


title: Baked potato

text: A baked potato is called "pomme de terre au four" in French. It may be served as an accompaniment to a meat dish, or, in a fast-food restaurant called a "pataterie", be the centre of a meal.


title: Baked potato

text: A regional variation of the baked potato is known in rural Armenian villages surrounding Lake Sevan as "p'ur" (). Dried cow dung is stacked and used as fuel to slowly bake unseasoned potatoes which are placed in the center.


title: Baked potato

text: "Kumpir", a baked potato with various fillings, is a popular fast food in Turkey. In its basic form, it is made with potatoes that are wrapped with foil and baked in special ovens. The potatoes are sliced down the middle and the insides are mixed with unsalted butter and puréed with kaşar cheese. However, all sorts of foods can be added to the potato: mayonnaise, ketchup, pickles, sweetcorn, sausage slices, carrots, mushrooms and Russian salad. The cafés in Ortaköy, Istanbul, make "kumpir" that are especially popular with the tourists and offer even more ingredients.


title: Baked potato

text: Although baked potato with various fillings is not considered a traditional Russian dish, it has recently been gaining popularity as a fast food.


title: Baked potato

text: The baked potato is reasonably popular in Brazil, where it is sometimes known as "batata Inglesa" (lit. translated as 'English potato', likely due to the use of an English variety of potato: the 'King Edward').


title: Corporate governance

text: Corporate governance is defined, described or delineated in diverse ways, depending on the writer's purpose. Writers focused on a disciplinary interest or context (such as accounting, finance, law, or management) often adopt narrow definitions that appear purpose-specific. Writers concerned with regulatory policy in relation to corporate governance practices often use broader structural descriptions. A broad (meta) definition that encompasses many adopted definitions is "Corporate governance” describes the processes, structures, and mechanisms that influence the control and direction of corporations."


title: Corporate governance

text: This meta definition accommodates both the narrow definitions used in specific contexts and the broader descriptions that are often presented as authoritative. The latter include: the structural definition from the Cadbury Report, which identifies corporate governance as "the system by which companies are directed and controlled" (Cadbury 1992, p. 15); and the relational-structural view adopted by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) of "Corporate governance involves a set of relationships between a company's management, its board, its shareholders and other stakeholders. Corporate governance also provides the structure through which the objectives of the company are set, and the means of attaining those objectives and monitoring performance are determined" (OECD 2015, p.9).


title: Corporate governance

text: "Corporate governance" has also been defined as "the act of externally directing, controlling and evaluating a corporation" and related to the definition of "governance" as "The act of externally directing, controlling and evaluating an entity, process or resource". In this sense, governance and corporate governance are different from management because governance must be "external" to the object being governed. Governing agents do not have personal control over, and are not part of the object that they govern. For example, it is not possible for a CIO to govern the IT function. They are personally accountable for the strategy and management of the function. As such, they "manage" the IT function; they do not "govern" it. At the same time, there may be a number of policies, authorized by the board, that a CIO follows. When a CIO is following these policies, they are performing "governance" activities because the primary intention of the policy is to serve a governance purpose. The board is ultimately "governing" the IT function because they stand outside of the function and are only able to externally direct, control and evaluate the IT function by virtue of established policies, procedures and indicators. Without these policies, procedures and indicators, the board has no way of governing, let alone affecting the IT function in any way.


title: Corporate governance

text: The firm itself is modelled as a governance structure acting through the mechanisms of contract. Here corporate governance may include its relation to corporate finance.


title: Corporate governance

text: Contemporary discussions of corporate governance tend to refer to principles raised in three documents released since 1990: The Cadbury Report (UK, 1992), the Principles of Corporate Governance (OECD, 1999, 2004 and 2015), and the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 (US, 2002). The Cadbury and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) reports present general principles around which businesses are expected to operate to assure proper governance. The Sarbanes–Oxley Act, informally referred to as Sarbox or Sox, is an attempt by the federal government in the United States to legislate several of the principles recommended in the Cadbury and OECD reports.


title: Corporate governance

text: Some concerns regarding governance follows from the potential for conflicts of interests that are a consequence of the non-alignment of preferences between: shareholders and upper management (principal–agent problems); and among shareholders (principal–principal problems), although also other stakeholder relations are affected and coordinated through corporate governance.


title: Corporate governance

text: In large firms where there is a separation of ownership and management, the principal–agent problem can arise between upper-management (the "agent") and the shareholder(s) (the "principals"). The shareholders and upper management may have different interests. The shareholders typically desire returns on their investments through profits and dividends, while upper management may also be influenced by other motives, such as management remuneration or wealth interests, working conditions and perquisites, or relationships with other parties within (e.g., management-worker relations) or outside the corporation, to the extent that these are not necessary for profits. Those pertaining to self-interest are usually emphasized in relation to principal-agent problems. The effectiveness of corporate governance practices from a shareholder perspective might be judged by how well those practices align and coordinate the interests of the upper management with those of the shareholders. However, corporations sometimes undertake initiatives, such as climate activism and voluntary emission reduction, that seems to contradict the idea that rational self-interest drives shareholders' governance goals.


title: Corporate governance

text: An example of a possible conflict between shareholders and upper management materializes through stock repurchases (treasury stock). Executives may have incentive to divert cash surpluses to buying treasury stock to support or increase the share price. However, that reduces the financial resources available to maintain or enhance profitable operations. As a result, executives can sacrifice long-term profits for short-term personal gain. Shareholders may have different perspectives in this regard, depending on their own time preferences, but it can also be viewed as a conflict with broader corporate interests (including preferences of other stakeholders and the long-term health of the corporation).


title: Corporate governance

text: The principal–agent problem can be intensified when upper management acts on behalf of multiple shareholders—which is often the case in large firms (see Multiple principal problem). Specifically, when upper management acts on behalf of multiple shareholders, the multiple shareholders face a collective action problem in corporate governance, as individual shareholders may lobby upper management or otherwise have incentives to act in their individual interests rather than in the collective interest of all shareholders. As a result, there may be free-riding in steering and monitoring of upper management, or conversely, high costs may arise from duplicate steering and monitoring of upper management. Conflict may break out between principals, and this all leads to increased autonomy for upper management.


title: Corporate governance

text: Ways of mitigating or preventing these conflicts of interests include the processes, customs, policies, laws, and institutions which affect the way a company is controlled—and this is the challenge of corporate governance. To solve the problem of governing upper management under multiple shareholders, corporate governance scholars have figured out that the straightforward solution of appointing one or more shareholders for governance is likely to lead to problems because of the information asymmetry it creates. Shareholders' meetings are necessary to arrange governance under multiple shareholders, and it has been proposed that this is the solution to the problem of multiple principals due to median voter theorem: shareholders' meetings lead power to be devolved to an actor that approximately holds the median interest of all shareholders, thus causing governance to best represent the aggregated interest of all shareholders.


title: Corporate governance

text: An important theme of governance is the nature and extent of corporate accountability. A related discussion at the macro level focuses on the effect of a corporate governance system on economic efficiency, with a strong emphasis on shareholders' welfare. This has resulted in a literature focused on economic analysis.


title: Corporate governance

text: Different models of corporate governance differ according to the variety of capitalism in which they are embedded. The Anglo-American "model" tends to emphasize the interests of shareholders. The coordinated or multistakeholder model associated with Continental Europe and Japan also recognizes the interests of workers, managers, suppliers, customers, and the community. A related distinction is between market-oriented and network-oriented models of corporate governance.


title: Corporate governance

text: Some continental European countries, including Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands, require a two-tiered board of directors as a means of improving corporate governance. In the two-tiered board, the executive board, made up of company executives, generally runs day-to-day operations while the supervisory board, made up entirely of non-executive directors who represent shareholders and employees, hires and fires the members of the executive board, determines their compensation, and reviews major business decisions.


title: Corporate governance

text: Germany, in particular, is known for its practice of co-determination, founded on the German Codetermination Act of 1976, in which workers are granted seats on the board as stakeholders, separate from the seats accruing to shareholder equity.


title: Corporate governance

text: The so-called "Anglo-American model" of corporate governance emphasizes the interests of shareholders. It relies on a single-tiered board of directors that is normally dominated by non-executive directors elected by shareholders. Because of this, it is also known as "the unitary system". Within this system, many boards include some executives from the company (who are "ex officio" members of the board). Non-executive directors are expected to outnumber executive directors and hold key posts, including audit and compensation committees. In the United Kingdom, the CEO generally does not also serve as chairman of the board, whereas in the US having the dual role has been the norm, despite major misgivings regarding the effect on corporate governance. The number of US firms combining both roles is declining, however.


title: Corporate governance

text: In the United States, corporations are directly governed by state laws, while the exchange (offering and trading) of securities in corporations (including shares) is governed by federal legislation. Many US states have adopted the Model Business Corporation Act, but the dominant state law for publicly traded corporations is Delaware General Corporation Law, which continues to be the place of incorporation for the majority of publicly traded corporations. Individual rules for corporations are based upon the corporate charter and, less authoritatively, the corporate bylaws.


title: Corporate governance

text: Shareholders cannot initiate changes in the corporate charter although they can initiate changes to the corporate bylaws.


title: Corporate governance

text: It is sometimes colloquially stated that in the US and the UK that "the shareholders own the company." This is, however, a misconception as argued by Eccles and Youmans (2015) and Kay (2015). The American system has long been based on a belief in the potential of shareholder democracy to efficiently allocate capital.


title: Corporate governance

text: The Japanese model of corporate governance has traditionally held a broad view that firms should account for the interests of a range of stakeholders. For instance, managers do not have a fiduciary responsibility to shareholders. This framework is rooted in the belief that a balance among stakeholder interests can lead to a superior allocation of resources for society. The Japanese model includes several key principles:


title: Corporate governance

text: An article published by the Australian Institute of Company Directors called "Do Boards Need to become more Entrepreneurial?" considered the need for founder centrism behaviour at board level to appropriately manage disruption.


title: Corporate governance

text: Corporations are created as legal persons by the laws and regulations of a particular jurisdiction. These may vary in many respects between countries, but a corporation's legal person status is fundamental to all jurisdictions and is conferred by statute. This allows the entity to hold property in its own right without reference to any real person. It also results in the perpetual existence that characterizes the modern corporation. The statutory granting of corporate existence may arise from general purpose legislation (which is the general case) or from a statute to create a specific corporation. Now, the formation of business corporations in most jurisdictions requires government legislation that facilitates incorporation. This legislation is often in the form of Companies Act or Corporations Act, or similar. Country-specific regulatory devices are summarized below.


title: Corporate governance

text: It is generally perceived that regulatory attention on the corporate governance practices of publicly listed corporations, particularly in relation to transparency and accountability, increased in many jurisdictions following the high-profile corporate scandals in 2001–2002, many of which involved accounting fraud; and then again after the financial crisis in 2008. For example, in the U.S., these included scandals surrounding Enron and MCI Inc. (formerly WorldCom). Their demise led to the enactment of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act in 2002, a U.S. federal law intended to improve corporate governance in the United States. Comparable failures in Australia (HIH, One.Tel) are linked to with the eventual passage of the CLERP 9 reforms there (2004), that similarly aimed to improve corporate governance. Similar corporate failures in other countries stimulated increased regulatory interest (e.g., Parmalat in Italy). Also see


title: Corporate governance

text: In addition to legislation the facilitates incorporation, many jurisdictions have some major regulatory devices that impact on corporate governance. This includes statutory laws concerned with the functioning of stock or securities markets (also see Security (finance), consumer and competition (antitrust) laws, labour or employment laws, and environmental protection laws, which may also entail disclosure requirements. In addition to the statutory laws of the relevant jurisdiction, corporations are subject to common law in some countries.


title: Corporate governance

text: In most jurisdictions, corporations also have some form of a corporate constitution that provides individual rules that govern the corporation and authorize or constrain its decision-makers. This constitution is identified by a variety of terms; in English-speaking jurisdictions, it is sometimes known as the corporate charter or articles of association (which also be accompanied by a memorandum of association).


title: Corporate governance

text: Incorporation in Australia originated under state legislation but has been under federal legislation since 2001. Also see Australian corporate law.


title: Corporate governance

text: Incorporation in Canada can be done either under either federal or provincial legislation. See Canadian corporate law.