title: Cant (language)

text: The thieves' cant was a feature of popular pamphlets and plays particularly between 1590 and 1615, but continued to feature in literature through the 18th century. There are questions about how genuinely the literature reflected vernacular use in the criminal underworld. A thief in 1839 claimed that the cant he had seen in print was nothing like the cant then used by gypsies, thieves and beggars. He also said that each of these used distinct vocabularies, which overlapped, the gypsies having a cant word for everything, and the beggars using a lower style than the thieves.


title: Cant (language)

text: Ulti is a language studied and documented by Bhaktiprasad Mallik in his book "Languages of the Underworld of West Bengal." Ulti is an anti-language derived from Bengali and used by criminals and affiliates. The Ulti word "kodān" 'shop' is derived from rearranging the letters in the Bengali word "dokān", which also means 'shop'.


title: Orthodontics

text: Orthodontics is a dentistry specialty that addresses the diagnosis, prevention, management, and correction of mal-positioned teeth and jaws, and misaligned bite patterns. It may also address the modification of facial growth, known as dentofacial orthopedics.


title: Orthodontics

text: Abnormal alignment of the teeth and jaws is very common. Nearly 50% of the developed world's population, according to the American Association of Orthodontics, has malocclusions severe enough to benefit from orthodontic treatment: although this figure decreases to less than 10% according to the same AAO statement when referring to medically necessary orthodontics. However, conclusive scientific evidence for the health benefits of orthodontic treatment is lacking, although patients with completed orthodontic treatment have reported a higher quality of life than that of untreated patients undergoing orthodontic treatment. Treatment may require several months to a few years, and entails using dental braces and other appliances to gradually adjust tooth position and jaw alignment. In cases where the malocclusion is severe, jaw surgery may be incorporated in the treatment plan. Treatment usually begins before a person reaches adulthood, insofar as pre-adult bones may be adjusted more easily before adulthood.


title: Orthodontics

text: As a modern science, orthodontics dates to the mid 1800s. The field's influential contributors include Norman William Kingsley (1829–1913) and Edward Angle (1855–1930). Angle created the first basic system for classifying malocclusions, a system which remains in use today.


title: Orthodontics

text: Until the mid-1970s, braces were made by wrapping metal around each tooth. With advancements in adhesives it became possible to instead bond metal brackets to the teeth.


title: Orthodontics

text: A typical treatment for incorrectly positioned teeth (malocclusion) takes from one to two years, with braces being adjusted every four to 10 weeks by specialists called orthodontists, university-trained dental specialists versed in the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of dental and facial irregularities. Orthodontists offer a wide range of treatment options to straighten crooked teeth, fix irregular bites, and align the jaws correctly. There are many ways to adjust malocclusion. In growing patients there are more options to treat skeletal discrepancies, either by promoting or restricting growth using functional appliances, orthodontic headgear or a reverse pull facemask. Most orthodontic work begins in the early permanent dentition stage before skeletal growth is completed. If skeletal growth has completed, jaw surgery is an option. Sometimes teeth are extracted to aid the orthodontic treatment (teeth are extracted in about half of all the cases, most commonly the premolars).


title: Orthodontics

text: Orthodontic therapy may include using fixed or removable appliances. Most orthodontic therapy is delivered using appliances that are fixed in place, for example, with braces that are adhesively bonded to the teeth. Fixed appliances may provide greater mechanical control of the teeth; optimal treatment outcome is improved by using fixed appliances.


title: Orthodontics

text: Fixed appliances may be used, for example, to rotate teeth if that do not fit the arch shape of the other teeth in the mouth, to adjust multiple teeth to different places, to change tooth angle of teeth, or to change the position of a tooth's root. This treatment course is not preferred where a patient has poor oral hygiene, (as decalcification, tooth decay or other complications may result. If a patient is unmotivated (insofar as treatment takes several months and requires commitment to oral hygiene), or if malocclusions are mild.


title: Orthodontics

text: Biology of tooth movement and how advances in gene therapy and molecular biology technology may shape the future of orthodontic treatment.


title: Orthodontics

text: Braces are usually placed on the front side of the teeth, but they may also be placed on the side facing the tongue (called lingual braces). Brackets made out of stainless steel or porcelain are bonded to the center of the teeth using an adhesive. Wires are placed in a slot in the brackets which allows for controlled movement in all three dimensions.


title: Orthodontics

text: Apart from wires, forces can be applied using elastic bands, and springs may be used to push teeth apart or to close a gap. Several teeth may be tied together with ligatures and different kinds of hooks can be placed to allow for connecting an elastic band.


title: Orthodontics

text: Clear aligners are an alternative to braces, but insufficient evidence exists to determine their effectiveness.


title: Orthodontics

text: The time required for braces varies from person to person as it depends on the severity of the problem, the amount of room available, the distance the teeth must travel, the health of the teeth, gums, and supporting bone, and how closely the patient follows instructions. On average, however, once the braces are put on, they usually remain in place for one to three years. After braces are removed, most patients will need to wear a retainer all the time for the first six months, then only during sleep for many years.


title: Orthodontics

text: Orthodontic headgear—sometimes referred to as an "extra-oral appliance"—is a treatment approach that requires the patient to have a device strapped onto his or her head to help correct malocclusion—typically used when the teeth do not align properly. Headgear is most often used along with braces or other orthodontic appliances. While braces correct the position of teeth, orthodontic headgear—which as the name suggests is worn on or is strapped onto the patient's head—is most often added to orthodontic treatment to help alter the alignment of the jaw, although there are some situations in which such an appliance can help move teeth, particularly molars.


title: Orthodontics

text: Whatever the purpose, orthodontic headgear works by exerting tension on the braces via hooks, a facebow, coils, elastic bands, metal orthodontic bands, and other attachable appliances directly into the patient's mouth. It is most effective for children and teenagers because their jaws are still developing and can be easily manipulated. (If an adult is fitted with headgear, it is usually to help correct the position of teeth that have shifted after other teeth have been extracted.) Thus Headgear is typically used to treat a number of jaw alignment or bite problems such as overbite and underbite.


title: Orthodontics

text: Palatal expansion can be best achieved using a fixed tissue born appliance. Removable appliances can push teeth outwards but is less effective at maxillary sutural expansion. The effects of a removable expander may look the same as they push teeth outwards but should not be confused with actually expanding the palate. Proper palate expansion can create more space for teeth as well as improve both oral and nasal airflow.[citation needed]


title: Orthodontics

text: Jaw surgery may be required to fix severe malocclusions. The bone is broken during surgery and is stabilized with titanium (or bioresorbable) plates and screws to allow for healing to take place. After surgery, regular orthodontic treatment is used to move the teeth into their final position.


title: Orthodontics

text: To reduce pain during the orthodontic treatment, low-level laser therapy (LLLT), vibratory devices, chewing adjuncts, brainwave music, or cognitive behavioral therapy can be used. However, the supporting evidence is of low quality, and the results are inconclusive.


title: Orthodontics

text: After orthodontic treatment has completed, there is a tendency for teeth to return, or relapse, back to their pre-treatment positions. Over 50% of patients have some reversion to pre-treatment positions within 10 years following treatment. To prevent relapse, the majority of patients will be offered a retainer once treatment has completed and will benefit from wearing their retainers. Retainers can be either fixed or removable.


title: Orthodontics

text: Removable retainers are made from a clear plastic, and they are custom-fitted for the patient's mouth. It has a tight fit and holds all of the teeth in position. There are many types of brands for clear retainers including Zendura Retainer, Essix Retainer, and Vivera Retainer. Hawley retainer is also a removable orthodontic appliance made from a combination of plastic and metal that is molded custom to fit the patient's mouth. Removable retainers will be worn for different periods of time depending on patient need to stabilise the dentition.


title: Orthodontics

text: Fixed retainers are a simple wire fixed to the tongue-facing part of the incisors using dental adhesive and can be specifically useful to prevent rotation in incisors. Other types of fixed retainers can include labial or lingual braces, with brackets fixed to the teeth.


title: Orthodontics

text: Invisalign is another form of orthodontics that is commonly used today. Many patients do not like the appearance of traditional metal braces, so they opt for clear removable aligners. There was a lot of controversy about the effectiveness of Invisalign, but with years of advancements, Invisalign's results can now be closely compared to traditional braces but with a lot more freedom and faster results.


title: Orthodontics

text: After booking an appointment with a dentist, the patient sets up a consultation. During the consultation the dentist or the dental assistant will scan the individual's teeth with a machine called iTero. The iTero machine digitally scans the structure of the teeth and gums. The dentist is able to see a 3D model of the patient's teeth on the screen. Unlike traditional braces, with Invisalign one is able to see the entire process from start to finish during consultation. Being that aligners are used, there is a lot of flexibility in fixing the smile. The dentist is able to make any changes that one wants to their treatment.


title: Orthodontics

text: Traditional braces require metal brackets; with Invisalign, depending on the case, a patient will have "attachments" on the teeth. They are clear little buttons that help move teeth. Also, depending on the case, an individual might need interproximal reduction, also known as IPR. The dentist will take a little tool and "shave" off in-between the teeth, to help with overcrowded teeth. The reduction is very minimal, at most 0.3mm.


title: Orthodontics

text: Once the individual receives their aligners, they will have to wear them every day for 20–22 hours. One is supposed to remove them when eating and drinking. Unlike traditional metal braces, the person is able to eat anything when the aligners are removed; there are no restrictions.


title: Orthodontics

text: There are several specialty areas in dentistry, but the specialty of orthodontics was the first to be recognized within dentistry. Specifically, the American Dental Association recognized orthodontics as a specialty in the 1950s. Each country has their own system for training and registering orthodontic specialists.


title: Orthodontics

text: In Australia, to obtain an accredited three-year full-time university degree in orthodontics, one will need to be a qualified dentist (complete an AHPRA registered general dental degree) with a minimum of two years of clinical experience. There are several universities in Australia that offer orthodontic programs: University of Adelaide, University of Melbourne, University of Sydney, University of Queensland, University of Western Australia, University of Otago. Orthodontic Courses are accredited by the Australian Dental Council and reviewed by the Australian Society of Orthodontists (ASO). Prospective applicants should obtain information from the relevant institution before applying for admission. After completing a degree in orthodontics, specialists are required to be registered with the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA) in order to practice.


title: Orthodontics

text: Dhaka Dental College in Bangladesh is one of the many schools recognized by the Bangladesh Medical and Dental Council (BM&DC) that offer post-graduation orthodontic courses. Before applying to any post-graduation training courses, an applicant must have completed the Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS) examination from any dental college. After application, the applicant must take an admissions test held by the specific college. When successful, selected candidates undergo training for six months.


title: Orthodontics

text: In Canada, obtaining a dental degree, such as a Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) or Doctor of Medical Dentistry (DMD), would be required before being accepted by a school for orthodontic training. Currently, there are 10 schools in the country offering the orthodontic specialty. Candidates should contact the individual school directly to obtain the most recent pre-requisites before entry. The Canadian Dental Association expects orthodontists to complete at least two years of post-doctoral, specialty training in orthodontics in an accredited program, after graduating from their dental degree.


title: Orthodontics

text: In Pakistan to be enrolled as a student or resident in a postgraduation orthodontic course approved by Pakistan Medical and Dental Council, the dentist must graduate with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS) or equivalent degree. Pakistan Medical & Dental Council (PMDC) has a recognized program in Orthodontics as Master in Dental Surgery (MDS) orthodontics and FCPS orthodontics as 4 years post-graduate degree programs, the latter of which is conducted by CPSP Pakistan.


title: Orthodontics

text: Similar to Canada, there are several colleges and universities in the United States that offer orthodontic programs. Every school has a different enrollment process, but every applicant is required to have graduated with a DDS or DMD from an accredited dental school. Entrance into an accredited orthodontics program is extremely competitive, and begins by passing a national or state licensing exam.


title: Orthodontics

text: The program generally lasts for two to three years, and by the final year, graduates are to complete the written American Board of Orthodontics (ABO) exam. This exam is also broken down into two components: a written exam and a clinical exam. The written exam is a comprehensive exam that tests for the applicant's knowledge of basic sciences and clinical concepts. The clinical exam, however, consists of a Board Case Oral Examination (BCOE), a Case Report Examination (CRE), and a Case Report Oral Examination (CROE). Once certified, certification must then be renewed every ten years. Orthodontic programs can award the Master of Science degree, Doctor of Science degree, or Doctor of Philosophy degree depending on the school and individual research requirements.


title: Orthodontics

text: Throughout the United Kingdom, there are several Orthodontic Specialty Training Registrar posts available. The program is full-time for three years, and upon completion, trainees graduate with a degree at the Masters or Doctorate level. Training may take place within hospital departments that are linked to recognized dental schools. Obtaining a Certificate of Completion of Specialty Training (CCST) allows an orthodontic specialist to be registered under the General Dental Council (GDC). An orthodontic specialist can provide care within a primary care setting, but to work at a hospital as an orthodontic consultant, higher-level training is further required as a post-CCST trainee. To work within a university setting, as an academic consultant, completing research toward obtaining a Ph.D. is also required.


title: Narain (actor)

text: Sunil Kumar, known by his stage name Narain, is an Indian actor, who has starred in Malayalam and Tamil films. He made his debut in Adoor Gopalakrishnan's "Nizhalkuthu" (2002), followed by performances in Malayalam films "4 the People" (2004), "Achuvinte Amma" (2005), and "Classmates" (2006). Narain's Tamil debut was in Mysskin's "Chithiram Pesuthadi" (2006).


title: Narain (actor)

text: Narain's first film was "Nizhalkuthu". His first commercial film, "4 The People", was dubbed in Tamil and Telugu. He portrayed a struggling lawyer, Emmanuel John, in "Achuvinte Amma" and also played a doctor, Jeevan, in "Sheelabathi". He also played roles in "Annorikal" and "Classmates". His debut Tamil movie was "Chithiram Pesuthadi". Through "Panthaya Kozhi", produced by director Lal, he has been re-launched as an independent action hero in the Malayalam film industry. In 2008, he did another youth-oriented Malayalam movie "Minnaminnikoottam". He has acted in more than 20 Malayalam movies.


title: Narain (actor)

text: Narain worked with director Sathyan Anthikkad in the 2005 movie "Achuvinte Amma" and again in 2009 in "Bhagyadevatha".


title: Narain (actor)

text: Narain played the lead role in P. T. Kunju Muhammed's "Veeraputhran" (2011). He collaborated with director Mysskin in the 2008 film "Anjaathe" and in the 2012 superhero film "Mugamoodi" where he portrayed a villain. However his career high came through the 2019, Lokesh Kanagaraj directed venture "Kaithi" (2019), co starring with Karthi . In 2022, "Vikram" who bridges two films occurring in the same universe starring Kamal Haasan, Vijay Sethupathi, and Fahadh Faasil.


title: Narain (actor)

text: Narain was born on 7 October 1979 in Kolkata. Narain completed his pre-degree from St. Thomas College, Thrissur and graduated from Sree Kerala Varma College. He did his diploma in cinematography at the MGR Government Film And Television Institute. He joined ace cinematographer Rajiv Menon and later resigned to try for chances in acting. On 26 August 2007 he married Malayalam television host Manju Haridas. Manju had hosted shows like Superstar Junior and has sung in "Chithiram Pesuthadi", a Tamil film in which Narain had acted. The couple have two children, a daughter born in 2008 and a son born in 2022.


title: Thrips

text: Thrips (order Thysanoptera) are minute (mostly long or less), slender insects with fringed wings and unique asymmetrical mouthparts. Different thrips species feed mostly on plants by puncturing and sucking up the contents, although a few are predators. Entomologists have described approximately 6,000 species. They fly only weakly and their feathery wings are unsuitable for conventional flight; instead, thrips exploit an unusual mechanism, clap and fling, to create lift using an unsteady circulation pattern with transient vortices near the wings.


title: Thrips

text: Many thrips species are pests of commercially important crops. A few species serve as vectors for over 20 viruses that cause plant disease, especially the Tospoviruses. Some species of thrips are beneficial as pollinators or as predators of other insects or mites. In the right conditions, such as in greenhouses, many species can exponentially increase in population size and form large swarms because of a lack of natural predators coupled with their ability to reproduce asexually, making them destructive to crops. In addition to damaging plants, thrips may invade houses and infest household objects such as furniture, bedding and computer monitors – in the latter case by forcing their way in between the LCD and its glass covering.


title: Thrips

text: The first recorded mention of thrips is from the 17th century and a sketch was made by Philippo Bonanni, a Catholic priest, in 1691. Swedish entomologist Baron Charles De Geer described two species in the genus "Physapus" in 1744 and Linnaeus in 1746 added a third species and named this group of insects "Thrips". In 1836 the Irish entomologist Alexander Henry Haliday described 41 species in 11 genera and proposed the order name of Thysanoptera. The first monograph on the group was published in 1895 by Heinrich Uzel who is considered the father of Thysanoptera studies.


title: Thrips

text: The generic and English name "thrips" is a direct transliteration of the ancient Greek , "thrips", meaning "woodworm". Like some other animal names such as "sheep", "deer", and "moose", in English the word thrips is both the singular and plural forms, so there may be many thrips or a single thrips. Other common names for thrips include thunderflies, thunderbugs, storm flies, thunderblights, storm bugs, corn fleas, corn flies, corn lice, freckle bugs, harvest bugs, and physopods. The older group name "physopoda" is with reference to the bladder like tips to the tarsi of the legs. The name of the order Thysanoptera is constructed from the ancient Greek words , "thysanos", "tassel or fringe", and , "pteron", "wing", for the insects' fringed wings.


title: Thrips

text: Thrips are small hemimetabolic insects with a distinctive cigar-shaped body plan. They are elongated with transversely constricted bodies. They range in size from in length for the larger predatory thrips, but most thrips are about 1 mm in length. Flight-capable thrips have two similar, strap-like pairs of wings with a fringe of bristles. The wings are folded back over the body at rest. Their legs usually end in two tarsal segments with a bladder-like structure known as an "arolium" at the pretarsus. This structure can be everted by means of hemolymph pressure, enabling the insect to walk on vertical surfaces. They have compound eyes consisting of a small number of ommatidia and three ocelli or simple eyes on the head.


title: Thrips

text: Thrips have asymmetrical mouthparts unique to the group. Unlike the Hemiptera (true bugs), the right mandible of thrips is reduced and vestigial – and in some species completely absent.


title: Thrips

text: The left mandible is used briefly to cut into the food plant; saliva is injected and the maxillary stylets, which form a tube, are then inserted and the semi-digested food pumped from ruptured cells. This process leaves cells destroyed or collapsed, and a distinctive silvery or bronze scarring on the surfaces of the stems or leaves where the thrips have fed.


title: Thrips

text: Thysanoptera is divided into two suborders, Terebrantia and Tubulifera; these can be distinguished by morphological, behavioral, and developmental characteristics. Tubulifera consists of a single family, Phlaeothripidae; members can be identified by their characteristic tube-shaped apical abdominal segment, egg-laying atop the surface of leaves, and three "pupal" stages. In the Phlaeothripidae, the males are often larger than females and a range of sizes may be found within a population. The largest recorded phlaeothripid species is about 14 mm long. Females of the eight families of the Terebrantia all possess the eponymous saw-like (see terebra) ovipositor on the anteapical abdominal segment, lay eggs singly within plant tissue, and have two "pupal" stages. In most Terebrantia, the males are smaller than females. The family Uzelothripidae has a single species and it is unique in having a whip-like terminal antennal segment.


title: Thrips

text: The earliest fossils of thrips date back to the Permian ("Permothrips longipennis"). By the Early Cretaceous, true thrips became much more abundant. The extant family Merothripidae most resembles these ancestral Thysanoptera, and is probably basal to the order. There are currently over six thousand species of thrips recognized, grouped into 777 extant and sixty fossil genera.


title: Thrips

text: The phylogeny of thrips families has been little studied. A preliminary analysis in 2013 of 37 species using 3 genes, as well as a phylogeny based on ribosomal DNA and three proteins in 2012, supports the monophyly of the two suborders, Tubulifera and Terebrantia. In Terebrantia, Melanothripidae may be sister to all other families, but other relationships remain unclear. In Tubulifera, the Phlaeothripidae and its subfamily Idolothripinae are monophyletic. The two largest thrips subfamilies, Phlaeothripinae and Thripinae, are paraphyletic and need further work to determine their structure. The internal relationships from these analyses are shown in the cladogram.


title: Thrips

text: The identification of thrips to species is challenging as types are maintained as slide preparations of varying quality over time. There is also considerable variability leading to many species being misidentified. Molecular sequence based approaches have increasingly been applied to their identification.


title: Thrips

text: Thrips are believed to have descended from a fungus-feeding ancestor during the Mesozoic, and many groups still feed upon and inadvertently redistribute fungal spores. These live among leaf litter or on dead wood and are important members of the ecosystem, their diet often being supplemented with pollen. Other species are primitively eusocial and form plant galls and still others are predatory on mites and other thrips. Two species of "Aulacothrips", "A. tenuis" and "A. levinotus", have been found to be ectoparasites on aetalionid and membracid plant-hoppers in Brazil.


title: Thrips

text: "Mirothrips arbiter" has been found in paper wasp nests in Brazil. The eggs of the hosts including "Mischocyttarus atramentarius", "Mischocyttarus cassununga" and "Polistes versicolor" are eaten by the thrips. Thrips, especially in the family Aeolothripidae, are also predators, and are considered beneficial in the management of pests like the codling moths.


title: Thrips

text: Most research has focused on thrips species that feed on economically significant crops. Some species are predatory, but most of them feed on pollen and the chloroplasts harvested from the outer layer of plant epidermal and mesophyll cells. They prefer tender parts of the plant, such as buds, flowers and new leaves. Besides feeding on plant tissues, the common blossom thrips feeds on pollen grains and on the eggs of mites. When the larva supplements its diet in this way, its development time and mortality is reduced, and adult females that consume mite eggs increase their fecundity and longevity.


title: Thrips

text: Some flower-feeding thrips pollinate the flowers they are feeding on, and some authors suspect that they may have been among the first insects to evolve a pollinating relationship with their host plants. "Scirtothrips dorsalis" carries pollen of commercially important chili peppers. Darwin found that thrips could not be kept out by any netting when he conducted experiments by keeping away larger pollinators.


title: Thrips

text: "Thrips setipennis" is the sole pollinator of "Wilkiea huegeliana", a small, unisexual annually flowering tree or shrub in the rainforests of eastern Australia. "T. setipennis" serves as an obligate pollinator for other Australian rainforest plant species, including "Myrsine howittiana" and "M. variabilis." The genus "Cycadothrips" is a specialist pollinator of cycads, the cones of which are adapted for pollination by small insects. Thrips are likewise the primary pollinators of heathers in the family "Ericaceae", and play a significant role in the pollination of pointleaf manzanita. Electron microscopy has shown thrips carrying pollen grains adhering to their backs, and their fringed wings are perfectly capable of allowing them to fly from plant to plant.


title: Thrips

text: Thrips can cause damage during feeding. This impact may fall across a broad selection of prey items, as there is considerable breadth in host affinity across the order, and even within a species, varying degrees of fidelity to a host. Family Thripidae in particular is notorious for members with broad host ranges, and the majority of pest thrips come from this family. For example, "Thrips tabaci" damages crops of onions, potatoes, tobacco, and cotton.


title: Thrips

text: Some species of thrips create galls, almost always in leaf tissue. These may occur as curls, rolls or folds, or as alterations to the expansion of tissues causing distortion to leaf blades. More complex examples cause rosettes, pouches and horns. Most of these species occur in the tropics and sub-tropics, and the structures of the galls are diagnostic of the species involved. A radiation of thrips species seems to have taken place on "Acacia" trees in Australia; some of these species cause galls in the petioles, sometimes fixing two leaf stalks together, while other species live in every available crevice in the bark. In "Casuarina" in the same country, some species have invaded stems, creating long-lasting woody galls.


title: Thrips

text: While poorly documented, chemical communication is believed to be important to the group. Anal secretions are produced in the hindgut, and released along the posterior setae as predator deterrents In Australia, aggregations of male common blossom thrips have been observed on the petals of "Hibiscus rosa-sinensis" and "Gossypium hirsutum"; females were attracted to these groups so it seems likely that the males were producing pheromones.


title: Thrips

text: In the phlaeothripids that feed on fungi, males compete to protect and mate with females, and then defend the egg-mass. Males fight by flicking their rivals away with their abdomen, and may kill with their foretarsal teeth. Small males may sneak in to mate while the larger males are busy fighting. In the Merothripidae and in the Aeolothripidae, males are again polymorphic with large and small forms, and probably also compete for mates, so the strategy may well be ancestral among the Thysanoptera.


title: Thrips

text: Many thrips form galls on plants when feeding or laying their eggs. Some of the gall-forming Phlaeothripidae, such as genera "Kladothrips" and "Oncothrips", form eusocial groups similar to ant colonies, with reproductive queens and nonreproductive soldier castes.


title: Thrips

text: Most insects create lift by the stiff-winged mechanism of insect flight with steady state aerodynamics; this creates a leading edge vortex continuously as the wing moves. The feathery wings of thrips, however, generate lift by clap and fling, a mechanism discovered by the Danish zoologist Torkel Weis-Fogh in 1973. In the clap part of the cycle, the wings approach each other over the insect's back, creating a circulation of air which sets up vortices and generates useful forces on the wings. The leading edges of the wings touch, and the wings rotate around their leading edges, bringing them together in the "clap". The wings close, expelling air from between them, giving more useful thrust. The wings rotate around their trailing edges to begin the "fling", creating useful forces. The leading edges move apart, making air rush in between them and setting up new vortices, generating more force on the wings. The trailing edge vortices, however, cancel each other out with opposing flows. Weis-Fogh suggested that this cancellation might help the circulation of air to grow more rapidly, by shutting down the Wagner effect which would otherwise counteract the growth of the circulation.


title: Thrips

text: Apart from active flight, thrips, even wingless ones, can also be picked up by winds and transferred long distances. During warm and humid weather, adults may climb to the tips of plants to leap and catch air current. Wind-aided dispersal of species has been recorded over 1600 km of sea between Australia and South Island of New Zealand. It has been suggested that some bird species may also be involved in the dispersal of thrips. Thrips are picked up along with grass in the nests of birds and can be transported by the birds.


title: Thrips

text: A hazard of flight for very small insects such as thrips is the possibility of being trapped by water. Thrips have non-wetting bodies and have the ability to ascend a meniscus by arching their bodies and working their way head-first and upwards along the water surface in order to escape.


title: Thrips

text: Thrips lay extremely small eggs, about 0.2 mm long. Females of the suborder Terebrantia cut slits in plant tissue with their ovipositor, and insert their eggs, one per slit. Females of the suborder Tubulifera lay their eggs singly or in small groups on the outside surfaces of plants.


title: Thrips

text: Thrips are hemimetabolous, metamorphosing gradually to the adult form. The first two instars, called larvae or nymphs, are like small wingless adults (often confused with springtails) without genitalia; these feed on plant tissue. In the Terebrantia, the third and fourth instars, and in the Tubulifera also a fifth instar, are non-feeding resting stages similar to pupae: in these stages, the body's organs are reshaped, and wing-buds and genitalia are formed. The adult stage can be reached in around 8–15 days; adults can live for around 45 days. Adults have both winged and wingless forms; in the grass thrips "Anaphothrips obscurus", for example, the winged form makes up 90% of the population in spring (in temperate zones), while the wingless form makes up 98% of the population late in the summer. Thrips can survive the winter as adults or through egg or pupal diapause.


title: Thrips

text: Thrips are haplodiploid with haploid males (from unfertilised eggs, as in Hymenoptera) and diploid females capable of parthenogenesis (reproducing without fertilisation), many species using arrhenotoky, a few using thelytoky. In "Pezothrips kellyanus" females hatch from larger eggs than males, possibly because they are more likely to be fertilized. The sex-determining bacterial endosymbiont "Wolbachia" is a factor that affects the reproductive mode. Several normally bisexual species have become established in the United States with only females present.


title: Thrips

text: Many thrips are pests of commercial crops due to the damage they cause by feeding on developing flowers or vegetables, causing discoloration, deformities, and reduced marketability of the crop. Some thrips serve as vectors for plant diseases, such as tospoviruses. Over 20 plant-infecting viruses are known to be transmitted by thrips, but perversely, less than a dozen of the described species are known to vector tospoviruses. These enveloped viruses are considered among some of the most damaging of emerging plant pathogens around the world, with those vector species having an outsized impact on human agriculture. Virus members include the tomato spotted wilt virus and the impatiens necrotic spot viruses. The western flower thrips, "Frankliniella occidentalis", has spread until it now has a worldwide distribution, and is the primary vector of plant diseases caused by tospoviruses. Other viruses that they spread include the genera "Ilarvirus", "(Alpha|Beta|Gamma)carmovirus", "Sobemovirus" and "Machlomovirus." Their small size and predisposition towards enclosed places makes them difficult to detect by phytosanitary inspection, while their eggs, laid inside plant tissue, are well-protected from pesticide sprays. When coupled with the increasing globalization of trade and the growth of greenhouse agriculture, thrips, unsurprisingly, are among the fastest growing group of invasive species in the world. Examples include "F. occidentalis", "Thrips simplex", and "Thrips palmi".


title: Thrips

text: Flower-feeding thrips are routinely attracted to bright floral colors (including white, blue, and especially yellow), and will land and attempt to feed. It is not uncommon for some species (e.g., "Frankliniella tritici" and "Limothrips cerealium") to "bite" humans under such circumstances. Although no species feed on blood and no known animal disease is transmitted by thrips, some skin irritation has been described.


title: Thrips

text: Thrips develop resistance to insecticides easily and there is constant research on how to control them. This makes thrips ideal as models for testing the effectiveness of new pesticides and methods.


title: Thrips

text: Due to their small sizes and high rates of reproduction, thrips are difficult to control using classical biological control. Suitable predators must be small and slender enough to penetrate the crevices where thrips hide while feeding, and they must also prey extensively on eggs and larvae to be effective. Only two families of parasitoid Hymenoptera parasitize eggs and larvae, the Eulophidae and the Trichogrammatidae. Other biocontrol agents of adults and larvae include anthocorid bugs of genus "Orius", and phytoseiid mites. Biological insecticides such as the fungi "Beauveria bassiana" and "Verticillium lecanii" can kill thrips at all life-cycle stages. Insecticidal soap spray is effective against thrips. It is commercially available or can be made of certain types of household soap. Scientists in Japan report that significant reductions in larva and adult melon thrips occur when plants are illuminated with red light.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: The Bromeliaceae (the bromeliads) are a family of monocot flowering plants of about 80 genera and 3700 known species, native mainly to the tropical Americas, with several species found in the American subtropics and one in tropical west Africa, "Pitcairnia feliciana".


title: Bromeliaceae

text: It is among the basal families within the Poales and is the only family within the order that has septal nectaries and inferior ovaries. These inferior ovaries characterize the Bromelioideae, a subfamily of the Bromeliaceae. The family includes both epiphytes, such as Spanish moss ("Tillandsia usneoides"), and terrestrial species, such as the pineapple ("Ananas comosus"). Many bromeliads are able to store water in a structure formed by their tightly overlapping leaf bases. However, the family is diverse enough to include the tank bromeliads, grey-leaved epiphyte "Tillandsia" species that gather water only from leaf structures called trichomes, and many desert-dwelling succulents.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: The largest bromeliad is "Puya raimondii", which reaches tall in vegetative growth with a flower spike tall, and the smallest is Spanish moss.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: Bromeliads are mostly herbaceous perennials, although a few have a more tree-like habit. Many are more or less succulent or have other adaptations to resist drought. They may be terrestrial or epiphytic, rarely climbing (e.g. "Pitcairnia" species). Some species of "Tillandsia" (e.g. Spanish moss, "Tillandsia usneoides") are aerophytes, which have very reduced root systems and absorb water directly from the air. Many terrestrial and epiphytic bromeliads have their leaves in the form of vase-shaped rosettes which accumulate water. Individual leaves are not divided and have parallel veins without cross connections. The epidermis of the leaf contains silica. Bromeliad flowers are aggregated into inflorescences of various forms. The flowers have bracts, often brightly coloured, and distinct calyces of three sepals and corollas of three petals. The flowers have nectaries. They are pollinated by insects, birds (often hummingbirds) or bats, or more rarely (in "Navia") they are wind-pollinated. Fruits are variable, typically taking the form of a capsule or a berry.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: Bromeliads are able to live in an array of environmental conditions due to their many adaptations. Trichomes, in the form of scales or hairs, allow bromeliads to capture water in cloud forests and help to reflect sunlight in desert environments. Bromeliads with leaf vases can capture water and nutrients in the absence of a well-developed root system. Many bromeliads also use crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) photosynthesis to create sugars. This adaptation allows bromeliads in hot or dry climates to open their stomata at night rather than during the day, which reduces water loss. Both CAM and epiphytism have evolved multiple times within the family, with some taxa reverting to C3 photosynthesis as they radiated into less arid climates.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: Bromeliads are among the more recent plant groups to have emerged. They are thought to have originated in the tepuis of the Guiana Shield approximately 100 million years ago. The greatest number of extant basal species are found in the Andean highlands of South America. However, the family did not diverge into its extant subfamilies until 19 million years ago. The long period between the origin and diversification of bromeliads, during which no extant species evolved, suggests that there was much speciation and extinction during that time, which would explain the genetic distance of the Bromeliaceae from other families within the Poales.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: Based on molecular phylogenetic studies, the family is divided into eight subfamilies. The relationship among them is shown in the following cladogram.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: The most basal genus, "Brocchinia" (subfamily Brocchinioideae), is endemic to the Guiana Shield, and is placed as the sister group to the remaining genera in the family. The subfamilies Lindmanioideae and Navioideae are endemic to the Guiana Shield as well.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: The West African species "Pitcairnia feliciana" is the only bromeliad not endemic to the Americas, and is thought to have reached Africa via long-distance dispersal about 12 million years ago.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: The first groups to leave the Guiana Shield were the subfamily Tillandsioideae, which spread gradually into northern South America, and the genus "Hechtia" (Hechtioideae), which spread to Central America via long-distance dispersal. Both of these movements occurred approximately 15.4 million years ago. When it reached the Andes mountains, the speciation of Tillandsioideae occurred quite rapidly, largely due to the Andean uplift, which was also occurring rapidly from 14.2 to 8.7 million years ago. The uplift greatly altered the region's geological and climatic conditions, creating a new mountainous environment for the epiphytic tillandsioids to colonize. These new conditions directly drove the speciation of the Tillandsioideae, and also drove the speciation of their animal pollinators, such as hummingbirds.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: Around 5.5 million years ago, a clade of epiphytic bromelioids arose in Serra do Mar, a lush mountainous region on the coast of Southeastern Brazil. This is thought to have been caused not only by the uplift of Serra do Mar itself at that time, but also because of the continued uplift of the distant Andes mountains, which impacted the circulation of air and created a cooler, wetter climate in Serra do Mar. These epiphytes thrived in this humid environment, since their trichomes rely on water in the air rather than from the ground like terrestrial plants. Many epiphytic bromeliads with the tank habit also speciated here.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: Even before this, a few other bromelioids had already dispersed to the Brazilian shield while the climate was still arid, likely through a gradual process of short-distance dispersal. These make up the terrestrial members of the Bromelioideae, which have highly xeromorphic characters.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: Bromeliaceae were originally split into three subfamilies based on morphological seed characters: Bromelioideae (seeds in baccate fruits), Tillandsioideae (plumose seeds), and Pitcairnioideae (seeds with wing-like appendages). However, molecular evidence has revealed that while Bromelioideae and Tillandsioideae are monophyletic, Pitcairnioideae as traditionally defined is paraphyletic and should be split into six subfamilies: Brocchinioideae, Lindmanioideae, Hechtioideae, Navioideae, Pitcairnioideae, and Puyoideae.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: Brocchinioideae is defined as the most basal branch of Bromeliaceae based on both morphological and molecular evidence, namely genes in chloroplast DNA.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: Lindmanioideae is the next most basal branch distinguished from the other subfamilies by convolute sepals and chloroplast DNA.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: Hechtioideae is also defined based on analyses of chloroplast DNA; similar morphological adaptations to arid environments also found in other groups (namely the genus "Puya)" are attributed to convergent evolution.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: Puyoideae has been re-classified multiple times and its monophyly remains controversial according to analyses of chloroplast DNA.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: , Plants of the World Online (PoWO) accepted 72 genera, as listed below. A few more genera were accepted by the Encyclopaedia of Bromeliads, including "Josemania" and "Mezobromelia", which PoWO sinks into "Cipuropsis".


title: Bromeliaceae

text: Plants in the Bromeliaceae are widely represented in their natural climates across the Americas. One species ("Pitcairnia feliciana") can be found in Africa. They can be found at altitudes from sea level to 4,200 meters, from rainforests to deserts. 1,814 species are epiphytes, some are lithophytes, and some are terrestrial. Accordingly, these plants can be found in the Andean highlands, from northern Chile to Colombia, in the Sechura Desert of coastal Peru, in the cloud forests of Central and South America, in southern United States from southern Virginia to Florida to Texas, and in far southern Arizona.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: Bromeliads often serve as phytotelmata, accumulating water between their leaves. One study found 175,000 bromeliads per hectare (2.5 acres) in one forest; that many bromeliads can sequester 50,000 liters (more than 13,000 gallons) of water. The aquatic habitat created as a result is host to a diverse array of invertebrates, especially aquatic insect larvae, including those of mosquitos. These bromeliad invertebrates benefit their hosts by increasing nitrogen uptake into the plant. A study of 209 plants from the Yasuní Scientific Reserve in Ecuador identified 11,219 animals, representing more than 350 distinct species, many of which are found only on bromeliads. Examples include some species of ostracods, small salamanders about in length, and tree frogs. Jamaican bromeliads are home to "Metopaulias depressus", a reddish-brown crab across, which has evolved social behavior to protect its young from predation by "Diceratobasis macrogaster", a species of damselfly whose larvae live in bromeliads. Some bromeliads even form homes for other species of bromeliads.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: Trees or branches that have a higher incidence of sunlight tend to have more bromeliads. In contrast, the sectors facing west receive less sunlight and therefore fewer bromeliads. In addition, thicker trees have more bromeliads, possibly because they are older and have greater structural complexity.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: Humans have been using bromeliads for thousands of years. The Incas, Aztecs, Maya and others used them for food, protection, fiber and ceremony, just as they are still used today. European interest began when Spanish conquistadors returned with pineapple, which became so popular as an exotic food that the image of the pineapple was adapted into European art and sculpture. In 1776, the species "Guzmania lingulata" was introduced to Europe, causing a sensation among gardeners unfamiliar with such a plant. In 1828, "Aechmea fasciata" was brought to Europe, followed by "Vriesea splendens" in 1840. These transplants were so successful, they are still among the most widely grown bromeliad varieties.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: In the 19th century, breeders in Belgium, France and the Netherlands started hybridizing plants for wholesale trade. Many exotic varieties were produced until World War I, which halted breeding programs and led to the loss of some species. The plants experienced a resurgence of popularity after World War II. Since then, Dutch, Belgian and North American nurseries have greatly expanded bromeliad production.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: Only one bromeliad, the pineapple ("Ananas comosus"), is a commercially important food crop. Bromelain, a common ingredient in meat tenderizer, is extracted from pineapple stems. Many other bromeliads are popular ornamental plants, grown as both garden and houseplants.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: Bromeliads are important food plants for many peoples. For example, the Pima of Mexico occasionally consume flowers of "Tillandsia erubescens" and "T. recurvata" due to their high sugar content; in Argentina and Bolivia, the shoot apices of "T. rubella" and "T. maxima" are consumed; in Venezuela, indigenous coastal tribes eat a sour-tasting but sweet-smelling berry, known as 'Maya', of "Bromelia chrysantha" as a fruit or in fermented beverages.


title: Bromeliaceae

text: Édouard André was a French collector/explorer whose many discoveries of bromeliads in the Cordilleras of South America would be influential on horticulturists to follow. He served as a source of inspiration to 20th-century collectors, in particular Mulford B. Foster and Lyman Smith of the United States and Werner Rauh of Germany and Michelle Jenkins of Australia.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: The Steve Bartman incident was a controversial play that occurred during a baseball game between the Chicago Cubs and the Florida Marlins on October 14, 2003, at Wrigley Field in Chicago, Illinois, during Major League Baseball's (MLB) 2003 postseason.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: The incident occurred in the eighth inning of Game 6 of the National League Championship Series (NLCS), with Chicago leading 3–0 and holding a three games to two lead in the best-of-seven series. Marlins batter Luis Castillo hit a fly ball into foul territory in left field. Cubs outfielder Moisés Alou pursued the ball and leapt near the fence in an attempt to make the catch. Along with other spectators seated against the wall, Cubs fan Steve Bartman reached for the ball, but he deflected it, disrupting Alou's potential catch; the umpire judged the play not to be fan interference. If Alou had caught the ball, it would have been the second out in the inning, and the Cubs would have been just four outs away from winning their first National League pennant since 1945.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: Instead, the Cubs endured an on-field meltdown. Pitcher Mark Prior threw a wild pitch to walk Castillo and allow Juan Pierre to reach third base. After a run-scoring single to cut the Cubs' lead to 3–1, Cubs shortstop Alex Gonzalez mishandled a ground ball that could have resulted in an inning-ending double play. The Cubs ultimately allowed eight runs in the inning, and lost the game 8–3. They also had another opportunity to win the series in Game 7 at Wrigley Field the next day, but they were eliminated by the Marlins.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: In the moments following the play, Cubs fans shouted insults and threw debris at Bartman. For his safety, security was forced to escort him from the ballpark. Minutes after the game, his name and personal information were published online, necessitating police protection at his home. He faced further harassment from fans and the media after the Cubs' loss in the series, as he was scapegoated for the continuation of the team's then 95-year championship drought. Bartman apologized for the incident and stated his desire to move past it and return to a quiet life. Many Cubs players came to his defense, emphasizing that their performance was to blame for their loss. In 2011, ESPN produced a documentary film exploring the subject as part of its "30 for 30" series. Titled "Catching Hell", the film drew comparisons between the Bartman incident and Bill Buckner's fielding error late in Game 6 of the 1986 World Series, and explored the incident from different perspectives.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: At the time of the incident, Mark Prior had allowed only three hits and no runs going into the eighth inning. The Cubs led the game 3–0 and held a series lead of three games to two. They were five outs away from reaching the World Series for the first time since ; the Cubs had not been baseball's champions since . Luis Castillo was at bat for the Marlins with one out, and a full count, with teammate Juan Pierre on second base.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: Bartman was sitting in the front row along the left field corner wall behind the on-field bullpen when a pop foul off the bat of Castillo drifted toward his seat. Cubs left fielder Moisés Alou approached the wall, jumped, and reached for the ball. Bartman was one of several fans who attempted to catch the ball. He failed to secure it, and in the process deflected it away from Alou's glove. Alou slammed his glove down in frustration and shouted at several fans. The Cubs, in particular Alou and Prior, argued for fan interference, but umpire Mike Everitt ruled there was no interference because the ball had broken the plane of the wall separating the field of play from the stands and entered the stands.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: Cubs manager Dusty Baker did not see the play as it happened, because the curvature of the Cubs dugout blocked his view.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: Everitt's ruling has been heavily scrutinized over the years. For example, the authors of "Mad Ball: The Bartman Play" argue that photographs show Bartman's arms extending into the playing field and that Castillo should have been called out due to fan interference.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: On Fox, Thom Brennaman was commentating, saying "Again in the air, down the left field line. Alou... reaching into the stands... and couldn't get it and he's livid with a fan!"


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: The next night, back at Wrigley Field, Florida overcame Kerry Wood and a 5–3 deficit to win 9–6, and win the pennant. The Marlins would then go on to win the World Series, defeating the heavily favored New York Yankees in six games.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: Bartman remained seated as Fox repeatedly broadcast live shots of him between multiple replays of the foul ball. The somber image of Bartman wearing a Cubs baseball cap, glasses, headset, and green turtleneck shirt became memorable. Because there were no replay boards in Wrigley Field at the time, Bartman was not widely recognized until many of the attendees' friends and family members, who were watching the game on television, started calling them on cell phones, informing them of Bartman and his appearance. After Rodriguez’s at bat ended with the Marlins scoring their first run, many Cubs fans began pointing at Bartman, repeatedly chanting "asshole". Bartman had to be led away from the park under security escort for his own safety, as many Cubs fans shouted insults and threats at him (some of which were death threats), while others threw things, with one fan dumping a cup of beer on him. Security escorted Bartman and two people who accompanied him to the game towards the exit tunnel from the field. News footage of the game showed him surrounded by security as fans pelted him with drinks and other debris. Bartman's name, as well as personal information about him, appeared on Major League Baseball's online message boards minutes after the game ended. As many as six police cars gathered outside his home in Northbrook, Illinois to protect Bartman and his family following the incident. Afterwards, then-Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich suggested that Bartman join a witness protection program, while then-Florida Governor Jeb Bush offered Bartman asylum.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: After the incident, Bartman released a statement, saying he was "truly sorry". He added, "I had my eyes glued on the approaching ball the entire time and was so caught up in the moment that I did not even see Moisés Alou, much less that he may have had a play." Trying to maintain a low profile, Bartman declined interviews, endorsement deals, and requests for public appearances, and his family changed their phone number to avoid harassing phone calls. He requested that any gifts sent to him by Florida Marlins fans be donated to the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation. In July 2008, Bartman was offered $25,000 to autograph a picture of himself at the National Sports Collectors Convention in Rosemont, but he refused the offer. He declined to appear as a VIP at Wrigley Field. In 2011, eight years after the incident, he declined to appear in an ESPN documentary, and he declined a six-figure offer to appear in a Super Bowl commercial.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: Many fans associated the Bartman incident with the Curse of the Billy Goat, allegedly laid on the Cubs during the 1945 World Series after Billy Sianis and his pet goat were ejected from Wrigley Field. The Cubs lost that series to the Detroit Tigers in seven games and did not return to the World Series until 2016. Bartman was also compared to the black cat that ran across Shea Stadium near an on-deck Ron Santo during a September 9, 1969, regular season game between the Cubs and the New York Mets. The Cubs were in first place at the time, but after the cat appeared, the Cubs lost the game and eventually fell eight games behind the Mets in the standings, missing that season's playoffs. Fans further believed that they had been jinxed when, an inning before the incident, comedian Bernie Mac (a lifelong fan of the cross-town rival White Sox), singing "Take Me Out to the Ballgame" during the seventh-inning stretch, prematurely referred to the Cubs as "champs". On Fox, coming off a commercial break after the Marlins had tied the game as Lowell was being intentionally walked, Thom Brennaman said of the incident, as well as the Marlins' subsequent rally: "It's safe to say that every Cubs fan has to be wondering right now, is the Curse of the Billy Goat alive and well?"


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: The loose ball was snatched up by a Chicago lawyer and sold at an auction in December 2003. Grant DePorter purchased it for $113,824.16 on behalf of Harry Caray's Restaurant Group. On February 26, 2004, it was publicly detonated by special effects expert Michael Lantieri.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: In 2005, the remains of the ball were used by the restaurant in a pasta sauce. While no part of the ball itself was in the sauce, the ball was boiled and the steam captured, distilled, and added to the final concoction.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: Today, the remains of the ball are on display at the Chicago Sports Museum, while further remains are amid various artifacts at the restaurant itself.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: In the years following the incident, the seat Bartman sat in – Aisle 4, Row 8, Seat 113 – became a tourist attraction at Wrigley Field. When the lower grandstands were reconfigured before the 2017 season, that seat number was changed. It was changed to Section 2, Row 8, Seat 108. Before the 2019 season, more reconfiguration was done to the seats with the seat Bartman sat in once again being changed. It is now currently Section 3, Row 12, Seat 1.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: In April 2008, Moisés Alou was quoted by the Associated Press as saying, "You know what the funny thing is? I wouldn't have caught it, anyway." Alou later disputed that story, however: "I don't remember that," he said to a writer from "The Palm Beach Post". "If I said that, I was probably joking to make [Bartman] feel better. But I don't remember saying that." Alou added, "It's time to forgive the guy and move on."


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: In the 2011 documentary "Catching Hell", Alou states, "I'm convinced 100% that I had that ball in my glove."


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: Several Cubs players publicly absolved Bartman of blame. Mark Prior said, "We had chances to get out of that situation. I hung an 0–2 curveball to [Ivan] Rodriguez that he hit for a single. Alex Gonzalez, who's a sure thing almost at shortstop, the ball came up on him... and things just snowballed. Everybody in the clubhouse and management knows that play is not the reason we lost the game." Former Cubs pitcher Rick Sutcliffe said that the crowd's reactions to Bartman "crushed [him]". "Right after I saw what happened with the fan, I woke up the next morning and told my wife that if the Cubs asked me to throw out the first pitch in the World Series, I was going to take that fan out to the mound with me," he said. Baseball commissioner Bud Selig also came to Bartman's defense, telling an interviewer, "[W]hile I understand that people felt so strongly and that their hearts were just breaking, to blame this young man, who is the most devoted Cub fan... it's just unfair. When I read his statement, it broke my heart. ... If you want to blame the Curse of the Bambino and the goat in Chicago or a series of other things, that's fine. But blaming Steve Bartman is just not right."


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: Several of Bartman's friends and family members spoke out in the days following the incident. His father told the "Chicago Sun-Times", "He's a huge Cubs fan. I'm sure I taught him well. I taught him to catch foul balls when they come near him." A neighbor added, "He's a good kid, a wonderful son, never in any trouble. I don't think he should be blamed at all. People reach for balls. This just happened to be a little more critical. If Florida didn't score all the runs, you wouldn't be standing here."


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: "Sun-Times" sports columnist Jay Mariotti wrote, "A fan in that situation should try his best to get out of the way, even if he isn't of the mind to see Alou approaching, as Bartman claims. Still, he's also a human being who was reacting in a tense, unusual moment. And the resulting verbal abuse and trash-hurling, followed by the Neanderthal threats and creepy reaction on the Internet, hasn't reflected well on Chicago's sports culture. As it is, everyone thinks the prototypical local fans are those mopes from the Superfans skits on "Saturday Night Live"."


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: In a 2011 interview on ESPN's "Pardon the Interruption", Cubs President Theo Epstein expressed a desire for the team to reach out to Bartman. "From afar, it seems like it would be an important step. Maybe a cathartic moment that would allow people to move forward together. I'm all about having an open mind, an open heart and forgiveness. Those are good characteristics for an organization to have as well. He's a Cubs fan. That's the most important thing," said Epstein.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: In 2012, former Cubs player Doug Glanville said, "[I]t was easy to look at Steve Bartman [...] But that was not the whole story by a long shot." He argued that the Cubs lost the momentum of the series when Marlins ace Josh Beckett shut down the Cubs in Game 5. Glanville drew parallels between that game and Barry Zito's game-winning performance in Game 5 of the 2012 NLCS.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: During the 2016 season, Bartman received renewed media attention as the Cubs progressed through the playoffs. On Saturday, October 22, 2016, the Cubs were again at home with a 3–2 lead in Game 6 of the NLCS, similar to the 2003 NLCS game. The Cubs ended up winning the National League Championship Series and ending the Curse of the Billy Goat. After winning the pennant, many Cubs fans petitioned for the team to allow Bartman to throw out a first pitch during the 2016 World Series. Nonetheless, Bartman's spokesman Frank Murtha told CNN that Bartman did not want to be in the spotlight, and that there is "probably a slim, none, and no chance" that Bartman would agree to throw out a first pitch.


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: On November 2, 2016, the Chicago Cubs won the World Series for the first time since 1908. Through Murtha, Bartman congratulated the Cubs in their World Series championship. Murtha said, "[Bartman] was just overjoyed that the Cubs won, as all the Cubs fans are." Further, when calls were made for Bartman to be a part of the victory parade, or other similar ideas, "The one thing that Steve and I did talk about was if the Cubs were to win, he did not want to be a distraction to the accomplishments of the players and the organization."


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: MLB.com and ESPN have both reported that Cubs owner Tom Ricketts had expressed interest in contacting Bartman for closure "at the right time". Later on, Cubs president Theo Epstein stated that Bartman is "welcome to come back" but at his own discretion and that he should be left alone. Bartman received a championship ring from Cubs owner Tom Ricketts and the Ricketts family as a special gift on July 31, 2017. The Cubs said in a statement, "We hope this provides closure on an unfortunate chapter of the story that has perpetuated throughout our quest to win a long-awaited World Series. While no gesture can fully lift the public burden he has endured for more than a decade, we felt it was important Steve knows he has been and continues to be fully embraced by this organization. After all he has sacrificed, we are proud to recognize Steve Bartman with this gift today."


title: Steve Bartman incident

text: Bartman released a statement, saying: “Although I do not consider myself worthy of such an honor, I am deeply moved and sincerely grateful to receive an official Chicago Cubs 2016 World Series Championship ring. I am fully aware of the historical significance and appreciate the symbolism the ring represents on multiple levels. My family and I will cherish it for generations. Most meaningful is the genuine outreach from the Ricketts family, on behalf of the Cubs organization and fans, signifying to me that I am welcomed back into the Cubs family and have their support going forward. I am relieved and hopeful that the saga of the 2003 foul ball incident surrounding my family and me is finally over. I humbly receive the ring not only as a symbol of one of the most historic achievements in sports, but as an important reminder for how we should treat each other in today’s society. My hope is that we all can learn from my experience to view sports as entertainment and prevent harsh scapegoating, and to challenge the media and opportunistic profiteers to conduct business ethically by respecting personal privacy rights and not exploit any individual to advance their own self-interest or economic gain. Moreover, I am hopeful this ring gesture will be the start of an important healing and reconciliation process for all involved. To that end, I request the media please respect my privacy, and the privacy of my family. I will not participate in interviews or further public statements at this time. Words alone cannot express my heartfelt thanks to the Ricketts family, Crane Kenney, Theo Epstein, and the entire Cubs organization for this extraordinary gift, and for providing the City of Chicago and Cubs fans everywhere an unforgettable World Championship in 2016. I am happy to be reunited with the Cubs family and positively moving forward with my life.”


title: Justifiable homicide

text: The concept of justifiable homicide in criminal law is a defense to culpable homicide (criminal or negligent homicide). Generally, there is a burden of production of exculpatory evidence in the legal defense of justification. In most countries, a homicide is justified when there is sufficient evidence to disprove (under the "beyond a reasonable doubt" standard for criminal charges, and "preponderance of evidence" standard for claims of wrongdoing, i.e. civil liability) the alleged criminal act or wrongdoing. The key to this legal defense is that it was reasonable for the subject to believe that there was an imminent and otherwise unavoidable danger of death or grave bodily harm to the innocent by the deceased when they committed the homicide. A homicide in this instance is blameless.


title: Justifiable homicide

text: Article 2 Paragraph 2 of the European Convention On Human Rights provides that death resulted from defending oneself or others, arresting a suspect or fugitive, or suppressing riots or insurrections, will not contravene the Article when the use of force involved is "no more than absolutely necessary":


title: Justifiable homicide

text: A non-criminal homicide ruling, usually committed in self-defense or in defense of another, exists under United States law. A homicide may be considered justified if it is done to prevent a very serious crime, such as rape, armed robbery, manslaughter or murder. The victim must reasonably believe, under the totality of the circumstances, that the assailant intended to commit a criminal act that would likely result in the death or life-threatening injury of an innocent person. A homicide performed out of vengeance, or retribution for action in the past, or in pursuit of a "fleeing felon" (except under specific circumstances) would not be considered justifiable.


title: Justifiable homicide

text: In many states, given a case of self-defense, the defendant is expected to obey a duty to retreat if it is possible to do so. In the states of Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, West Virginia, Washington, Wyoming and other Castle Doctrine states, there is no duty to retreat in certain situations (depending on the state, this may apply to one's home, business, or vehicle, or to any public place where a person is lawfully present). Preemptive self-defense, in which one kills another on suspicion that the victim might eventually become dangerous, is not justifiable.


title: Justifiable homicide

text: In the U.S. Supreme Court ruling of "District of Columbia v. Heller", the majority held that the Constitution protected the right to the possession of firearms for the purpose of self-defense "and to use that arm for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self-defense within the home".


title: Justifiable homicide

text: Two other forms of justifiable homicide are unique to the prison system: the death penalty and preventing prisoners from escaping. To quote the California State Penal Code (state law) that covers justifiable homicide:


title: Justifiable homicide

text: Although the above text is from California law, many other jurisdictions, like Florida, have similar laws to prevent escapes from custody. Examples include self defense, prevention of criminal act, trespassers, and defense of another person.


title: The Top 100: NFL's Greatest Players

text: The final episode, premiering on November 4, 2010, introduced the top 10 players of all time according to the panel. Jerry Rice was chosen as the top player of all time, with Jim Brown as the second choice.


title: Humidifier

text: A humidifier is a device, primarily an electrical appliance, that increases humidity (moisture) in a single room or an entire building. In the home, point-of-use humidifiers are commonly used to humidify a single room, while whole-house or furnace humidifiers, which connect to a home's HVAC system, provide humidity to the entire house. Medical ventilators often include humidifiers for increased patient comfort. Large humidifiers are used in commercial, institutional, or industrial contexts, often as part of a larger HVAC system.


title: Humidifier

text: For example, a typical modern apartment of with closed windows (wood isolation) may consume to raise the relative humidity from 20% to 55%: 24 * 1,53 L/h (2*1×125×1.2×0.0051):


title: Humidifier

text: Low humidity may occur in hot, dry desert climates, or indoors in artificially heated spaces. In winter, especially when cold outside air is heated indoors, the humidity may drop to as low as 10–20%. A relative humidity of 30% to 50% is recommended for most homes.


title: Humidifier

text: Low humidity can affect wooden furniture, causing shrinkage and loose joints or cracking of pieces. Books, papers, and artworks may shrink or warp and become brittle in very low humidity.


title: Humidifier

text: In addition, static electricity may become a problem in conditions of low humidity, destroying semiconductor devices, causing static cling of textiles, and causing dust and small particles to stick stubbornly to electrically charged surfaces.


title: Humidifier

text: An indoor relative humidity of less than 51% resulted in significant reductions in mite and allergen levels. Overuse of a humidifier can raise the relative humidity to excessive levels, promoting the growth of dust mites and mold, and can also cause hypersensitivity pneumonitis (humidifier lung). A properly installed and located hygrostat should be used to monitor and control humidity levels automatically, or a well-informed and conscientious human operator must constantly check for correct humidity levels.


title: Humidifier

text: Industrial humidifiers are used when a specific humidity level must be maintained to prevent static electricity buildup, preserve material properties, and ensure a comfortable and healthy environment for workers or residents.


title: Humidifier

text: Static problems are prevalent in industries such as packaging, printing, paper, plastics, textiles, electronics, automotive manufacturing and pharmaceuticals. Friction can produce static buildup and sparks when humidity is below 45% relative humidity (RH). Between 45% and 55% RH, static builds up at reduced levels, while humidity above 55% RH ensures that static will never build up. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) has traditionally recommended a range of 45–55% RH in data centers to prevent sparks that can damage IT equipment. Humidifiers are also used by manufacturers of semiconductors and in hospital operating rooms.


title: Humidifier

text: Printers and paper manufacturers use humidifiers to prevent shrinkage and paper curl. Humidifiers are needed in cold storage rooms to preserve the freshness of food against the dryness caused by hot temperatures. Art museums use humidifiers to protect sensitive works of art, especially in exhibition galleries, where they combat the dryness caused by heating for the comfort of visitors during winter.


title: Humidifier

text: Natural humidifiers don't use or need a demineralization filter because they water is slowly evaporated which leaves the mineral deposit at the bottom of the container. However, natural humidifiers raise the humidity very slowly even if their water surface area is big.


title: Humidifier

text: One type of evaporative humidifier makes use of just a reservoir and wick. Sometimes called a "natural humidifier", these are usually non-commercial devices that can be assembled at little or no cost.


title: Humidifier

text: One version of a natural humidifier uses a stainless steel bowl, partially filled with water, covered by a towel. A waterproof weight is used to sink the towel in the center of the bowl. There is no need for a fan, because the water spreads through the towel by capillary action and the towel surface area is large enough to provide for rapid evaporation. The stainless steel bowl is much easier to clean than typical humidifier water tanks. This, in combination with daily or every other day replacement of the towel and periodic laundering, can control the problem of mold and bacteria.


title: Humidifier

text: An "evaporative", "cool moisture", or "wick humidifier", consists of just three basic parts: a reservoir, a wick, and a fan.


title: Humidifier

text: The wick is made of a porous material that absorbs water from the reservoir and provides a larger surface area for it to evaporate from. The fan is adjacent to the wick and blows air onto the wet wick to aid in the evaporation of the water. Evaporation from the wick is dependent on relative humidity. A room with low humidity will have a higher evaporation rate compared to a room with high humidity. Therefore, this type of humidifier is partially self-regulating; as the humidity of the room increases, the water vapor output naturally decreases.


title: Humidifier

text: These wicks become moldy if they are not dried out completely between fillings, and become saturated with mineral deposits over time. They regularly need rinsing or replacement; if this does not happen, air cannot pass through them, and humidifier stops humidifying the area it is in and the water in the tank remains at the same level.


title: Humidifier

text: Impeller humidifiers (a type of cool mist humidifier) are usually noisier than others. It uses a rotating disc to fling water at a diffuser, which breaks the water into fine droplets that float into the air. The water supply must be kept scrupulously clean, or there is a risk of spreading bacteria or mold into the air.


title: Humidifier

text: An ultrasonic humidifier uses a ceramic diaphragm vibrating at an ultrasonic frequency to create water droplets that silently exit the humidifier in the form of cool fog. Usually the mist gets forced out by a tiny fan, while some ultra mini models have no fans. The models without fans are meant mainly for personal use. Ultrasonic humidifiers use a piezoelectric transducer to create a high frequency (1-2 MHz) mechanical oscillation in a film of water. This forms an extremely fine mist of droplets about one micron in diameter, that is quickly evaporated into the air flow.


title: Humidifier

text: Unlike the humidifiers that boil water, these water droplets will contain any impurities that are in the reservoir, including minerals from hard water (which then forms a difficult-to-remove sticky white dust on nearby objects and furniture). Any pathogens growing in the stagnant tank will also be dispersed in the air. Ultrasonic humidifiers should be cleaned regularly to prevent bacterial contamination from being spread throughout the air.


title: Humidifier

text: The amount of minerals and other materials can be greatly reduced by using distilled water. Special disposable demineralization cartridges may also reduce the amount of airborne material, but the EPA warns, "the ability of these devices to remove minerals may vary widely." The mineral dust may have negative health effects. Wick humidifiers trap the mineral deposits in the wick; vaporizer types tend to collect minerals on or around the heating element and require regular cleaning with vinegar or citric acid to control buildup.


title: Humidifier

text: Bottom filled humidifiers has removable water tank, often attached with a replaceable demineralization filter. Both the cap and the filter are often universal, which means that they can be switched between many tank cap humidifiers.


title: Humidifier

text: Tank cap-based humidifiers are more inconvenient to fill than top fill tanks, because the demineralization filter has to be unscrewed and screwed back on a daily basis. Also, water drops from the tank attachment may get in contact with the hygrometer, which will make it harder to operate properly if they are not operated with caution.


title: Humidifier

text: Ultrasonic wave nebulizers trap the mineral deposits over time, even if filters are used, and require cleaning with vinegar or citric acid to control buildup. It is easy to remove the buildup from the nebulizer in humidifiers with removable base parts. Other models must be screwed. Some models require monthly maintenance, while other models may run for years unmaintained.


title: Humidifier

text: Humidity with mineral deposits build up on furniture, and static objects like computer monitors, TVs, etc.


title: Humidifier

text: Most models with heating elements come with replacement demineralization filters (cartridges, or plastic foam, for the tank, and fabric near the heater in the reservoir) to reduce the amount of minerals entering the system. The cost of these filters is about $10-15 per cartridge or 10-pack for plastic foam, or fabric filters. Cartridges may last for 6 months, and plastic foam/fabric filters may last one month, if the humidifier is frequently used. Cartridges can be used for most humidifiers, but some models have a proprietary format.


title: Humidifier

text: Clogged filters should be replaced when they cannot deliver water, which is indicated with a "no water" icon/alert signal in modern humidifiers. A manual way to figure out if a filter is clogged is to shake it, if the content of it (even if wet) doesn't move around, then it's unlikely that sufficient water will pass through.


title: Humidifier

text: A medicated inhalant can also be added to the steam vapor to help reduce cough. Vaporizers may be healthier than cool mist types of humidifiers because steam is less likely to convey mineral impurities or microorganisms from the standing water in the reservoir. However, boiling water requires significantly more energy than other techniques. The heat source in poorly designed humidifiers can overheat, causing the product to melt, leak, and start fires.


title: Humidifier

text: Humidifiers with a centrifugal fan may become noisy due to build up which cannot effectively be removed with vinegar for example. However, the fan can be replaced, and the model name of the fan and its specifications can be figured out by disassembling the humidifier and detaching it.


title: Humidifier

text: For buildings with a forced-air furnace, a humidifier may be installed into the furnace. They can also protect wooden objects, antiques and other furnishings which may be sensitive to damage from overly dry air. In colder months, they may provide modest energy savings, since as humidity increases, occupants may feel warm at a lower temperature.


title: Humidifier

text: Bypass humidifiers are connected between the heated and cold air return ducts, using the pressure difference between these ducts to cause some heated air to make a bypass through the humidifier and return to the furnace.


title: Humidifier

text: Any humidifiers should usually be disabled during the summer months if air conditioning is used; air conditioners partially function to reducing indoor humidity, and having a humidifier continue to operate will waste significant amounts of energy.


title: Humidifier

text: Drum style (bypass) uses a pipe to bring water directly to a reservoir (a pan) attached to the furnace. The water level in the pan is controlled by a float valve, similar to a small toilet tank float. The wick is typically a foam pad mounted on a drum and attached to a small motor; hot air enters the drum at one end and is forced to leave through the sides of the drum. When the hygrostat calls for humidity, the motor is turned on causing the drum to rotate slowly through the pan of water and preventing the foam pad from drying out.


title: Humidifier

text: For the latter reason especially, drum-style humidifiers should always be turned off at the water supply during summer (air conditioning) months, and should always be used with high quality furnace air filters (MERV ratings as high as possible to ensure small numbers of mold spores reaching the humidifier pan) when the water supply is turned on.


title: Humidifier

text: A disc wheel style (bypass) is very similar in design to the drum style humidifiers; this type of furnace humidifier replaces the foam drumming with a number of plastic discs with small grooves on both sides. This allows for a very large evaporative surface area, without requiring a great deal of space. Unlike the drum style humidifiers, the disc wheel does not need regular replacement.


title: Humidifier

text: Bypass flow-through style (bypass – also known as "biscuit style" or many other, similar variant names) uses a pipe to bring water directly to an electrically controlled valve at the top of the humidifier. Air passes through an aluminum "biscuit" (often called a pad; the term "biscuit" emphasizes the solid rather than foamy form) which is similar to a piece of extremely coarse steel wool. The "biscuit" has a coating of a matte ceramic, resulting in an extremely large surface area within a small space. When the hygrostat calls for humidity, the valve is opened and causes a spray of water onto the "biscuit". Hot air is passed through the "biscuit", causing the water to evaporate from the pad and be carried into the building.


title: Humidifier

text: Spray mist type uses a pipe, usually a small plastic one, to bring water directly to an electrically controlled valve (atomizer-this forces the water through a tiny orifice causing it to break up into tiny particles) in the humidifier. Water mist is sprayed directly into the supply air, and the mist is carried into the premises by the air flow.


title: Humidifier

text: There are many different types of Plant and Home Humidifiers which can help you to maintain humidity level of your home as required.


title: Humidifier

text: Additional types include non-bypass flow-through (fan augmented), steam, impeller or centrifugal atomizer, and under duct designs.


title: Humidifier

text: The U.S. EPA provides detailed information about health risks as well as recommended maintenance procedures. If the tap water contains a lot of minerals (also known as "hard water") then the ultrasonic or impeller humidifiers will produce a "white dust" (calcium is the most common mineral in tap water), which usually settles onto furniture, and is attracted to static electricity generating devices such as CRT monitors. The white dust can be prevented by using distilled water, or a demineralization cartridge in ultrasonic humidifiers. Bottled waters labeled "natural", "artesian", or "spring" may still have their original mineral content. The EPA reports that ultrasonic and impeller humidifiers spread the most mineral deposits and microorganisms, while evaporative and steam humidifers can allow the growth of microorganisms but generally disperse less of them into the air.,


title: Humidifier

text: In addition, a stuck or malfunctioning water supply valve can deliver large amounts of water, causing extensive water damage if undetected for any period of time. A water alarm, possibly with an automatic water shutoff, can help prevent this malfunction from causing major problems.


title: Humidifier

text: From 2006 to 2011, the disinfectant polyhexamethylene guanidine was used as a cleaning agent for humidifier water tanks in Korea, leading to severe lung disease. Eighty children died of the disorder and nine adults either died or needed lung transplants. In the two years following the banning of cleaning chemicals for humidifier tanks, there were no new cases.


title: Optometry

text: Optometry is a specialized health care profession that involves examining the eyes and related structures for defects or abnormalities. Optometrists are health care professionals who typically provide comprehensive primary eye care.


title: Optometry

text: In the United States and Canada, optometrists are those that hold a Doctor of Optometry degree. They are trained and licensed to practice medicine for eye related conditions, in addition to providing refractive (optical) eye care. In the United Kingdom, optometrists may also practice medicine (and provide refractive care) for eye related conditions. The Doctor of Optometry title can also be used in the UK for those that hold the postgraduate O.D. degree. Within their scope of practice, optometrists are considered physicians and bill medical insurance(s) (example: Medicare) accordingly. Moreover, many participate in academic research for eye related conditions and disease. Optometrists are the only health care professionals with a first professional degree specific to eye care; ophthalmologists are physicians who typically hold a four-year college degree, a medical degree, and at least three years of residency training after medical school, obviating the need for an eye-specific degree.


title: Optometry

text: The term "optometry" comes from the Greek words "ὄψις" ("opsis"; "view") and "μέτρον" ("metron"; "something used to measure", "measure", "rule"). The word entered the language when the instrument for measuring vision was called an optometer, (before the terms phoropter or refractor were used). The root word "opto" is a shortened form derived from the Greek word "ophthalmos" meaning, "eye." Like most healthcare professions, the education and certification of optometrists are regulated in most countries. Optometric professionals and optometry-related organizations interact with governmental agencies, other healthcare professionals, and the community to deliver eye and vision care.


title: Optometry

text: The World Council of Optometry, World Health Organization and about 75 optometry organizations from over 40 countries have adopted the following definition, to be used to describe optometry and optometrist.


title: Optometry

text: The history of optometry can be traced back to the early studies on optics and image formation by the eye. The origins of optical science (optics, as taught in a basic physics class) date back a few thousand years as evidence of the existence of lenses for decoration has been found in Greece and the Netherlands.


title: Optometry

text: It is unknown when the first spectacles were made. The British scientist and historian Sir Joseph Needham, in his "Science and Civilization in China", reported the earliest mention of spectacles was in Venetian guild regulations . He suggested that the occasional claim that spectacles were invented in China may have come from a paper by German-American anthropologist Berthold Laufer. Per Needham, the paper by Laufer had many inconsistencies, and that the references in the document used by Laufer were not in the original copies but added during the Ming dynasty. Early Chinese sources mention the eyeglasses were imported.


title: Optometry

text: Research by David A. Goss in the United States shows they may have originated in the late 13th century in Italy as stated in a manuscript from 1305 where a monk from Pisa named Rivalto stated "It is not yet 20 years since there was discovered the art of making eyeglasses". Spectacles were manufactured in Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands by 1300. Needham stated spectacles were first made shortly after 1286.


title: Optometry

text: In 1907, Laufer stated in his history of spectacles 'the opinion that spectacles originated in India is of the greatest probability and that spectacles must have been known in India earlier than in Europe'. However, as already mentioned, Joseph Needham showed that the references Laufer cited were not in the older and best versions of the document Laufer used, leaving his claims unsupported.


title: Optometry

text: In Sri Lanka, it is well-documented that during the reign of King Bhuvanekabahu the IV (AD 1346 – 1353) of the Gampola period the ancient tradition of optical lens making with a natural stone called Diyatarippu was given royal patronage. A few of the craftsmen still live and practice in the original hamlet given to the exponents of the craft by royal decree. But the date of King Bhuvanekabahu is decades after the mention of spectacles in the Venetian guild regulations and after the 1306 sermon by Dominican friar Giordano da Pisa, where da Pisa said the invention of spectacles was both recent and that he had personally met the inventor


title: Optometry

text: The German word "brille" (eyeglasses) is derived from Sanskrit "vaidurya". Etymologically, "brille" is derived from beryl, Latin "beryllus", from Greek "beryllos", from Prakrit "verulia", "veluriya", from Sanskrit "vaidurya", of Dravidian origin from the city of "Velur" (modern "Belur"). Medieval Latin "berillus" was also applied to eyeglasses, hence German "brille", from Middle High German "berille", and French "besicles" (plural) "spectacles", altered from old French "bericle".


title: Optometry

text: Benito Daza de Valdes published the first full book on opticians in 1623, where he mentioned the use and fitting of eyeglasses. In 1692, William Molyneux wrote a book on optics and lenses where he stated his ideas on myopia and problems related to close-up vision. The scientists Claudius Ptolemy and Johannes Kepler also contributed to the creation of optometry. Kepler discovered how the retina in the eye creates vision. From 1773 until around 1829, Thomas Young discovered the disability of astigmatism and it was George Biddell Airy who designed glasses to correct that problem that included sphero-cylindrical lens.


title: Optometry

text: Although the term optometer appeared in the 1759 book "A Treatise on the Eye: The Manner and Phenomena of Vision" by Scottish physician William Porterfield, it was not until the early twentieth century in the United States and Australia that "optometry" began to be used to describe the profession. By the early twenty-first century, however, marking the distinction with dispensing opticians, it had become the internationally accepted term.


title: Optometry

text: Following are examples of examination methods performed during an eye examination that enables diagnosis


title: Optometry

text: Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a medical technological platform used to assess ocular structures. The information is then used by eye doctors to assess staging of pathological processes and confirm clinical diagnoses. Subsequent OCT scans are used to assess the efficacy of managing diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, and glaucoma


title: Optometry

text: Optometry is officially recognized in many jurisdictions. Most have regulations concerning education and practice. Optometrists, like many other healthcare professionals, are required to participate in ongoing continuing education courses to stay current on the latest standards of care.


title: Optometry

text: In 1993 there were five countries in Africa with optometric teaching institutes: Sudan, Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa and Tanzania.


title: Optometry

text: Sudan's major institution for the training of optometrists is the Faculty of Optometry and Visual Sciences (FOVS), originally established in 1954 as the Institute of Optometry in Khartoum; the Institute joined with the Ministry of Higher Education in 1986 as the High Institute of Optometry, and ultimately was annexed into Alneelain University in 1997 when it was renamed to the FOVS. Currently, the FOVS has the following programs: 1) BSc optometry in 5 years with sub-specialization in either orthoptics, contact lenses, ocular photography or ocular neurology; 2) BCs in ophthalmic technology, requiring 4 years of training; and BCs in the optical dispensary, achieved in 4 years. The FOVS also offers MSc and PhD degrees in optometry. The FOVS is the only institute of its kind in Sudan and was the first institution of higher education in Optometry in the Middle East and Africa. In 2010, Alneelain University Eye Hospital was established as part of the FOVS to expand training capacity and to serve broader Sudanese community.


title: Optometry

text: The Ghana Optometric Association (GOA) regulates the practice of Optometry in Ghana. After the six-year training at any of the two universities offering the course, the O.D degree is awarded. The new optometrist must write a qualifying exam, after which the optometrist is admitted as a member of the GOA, leading to the award of the title MGOA.


title: Optometry

text: The first optometry course in Mozambique was started in 2009 at Universidade Lurio, Nampula. The course is part of the Mozambique Eyecare Project. University of Ulster, Dublin Institute of Technology and Brien Holden Vision Institute are supporting partners. As of 2019, 61 Mozambican students had graduated with optometry degrees


title: Optometry

text: In Nigeria, optometry is regulated by the Optometry and Dispensing Opticians Registration Board of Nigeria established under the Optometry and Dispensing Opticians ( Registration ETC ) Act of 1989 (Cap O9 Laws of Federation of Nigeria 2004). The Boards publishes from time to time lists of approved qualifications and training institutions in the federal government gazette. The Doctor of Optometry degree is awarded after a six-year training at one of the accredited universities in Imo, Edo and Abia states.


title: Optometry

text: From 2010 Optometry was first introduced in Bangladesh in Institute of Community Ophthalmology Under Medicine Faculty of University of Chittagong http://icoedu.org. This institute offers a four years Bachelor of Science in optometry (B.Optom) course. Currently, there are 120 Graduated Optometrists in Bangladesh. The association which controls the quality of Optometry practice all over the country is named as 'Optometrists Association of Bangladesh' which is also a country member of World Council of Optometry(WCO).


title: Optometry

text: In the year 2018, Chittagong Medical University formed and the Bsc. in Optometry course shifted to this university.


title: Optometry

text: In Bangladesh, Optometrists perform primary eye care like Diagnosis and primary management of some ocular diseases, Prescribe Eye Glasses, Low vision rehabilitation, provide vision therapy, contact lens practice and all type of Orthoptic evaluations and management.


title: Optometry

text: In China, optometric education only began in 1988 at the Wenzhou Medical University. Since that time, the discipline and the profession have emerged as a five-year, medically based program within the medical education system of China. Students in the program receive the highest level of training in Optometry and are provided with the credentials needed to assume positions of leadership in China's medical education and health care systems. In 2000, the Ministry of Health formally accepted Optometry as a subspecialty of medicine.