title: Lake Placid, New York

text: As leisure time increased in the late 19th century, Lake Placid was discovered as a resort by the wealthy, drawn to the fashionable Lake Placid Club. Melvil Dewey, who invented the Dewey Decimal System, designed what was then called "Placid Park Club" in 1895. This inspired the village to change its name to Lake Placid, an incorporated village in 1900. Dewey kept the club open through the winter in 1905, which aided the development of winter sports in the area. Nearby Saranac Lake had hosted an international winter sporting event as early as 1889 and was used year-round by patients seeking treatment for tuberculosis at sanatoria. The fresh, clean mountain air was considered good for them and was a common treatment for tuberculosis.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: By 1921, the Lake Placid area could boast a ski jump, speed skating venue, and ski association. In 1929, Dr. Godfrey Dewey, Melvil's son, convinced the International Olympic Committee (IOC) Lake Placid had the best winter sports facilities in the United States. The Lake Placid Club was the headquarters for the IOC for the 1932 and the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: In addition to the John Brown Farm and Gravesite, the Mount Van Hoevenberg Olympic Bobsled Run, New York Central Railroad Adirondack Division Historic District, and United States Post Office are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: Lake Placid hosted the Winter Olympics in 1932 and 1980. During the 1932 games, the trails outside of the village served for the cross-country skiing events and the cross-country skiing part of the Nordic combined event. Lake Placid, St Moritz, and Innsbruck are the only sites to have twice hosted the Winter Olympic Games.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: Jack Shea, a resident of the village, became the first person to win two gold medals when he doubled in speed skating at the 1932 Winter Olympics. He carried the Olympic torch through Lake Placid in 2002 shortly before his death. His grandson, Jimmy Shea, competed in the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, in his honor, winning gold in the Skeleton.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: In the U.S., the village is especially remembered as the 1980 USA–USSR hockey game site. Dubbed the "Miracle on Ice", a group of American college students and amateurs upset seasoned and professional Soviet national ice hockey team, 4–3, and two days later won the gold medal. Another high point during the Games was the performance of American speed-skater Eric Heiden, who won five gold medals.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: Lake Placid was interested in bidding for the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics but decided against it; Lillehammer, Norway was the only bidder and was awarded the games. Lake Placid shifted its interest toward bidding for the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics, but it again did not submit a bid.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: Lake Placid is well known among winter-sports enthusiasts for its skiing, both Alpine and Nordic. Whiteface Mountain (), in nearby Wilmington about from Lake Placid, offers skiing, hiking, gondola rides, and mountain biking, and is the only one of the High Peaks that can be reached by an auto road. Whiteface Mountain has a vertical elevation of , the highest vertical elevation of mountains in Eastern North America. The area has one of only 16 bobsled runs in the Western Hemisphere.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: In 2010, "U.S. News & World Report" highlighted Lake Placid as one of the "6 Forgotten Vacation Spots" in North America.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: Many people use Lake Placid as a base from which to climb the 46 High Peaks in the Adirondack Mountains. Those who complete these climbs may join the Adirondack 46ers.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: Lake Placid built its first golf course in 1898, one of the first in the U.S., and has more courses than any other venue in the Adirondacks. Many of its courses were designed by well-known golf course architects, such as John Van Kleek, Seymour Dunn, Alexander H. Findlay, and Alister MacKenzie. The geographic features of the Adirondacks were considered reminiscent of the Scottish landscape, where the game started, and thus a fitting canvas for original play, or "mountain golf."


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: Lake Placid is near the West Branch of the Ausable River, a well-known stretch of water for fly fishing. More than of the West Branch are designated as year-round catch-and-release, artificial-lures-only water.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: There are also cliffs and streams surrounding Lake Placid, perfect for free cliff jumping. Usually, around 20-50 feet high, these cliffs are good for any thrill-seeker in the area.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: Lake Placid is served by nearby Adirondack Regional Airport in Saranac Lake, from the village. Lake Placid Airport, two miles south of the village, has scheduled service provided by Cape Air.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: Other relatively nearby airports include Albany International Airport, Burlington International Airport, Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport, the airports in the New York metropolitan area, Ottawa International Airport, Toronto Pearson, and the airport in Plattsburgh. Lake Placid is also served by an Amtrak Thruway Motorcoach connection through Westport via limousine service. Adirondack Trailways stops there as well.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: Lake Placid is not located on any interstate highway. It can be reached from Interstate 87 to the east via New York State Route 73, New York State Route 86, and New York State Route 9N. County Roads 21, 31, and 35 also serve the community.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: In the 20th century, the New York Central Railroad (NYC) operated coaches and sleeping cars to Lake Placid on trains such as the "North Star" and the "Iroquois." The NYC operated passenger trains to Utica, New York for connections west towards Chicago and Buffalo and east toward New York City until April 24, 1965.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: A 34-mile rail-trail is being constructed from Lake Placid to Tupper Lake on the old New York Central railbed, with completion planned for November, 2024. Track removal between Lake Placid and Tupper Lake (34 miles) was completed in 2021. In 2022, the Adirondack Railroad should commence running tourist passenger trains over the entire, renovated 108-mile former NYC route from Tupper Lake to Utica, NY. Both projects are being funded by New York State, which bought the entire 142-mile line from Penn Central in 1974.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , of which is land and , or 10.79%, is water.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: The village is located near the southern end of Lake Placid lake. More immediate to the village is Mirror Lake, which lies between the village and Lake Placid.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 2,638 people, 1,303 households, and 604 families residing in the village. The population density was . There were 1,765 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 95.75% White, 0.68% African American, 0.45% Native American, 0.91% Asian, 0.57% Pacific Islander, 0.19% from other races, and 1.44% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.91% of the population.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: There were 1,303 households, of which 22.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.1% were married couples living together, 8.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 53.6% were non-families. 45.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.02, and the average family size was 2.93.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: The population was spread out, with 22.4% under the age of 18, 8.5% from 18 to 24, 33.2% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 16.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.3 males.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: The median income for a household in the village was $28,239, and the median income for a family was $43,042. Males had a median income of $26,585 versus $21,750 for females. The per capita income for the village was $18,507. About 8.5% of families and 13.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.3% of those under age 18 and 17.8% of those age 65 or over.


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: According to the Köppen climate classification system, Lake Placid has a warm-summer, humid continental climate ("Dfb"). "Dfb" climates are characterized by a least one month having an average mean temperature ≤ , at least four months with an average mean temperature ≥ , all months with an average mean temperature < and no significant precipitation difference between seasons. Although most summer days are comfortably humid in Lake Placid, episodes of heat and high humidity can occur with heat index values > . Since 1897, the highest air temperature was . The average wettest month is June which corresponds with the annual peak in thunderstorm activity. During the winter months, the average annual extreme minimum air temperature is . Since 1897, the coldest air temperature was . Episodes of extreme cold and wind can occur with wind chill values < . The average annual snowfall total is .


title: Lake Placid, New York

text: According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, Lake Placid would have a dominant vegetation type of Northern Hardwoods/Spruce ("108") with a dominant vegetation form of Northern Hardwoods ("23"). The plant hardiness zone is 4a with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of . The spring bloom typically peaks on approximately May 12 and fall color usually peaks around October 1.


title: Contactless payment

text: Contactless payment systems are credit cards and debit cards, key fobs, smart cards, or other devices, including smartphones and other mobile devices, that use radio-frequency identification (RFID) or near-field communication (NFC, e.g. Samsung Pay, Apple Pay, Google Pay, Fitbit Pay, or any bank mobile application that supports contactless) for making secure payments. The embedded integrated circuit chip and antenna enable consumers to wave their card, fob, or handheld device over a reader at the point of sale terminal. Contactless payments are made in close physical proximity, unlike other types of mobile payments which use broad-area cellular or WiFi networks and do not involve close physical proximity.


title: Contactless payment

text: EMV is a common standard used by major credit card and smartphone companies for use in general commerce. Contactless smart cards that function as stored-value cards are becoming popular for use as transit system farecards, such as the Oyster card or RioCard. These can often store non-currency value (such as monthly passes), in additional to fare value purchased with cash or electronic payment.


title: Contactless payment

text: Tokenisation is a newer concept of encapsulating a card issuers details within a hardware device application such as via Apple Pay app on iPhones.


title: Contactless payment

text: Some suppliers claim that transactions can be almost twice as fast as a conventional cash, credit, or debit card purchase. Because no signature or PIN verification is typically required, contactless purchases are usually limited to small value sales. Lack of authentication provides a window during which fraudulent purchases can be made while the card owner is unaware of the card's loss.


title: Contactless payment

text: Major financial institutions and multinational corporations now offer contactless payment systems to customers as contactless credit cards have become widespread in the U.S., U.K., Japan, Germany, Canada, Australia, France, the Netherlands, etc., as consumers are likely to spend more money using their cards due to the ease of small transactions. With contactless cards growing in numbers and percentages of adoption, the number of payments by this method had increased significantly since the spending limit was raised. Purchases made by card now surpass those made by cash and account for approximately one-third of all card transactions in countries like the UK. Contactless payments specifically have become increasingly popular, accounting for 4 out of 5 point-of-sale purchases in Australia as of 2019. Card issuers indicate that they will increase the availability of contactless cards to consumers. There are over 58 million contactless-enabled cards and over 147,000 terminals in use in the UK alone, VISA estimated that there would be 300 million contactless cards issued in the US by the end of 2020, up from the predicted 100 million at the end of 2019.


title: Contactless payment

text: Mobil was one of the most notable early adopters of a similar technology, and offered their "Speedpass" contactless payment system for participating Mobil gas stations as early as 1997. Although Mobil has since merged with Exxon, the service is still offered at many of ExxonMobil's stations. Freedompay also had early wins in the contactless space with Bank of America and McDonald's.


title: Contactless payment

text: In 2002, Philips teamed up with Sony to elaborate the NFC standard. Then Philips Semiconductors applied for the six fundamental patents of NFC, invented by the Austrian and French engineers Franz Amtmann and Philippe Maugars who received the European Inventor Award in 2015.


title: Contactless payment

text: In July 2004, Sony, who had implemented the contactless RFID smart card FeliCa in Japan, introduced the system (literal translation: "wallet-phone") developed with the mobile phone operator NTT DoCoMo on multiple FeliCa systems such as Edy and, on 28 January 2006, on Mobile Suica used primarily on the railway networks owned by JR East.


title: Contactless payment

text: In May 2005, after some experimentation in the Netherlands, the contactless deferred payment at the end of each month, after the registration of the trips aboard with a contactless mobile phone on the client's account, was first experimented in Germany during 6 months on the tramways and bus of Hanau with the Nokia 3220 using the NFC standard of Philips and Sony.


title: Contactless payment

text: In October 2005, the immediate contactless payment was first experimented in France in Caen during 6 months with a Samsung NFC smartphone by Orange in collaboration with Philips Semiconductors in the Cofinoga shops (Galeries Lafayette, Monoprix) and Vinci parkings. For the first time, thanks to "Fly Tag", the system allowed to receive as well audiovisual informations, like bus timetables or cinema trailers from the concerned services. In June 2007, the payment with a contactless bank card was tested at the FNAC of La Défense in Paris and from 19 November 2007 to 2009 in some shops of Caen and Strasbourg, this time with smartphones NFC, provided by four operators (Orange, Bouygues Telecom, SFR and NRJ Mobile). On 5 November 2007, Orange and the transport societies SNCF and Keolis associated themselves for a 2 months experimentation with smartphones in Rennes in the metro, bus and TER trains.


title: Contactless payment

text: The first contactless cards in the UK were issued by Barclaycard in September 2007. PayPass trialed the world's first NFC-enabled phone, the Nokia 6131 NFC, in New York in 2007.


title: Contactless payment

text: On 19 January 2009, NFC is used in transports for the first time in the world by China Unicom and Yucheng Transportation Card with Changhong DG28 and F4 mobile phones in the tramways and bus of Chongqing in China.


title: Contactless payment

text: In January 2010, Barclaycard partnered with mobile phone firm Orange, to launch a contactless credit card in the UK. Orange and Barclaycard also announced in 2009 that they would be launching a mobile phone with contactless technology.


title: Contactless payment

text: After a test conducted from October 2005 to November 2006 with 27 users, on 21 May 2010, the transport authority of Nice "Régie Lignes d'Azur" was the first public transport provider in Europe to add definitely to its own offer a contactless payment on its tramways and bus network either with a NFC bank card or smartphone application notably on Samsung Player One (with the same mobile phone operators than in Caen and Strasbourg in 2007), as well as the validation aboard with them of the transport titles and the loading of these titles onto the smartphone, in addition to the season tickets contactless card. This service was as well experimented then respectively implemented for NFC smartphones on 18 and 25 June 2013 in the tramways and bus of Caen and Strasbourg., after the contactless payment on the 765 pay and display parking machines of Strasbourg was made available in October 2011. In the Paris transport network, after a 4 months testing from November 2006 with Bouygues Telecom and 43 persons and finally with 8,000 users from July 2018, the contactless mobile payment and direct validation on the turnstile readers with a smartphone was adopted on 25 September 2019 in collaboration with the societies Orange, Samsung, Wizway Solutions, Worldline and Conduent.


title: Contactless payment

text: NFC is used in Seoul after its introduction in Korea by the discount retailer Homeplus in March 2010 and in Tokyo it is tested then adopted or added to the existing systems, like the mobile wallet Osaifu-Keitai, from May 2010 to end of 2012. The NFC standard is implemented for the first time in a metro network, by China Unicom in Beijing on 31 December 2010.


title: Contactless payment

text: In October 2011, the first mobile phones with Mastercard PayPass and/or Visa payWave certification appeared. A PayPass or payWave account can be assigned to the embedded secure element and/or SIM card within the phones.


title: Contactless payment

text: In October 2013, Citi Enterprise Payments and 3 Hong Kong, the mobile operation of Hutchison Telecommunications Hong Kong Holdings Limited (SEHK: 215), jointly announced the launch of ‘3 Citi Wallet.’ Using Near Field Communication (NFC) technology, the '3 Citi Wallet' was a multi-purpose mobile wallet service that included mobile payment, transaction history, a location-based special offer service and a search function that directed customers to the best deals within their vicinity. The 3Citi wallet was compatible with a wide range of designated smartphones, from Samsung, Sony, HTC, LG and iPhone. Over 9,000 Visa payWave readers across Hong Kong were able to accept contactless payments on Day 1.


title: Contactless payment

text: In February 2014, Mastercard announced that it would partner with Weve, which is a joint venture between EE, Telefónica UK, and Vodafone UK, to focus on mobile payments. The partnership will promote the development of "contactless mobile payment systems" by creating a universal platform in Europe for it.


title: Contactless payment

text: On 9 September 2014, Apple Inc. announced Apple Pay, a proprietary form of contactless payment integrated with its smartphones, with the release of the iPhone 6.


title: Contactless payment

text: In September 2014, Transport for London's Tube began accepting contactless payment. TFL are claiming that they pushed the banking industry to develop the contactless system. See the tv programme Secrets of the London Underground Series 2 Episode 9 (around minute 58).The number of completed contactless journeys has now exceeded 300m. On Friday 18 December, the busiest single day in 2015, a record 1.24m journeys were completed by over 500k unique contactless cards.


title: Contactless payment

text: In 2016 Erste Group launched an NFC-only debit card implemented as a sticker in Austria. It can be used at any NFC supporting terminal for transactions of unlimited amount however for transactions over the floor limit of €25 a PIN is required to confirm the transaction.


title: Contactless payment

text: In 2016, contactless payments start to become even broader with wearable technology devices also offering this payment feature.


title: Contactless payment

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, several banks raised their contactless payment limits. In the United Kingdom, the limit was increased from £30 to £45 in March 2020. Contactless payments were recommended as a safer payment method compared to Chip and PIN card payments and cash transactions. It was later raised to £100.


title: Contactless payment

text: Google Pay is an application for devices running Google's Android OS, which allows users to make purchases using NFC, which initially required a physical secure element but this was replaced by host card emulation which was introduced in Android 4.4 (KitKat). Softcard (formerly known as Isis mobile wallet), Cityzi and Quick Tap wallets for example, use a secure SIM card to store encrypted personal information. Contactless payments with enabled mobile phones still occur on a small scale, but every month an increasing number of mobile phones are certified.


title: Contactless payment

text: In 2012, Mastercard Advisors wrote that consumers are likely to spend more money using their cards due to the ease of small transactions. Mastercard Canada says it has seen "about 25 percent" higher spending by users of its Mastercard Contactless-brand RFID credit cards.


title: Contactless payment

text: , there were approximately 58 million contactless-enabled cards in use in the UK, and over 147,000 terminals in use. By June 2017 purchases made by card surpassed those made by cash. This was reported to have been driven by the rise in contactless payments, which accounted for approximately one third of all card transactions in the UK. The number of payments by this method had increased significantly since the spending limit was raised from £20 to £30. In 2018, contactless payments made up around 19% of transactions in the UK.


title: Contactless payment

text: In 2018, the Westpac Banking Corporation in Australia revealed contactless payment statistics from 2017 and claimed in the report that contactless payments approached saturation point by being used in over 90% of purchases. The Australian St.George Bank reported 94.6% usage for the same period.


title: Contactless payment

text: Recent statements by Visa and other US card issuers indicate that they will increase the availability of contactless cards to US consumers in the near future. Visa estimates there will be 300 million contactless cards issued in the US by the end of 2020, up from the predicted 100 million at the end of 2019 as announced on its 2018 Q4 earnings call.


title: Contactless payment

text: Telecom operators are starting to get involved in contactless payments via the use of NFC-enabled phones. Belgacom's Pingping, for example, has a stored value account and via a partnership with Alcatel-Lucent's Touchatag provides contactless payment functionalities.


title: Contactless payment

text: Major financial entities now offering contactless payment systems include Mastercard, China UnionPay, Citibank, JPMorgan Chase, American Express, KeyBank, Barclays, Barclaycard, HSBC, Lloyds Banking Group, FreedomPay, The Co-operative Bank, Nationwide Building Society and NatWest Group. Visa payWave, American Express Expresspay, and Mastercard Contactless are examples of contactless credit cards which have become widespread in the U.S. and U.K.


title: Contactless payment

text: There are two main standard usages for contactless payments adopted throughout payment terminals with the EMV standard.


title: Contactless payment

text: On issued bank cards a smart chip or cryptographic chip is placed on the card known as a smart card which allows wireless payments to be made from the EMV chip in range of a payment terminal using RFID technology following the EMVCo standard. When the smart card is tapped against a payment terminal that authenticates the card issuer's details through a series of PIN interactions the payment for the interaction will succeed.


title: Contactless payment

text: A newer approach to smart card technology is achieved by linking a smart card to a hardware device, such as through the Apple Pay application on an iPhone mobile phone, thereby allowing mobile devices the ability to make payments using RFID technology against a payment terminal on behalf of a smart card using a token generated by the card issuer, a process known as tokenisation. A Device Account Number (DAN) similar to a Private Account Number (PAN) in traditional payment stripe and chip cards, is generated along with a private key and sent to the card issuer during initial setup of the smart card on the hardware device. When payments are made via the respective approved application on the hardware device the DAN and relevant details such as expiry date and CVV are sent to the card issuer via a payment terminal for cryptography where the associated private key is then used to authorise the transaction.


title: Contactless payment

text: In 2006 security researchers found that the cardholder's name, credit card number, and expiration date may be transmitted by contactless payment cards without encryption. They were able to use information leaked from a contactless credit card to make a purchase online, without opening the envelope in which the card was sent.


title: Contactless payment

text: Depending on the economic space, there may be a payment limit on single transactions without the need to input the PIN, and some contactless cards can only be used a certain number of times before customers are asked for their PIN. Contactless debit and credit transactions use the same chip and PIN network as older cards and are protected by the same fraud guarantees. Where PIN is supported, the contactless part of the card may remain non-functional until a standard chip and PIN transaction has been executed. This provides some verification that the card was delivered to the actual cardholder.


title: Contactless payment

text: Under fraud guarantee standards, U.S. banks are liable for any fraudulent transactions charged to the contactless cards.


title: Contactless payment

text: Because no signature or PIN verification is typically required, contactless purchases are often limited to a maximum amount per transaction, known as a "Cardholder Verification Limit" (CVM limit). Limits vary between banks.


title: Contactless payment

text: For transactions over the defined CVM limit a verification is usually required (e.g. PIN, Signature or biometric authentication).


title: Contactless payment

text: Additionally, lower value transactions are accepted without sending the transaction online for verification by the Acquiring host. This is known as the "Floor Limit".


title: Contactless payment

text: Note that these limits typically do not apply when CDCVM verification (such as in Apple Pay) is used.


title: Turkmen language

text: Turkmen (, , , or , , , ), sometimes referred to as "Turkmen Turkic" or "Turkmen Turkish", is a Turkic language spoken by the Turkmens of Central Asia, mainly of Turkmenistan, Iran, and Afghanistan. It has an estimated 5 million native speakers in Turkmenistan, a further 719,000 speakers in northeastern Iran, 1.5 million people in northwestern Afghanistan and 155,000 in Pakistan. Turkmen has official status in Turkmenistan, but it does not have official status in Iran, Afghanistan, or Pakistan, where big communities of ethnic Turkmens live. Turkmen is also spoken to lesser varying degrees in Turkmen communities of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan and by diaspora communities, primarily in Turkey and Russia.


title: Turkmen language

text: Turkmen is a member of the Oghuz branch of the Turkic languages. The standardized form of Turkmen (spoken in Turkmenistan) is based on the Teke dialect, while Iranian Turkmen use mostly the Yomud dialect, and Afghan Turkmen use Ersary variety. Turkmen is closely related to Azerbaijani, Crimean Tatar, Gagauz, Qashqai, and Turkish, sharing varying degrees of mutual intelligibility with each of those languages. However, the closest language of Turkmen is considered Khorasani Turkic, spoken in northeastern regions of Iran and with which it shares the eastern subbranch of Oghuz languages, as well as Khorazm, the Oghuz dialect of Uzbek language spoken mainly in Khorezm along the Turkmenistan border.


title: Turkmen language

text: Elsewhere in Iran, the Turkmen language comes second after the Azerbaijani language in terms of the number of speakers of Turkic languages of Iran.


title: Turkmen language

text: Iraqi and Syrian "Turkmen" speak dialects that form a continuum between Turkish and Azerbaijani, in both cases heavily influenced by Arabic. These varieties are not Turkmen in the sense of this article.


title: Turkmen language

text: The Turkmen language, unlike other languages of the Oghuz branch, preserved most of the unique and archaic features of the language spoken by the early Oghuz Turks, including phonemic vowel length.


title: Turkmen language

text: Turkmen is a member of the East Oghuz branch of the Turkic family of languages; its closest relatives being Turkish and Azerbaijani, with which it shares a relatively high degree of mutual intelligibility. However, the closest language of Turkmen is considered Khorasani Turkic with which it shares the eastern subbranch of Oghuz languages and Khorazm, spoken mainly in northwestern Uzbekistan.


title: Turkmen language

text: Turkmen has vowel harmony, is agglutinative and has no grammatical gender. Word order is subject–object–verb.


title: Turkmen language

text: Written Turkmen today is based on the Teke (Tekke) dialect. The other dialects are Nohurly, , , Hasarly, Nerezim, , Salyr, Saryk, and . The Teke dialect is sometimes (especially in Afghanistan) referred to as "Chagatai", but like all Turkmen dialects it reflects only a limited influence from classical Chagatai.


title: Turkmen language

text: Turkmen has dental fricatives and unlike other Oghuz Turkic languages, where these sounds are pronounced as and . The only other Turkic language with a similar feature is Bashkir. However, in Bashkir and are two independent phonemes, distinct from and , whereas in Turkmen [θ] and [ð] are the two main realizations of the common Turkic and . In other words, there are no and phonemes in Turkmen, unlike Bashkir, which has both and and and .


title: Turkmen language

text: The 1st person personal pronoun is “men” in Turkmen, just as in Azerbaijani, whereas it is “ben” in Turkish. The same is true for demonstrative pronouns “bu”, where sound “b” is replaced with sound “m”. For example: . In Turkmen, “bu” undergoes some changes just as in: .


title: Turkmen language

text: Here are some words with a different pronunciation in Turkmen and Azerbaijani that mean the same in both languages:


title: Turkmen language

text: Turkey was first to recognize Turkmenistan's independence on 27 October 1991, following the Dissolution of the Soviet Union and to open its Embassy in Ashgabat on 29 February 1992. Sharing a common history, religion, language and culture, the two states have balanced special relations based on mutual respect and the principle of “One Nation, Two States”.


title: Turkmen language

text: Turkmen language is very close to Turkish with regard to linguistic properties. However, there are a couple of differences due to regional and historical reasons. Most morphophonetic rules are common in Turkmen and Turkish languages. For instance, both languages show vowel harmony and consonant mutation rules, and have similar suffixes with very close semantics.


title: Turkmen language

text: Here are some words from the Swadesh list in Turkmen and Turkish that mean the same in both languages:


title: Turkmen language

text: Turkmen written language was formed in the 13–14th centuries. During this period, the Arabic alphabet was used extensively for writing. Already in the 18th century, there was a rich literature in the Turkmen language. At the same time, the literacy of the population in their native language remained at low levels; book publishing was extremely limited, and the first primer in the Turkmen language appeared only in 1913, while the first newspaper ("Transcaspian native newspaper") was printed in 1914.


title: Turkmen language

text: The Arabic script was not adapted to the phonetic features of the Turkic languages. Thus, it did not have necessary signs to designate specific sounds of the Turkmen language, and at the same time there were many letters to designate Arabic sounds that were not in the Turkmen language.


title: Turkmen language

text: During the first years after the establishment of the Soviet power, the Arabic alphabet of the Turkmens of the USSR was reformed twice, in 1922 and 1925. In the course of the reforms, letters with diacritics were introduced to denote Turkic phonemes; and letters were abolished for sounds that are absent in the Turkmen language.


title: Turkmen language

text: In January 1925, on the pages of the republican newspaper , the question of switching to a new, Latin alphabet was raised. After the first All-Union Turkological Congress in Baku (February–March 1926), the State Academic Council under the People's Commissariat of Education of the Turkmen SSR developed a draft of a new alphabet. On January 3, 1928, the revised new Latin alphabet was approved by the Central Executive Committee of the Turkmen SSR.


title: Turkmen language

text: At the end of the 1930s, the process of the Cyrillization of writing began throughout the USSR. In January 1939, the newspaper "Sowet Türkmenistany" published a letter from teachers in Ashgabat and the Ashgabat region with an initiative to replace the Turkmen (Latin) script with Cyrillic. The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Turkmen SSR instructed the Research Institute of Language and Literature to draw up a draft of a new alphabet. The teachers of the Ashgabat Pedagogical Institute and print workers also took part in the development of the new writing system. In April 1940, the draft alphabet was published.


title: Turkmen language

text: In May 1940, the Council of People's Commissars of the Turkmen SSR adopted a resolution on the transition to a new alphabet of all state and public institutions from July 1, 1940, and on the beginning of teaching the new alphabet in schools from September 1 of the same year.


title: Turkmen language

text: After the Dissolution of the Soviet Union, in January 1993, a meeting was held at the Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan on the issue of replacing the Cyrillic with the Latin alphabet, at which a commission was formed to develop the alphabet. In February, a new version of the alphabet was published in the press. On April 12, 1993, the Mejlis of Turkmenistan approved a presidential decree on the new alphabet.


title: Turkmen language

text: Turkmen is a highly agglutinative language, in that much of the grammar is expressed by means of suffixes added to nouns and verbs. It is very regular compared with many other languages of non-Turkic group. For example, "from the villages" can be analysed as "village", -lar (plural suffix), -dan (ablative case, meaning "from"); "I am taking" as "al" "take", (present continuous tense), "-yn" (1st person singular).


title: Turkmen language

text: Another characteristic of Turkmen is vowel harmony. Most suffixes have two or four different forms, the choice between which depends on the vowel of the word's root or the preceding suffix: for example, the ablative case of is "from the villages" but, the ablative case of "dogs" is "from the dogs".


title: Turkmen language

text: Turkmen literature comprises oral compositions and written texts in Old Oghuz Turkic and Turkmen languages. Turkmens are direct descendants of the Oghuz Turks, who were a western Turkic people that spoke the Oghuz branch of the Turkic language family.


title: Turkmen language

text: The earliest development of the Turkmen literature is closely associated with the literature of the Oghuz Turks.


title: Turkmen language

text: Turkmens have joint claims to a great number of literary works written in Old Oghuz and Persian (by Seljuks in 11-12th centuries) languages with other people of the Oghuz Turkic origin, mainly of Azerbaijan and Turkey. These works include, but are not limited to the Book of Dede Korkut, Gorogly, Layla and Majnun, Yusuf Zulaikha and others.


title: Turkmen language

text: There is general consensus, however, that distinctively modern Turkmen literature originated in the 18th century with the poetry of Magtymguly Pyragy, who is considered the father of the Turkmen literature. Other prominent Turkmen poets of that era are (Magtymguly's father), Nurmuhammet Andalyp, , , and Gurbanally Magrupy.


title: Turkmen language

text: Note: Numbers are formed identically to other Turkic languages, such as Turkish. So, eleven (11) is "on bir" (). Two thousand seventeen (2017) is (two-thousand-ten-seven).


title: Turkmen language

text: The following is Magtymguly's (of the Turkmen) poem with the text transliterated into Turkmen (Latin) letters, whereas the original language is preserved. Second column is the poem's Turkish translation, third one is the Azerbaijani translation, while the last one is the English translation.


title: Turkmen language

text: Turkmens in Iran speak a dialect of Turkmen in the province of Golestan. It is mutually intelligible with the Turkmen dialects in Afghanistan, and are written in the Nastaliq script.


title: Carmine Appice

text: Carmine Appice ( , born December 15, 1946) is an American rock drummer. He is best known for his associations with Vanilla Fudge; Cactus; the power trio Beck, Bogert & Appice; Rod Stewart; King Kobra; and Blue Murder. He is also Vinny Appice's older brother. Appice was inducted into the "Classic Drummer" Hall of Fame in 2013 and the "Modern Drummer" Hall of Fame in 2014.


title: Carmine Appice

text: He is credited with influencing later rock drummers including Iron Maiden's Nicko McBrain, Aerosmith's Joey Kramer, Roger Taylor of Queen, Phil Collins of Genesis, Rush's Neil Peart, Mötley Crüe's Tommy Lee, Slayer's Dave Lombardo, Richard Christy, Chris Grainger, David Kinkade, Ray Mehlbaum, Led Zeppelin's John Bonham, Ian Paice of Deep Purple, Anvil's Robb Reiner and Eric Singer of Kiss.


title: Carmine Appice

text: His best-selling drum instruction book "The Realistic Rock Drum Method". was first published in 1972 and has since been revised and republished as "The Ultimate Realistic Rock Drum Method". It covers the basic subjects of rock rhythms and polyrhythms, linear rudiments and groupings, shuffle rhythms, hi-hat and double bass drum exercises.


title: Carmine Appice

text: Appice received classical music training, and was influenced early on by the work of jazz drummers Buddy Rich and Gene Krupa. Appice first came to prominence as the drummer with the late 1960s psychedelic band Vanilla Fudge. He contributed distinctive background harmonies with bassist Tim Bogert. After five albums, the pair left Vanilla Fudge to form the blues rock quartet Cactus, with vocalist Rusty Day and guitarist Jim McCarty. Appice and Bogert then left Cactus to join Jeff Beck in the power trio Beck, Bogert & Appice. Appice joined Rod Stewart's backing band in 1976 co-writing songs such as "Da Ya Think I'm Sexy?" and "Young Turks". He also played drums on a track on Paul Stanley's eponymous solo album (1978).


title: Carmine Appice

text: He was a member of KGB, which featured Ray Kennedy, Ric Grech, Mike Bloomfield and Barry Goldberg. Appice has recorded with artists such as Stanley Clarke, Ted Nugent and Pink Floyd. He has also played with King Kobra and (alongside John Sykes) in Blue Murder. On May 23, 1981, Tom Bradley, the then Mayor of Los Angeles, proclaimed that day as Carmine Appice Day in the city, in recognition of the drummer's charitable and educational work. In late 1983 Appice toured with Ozzy Osbourne in support of his Gold-selling "Bark at the Moon" album, but shortly afterward was fired from the backing group. Though Osbourne had a good relationship with him, the singer's wife and manager Sharon detested Appice, and the decision to fire him was strictly hers.


title: Carmine Appice

text: Appice recorded "Caso Cerrado" (1995) with the Argentine guitarist Pappo. They were also joined by bassist Tim Bogert on four songs, including "P. B. A. Boogie". He spent 1999 touring Japan with Bogert and Char in a unit called CB&A, with a live album released the following year. In 2000, Appice formed the power trio DBA with Bogert and Rick Derringer, and was reunited once again with Bogert when they reformed Vanilla Fudge.


title: Carmine Appice

text: In 2005, he became an official supporter of Little Kids Rock, a nonprofit organization which provides free musical instruments and instruction to children in less privileged public schools throughout the USA. He has personally delivered instruments to children in the program and has also performed at benefit concerts for the organization and sits on its Honorary board of directors.


title: Carmine Appice

text: In 2006, he formed the drum ensemble SLAMM in which Appice participated on drums playing alongside four young drummers; the resulting show has been described as "Stomp on steroids". The band filmed a promotional video for the Cable Network station ESPN, using a NASCAR garage as a set and mechanics' hardware as instruments. SLAMM was voted as the runner-up in the "Drum" magazine poll for Percussion Ensemble (2008) after a special appearance at the magazine's drum festival. The group also appears on the Modern Drummer festival DVD (2008).


title: Carmine Appice

text: He recorded "Carmine Appice's Guitar Zeus: Conquering Heroes" (2009). This was the third album in his "Guitar Zeus" series. These albums have featured guitarists such as Jennifer Batten, Brian May, Ted Nugent, Richie Sambora and Yngwie Malmsteen.


title: Carmine Appice

text: Carmine Appice lives in New York with his longtime girlfriend, radio personality Leslie Gold, The Radiochick.


title: Carmine Appice

text: He lent his talents to the Sly Stone CD "I'm Back! Family & Friends", on which he plays on the Sly classic "Stand!" It was released on August 16, 2011.


title: Carmine Appice

text: 2011–2012 saw Carmine performing Drum Wars shows with his brother Vinny Appice and guitarist Michael Hund, as well a reformation of King Kobra with Johnny Rod, Mick Sweda, and David Henzerling, with Paul Shortino replacing Marcie Free on lead vocals. This lineup released an eponymous album, "King Kobra", in April 2011 on the Frontiers label, which received critical acclaim. A new King Kobra album was released in 2013, titled "King Kobra II", featuring the song "Have a Good Time", for which a music video was filmed in the fall of 2012 at Count's Vamp'd in Las Vegas Valley.


title: Carmine Appice

text: Appice was set to play with Vinnie Vincent in a mini-reunion show slated originally for December 2018 but moved to February 2019 before ultimately being completely canceled.


title: Carmine Appice

text: In 2021, Appice released "Energy Overload". The album is credited to Appice Perdomo Project which is a collaboration with Multi Instrumentalist Fernando Perdomo.


title: Thyristor

text: A thyristor () is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating P- and N-type materials used for high-power applications. It acts exclusively as a bistable switch (or a latch), conducting when the gate receives a current trigger, and continuing to conduct until the voltage across the device is reversed biased, or until the voltage is removed (by some other means). There are two designs, differing in what triggers the conducting state. In a three-lead thyristor, a small current on its Gate lead controls the larger current of the Anode to Cathode path. In a two-lead thyristor, conduction begins when the potential difference between the Anode and Cathode themselves is sufficiently large (breakdown voltage).


title: Thyristor

text: Some sources define silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) and thyristor as synonymous. Other sources define thyristors as more complex devices that incorporate at least four layers of alternating N-type and P-type substrate.


title: Thyristor

text: The first thyristor devices were released commercially in 1956. Because thyristors can control a relatively large amount of power and voltage with a small device, they find wide application in control of electric power, ranging from light dimmers and electric motor speed control to high-voltage direct-current power transmission. Thyristors may be used in power-switching circuits, relay-replacement circuits, inverter circuits, oscillator circuits, level-detector circuits, chopper circuits, light-dimming circuits, low-cost timer circuits, logic circuits, speed-control circuits, phase-control circuits, etc. Originally, thyristors relied only on current reversal to turn them off, making them difficult to apply for direct current; newer device types can be turned on and off through the control gate signal. The latter is known as a gate turn-off thyristor, or GTO thyristor. Unlike transistors, thyristors have a two-valued switching characteristic, meaning that a thyristor can only be fully on or off, while a transistor can lie in between on and off states. This makes a thyristor unsuitable as an analog amplifier, but useful as a switch.


title: Thyristor

text: The thyristor is a four-layered, three-terminal semiconductor device, with each layer consisting of alternating N-type or P-type material, for example P-N-P-N. The main terminals, labelled anode and cathode, are across all four layers. The control terminal, called the gate, is attached to p-type material near the cathode. (A variant called an SCS—silicon controlled switch—brings all four layers out to terminals.) The operation of a thyristor can be understood in terms of a pair of tightly coupled bipolar junction transistors, arranged to cause a self-latching action:


title: Thyristor

text: When the anode is at a positive potential V with respect to the cathode with no voltage applied at the gate, junctions J and J are forward biased, while junction J is reverse biased. As J is reverse biased, no conduction takes place (Off state). Now if "V" is increased beyond the breakdown voltage "V" of the thyristor, avalanche breakdown of J takes place and the thyristor starts conducting (On state).


title: Thyristor

text: If a positive potential "V" is applied at the gate terminal with respect to the cathode, the breakdown of the junction J occurs at a lower value of "V". By selecting an appropriate value of "V", the thyristor can be switched into the on state quickly.


title: Thyristor

text: Once avalanche breakdown has occurred, the thyristor continues to conduct, irrespective of the gate voltage, until: (a) the potential "V" is removed or (b) the current through the device (anode−cathode) becomes less than the holding current specified by the manufacturer. Hence "V" can be a voltage pulse, such as the voltage output from a UJT relaxation oscillator.


title: Thyristor

text: The gate pulses are characterized in terms of gate trigger voltage ("V") and gate trigger current ("I"). Gate trigger current varies inversely with gate pulse width in such a way that it is evident that there is a minimum gate charge required to trigger the thyristor.


title: Thyristor

text: In a conventional thyristor, once it has been switched on by the gate terminal, the device remains latched in the on-state ("i.e." does not need a continuous supply of gate current to remain in the on state), providing the anode current has exceeded the latching current ("I"). As long as the anode remains positively biased, it cannot be switched off unless the current drops below the holding current ("I"). In normal working conditions the latching current is always greater than holding current. In the above figure "I" has to come above the "I" on y-axis since "I">"I".


title: Thyristor

text: A thyristor can be switched off if the external circuit causes the anode to become negatively biased (a method known as natural, or line, commutation). In some applications this is done by switching a second thyristor to discharge a capacitor into the anode of the first thyristor. This method is called forced commutation.


title: Thyristor

text: Once the current through the thyristor drops below the holding current, there must be a delay before the anode can be positively biased "and" retain the thyristor in the off-state. This minimum delay is called the circuit commutated turn off time ("t"). Attempting to positively bias the anode within this time causes the thyristor to be self-triggered by the remaining charge carriers (holes and electrons) that have not yet recombined.


title: Thyristor

text: For applications with frequencies higher than the domestic AC mains supply (e.g. 50 Hz or 60 Hz), thyristors with lower values of "t" are required. Such fast thyristors can be made by diffusing heavy metal ions such as gold or platinum which act as charge combination centers into the silicon. Today, fast thyristors are more usually made by electron or proton irradiation of the silicon, or by ion implantation. Irradiation is more versatile than heavy metal doping because it permits the dosage to be adjusted in fine steps, even at quite a late stage in the processing of the silicon.


title: Thyristor

text: The silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) or thyristor proposed by William Shockley in 1950 and championed by Moll and others at Bell Labs was developed in 1956 by power engineers at General Electric (G.E.), led by Gordon Hall and commercialized by G.E.'s Frank W. "Bill" Gutzwiller. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers recognized the invention by placing a plaque at the invention site in Clyde, NY and declaring it an IEEE Historic Milestone.


title: Thyristor

text: An earlier gas-filled tube device called a thyratron provided a similar electronic switching capability, where a small control voltage could switch a large current. It is from a combination of "THYRatron" and "transISTOR" that the term "thyristor" is derived.


title: Thyristor

text: Thyristors are mainly used where high currents and voltages are involved, and are often used to control alternating currents, where the change of polarity of the current causes the device to switch off automatically, referred to as "zero cross" operation. The device can be said to operate "synchronously"; being that, once the device is triggered, it conducts current in phase with the voltage applied over its cathode to anode junction with no further gate modulation being required, i.e., the device is biased "fully on". This is not to be confused with asymmetrical operation, as the output is unidirectional, flowing only from cathode to anode, and so is asymmetrical in nature.


title: Thyristor

text: Thyristors can be used as the control elements for phase angle triggered controllers, also known as phase fired controllers.


title: Thyristor

text: They can also be found in power supplies for digital circuits, where they are used as a sort of "enhanced circuit breaker" to prevent a failure in the power supply from damaging downstream components. A thyristor is used in conjunction with a Zener diode attached to its gate, and if the output voltage of the supply rises above the Zener voltage, the thyristor will conduct and short-circuit the power supply output to ground (in general also tripping an upstream breaker or fuse). This kind of protection circuit is known as a crowbar, and has the advantage over a standard circuit breaker or fuse in that it creates a high-conductance path to ground for the damaging supply voltage and potentially for stored energy in the system being powered.


title: Thyristor

text: The first large-scale application of thyristors, with associated triggering diac, in consumer products related to stabilized power supplies within color television receivers in the early 1970s. The stabilized high voltage DC supply for the receiver was obtained by moving the switching point of the thyristor device up and down the falling slope of the positive going half of the AC supply input (if the rising slope was used the output voltage would always rise towards the peak input voltage when the device was triggered and thus defeat the aim of regulation). The precise switching point was determined by the load on the DC output supply, as well as AC input fluctuations.


title: Thyristor

text: Thyristors have been used for decades as light dimmers in television, motion pictures, and theater, where they replaced inferior technologies such as autotransformers and rheostats. They have also been used in photography as a critical part of flashes (strobes).


title: Thyristor

text: Thyristors can be triggered by a high rise-rate of off-state voltage. Upon increasing the off-state voltage across the anode and cathode of the thyristor, there will be a flow of charges similar to the charging current of a capacitor. The maximum rate of rise of off-state voltage or dV/dt rating of a thyristor is an important parameter since it indicates the maximum rate of rise of anode voltage that does not bring thyristor into conduction when no gate signal is applied. When the flow of charges due to rate of rise of off-state voltage across the anode and cathode of the thyristor becomes equal to the flow of charges as injected when the gate is energized then it leads to random and false triggering of thyristor which is undesired.


title: Thyristor

text: This is prevented by connecting a resistor-capacitor (RC) snubber circuit between the anode and cathode in order to limit the dV/dt (i.e., rate of voltage change over time). Snubbers are energy-absorbing circuits used to suppress the voltage spikes caused by the circuit's inductance when a switch, electrical or mechanical, opens. The most common snubber circuit is a capacitor and resistor connected in series across the switch (transistor).


title: Thyristor

text: Since modern thyristors can switch power on the scale of megawatts, thyristor valves have become the heart of high-voltage direct current (HVDC) conversion either to or from alternating current. In the realm of this and other very high-power applications, both electrically triggered (ETT) and light-triggered (LTT) thyristors are still the primary choice. Thyristors are arranged into a diode bridge circuit and to reduce harmonics are connected in series to form a 12-pulse converter. Each thyristor is cooled with deionized water, and the entire arrangement becomes one of multiple identical modules forming a layer in a multilayer valve stack called a "quadruple valve". Three such stacks are typically mounted on the floor or hung from the ceiling of the valve hall of a long-distance transmission facility.


title: Thyristor

text: The functional drawback of a thyristor is that, like a diode, it only conducts in one direction so it can't be safely used with AC current. A similar self-latching 5-layer device, called a TRIAC, is able to work in both directions. This added capability, though, also can become a shortfall. Because the TRIAC can conduct in both directions, reactive loads can cause it to fail to turn off during the zero-voltage instants of the AC power cycle. Because of this, use of TRIACs with (for example) heavily inductive motor loads usually requires the use of a "snubber" circuit around the TRIAC to assure that it will turn off with each half-cycle of mains power. Inverse parallel SCRs can also be used in place of the triac; because each SCR in the pair has an entire half-cycle of reverse polarity applied to it, the SCRs, unlike TRIACs, are sure to turn off. The "price" to be paid for this arrangement, however, is the added complexity of two separate, but essentially identical gating circuits.


title: Thyristor

text: Although thyristors are heavily used in megawatt-scale rectification of AC to DC, in low- and medium-power (from few tens of watts to few tens of kilowatts) applications they have virtually been replaced by other devices with superior switching characteristics like Power MOSFETs or IGBTs. One major problem associated with SCRs is that they are not fully controllable switches. The GTO thyristor and IGCT are two devices related to the thyristor that address this problem. In high-frequency applications, thyristors are poor candidates due to long switching times arising from bipolar conduction. MOSFETs, on the other hand, have much faster switching capability because of their unipolar conduction (only majority carriers carry the current).


title: Thyristor

text: Thyristor manufacturers generally specify a region of safe firing defining acceptable levels of voltage and current for a given operating temperature. The boundary of this region is partly determined by the requirement that the maximum permissible gate power (P), specified for a given trigger pulse duration, is not exceeded.


title: Thyristor

text: As well as the usual failure modes due to exceeding voltage, current or power ratings, thyristors have their own particular modes of failure, including:


title: Thyristor

text: In recent years, some manufacturers have developed thyristors using silicon carbide (SiC) as the semiconductor material. These have applications in high temperature environments, being capable of operating at temperatures up to 350 °C.


title: Thyristor

text: A reverse conducting thyristor (RCT) has an integrated reverse diode, so is not capable of reverse blocking. These devices are advantageous where a reverse or freewheel diode must be used. Because the SCR and diode never conduct at the same time they do not produce heat simultaneously and can easily be integrated and cooled together. Reverse conducting thyristors are often used in frequency changers and inverters.


title: Thyristor

text: Photothyristors are activated by light. The advantage of photothyristors is their insensitivity to electrical signals, which can cause faulty operation in electrically noisy environments. A light-triggered thyristor (LTT) has an optically sensitive region in its gate, into which electromagnetic radiation (usually infrared) is coupled by an optical fiber. Since no electronic boards need to be provided at the potential of the thyristor in order to trigger it, light-triggered thyristors can be an advantage in high-voltage applications such as HVDC. Light-triggered thyristors are available with in-built over-voltage (VBO) protection, which triggers the thyristor when the forward voltage across it becomes too high; they have also been made with in-built "forward recovery protection", but not commercially. Despite the simplification they can bring to the electronics of an HVDC valve, light-triggered thyristors may still require some simple monitoring electronics and are only available from a few manufacturers.


title: Thyristor

text: Two common photothyristors include the light-activated SCR (LASCR) and the light-activated TRIAC. A LASCR acts as a switch that turns on when exposed to light. Following light exposure, when light is absent, if the power is not removed and the polarities of the cathode and anode have not yet reversed, the LASCR is still in the "on" state. A light-activated TRIAC resembles a LASCR, except that it is designed for alternating currents.


The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is an agency of the United States Department of Commerce whose mission is to promote American innovation and industrial competitiveness. NIST's activities are organized into physical science laboratory programs that include nanoscale science and technology, engineering, information technology, neutron research, material measurement, and physical measurement. From 1901 to 1988, the agency was named the National Bureau of Standards.


title: National Institute of Standards and Technology

text: The United States in Congress assembled shall also have the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the respective states—fixing the standards of weights and measures throughout the United States.


text: Article 1, section 8, of the Constitution of the United States, ratified in 1789, granted these powers to the new Congress: "The Congress shall have power ... To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures".


text: In January 1790, President George Washington, in his first annual message to Congress, said, "Uniformity in the currency, weights, and measures of the United States is an object of great importance, and will, I am persuaded, be duly attended to." Washington ordered Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson to prepare a Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage, Weights, and Measures of the United States, later referred to informally as the Jefferson Report.


text: A uniformity of the weights and measures of the country is among the important objects submitted to you by the Constitution and if it can be derived from a standard at once invariable and universal, must be no less honorable to the public council than conducive to the public convenience.


text: In 1821, President John Quincy Adams declared, "Weights and measures may be ranked among the necessities of life to every individual of human society.". Nevertheless, it was not until 1838 that the United States government adopted a uniform set of standards.


text: From 1830 until 1901, the role of overseeing weights and measures was carried out by the Office of Standard Weights and Measures, which was part of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey in the Department of the Treasury.


text: In 1901, in response to a bill proposed by Congressman James H. Southard (R, Ohio), the National Bureau of Standards was founded with the mandate to provide standard weights and measures, and to serve as the national physical laboratory for the United States. Southard had previously sponsored a bill for metric conversion of the United States.


text: President Theodore Roosevelt appointed Samuel W. Stratton as the first director. The budget for the first year of operation was $40,000. The Bureau took custody of the copies of the kilogram and meter bars that were the standards for US measures, and set up a program to provide metrology services for United States scientific and commercial users. A laboratory site was constructed in Washington, DC, and instruments were acquired from the national physical laboratories of Europe. In addition to weights and measures, the Bureau developed instruments for electrical units and for measurement of light. In 1905 a meeting was called that would be the first "National Conference on Weights and Measures".


text: Initially conceived as purely a metrology agency, the Bureau of Standards was directed by Herbert Hoover to set up divisions to develop commercial standards for materials and products. Some of these standards were for products intended for government use, but product standards also affected private-sector consumption. Quality standards were developed for products including some types of clothing, automobile brake systems and headlamps, antifreeze, and electrical safety. During World War I, the Bureau worked on multiple problems related to war production, even operating its own facility to produce optical glass when European supplies were cut off. Between the wars, Harry Diamond of the Bureau developed a blind approach radio aircraft landing system. During World War II, military research and development was carried out, including development of radio propagation forecast methods, the proximity fuze and the standardized airframe used originally for Project Pigeon, and shortly afterwards the autonomously radar-guided Bat anti-ship guided bomb and the Kingfisher family of torpedo-carrying missiles.


text: In 1948, financed by the United States Air Force, the Bureau began design and construction of SEAC, the Standards Eastern Automatic Computer. The computer went into operation in May 1950 using a combination of vacuum tubes and solid-state diode logic. About the same time the Standards Western Automatic Computer, was built at the Los Angeles office of the NBS by Harry Huskey and used for research there. A mobile version, DYSEAC, was built for the Signal Corps in 1954.


text: Due to a changing mission, the "National Bureau of Standards" became the "National Institute of Standards and Technology" in 1988.


text: Following September 11, 2001, NIST conducted the official investigation into the collapse of the World Trade Center buildings.


text: Following the 2021 Surfside condominium building collapse, NIST sent engineers to the site to investigate the cause of the collapse.


text: In 2019, NIST launched a program named NIST on a Chip to decrease the size of instruments from lab machines to chip size. Applications include aircraft testing, communication with satellites for navigation purposes, and temperature and pressure.


text: NIST, known between 1901 and 1988 as the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), is a measurement standards laboratory, also known as the National Metrological Institute (NMI), which is a non-regulatory agency of the United States Department of Commerce. The institute's official mission is to:


text: NIST had an operating budget for fiscal year 2007 (October 1, 2006September 30, 2007) of about $843.3 million. NIST's 2009 budget was $992 million, and it also received $610 million as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act. NIST employs about 2,900 scientists, engineers, technicians, and support and administrative personnel. About 1,800 NIST associates (guest researchers and engineers from American companies and foreign countries) complement the staff. In addition, NIST partners with 1,400 manufacturing specialists and staff at nearly 350 affiliated centers around the country. NIST publishes the Handbook 44 that provides the "Specifications, tolerances, and other technical requirements for weighing and measuring devices".


text: The Congress of 1866 made use of the metric system in commerce a legally protected activity through the passage of Metric Act of 1866. On May 20, 1875, 17 out of 20 countries signed a document known as the "Metric Convention" or the "Treaty of the Meter", which established the International Bureau of Weights and Measures under the control of an international committee elected by the General Conference on Weights and Measures.


text: NIST is headquartered in Gaithersburg, Maryland, and operates a facility in Boulder, Colorado, which was dedicated by President Eisenhower in 1954. NIST's activities are organized into laboratory programs and extramural programs. Effective October 1, 2010, NIST was realigned by reducing the number of NIST laboratory units from ten to six. NIST Laboratories include:


text: NIST also operates a neutron science user facility: the NIST Center for Neutron Research (NCNR). The NCNR provides scientists access to a variety of neutron scattering instruments, which they use in many research fields (materials science, fuel cells, biotechnology, etc.).


text: The SURF III Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation Facility is a source of synchrotron radiation, in continuous operation since 1961. SURF III now serves as the US national standard for source-based radiometry throughout the generalized optical spectrum. All NASA-borne, extreme-ultraviolet observation instruments have been calibrated at SURF since the 1970s, and SURF is used for measurement and characterization of systems for extreme ultraviolet lithography.


text: The Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology (CNST) performs research in nanotechnology, both through internal research efforts and by running a user-accessible cleanroom nanomanufacturing facility. This "NanoFab" is equipped with tools for lithographic patterning and imaging (e.g., electron microscopes and atomic force microscopes).


text: As part of its mission, NIST supplies industry, academia, government, and other users with over 1,300 Standard Reference Materials (SRMs). These artifacts are certified as having specific characteristics or component content, used as calibration standards for measuring equipment and procedures, quality control benchmarks for industrial processes, and experimental control samples.


text: NIST publishes the "Handbook 44" each year after the annual meeting of the National Conference on Weights and Measures (NCWM). Each edition is developed through cooperation of the Committee on Specifications and Tolerances of the NCWM and the Weights and Measures Division (WMD) of the NIST. The purpose of the book is a partial fulfillment of the statutory responsibility for "cooperation with the states in securing uniformity of weights and measures laws and methods of inspection".


text: NIST has been publishing various forms of what is now the "Handbook 44" since 1918 and began publication under the current name in 1949. The 2010 edition conforms to the concept of the primary use of the SI (metric) measurements recommended by the Omnibus Foreign Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988.


text: NIST is developing government-wide identity document standards for federal employees and contractors to prevent unauthorized persons from gaining access to government buildings and computer systems.


text: In 2002, the National Construction Safety Team Act mandated NIST to conduct an investigation into the collapse of the World Trade Center buildings 1 and 2 and the 47-story 7 World Trade Center. The "World Trade Center Collapse Investigation", directed by lead investigator Shyam Sunder, covered three aspects, including a technical building and fire safety investigation to study the factors contributing to the probable cause of the collapses of the WTC Towers (WTC 1 and 2) and WTC 7. NIST also established a research and development program to provide the technical basis for improved building and fire codes, standards, and practices, and a dissemination and technical assistance program to engage leaders of the construction and building community in implementing proposed changes to practices, standards, and codes. NIST also is providing practical guidance and tools to better prepare facility owners, contractors, architects, engineers, emergency responders, and regulatory authorities to respond to future disasters. The investigation portion of the response plan was completed with the release of the final report on 7 World Trade Center on November 20, 2008. The final report on the WTC Towers—including 30 recommendations for improving building and occupant safety—was released on October 26, 2005.


text: NIST works in conjunction with the Technical Guidelines Development Committee of the Election Assistance Commission to develop the Voluntary Voting System Guidelines for voting machines and other election technology.


text: In February 2014 NIST published the NIST Cybersecurity Framework that serves as voluntary guidance for organizations to manage and reduce cybersecurity risk.


text: Executive Order 13800, Strengthening the Cybersecurity of Federal Networks and Critical Infrastructure, made the Framework mandatory for U.S. federal government agencies.


text: Four scientific researchers at NIST have been awarded Nobel Prizes for work in physics: William Daniel Phillips in 1997, Eric Allin Cornell in 2001, John Lewis Hall in 2005 and David Jeffrey Wineland in 2012, which is the largest number for any US government laboratory. All four were recognized for their work related to laser cooling of atoms, which is directly related to the development and advancement of the atomic clock. In 2011, Dan Shechtman was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work on quasicrystals in the Metallurgy Division from 1982 to 1984. In addition, John Werner Cahn was awarded the 2011 Kyoto Prize for Materials Science, and the National Medal of Science has been awarded to NIST researchers Cahn (1998) and Wineland (2007). Other notable people who have worked at NBS or NIST include:


text: Since 1989, the director of NIST has been a Presidential appointee and is confirmed by the United States Senate, and since that year the average tenure of NIST directors has fallen from 11 years to 2 years in duration. Since the 2011 reorganization of NIST, the director also holds the title of Under Secretary of Commerce for Standards and Technology. Fifteen individuals have officially held the position (in addition to four acting directors who have served on a temporary basis).


text: The NIST holds patents on behalf of the Federal government of the United States, with at least one of them being custodial to protect public domain use, such as one for a Chip-scale atomic clock, developed by a NIST team as part of a DARPA competition.


text: In September 2013, both "The Guardian" and "The New York Times" reported that NIST allowed the National Security Agency (NSA) to insert a cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator called Dual EC DRBG into NIST standard SP 800-90 that had a kleptographic backdoor that the NSA can use to covertly predict the future outputs of this pseudorandom number generator thereby allowing the surreptitious decryption of data. Both papers report that the NSA worked covertly to get its own version of SP 800-90 approved for worldwide use in 2006. The whistle-blowing document states that "eventually, NSA became the sole editor". The reports confirm suspicions and technical grounds publicly raised by cryptographers in 2007 that the EC-DRBG could contain a kleptographic backdoor (perhaps placed in the standard by NSA).


text: NIST responded to the allegations, stating that "NIST works to publish the strongest cryptographic standards possible" and that it uses "a transparent, public process to rigorously vet our recommended standards". The agency stated that "there has been some confusion about the standards development process and the role of different organizations in it...The National Security Agency (NSA) participates in the NIST cryptography process because of its recognized expertise. NIST is also required by statute to consult with the NSA." Recognizing the concerns expressed, the agency reopened the public comment period for the SP800-90 publications, promising that "if vulnerabilities are found in these or any other NIST standards, we will work with the cryptographic community to address them as quickly as possible”. Due to public concern of this cryptovirology attack, NIST rescinded the EC-DRBG algorithm from the NIST SP 800-90 standard.


title: Artem Lobov

text: Artem Lobov (; born August 11, 1986) is a Russian, former professional mixed martial artist and boxer based in Ireland. He previously competed in the Featherweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) and has most recently competed in the Bare Knuckle Fighting Championship. A professional since 2010, Lobov was also a cast member of . He has competed for the ACB, Ultimate Fighting Championship as well as the British promotions Cage Warriors and Cage Contender. Fighting out of Dublin, he is a member of SBG Ireland.


title: Artem Lobov

text: Lobov made his professional MMA debut with European promotion Cage Warriors in November 2010. He lost his pro debut to Patrick Vickers via unanimous decision. Prior to his appearance on The Ultimate Fighter, he held a professional record of 11–10–1 with one no contest. A natural featherweight competitor, he also competed at lightweight and welterweight.


title: Artem Lobov

text: Lobov faced Chechen Rasul Shovhalov on January 31, 2015 at the . He won the fight by submission in the second round.


title: Artem Lobov

text: To get into The Ultimate Fighter house, fighters must compete in preliminary fights to advance to the finals. Lobov lost his preliminary bout to Mehdi Baghdad, however coach and teammate Conor McGregor brought him back into the fight as each coach was allowed bring back one additional fighter who lost in the prelims.


title: Artem Lobov

text: In the round bouts he defeated Team USA's James Jenkins by TKO and repeated the outcome in the quarter-finals against Chris Gruetzemacher. In the semis he knocked out Julian Erosa of Team USA to advance to the finals where he would compete against Team Europe's Saul Rogers, a fellow SBG competitor who trains out of their Manchester branch. Due to visa issues Saul Rogers was removed from the finale and was replaced by Ryan Hall of Team USA.


title: Artem Lobov

text: Lobov next faced Alex White on February 6, 2016 at UFC Fight Night 82. He lost the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Artem Lobov

text: After the defeat to White, Lobov was reportedly in negotiations with a regional promotion in Russia. He was given a lifeline when it was announced that Lobov would face UFC newcomer Chris Avila at UFC 202. Lobov won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Artem Lobov

text: Lobov faced Teruto Ishihara on November 19, 2016 at UFC Fight Night 99. He won the fight via unanimous decision (30–27, 30–27, and 29–28).


title: Artem Lobov

text: Lobov faced Cub Swanson on April 22, 2017 in the main event at UFC Fight Night 108. He lost the fight via unanimous decision. Both participants were awarded "Fight of the Night" for their performances.


title: Artem Lobov

text: Lobov faced Andre Fili on October 21, 2017 at UFC Fight Night 118. He lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Artem Lobov

text: Lobov was initially scheduled to face Alex Caceres on April 7, 2018 at UFC 223, but was removed from the card for his role in the Team SBG bus assault.


title: Artem Lobov

text: Lobov was scheduled to face Zubaira Tukhugov on October 27, 2018 at UFC Fight Night 138. However, it was reported that Tukhugov was removed from the fight due his role in the UFC 229 post-fight melee, and he was replaced by Michael Johnson. At weight-ins, Johnson weighed in at 147 pounds, one pound over the featherweight limit of 146 pounds. As a result, the fight proceeded at a catchweight bout and Johnson forfeited 20% of his purse to Lobov, which Lobov later returned. He lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Artem Lobov

text: On September 12, 2020, it was announced that Lobov had signed a one-fight contract with Arena Fight Championship. He was expected to make his promotional debut against Ylies Djiroun on December 12, 2020, but the whole event was postponed due to multiple COVID-19 cases.


title: Artem Lobov

text: Shortly after his UFC release, it was announced that Lobov signed a three-fight contract with Bare Knuckle Fighting Championship (BKFC), with a clause to be able to compete in MMA also. He faced Jason Knight in the main event of Bare Knuckle FC 5 on April 6, 2019. He won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Artem Lobov

text: Lobov's next fight was against Paulie Malignaggi, with whom he had a physical altercation during the BKFC media day before his bout with Knight. Malignaggi has history with Lobov's training partner, Conor McGregor, and the bout between Lobov and Malignaggi was billed to be a "grudge match" and took place at BKFC 6 on June 22, 2019. Lobov won the fight via unanimous decision. After a consensus strong opening two rounds for Malignaggi, Lobov utilized forward pressure and volume to win in rounds three through five, earning a 48–47 on all three judges' scorecards.


title: Artem Lobov

text: Lobov faced Jason Knight in a rematch headlining on November 16, 2019. Knight won by TKO via corner stoppage in the fifth and final round.


title: Artem Lobov

text: Lobov faced Ukrainian 2012 Olympic silver medalist and professional boxer Denys Berinchyk in a bare-knuckle match at Mahatch FC in Kyiv, Ukraine on July 24, 2021. Lobov was knocked down in the third and fourth rounds and ultimately lost by TKO after failing to come out for the fifth round.


title: MRF (company)

text: Madras Rubber Factory, commonly known as MRF or MRF Tyres, is an Indian Multinational tyre manufacturing company and the largest manufacturer of tyres in India. It is headquartered in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. The company manufactures rubber products including tyres, treads, tubes and conveyor belts, paints and toys. MRF also runs the MRF Pace Foundation, Chennai and MIDD - MRF Institute of Driver Development in Chennai.


title: MRF (company)

text: Madras Rubber Factory was started by K. M. Mammen Mappillai as a toy balloon manufacturing unit in 1946 at Tiruvottiyur, Madras (now Chennai). In 1952, the company ventured into the manufacture of tread rubber. Madras Rubber Factory limited was incorporated as a private company in November 1960 and ventured into manufacture of tyres in partnership with Mansfield Tire & Rubber company based in Ohio, United States. The company went public on 1 April 1961 and an office was established in Beirut, Lebanon to develop the export market in 1964 and its current logo of the muscleman was born. In 1967, it became the first Indian company to export tyres to USA.


title: MRF (company)

text: In 1973, MRF started manufacturing Nylon tyres for the first time. The company entered into with a technical know-how collaboration with B. F. Goodrich in 1978. The Mansfield Tire & Rubber Co sold out its share in 1979 and the name of the company was changed to MRF Ltd in the year. The company finalised a technical collaboration agreement with Marangoni TRS SPA, Italy for the manufacture of pre-cured tread rubber for retreading industry. MRF tyres supplied tyres to Maruti 800, India's first modern small car. In 1989, the company collaborated with Hasbro International, the world's largest toy maker and launched Funskool India. Also, they entered into a pact with Vapocure of Australia to manufacture polyurethane paint formulations and with Italian tyre manufacturer Pirelli for conveyor and elevator belt manufacture. During the year 2004–05, the product range of the company expanded with Go-kart & rally tyres and tyres for two/three wheelers.


title: MRF (company)

text: The company also manufactures toys at its facility in Goa. The paints and coats are manufactured at two facilities in Chennai, Tamil Nadu.


title: MRF (company)

text: Funskool India was established in 1987 in collaboration with Hasbro toys, US. Funskool manufactures and markets toys, board games among others. It has a manufacturing facility in Goa, India. The company has manufacturing licenses for toys and games from Disney, Warner Brothers, Rummikub, Dora and Funskool also has partnerships with renowned toy brands Hasbro, Lego, Hornby, Ravensburger, Tomy Toys, LeapFrog, Siku, Jumbo, and New Bright for manufacture and marketing in India.


title: MRF (company)

text: MRF built its first Formula 3 car in 1997. MRF in collaboration with Maruti established the Formula Maruti racing, a single-seater, open wheel class motorsport racing event for race cars made in India. MRF Challenge is a Formula 2000 open-wheel motorsport formula based series organised by Madras Motor Sports Club in association with MRF. The latest season consisted of races organised at Madras Motor Racing Track, Chennai, Bahrain International Circuit, Losail International Circuit, Doha and Buddh International Circuit, Noida. Freddie Hunt, son of Formula One champion James Hunt and Mathias Lauda, son of , and Formula One champion Niki Lauda both competed in the series. MRF has sponsored Indian racing drivers including Narain Karthikeyan, Karun Chandok, Ashwin Sundar, N. Leelakrishnan and Raj Bharath.


title: MRF (company)

text: MRF have also been a long-running sponsor of an MRF rally team participating in the Asia-Pacific Rally Championship and Indian National Rally Championship. Associating with Czech car manufacturer Škoda, MRF Skoda is the three time reigning champion in the Asia-Pacific Rally Championship with Chris Atkinson winning in 2012, Gaurav Gill in 2013, Jan Kopecký in 2014, Pontus Tidemand in 2015 and Gaurav Gill again in 2016 and 2017. MRF also participates in Raid De Himalaya, the world's highest rally.


title: MRF (company)

text: MRF entered the European Rally Championship in 2020, with WRC Hyundai driver Craig Breen and Emil Lindholm driving for the team.


title: MRF (company)

text: MRF remained in ERC for 2021 and also joined several other rally championships. Craig Breen, along with Italian Simone Campedelli are set to participate in European Rally Championship. Campedelli, along with eleven-time Italian rally champion Paolo Andreucci and the 2017 ERC Ladies champion Tamara Molinaro will use the tyres while competing in the Italy Gravel rally championship. Emil Lindholm left ERC and instead will focus entirely on testing the tyres on the gravel roads of Finland. After the 2021 Rally di Roma Capitale, Breen was replaced by other Hyundai drivers, Jari Huttunen and Dani Sordo, as well as Nil Solans later on.


title: MRF (company)

text: MRF entered Norbert Herczig, Simone Campedelli and the 2021 runner-up Efren Llarena for the 2022 campaign, with Llarena taking his first win during 2022 Rallye Azores.


title: MRF (company)

text: MRF promotes a national motocross championship, a form of all-terrain two wheeler racing held on enclosed off-road circuits annually across several cities.


title: MRF (company)

text: MRF sponsors major karting championships in India. MRF is the first Indian tyre company to develop FIA approved karting tyres.


title: MRF (company)

text: MRF Pace Foundation is a coaching clinic for training fast bowlers established by MRF with the help of former Australian Pace spearhead Dennis Lillee in Chennai, India. Through this program, young aspiring fast bowlers are trained in a special facility. Fast bowlers who trained with foundation and went on to represent the Indian Cricket Team include Javagal Srinath, Irfan Pathan, Munaf Patel, Venkatesh Prasad, R. P. Singh, Zaheer Khan and S Sreesanth. Besides Indian players, foreign players like Chaminda Vaas, Henry Olonga, Heath Streak and Australian fast bowlers Glenn McGrath, Mitchell Johnson and Brett Lee have also trained at the foundation. Sachin Tendulkar in his early days trained in the MRF Pace Foundation to become a fast bowler. Glenn McGrath was appointed director of the Foundation on 2 September 2012, replacing Dennis Lillee, who has held the post since its inception in 1987.


title: MRF (company)

text: MRF had been the bat sponsor for many cricketers of the game. Sachin Tendulkar, Brian Lara and Steve Waugh have endorsed MRF products. MRF has also sponsored Indian batsmen Rohit Sharma, Gautam Gambhir, Sanju Samson and Shikhar Dhawan. Currently MRF is endorsed by Virat Kohli. Jerome Chinia and Mignon du Preez.


title: MRF (company)

text: At IPL 2010, MRF sponsored moored balloons floating above the cricket grounds with a high-definition camera recording live actions of the cricket match. MRF joined as a global partner of International Cricket Council for 2015 Cricket World Cup. In 2017, MRF became the sleeve sponsor for the Premier League clubs Newcastle United, West Ham United F. C. and official tyre partner for West Bromwich Albion.


title: MRF (company)

text: MRF won the JD Power Award for the record 11th time in 2014. The company has won several awards and accolades including the All India Rubber Industries Association's (AIRIA) award for 'Highest Export Awards (Auto Tyre Sector)', 'Top Export Award' from Chemicals & Allied Products Export Promotion Council (CAPEXIL) for 2009–10. In 2014, MRF was ranked 48th among India's most trusted brands according to the Brand Trust Report, a study conducted by Trust Research Advisory.


title: MRF (company)

text: In April 2022, the Competition Commission of India raided the headquarters of MRF along with other tyre companies like Apollo Tyres, CEAT and Continental Tyre at multiple locations. Earlier in February the anti trust watch dog had released a statement about fining these tyre companies a total of Rs 1788 crores (of which MRF fined Rs 622.09 cr.) for sharing price sensitive information among themselves to manage their cartelization of tyre prices for supplies to the public transport corporation of Haryana state. Earlier the All India Tyre Dealers Federation had complained to the Ministry of corporate affairs about this cartelization of these companies to increase the tyre prices. The ministry had then referred the case to the CCI.


title: Comme des Garçons

text: Comme des Garçons (also known as CDG) is a Japanese fashion label based in Paris that was created and led by Rei Kawakubo. Its French flagship store is located in Paris. This label owns a world-wide store chain featuring various lines of products in major cities such as London, Melbourne, Hong Kong, New York City and in the Ginza district of Tokyo. Other than fashion, the label has expanded to include jewelry and perfume.


title: Comme des Garçons

text: The company features its main collections during Paris Fashion Week and Paris Men's Fashion Week. In 2017, it was reported that the company and its affiliates generated a revenue "of over $280 million a year".


title: Comme des Garçons

text: The label was started in Tokyo by Rei Kawakubo in 1969 and established as a company in 1973. It is written in Japanese as コム・デ・ギャルソン ("Komu de Gyaruson"). The name translates as "like boys" in French. The brand's name was inspired by Françoise Hardy's 1962 song "Tous les garçons et les filles", particularly from the line ""Comme les garçons et les filles de mon âge"." The brand became successful in Japan in the 1970s and a menswear line was added in 1978. In 1981, the company had a debut show in Paris. Kawakubo's heavy use of black distressed fabrics, and unfinished seams were viewed negatively by French critics.


title: Comme des Garçons

text: Throughout the 1980s, its clothes often were associated with a distressed and punk-oriented style. In 1982, Kawakubo's collection "Destroy" was heavily criticised. "Women's Wear Daily" called it the "Hiroshima bag lady look", and the Associated Press proclaimed Kawakubo the "high priestess of the Jap wrap". Unusual styles continued through the 1990s, many of which were disliked by experts. In 2004, the company split its business into handmade garments produced in France, and non-handmade garments in Japan, Spain and Turkey. The product line "Play", the most recognizable and mainstream Comme des Garçons casual luxury line"," is largely produced in Japan, Spain, and Turkey, while some of its products are also made in France.


title: Comme des Garçons

text: The company also produces a line of a-gendered fragrances, most of which are unconventional in the world of perfume and aligned with the styles of its garments.


title: Comme des Garçons

text: The company released its first fragrance, "Comme des Garçons", in 1994 and its first "anti-perfume" "Odeur 53" in 1998. The anti-perfume features a blend of 53 non-traditional scents which is rarely heard if in many other fragrance brands.


title: Comme des Garçons

text: The company also released the Luxe series "Champaca", for which artist Katerina Jebb produced the visuals.


title: Comme des Garçons

text: Adrian Joffe, the founder's husband and the CEO of the company, set up two companies. Comme des Garçons Parfums is for licensing some of the perfumes to Puig from 2002 and Comme des Garçons Parfums for selling the rest by its own.


title: Comme des Garçons

text: The company developed a unisex fragrance, G I R L, and released it on August 28, 2014. Artist KAWS designed the bottle.


title: Comme des Garçons

text: Its collections are designed in the studio in Aoyama, Tokyo, and manufactured in Japan, France, Spain, and Turkey. Over the years, the company has recurrently associated itself with the arts and cultural projects internationally. The 1997 spring-summer collection, often referred to as the "lumps and bumps" collection, which contained fabric in bulk and balls on the garments, led to a collaboration, also in 1997, between Rei Kawakubo and New York-based choreographer Merce Cunningham called "Scenario". The 2006 autumn/winter collection dealt with the concept of the "persona", the different ways to present one's self to the world. Fusing tailored menswear with feminine elements such as corsets and flower printed dress fabrics, "Persona" was another collection that combined the feminine with the masculine.


title: Comme des Garçons

text: Junya Watanabe and, as of recently, Tao Kurihara have started their own sub-labels under the label. Both also were involved in designing for the casual women's knitwear line "Tricot".


title: Comme des Garçons

text: The company have collaborated with various other labels over the years such as Hammerthor, H&M. and Stüssy.


title: Comme des Garçons

text: In other media, Björk wore the label in the music video for "Isobel". Frank Ocean named a song after the company. John Waters devoted a chapter of his 2010 book "Role Models" to the label and founder. Swedish musician Jonna Lee collaborated with the company in the creation of her audiovisual album "Everyone Afraid to Be Forgotten", where the fashion house designed the costumes for the film.


title: Comme des Garçons

text: The 1995 "Sleep" collection consisted of striped pajamas "bearing prints of identification numbers and marks of military boot prints". Contemporaneous media coverage juxtaposed images of the collection with images taken at Auschwitz concentration camp, and the controversy received international coverage. The World Jewish Congress condemned the collection, and fashion critic Suzy Menkes called the collection "'Auschwitz' fashions". Kawakubo responded that the collection had been "completely misunderstood" and the controversy made her "very sad".


title: Comme des Garçons

text: The Spring/Summer 2015 menswear collection included "guarachero" boots based on the Mexican pointy boots of Matehuala, Mexico, raising concerns of cultural appropriation. The boots were however not removed from the collection after the backlash.


title: Comme des Garçons

text: In January 2020, a predominantly white group of models wore cornrowed lace front wigs in the fall 2020 menswear show. This was seen as the appropriation of Black culture, particularly with the use of traditionally Black hairstyles on non-Black models. Stylist Julien d'Ys responded on Instagram, "Dear all, my inspiration for the Comme Des Garçons show was Egyptian Prince, A Look I found truly beautiful and inspirational. A look that was an hommage. Never was it my intention to hurt or offend anyone, ever. If I did I deeply apologize."


title: Comme des Garçons

text: After the Paris début, the company exhibited photographs by Peter Lindbergh at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris in 1986. In 1990, it held an exhibition of sculpture. And again in 2005, it held an exhibition in Shinjuku, Tokyo of advertising and graphic designs.


title: Comme des Garçons

text: In August 2010, the company opened a six-level flagship store in Seoul, South Korea featuring a branded art-exhibition space, its first outside Japan.


title: Comme des Garçons

text: In May 2017, Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York held a fashion exhibition with the theme Rei Kawakubo/Comme des Garçons Art of the In-Between. This exhibition ran until September of the same year.


title: Comme des Garçons

text: Signature boutiques are located in London (as Dover Street Market), Paris, New York City, Beijing, Hong Kong, Seoul, Manila, St. Petersburg, Tokyo, Kyoto, Osaka, Fukuoka. The company also maintains concessions at select department stores, such as Isetan.


title: Comme des Garçons

text: The company opened the first Guerrilla stores in 2004 in Berlin. The aim of the Guerrilla stores is to be open for only one year and to spend a minimal amount of money on the interiors. The stores are also purposefully located away from fashionable hubs and districts of a city. Guerrilla stores have been opened, and subsequently closed, in Reykjavik, Warsaw, Helsinki, Singapore, Stockholm, Athens, and others. In July 2007, a Guerrilla Store opened in Beirut, Lebanon, and in February 2008, a Guerrilla Store opened in downtown Los Angeles, the first in the United States. In November 2008, it opened another Guerilla store in the west end of Glasgow. In 2004 its opened another in London of Dover Street Market.


title: Comme des Garçons

text: In December 2009, the company opened a store in Hong Kong called "Under The Ground". Hong Kong also had a guerrilla store opened and closed in previous years, run by Silly Thing Hong Kong. In March 2012, it opened a store in Manila. Also, the first Dover Street Market in Japan opened in Ginza. In December 2013, Dover Street Market in New York City opened. In 2021, the company reintroduced its "Guerilla" stores, pioneering temporary boutiques that predated the pop-up shop movement by a good decade or so.


title: PartyNextDoor

text: Jahron Anthony Brathwaite (born July 3, 1993), known professionally as PartyNextDoor (stylized as PARTYNEXTDOOR), is a Canadian singer, songwriter, and record producer.


title: PartyNextDoor

text: PartyNextDoor was the first artist signed to Drake's OVO Sound record label in 2013, in a joint-venture with Warner Records. He then released his first EP self-titled "PartyNextDoor" later that year. He subsequently released "PartyNextDoor Two" and "PNDColours" in 2014 and "PartyNextDoor 3" in 2016. He has also seen success as a songwriter, having penned "Work", which was released on Rihanna's album "Anti" and peaked at number-one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and become one of the most successful songs of the year, along with "Wild Thoughts" which peaked at number 2 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: PartyNextDoor

text: Jahron Anthony Brathwaite was born to a Jamaican mother and a Trinidadian father in Mississauga, Ontario. He was inspired by the music his father played to him when he was younger such as Jodeci, Boyz II Men, Blackstreet and 112.


title: PartyNextDoor

text: Having made electronic-infused R&B under his real name Jahron Brathwaite [Jahron B], he signed a publishing deal with Warner/Chappell as a songwriter, under the name PartyNextDoor, at age 18. His first mixtape, "PartyNextDoor", was released to the iTunes Store on July 1, 2013. It entered on the "Billboard" Heatseekers Albums chart at number six with sales of 2,000 copies and peaked at number 34 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart for the week of July 20, 2013. He performed background vocals on "Own It" and "Come Thru" from Drake's third studio album, "Nothing Was the Same".