text: Although the son of man is distinct from the son of God, some gospel passages equate them in some cases, e.g. in , during the Sanhedrin trial of Jesus when the high priest asked Jesus: "Art thou the Christ, the Son of the Blessed?" Jesus responded "I am: and ye shall see the Son of man sitting at the right hand of Power, and coming with the clouds of heaven." This builds on the statement in that "The Son of man is delivered up into the hands of men, and they shall kill him; and when he is killed, after three days he shall rise again." In the parable of the Sheep and the Goats, the returning son of man has the power to judge, by separating men from "all the nations" into distinct groups, in Matthew 25:31–46.


title: Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament

text: For centuries, the Christological perspective on son of man has been a natural counterpart to that of son of God and in many cases affirms the humanity of Jesus just as son of God affirms his divinity. In the 5th century, Saint Augustine viewed the duality of son of God and son of man in terms of the dual nature of Christ in hypostatic union, in that the son of God became the son of man through the act of incarnation and wrote: "Since he is the only Son of God by nature, he became also the Son of Man that he might be full of grace as well."


text: Geza Vermes has argued that "the son of man" in the Gospels is unrelated to these Hebrew Bible usages. He begins with the observation that there is no example of "the" son of man in Hebrew sources. He suggests that the term originates in Aramaic—"bar nash/bar nasha". Based on his study of Aramaic sources, he concludes that in these sources: (1) "Son of man" is a regular expression for "man" in general. (2) It often serves as an indefinite pronoun ("one" or "someone"). (3) In certain circumstances it may be employed as a circumlocution. In monologues or dialogues the speaker can refer to himself, not as 'I', but as "the son of man" in the third person, in contexts implying awe, reserve, or modesty. (4) In none of the extant texts does "son of man" figure as a title.


text: James E. Talmage, a prominent writer and leader in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints argued that the definitive article used in the New Testament makes the title "the Son of Man" a distinguishing appellation exclusive to Jesus. Talmage supports the view of Vermes, but adds to it the additional meaning that Jesus is the son of an exalted man, subscribing to the Church's doctrine of Exaltation. In this sense, too, the title is unique to Jesus, as he is the only literal physical offspring of God the Father.


text: No discussion of the title "Son of Man" (בר אנש) is complete without reference to the appearance of the term in the seventh chapter of the biblical book of Daniel. Daniel 7:13-14 in the English Standard Version reads,I saw in the night visions, and behold, with the clouds of heaven there came one like a son of man, and he came to the Ancient of Days and was presented before him. And to him was given dominion and glory and a kingdom, that all peoples, nations, and languages should serve him; his dominion is an everlasting dominion, which shall not pass away, and his kingdom one that shall not be destroyed.In the context of this vision, Daniel is troubled and approaches someone standing there with him observing this bequeathal of kingship at the Throne of the Ancient of Days. The heavenly by-stander explains the import of the vision in the following words:And the kingdom and the dominion and the greatness of the kingdoms under the whole heaven shall be given to the people of the saints of the Most High; his kingdom shall be an everlasting kingdom, and all dominions shall serve and obey him (Daniel 7:27, ESV).Here the term son of man is explained in three distinct ways: 1) as "the people of the saints of the Most High," 2) as a single entity in the words ""his" kingdom" and "serve and obey "him"," and 3) as "the Most High" Himself where it says "the Most High; his kingdom." Furthermore, the passage presents a contextual time frame for the events envisioned—the time of the "fourth kingdom on earth" (Daniel 7:23). The most traditional and widespread view is that the fourth kingdom represents the Roman governmental system. With the establishment of Christianity under this Roman governmental system, the Christian Churches came to identify the son of man in Daniel 7 as Jesus the Christ. The Apostle Paul describes the corporate nature of the Son of Man envisioned in Daniel 7 when he writes to the Church at Corinth, saying, For just as the body is one and has many members, and all the members of the body, though many, are one body, so it is with Christ (First Corinthians 12:12, ESV).The Pauline epistles depict Christ as the Head of His people the Church (Ephesians 1:15-23; Colossians 1:13-18). The New Testament identifies Jesus the Christ as the Most High, Whose Name is above all names (Philippians 2:9-10). The Gospel of Mark, often claimed by modern scholarship to be the first and earliest of the Four Gospels, identifies Jesus Christ as the LORD God of Israel by reference to the Tetragrammaton at the beginning of his Gospel:The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God. As it is written in Isaiah the prophet, “Behold, I send my messenger before your face, who will prepare your way, the voice of one crying in the wilderness: ‘Prepare the way of the Lord, make his paths straight’” (Mark 1:1-3, ESV).From the context, it is evident that Mark is identifying "my messenger" as John the Baptist, sent to prepare the way of Jesus Christ. The Sender of the messenger is God. When it says "before your face, who will prepare your way," the context confirms Mark as speaking of the face of Jesus Christ and of preparing Jesus Christ's way. The most striking element of this passage, however, is the equivalency Mark draws between the way of Jesus Christ and "the way of the Lord" (τὴν ὁδὸν Κυρίου). The implication is that Jesus Christ is the Lord (Κύριος). This reference to the way of the Lord is taken from the prophet Isaiah 40:3:A voice cries: “In the wilderness prepare the way of the LORD; make straight in the desert a highway for our God (ESV).In the Hebrew texts, "the way of the LORD" is "the way of Y-WH," using the Holy Tetragrammaton, the Divine Name of the God of Israel revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai (Exodus 3:13-15). In this way the Gospel according to Mark identifies Jesus as both Messiah and the LORD God of Israel. Likewise, the most Jewish Gospel of Matthew, held to be the first Gospel according to the tradition of the Christian Church, identifies Jesus Christ as "the Son of Man" and "the Son of the Living God" (Matthew 16:13), the Son of the Virgin and as God with us (Matthew 1:23). So in Orthodox Christian theology, Jesus Christ is both Most High and Son of Man, whose mystical Body is the Church, and "of His Kingdom there shall be no end" (Luke 1:33; Nicene Creed). According to Christian theology, the faithful of Christ will reign with Him over sin, death, and corruption both in this life and in the next (Romans 5:17; 2 Timothy 2:12). This unfolding kingdom is held by Christians to be the fulfillment of the Son-of-Man vision recorded in Daniel 7.


text: The title "Son of David" indicates Jesus' physical descent from David, as well as his membership of the Davidic line of kings, establishing the claim of Jesus Christ to the Davidic Throne based on the promises God made to King David through Nathan the prophet when David was hoping to build God a house, or temple:Moreover, the LORD declares to you that the LORD will make you a house. When your days are fulfilled and you lie down with your fathers, I will raise up your offspring after you, who shall come from your body, and I will establish his kingdom. He shall build a house for my name, and I will establish the throne of his kingdom forever. I will be to him a father, and he shall be to me a son. When he commits iniquity, I will discipline him with the rod of men, with the stripes of the sons of men, but my steadfast love will not depart from him, as I took it from Saul, whom I put away from before you. And your house and your kingdom shall be made sure forever before me. Your throne shall be established forever (2 Samuel 7:11-16).This promise assures King David of an ongoing royal lineage forever that cannot be thwarted or annulled through human sin. The Promised Offspring par excellence will build a House for God, will reign on an Eternal Throne, will be called the "son" of God, and will be chastened with beating should he commit iniquity. One might well ask what would be the result for humankind if a Son of David who is sinless were to be beaten with "the stripes of the sons of men." Would it result in Divine judgment or Divine mercy? The Apostle Paul seems to answer this question in his Epistle to the Romans:Paul, a servant of Christ Jesus, called to be an apostle, set apart for the gospel of God, which he promised beforehand through his prophets in the holy Scriptures, concerning his Son, who was descended from David according to the flesh and was declared to be the Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ our Lord, through whom we have received grace and apostleship to bring about the obedience of faith for the sake of his name among all the nations, including you who are called to belong to Jesus Christ, To all those in Rome who are loved by God and called to be saints: Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ (Romans 1:1-7, ESV).According to the Apostle Paul, the unjust death of the Son of God and His resurrection from the dead result in grace, peace, and an increasing faithful obedience among all nations through the proclamation of the Gospel. The Kingdom of the Son of David, Jesus Christ, is portrayed in the New Testament as being current as He reigns at the right hand of the Father (Hebrews 8:1; Revelation 2:26-27; 20:4-6). It should be no surprise to anyone familiar with the Scriptures that the Throne of the LORD is the same as the Throne of David because these are equated in First Chronicles 29:23. The Messianic vision of Isaiah in Isaiah chapter 11 is envisioned in the New Testament as spreading gradually toward a final culmination (Matthew 13:33; Luke 17:20-21).


text: The phrase "Son of David" is used a number of times in the gospel of Matthew. It appears in to introduce both the genealogy and the gospel. It is found on the lips of the blind men healed in Galilee ("Have mercy on us, Son of David", ), the crowd who are amazed at Jesus' healing of a blind, mute and demon-possessed man ), the Canaanite woman whose daughter is exorcised ("Lord, Son of David, have mercy on me," ), and the blind men healed near Jericho ("Lord, Son of David, have mercy on us", ). It also forms part of the shout of the crowds when Jesus enters Jerusalem: "Hosanna to the Son of David" (Matthew 21:9). Other references with the same use include and . A variant of this title is found in , where Jesus refers to himself as "the Root and the Offspring of David". According to Anglican Bishop Charles Ellicott, "Son of David" was "the most popular of all the names of the expected Christ".


text: The title "Lamb of God" (Agnus Dei) only appears in the Gospel of John, with the exclamation of John the Baptist: "Behold the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world" in , the title reaffirmed the next day in . The second use of the title Lamb of God takes place in the presence of the first two apostles of Jesus, who immediately follow him, address him as Rabbi with respect and later in the narrative bring others to meet him.


text: These two proclamations of Jesus as the Lamb of God closely bracket the Baptist's other proclamation in : "I have borne witness that this is the Son of God". From a Christological perspective, these proclamations and the descent of the Holy Spirit as a dove in John 1:32 reinforce each other to establish the divine element of the Person of Christ. In Johannine Christology the proclamation "who takes away the sins of the world" begins the unfolding of the salvific theme of the redemptive and sacrificial death of Jesus followed by his resurrection which is built upon in other proclamations such as "this is indeed the Saviour of the world" uttered by the Samaritans in . However, nothing in the context of directly implies that in that specific passage Saint Paul refers the death of Jesus using the same theme.


text: The Book of Revelation includes over twenty references to a lion-like lamb ("slain but standing") which delivers victory in a manner reminiscent of the resurrected Christ. In the first appearance of the lamb in Revelation () only the lamb (which is of the tribe of Judah, and the root of David) is found worthy to take the judgment scroll from God and break the seals. In the lamb is said to have twelve apostles.


text: The theme of a sacrificial lamb which rises in victory as the Resurrected Christ was employed in early Christology, e.g. in 375 Saint Augustine wrote: "Why a lamb in his passion? For he underwent death without being guilty of any inequity. Why a lion in his resurrection? For in being slain, he slew death." The Lamb of God title has found widespread use in Christian prayers and the "Agnus Dei" ("Lamb of God who take away the sins of the world have mercy on us; Lamb of God who take away the sins of the world grant us peace") is used both in liturgy and as a form of contemplative prayer. It references the concept of a scapegoat, where people put their blame on others, however with the interpretation of Jesus taking on Christian's sins.


text: Just as the Gospel of John proclaims the universal relevance of the Incarnation of Jesus as Logos, the Pauline view emphasizes the cosmic view that his birth, Crucifixion and Resurrection brought forth a new man and a new world. Paul's eschatological view of Jesus counter-positions him as a new man of morality and obedience, in contrast to Adam. Unlike Adam, the new man born in Jesus obeys God and ushers in a world of morality and salvation.


text: In the Pauline view, Adam is positioned as the first man and Jesus as the second and last Adam (), the first having corrupted himself by his disobedience, also infected humanity and left it with a curse as inheritance. The birth of Jesus, on the other hand, counterbalanced the fall of Adam, bringing forth redemption and repairing the damage done by Adam.


text: Therefore just as one man's trespass led to condemnation for all, so one man's act of righteousness leads to justification and life for all. For just as by the one man's disobedience the many were made sinners, so by the one man's obedience the many will be made righteous. But law came in, with the result that the trespass multiplied; but where sin increased, grace abounded all the more, so that, just as sin exercised dominion in death, so grace might also exercise dominion through justification* leading to eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord.


text: In the 2nd century Church Father Irenaeus continued this tradition and stated: "so that what we had lost in Adam - namely to be according to the image and likeness of God- that we might recover in Christ Jesus." Irenaeus also used the analogy of "second Adam and second Eve" and suggested the Virgin Mary as the "second Eve" who had set a path of obedience for the second Adam (i.e. Jesus) from the Annunciation to Calvary.


text: The tradition continued in the 4th century by Ephrem the Syrian and later by Saint Augustine in his "Felix culpa", i.e. the happy fall from grace of Adam and Eve. Later, in the 16th century, John Calvin viewed the birth of Jesus as the second Adam one of the six modes of atonement.


text: Jesus is called a light in seven instances in the New Testament and Light of the World only in the Gospel of John. The terms "Bread of Life" and "Life of the World" are also applied by Jesus to himself in John's Gospel in the same Christological sense.


text: Jesus again claims to be Light of the World in , during the miracle of healing the blind at birth, saying:


text: This episode leads into where Jesus metaphorically explains that he came to this world, so that the blind may see.


text: In the Christological context, the use of the title "Light of the World" is similar to the use of the title "Bread of Life" in , where Jesus states: "I am the bread of life: he who comes to me shall not hunger. These assertions build on the Christological theme of where Jesus claims to possess life Just as the Father does and provide it to those who follow him. The term "Life of the World" is applied in the same sense by Jesus to himself in .


text: This application of "light compared with darkness" also appears in which applies it to God and states: "God is light, and in him is no darkness at all."


text: Jesus also used the term Light of the World to refer to his disciples, in : The term "Light of the World" is related to the parables of Salt and Light and Lamp under a bushel.


text: In the New Testament, Jesus is referred to as the "King of the Jews" on three occasions, coming at the beginning of his life and at the end. Both uses of the title lead to dramatic results in the New Testament accounts. In the account of the Nativity of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew, wise men (called the Magi) who come from the east call Jesus the "King of the Jews", causing King Herod to order the Massacre of the Innocents. In the accounts of the Passion of Jesus in all four Canonical Gospels, the use of the "King of the Jews" title leads to charges against Jesus that result in his Crucifixion.


text: The title "King of the Jews" is used only by the gentiles, namely by the Magi, Pontius Pilate and the Roman soldiers. In contrast the Jewish leaders in the Passion accounts prefer the designation "King of Israel", as in , . The use of the term "King" in the charges brought against Jesus is central in the decision to crucify him. In Pilate seeks to release Jesus, but the Jews object, saying: "If thou release this man, thou art not Caesar's friend: every one that maketh himself a king speaketh against Caesar" bringing the power of Caesar to the forefront of the discussion for the assumption of the title King implies rebellion against the Roman Empire.


text: The final use of the title only appears in . Here, after Jesus has carried the cross to Calvary and has been nailed to the cross, the soldiers look up on him on the cross, mock him, offer him vinegar and say: "If thou art the King of the Jews, save thyself." In the parallel account in the Jewish priests mock Jesus as "King of Israel", saying: "He is the King of Israel; let him now come down from the cross, and we will believe on him."


text: In , when Mary Magdalene encounters Jesus shortly after the Resurrection, she calls him Rabbouni ("ῥαββουνί") literally "my great [one]" or (more extensively) "my Teacher". For those who do not speak Aramaic the Gospel of John translates this as "teacher", a Rabbi being a Jewish teacher, or master. In the New Testament, the term "Rhabbouni" is only used by the Magdalene here in John 20:16 and in by the blind man Bartimaeus in the account of the miracle of healing the blind near Jericho.


text: The Rabbi title is used in several New Testament episodes to refer to Jesus, but more often in the Gospel of John than elsewhere and does not appear in the Gospel of Luke at all. In Matthew's account of the Last Supper () when Jesus says that he will be betrayed by one of his Apostles, one after another the Apostles say "Surely it is not I, Lord" but Judas Iscariot says "Surely it is not I, Rabbi", using the term Rabbi instead of Lord. The Iscariot again calls Jesus Rabbi in when he betrays him in the Kiss of Judas episode, heavily implying he may never have acknowledged, believed, or understood the divinity of Jesus.


text: In , Jesus affirms the term Rabbi and Father are not to be used for any man, but only for God and for Christ.


text: by Nathanael in , where he is also called the Son of God in the same sentence. On several occasions, the disciples also refer to Jesus as Rabbi in the Gospel of John, e.g. , , and .


text: Intimating that the title Rabbi was used by status-seeking Pharisees (who "sit on the seat of Moses") and use the title as a sign of authority, in Jesus rejected the title of Rabbi for his disciples, saying: "But be not ye called Rabbi: for one is your teacher, and all ye are brethren". The role of teacher is also referred to the Paraclete, mentioned by Jesus for the first time on the night before the Crucifixion.


text: Talmudic Scholar [Sherira Gaon] (c. 906 CE to c. 1006 CE) wrote that the title Rabbi did not exist until at least 50 CE. Thus, the New Testament references to rabbi are anachronisms.


text: The New Testament uses several titles to refer to Jesus. However, some terms that are commonly used in the Christian tradition rarely appear in the New Testament, e.g. the exact term "Savior" appears only once, and is uttered by the Samaritans in . The title "Nazarene" applied to Jesus has been also used to designate Christians in Syriac and Arabic traditions.


text: The title "Chosen one" or "Elect one" is used twice in Luke's gospel: "eklektos" is used in 23:35 when the rulers mock Jesus, while "eklelegmenos" is used in 9:35 when Jesus is transfigured. James R. Edwards notes that the phrase is used repeatedly in 1 Enoch, but was associated in Jewish thinking with triumph and glory, rather than with suffering.


text: Christian theologians such as Thomas Aquinas have produced significant arguments analyzing various names and titles for Jesus. In Jesus says: "Before Abraham was born, I am." The phrase "I am" (εγω ειμι in Greek) was considered a name for Jesus by Aquinas who considered it the most proper of all divine names, for Aquinas believed it to refer to the "being of all things".


text: One of the titles preceded by an "I am" assertion of Jesus is the "Bread of Life" title in : "I am the bread of life: he who comes to me shall not hunger." The Bread of Life Discourse takes place in the Gospel of John shortly after Jesus feeds the crowds with five loaves of bread and two fish.


text: In the Epistle to the Hebrews, Jesus is called an "Apostle" and a "High Priest" in , the preparation for the two titles being the preceding text of which present the two functions of Jesus: as an Apostle he represents God to humanity and as a High Priest he represents humanity to God.


text: While John's Gospel emphasizes Jesus as the Son of God, the Gospel of Luke depicts him as a prophet above all else, attributing that title to Jesus more often than even Mark. A prophet is not someone who merely preaches, but claims divine revelation through God. In , following his hometown rejection, Jesus remarks that as a prophet he is not welcome in his own hometown. Elsewhere, in the Jews again doubt that Jesus is a prophet. The view of Jesus as a prophet is used in the concept of threefold office which sees his three roles as "Prophet, Priest and King". While during early Christianity there were people claiming to be prophets, there are no records of anyone else claiming to be a prophet during the life of Jesus.


text: In Jesus said he will ask the Father to send "another" paraclete, i.e. comforter. The term paraclete only appears in Johannine literature and apart from the four uses in the Gospel of John it appears only in . Given that views Jesus as a paraclete, the reference in John 14:16 states that Jesus sends a second paraclete to continue the life of the Church after his departure. The statement regarding the paraclete is made within the "farewell discourse" during the Last Supper of Jesus and the Apostles. The paraclete is thus a link between the ministry of Jesus and the future life of the Church.


text: Some titles of Jesus are unique to the Book of Revelation. He is referred to as "Faithful and True" in , the "Alpha and Omega" in and elsewhere, and the "Morning Star" in .


title: Toga

text: The toga (, ), a distinctive garment of ancient Rome, was a roughly semicircular cloth, between in length, draped over the shoulders and around the body. It was usually woven from white wool, and was worn over a tunic. In Roman historical tradition, it is said to have been the favored dress of Romulus, Rome's founder; it was also thought to have originally been worn by both sexes, and by the citizen-military. As Roman women gradually adopted the stola, the toga was recognized as formal wear for male Roman citizens. Women engaged in prostitution might have provided the main exception to this rule.


title: Toga

text: The type of toga worn reflected a citizen's rank in the civil hierarchy. Various laws and customs restricted its use to citizens, who were required to wear it for public festivals and civic duties.


title: Toga

text: From its probable beginnings as a simple, practical work-garment, the toga became more voluminous, complex, and costly, increasingly unsuited to anything but formal and ceremonial use. It was and is considered ancient Rome's "national costume"; as such, it had great symbolic value; however even among Romans, it was hard to put on, uncomfortable and challenging to wear correctly, and never truly popular. When circumstances allowed, those otherwise entitled or obliged to wear it opted for more comfortable, casual garments. It gradually fell out of use, firstly among citizens of the lower class, then those of the middle class. Eventually, it was worn only by the highest classes for ceremonial occasions.


title: Toga

text: The toga was an approximately semi-circular woollen cloth, usually white, worn draped over the left shoulder and around the body: the word "toga" probably derives from "tegere", to cover. It was considered formal wear and was generally reserved for citizens. The Romans considered it unique to themselves, thus their poetic description by Virgil and Martial as the "gens togata" ('toga-wearing race'). There were many kinds of toga, each reserved by custom to a particular usage or social class.


title: Toga

text: The toga's most distinguishing feature was its semi-circular shape, which sets it apart from other cloaks of antiquity like the Greek "himation" or "pallium". To Rothe, the rounded form suggests an origin in the very similar, semi-circular Etruscan "tebenna". Norma Goldman believes that the earliest forms of all these garments would have been simple, rectangular lengths of cloth that served as both body-wrap and blanket for peasants, shepherds and itinerant herdsmen. Roman historians believed that Rome's legendary founder and first king, the erstwhile shepherd Romulus, had worn a toga as his clothing of choice; the purple-bordered "toga praetexta" was supposedly used by Etruscan magistrates, and introduced to Rome by her third king, Tullus Hostilius.


title: Toga

text: In the wider context of classical Greco-Roman fashion, the Greek "enkyklon" (, "circular [garment]") was perhaps similar in shape to the Roman toga, but never acquired the same significance as a distinctive mark of citizenship. The 2nd-century diviner Artemidorus Daldianus in his "Oneirocritica" derived the toga's form and name from the Greek "tebennos" (τήβεννος), supposedly an Arcadian garment invented by and named after Temenus. Emilio Peruzzi claims that the toga was brought to Italy from Mycenaean Greece, its name based on Mycenaean Greek "te-pa", referring to a heavy woollen garment or fabric.


title: Toga

text: Roman society was strongly hierarchical, stratified and competitive. Landowning aristocrats occupied most seats in the senate and held the most senior magistracies. Magistrates were elected by their peers and "the people"; in Roman constitutional theory, they ruled by consent. In practice, they were a mutually competitive oligarchy, reserving the greatest power, wealth and prestige for their class. The commoners who made up the vast majority of the Roman electorate had limited influence on politics, unless barracking or voting "en masse", or through representation by their tribunes. The Equites (sometimes loosely translated as "knights") occupied a broadly mobile, mid-position between the lower senatorial and upper commoner class. Despite often extreme disparities of wealth and rank between the citizen classes, the toga identified them as a singular and exclusive civic body. Conversely, and just as usefully, it underlined their differences.


title: Toga

text: Togas were relatively uniform in pattern and style but varied significantly in the quality and quantity of their fabric, and the marks of higher rank or office. The highest-status toga, the solidly purple, gold-embroidered "toga picta" could be worn only at particular ceremonies by the highest-ranking magistrates. Tyrian purple was supposedly reserved for the "toga picta", the border of the "toga praetexta", and elements of the priestly dress worn by the inviolate Vestal Virgins. It was colour-fast, extremely expensive and the "most talked-about colour in Greco-Roman antiquity". Romans categorised it as a blood-red hue, which sanctified its wearer. The purple-bordered "praetexta" worn by freeborn youths acknowledged their vulnerability and sanctity in law. Once a boy came of age (usually at puberty) he adopted the plain white "toga virilis"; this meant that he was free to set up his own household, marry, and vote. Young girls who wore the "praetexta" on formal occasions put it aside at menarche or marriage, and adopted the "stola". Even the whiteness of the "toga virilis" was subject to class distinction. Senatorial versions were expensively laundered to an exceptional, snowy white; those of lower ranking citizens were a duller shade, more cheaply laundered.


title: Toga

text: Citizenship carried specific privileges, rights and responsibilities. The "formula togatorum" ("list of toga-wearers") listed the various military obligations that Rome's Italian allies were required to supply to Rome in times of war. "Togati", "those who wear the toga", is not precisely equivalent to "Roman citizens", and may mean more broadly "Romanized". In Roman territories, the toga was explicitly forbidden to non-citizens; to foreigners, freedmen, and slaves; to Roman exiles; and to men of "infamous" career or shameful reputation; an individual's status should be discernable at a glance. A freedman or foreigner might pose as a togate citizen, or a common citizen as an equestrian; such pretenders were sometimes ferreted out in the census. Formal seating arrangements in public theatres and circuses reflected the dominance of Rome's togate elect. Senators sat at the very front, "equites" behind them, common citizens behind "equites"; and so on, through the non-togate mass of freedmen, foreigners, and slaves. Imposters were sometimes detected and evicted from the equestrian seats.


title: Toga

text: Various anecdotes reflect the toga's symbolic value. In Livy's history of Rome, the patrician hero Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, retired from public life and clad (presumably) in tunic or loincloth, is ploughing his field when emissaries of the Senate arrive, and ask him to put on his toga. His wife fetches it and he puts it on. Then he is told that he has been appointed dictator. He promptly heads for Rome. Donning the toga transforms Cincinnatus from rustic, sweaty ploughman – though a gentleman nevertheless, of impeccable stock and reputation – into Rome's leading politician, eager to serve his country; a top-quality Roman. Rome's abundant public and private statuary reinforced the notion that all Rome's great men wore togas, and must always have done so.


title: Toga

text: Traditionalists idealised Rome's urban and rustic citizenry as descendants of a hardy, virtuous, toga-clad peasantry, but the toga's bulk and complex drapery made it entirely impractical for manual work or physically active leisure. The toga was heavy, "unwieldy, excessively hot, easily stained, and hard to launder". It was best suited to stately processions, public debate and oratory, sitting in the theatre or circus, and displaying oneself before one's peers and inferiors while "ostentatiously doing nothing".


title: Toga

text: Every male Roman citizen was entitled to wear some kind of toga – Martial refers to a lesser citizen's "small toga" and a poor man's "little toga" (both "togula"), but the poorest probably had to make do with a shabby, patched-up toga, if he bothered at all. Conversely, the costly, full-length toga seems to have been a rather awkward mark of distinction when worn by "the wrong sort". The poet Horace writes "of a rich ex-slave 'parading from end to end of the Sacred Way in a toga three yards long' to show off his new status and wealth."


title: Toga

text: In the early 2nd century AD, the satirist Juvenal claimed that "in a great part of Italy, no-one wears the toga, except in death"; in Martial's rural idyll there is "never a lawsuit, the toga is scarce, the mind at ease". Most citizens who owned a toga would have cherished it as a costly material object, and worn it when they must for special occasions. Family, friendships and alliances, and the gainful pursuit of wealth through business and trade would have been their major preoccupations, not the otium (cultured leisure) claimed as a right by the elite. Rank, reputation and "Romanitas" were paramount, even in death, so almost invariably, a male citizen's memorial image showed him clad in his toga. He wore it at his funeral, and it probably served as his shroud.


title: Toga

text: Despite the overwhelming quantity of Roman togate portraits at every social level, and in every imaginable circumstance, at most times Rome's thoroughfares would have been crowded with citizens and non-citizens in a variety of colourful garments, with few togas in evidence. Only a higher-class Roman, a magistrate, would have had lictors to clear his way, and even then, wearing a toga was a challenge. The toga's apparent natural simplicity and "elegant, flowing lines" were the result of diligent practice and cultivation; to avoid an embarrassing disarrangement of its folds, its wearer had to walk with measured, stately gait, yet with virile purpose and energy. If he moved too slowly, he might seem aimless, "sluggish of mind" - or, worst of all, "womanly". Vout (1996) suggests that the toga's most challenging qualities as garment fitted the Romans' view of themselves and their civilization. Like the empire itself, the peace that the toga came to represent had been earned through the extraordinary and unremitting collective efforts of its citizens, who could therefore claim "the time and dignity to dress in such a way".


title: Toga

text: Patronage was a cornerstone of Roman politics, business and social relationships. A good patron offered advancement, security, honour, wealth, government contracts and other business opportunities to his client, who might be further down in the social or economic scale, or more rarely, his equal or superior. A good client canvassed political support for his patron, or his patron's nominee; he advanced his patron's interests using his own business, family and personal connections. Freedmen with an aptitude for business could become extremely wealthy; but to negotiate citizenship for themselves, or more likely their sons, they had to find a patron prepared to commend them. Clients seeking patronage had to attend the patron's early-morning formal "salutatio" ("greeting session"), held in the semi-public, grand reception room ("atrium") of his family house ("domus"). Citizen-clients were expected to wear the toga appropriate to their status, and to wear it correctly and smartly or risk affront to their host.


title: Toga

text: Martial and his friend Juvenal suffered the system as clients for years, and found the whole business demeaning. A client had to be at his patron's beck and call, to perform whatever "togate works" were required; and the patron might even expect to be addressed as ""domine"" (lord, or master); a citizen-client of the equestrian class, superior to all lesser mortals by virtue of rank and costume, might thus approach the shameful condition of dependent servitude. For a client whose patron was another's client, the potential for shame was still worse. Even as a satirical analogy, the equation of togate client and slave would have shocked those who cherished the toga as a symbol of personal dignity and "auctoritas" – a meaning underlined during the Saturnalia festival, when the toga was "very consciously put aside", in a ritualised, strictly limited inversion of the master-slave relationship.


title: Toga

text: Patrons were few, and most had to compete with their peers to attract the best, most useful clients. Clients were many, and those of least interest to the patron had to scrabble for notice among the "togate horde" ("turbae togatae"). One in a dirty or patched toga would likely be subject to ridicule; or he might, if sufficiently dogged and persistent, secure a pittance of cash, or perhaps a dinner. When the patron left his house to conduct his business of the day at the law courts, forum or wherever else, escorted (if a magistrate) by his togate lictors, his clients must form his retinue. Each togate client represented a potential vote: to impress his peers and inferiors, and stay ahead in the game, a patron should have as many high-quality clients as possible; or at least, he should seem to. Martial has one patron hire a herd ("grex") of fake clients in togas, then pawn his ring to pay for his evening meal.


title: Toga

text: The emperor Marcus Aurelius, rather than wear the "dress to which his rank entitled him" at his own "salutationes", chose to wear a plain white citizen's toga instead; an act of modesty for any patron, unlike Caligula, who wore a triumphal "toga picta" or any other garment he chose, according to whim; or Nero, who caused considerable offence when he received visiting senators while dressed in a tunic embroidered with flowers, topped off with a muslin neckerchief.


title: Toga

text: In oratory, the toga came into its own. Quintilian's "Institutio Oratoria" (circa 95 AD) offers advice on how best to plead cases at Rome's law-courts, before the watching multitude's informed and critical eye. Effective pleading was a calculated artistic performance, but must seem utterly natural. First impressions counted; the lawyer must present himself as a Roman should: "virile and splendid" in his toga, with statuesque posture and "natural good looks". He should be well groomed – but not too well; no primping of the hair, jewellery or any other "feminine" perversions of a Roman man's proper appearance. Quintilian gives precise instructions on the correct use of the toga – its cut, style, and the arrangements of its folds. Its fabric could be old-style rough wool, or new and smoother if preferred – but definitely not silk. The orator's movements should be dignified, and to the point; he should move only as he must, to address a particular person, a particular section of the audience. He should employ to good effect that subtle "language of the hands" for which Roman oratory was famed; no extravagant gestures, no wiggling of the shoulders, no moving "like a dancer".


title: Toga

text: To a great extent, the toga itself determined the orator's style of delivery: "we should not cover the shoulder and the whole of the throat, otherwise our dress will be unduly narrowed and will lose the impressive effect produced by breadth at the chest. The left arm should only be raised so far as to form a right angle at the elbow, while the edge of the toga should fall in equal lengths on either side." If, on the other hand, the "toga falls down at the beginning of our speech, or when we have only proceeded but a little way, the failure to replace it is a sign of indifference, or sloth, or sheer ignorance of the way in which clothes should be worn". By the time he had presented his case, the orator was likely to be hot and sweaty; but even this could be employed to good effect.


title: Toga

text: Roman moralists "placed an ideological premium on the simple and the frugal". Aulus Gellius claimed that the earliest Romans, famously tough, virile and dignified, had worn togas with no undergarment; not even a skimpy tunic. Towards the end of the Republic, the arch-conservative Cato the Younger favoured the shorter, ancient Republican type of toga; it was dark and "scanty" ("exigua"), and Cato wore it without tunic or shoes; all this would have been recognised as an expression of his moral probity. Die-hard Roman traditionalists deplored an ever-increasing Roman appetite for ostentation, "un-Roman" comfort and luxuries, and sartorial offences such as Celtic trousers, brightly coloured Syrian robes and cloaks. The manly toga itself could signify corruption, if worn too loosely, or worn over a long-sleeved, "effeminate" tunic, or woven too fine and thin, near transparent. Appian's history of Rome finds its strife-torn Late Republic tottering at the edge of chaos; most seem to dress as they like, not as they ought: "For now the Roman people are much mixed with foreigners, there is equal citizenship for freedmen, and slaves dress like their masters. With the exception of the Senators, free citizens and slaves wear the same costume." The Augustan Principate brought peace, and declared its intent as the restoration of true Republican order, morality and tradition.


title: Toga

text: Augustus was determined to bring back "the traditional style" (the toga). He ordered that any theatre-goer in dark (or coloured or dirty) clothing be sent to the back seats, traditionally reserved for those who had no toga; ordinary or common women, freedmen, low-class foreigners and slaves. He reserved the most honourable seats, front of house, for senators and "equites"; this was how it had always been, before the chaos of the civil wars; or rather, how it was supposed to have been. Infuriated by the sight of a darkly clad throng of men at a public meeting, he sarcastically quoted Virgil at them, ""Romanos, rerum dominos, gentemque togatam" " ("Romans, lords of the world and the toga-wearing people"), then ordered that in future, the aediles ban anyone not wearing the toga from the Forum and its environs – Rome's "civic heart". Augustus' reign saw the introduction of the "toga rasa", an ordinary toga whose rough fibres were teased from the woven nap, then shaved back to a smoother, more comfortable finish. By Pliny's day (circa 70 AD) this was probably standard among the elite. Pliny also describes a glossy, smooth, lightweight but dense fabric woven from poppy-stem fibres and flax, in use from at least the time of the Punic Wars. Though probably appropriate for a "summer toga", it was criticised for its improper luxuriance.


title: Toga

text: Some Romans believed that in earlier times, both genders and all classes had worn the toga. This belief seems to go back to a Late Antique misreading of earlier Roman writings. Women could also be citizens, but by the mid-to-late Republican era, respectable women were "stolatae" (stola-wearing), expected to embody and display an appropriate set of female virtues: Vout cites "pudicitia" and "fides" as examples. Women's adoption of the "stola" may have paralleled the increasing identification of the toga with citizen men, but this seems to have been a far from straightforward process. An equestrian statue, described by Pliny the Elder as "ancient", showed the early Republican heroine Cloelia on horseback, wearing a toga. The unmarried daughters of respectable, reasonably well-off citizens sometimes wore the "toga praetexta" until puberty or marriage, when they adopted the "stola", which they wore over a full-length, usually long-sleeved tunic.


title: Toga

text: Higher-class female prostitutes ("meretrices") and women divorced for adultery were denied the "stola". "Meretrices" might have been expected or perhaps compelled, at least in public, to wear the "female toga" ("toga muliebris"). This use of the toga appears unique; all others categorised as "infamous and disreputable" were explicitly forbidden to wear it. In this context, modern sources understand the toga – or perhaps merely the description of particular women as "togata" – as an instrument of inversion and realignment; a respectable (thus "stola"-clad) woman should be demure, sexually passive, modest and obedient, morally impeccable. The archetypical "meretrix" of Roman literature dresses gaudily and provocatively. Edwards (1997) describes her as "antithetical to the Roman male citizen". An adulterous matron betrayed her family and reputation; and if found guilty, and divorced, the law forbade her remarriage to a Roman citizen. In the public gaze, she was aligned with the "meretrix". When worn by a woman in this later era, the toga would have been a "blatant display" of her "exclusion from the respectable Roman hierarchy". However, the view that a convicted adulteress ("moecha damnata") actually wore a toga in public has been challenged.


title: Toga

text: Until the Marian reforms of 107 BC, the lower ranks of Rome's military forces were "farmer-soldiers", a militia of citizen smallholders conscripted for the duration of hostilities, expected to provide their own arms and armour. Citizens of higher status served in senior military posts as a foundation for their progress to high civil office (see "cursus honorum"). The Romans believed that in Rome's earliest days, its military had gone to war in togas, hitching them up and back for action by using what became known as the "Gabine cinch". As part of a peace settlement of 205 BC, two formerly rebellious Spanish tribes provided Roman troops with togas and heavy cloaks; in 206 BC, Scipio Africanus was sent 1,200 togas and 12,000 tunics for his operations in North Africa. In the Macedonian campaign of 169 BC, the army was sent 6,000 togas and 30,000 tunics. From at least the mid-Republic on, the military reserved their togas for formal leisure and religious festivals; the tunic and sagum (heavy rectangular cloak held on the shoulder with a brooch) were used or preferred for active duty.


title: Toga

text: Late republican practice and legal reform allowed the creation of standing armies, and opened a military career to any Roman citizen or freedman of good reputation. A soldier who showed the requisite "disciplined ferocity" in battle and was held in esteem by his peers and superiors could be promoted to higher rank: a plebeian could rise to equestrian status. Non-citizens and foreign-born auxiliaries given honourable discharge were usually granted citizenship, land or stipend, the right to wear the toga, and an obligation to the patron who had granted these honours; usually their senior officer. A dishonourable discharge meant "infamia". Colonies of retired veterans were scattered throughout the Empire. In literary stereotype, civilians are routinely bullied by burly soldiers, inclined to throw their weight around.


title: Toga

text: Though soldiers were citizens, Cicero typifies the former as ""sagum" wearing" and the latter as ""togati"". He employs the phrase "cedant arma togae" ("let arms yield to the toga"), meaning "may peace replace war", or "may military power yield to civilian power", in the context of his own uneasy alliance with Pompey. He intended it as metonym, linking his own "power to command" as consul ("imperator togatus") with Pompey's as general ("imperator armatus"); but it was interpreted as a request to step down. Cicero, having lost Pompey's ever-wavering support, was driven to exile. In reality, arms rarely yielded to civilian power. During the early Roman Imperial era, members of the Praetorian Guard (the emperor's personal guard as "First Citizen", and a military force under his personal command), concealed their weapons under white, civilian-style togas when on duty in the city, offering the reassuring illusion that they represented a traditional Republican, civilian authority, rather than the military arm of an Imperial autocracy.


title: Toga

text: Citizens attending Rome's frequent religious festivals and associated games were expected to wear the toga. The "toga praetexta" was the normal garb for most Roman priesthoods, which tended to be the preserve of high status citizens. When offering sacrifice, libation and prayer, and when performing augury, the officiant priest covered his head with a fold of his toga, drawn up from the back: the ritual was thus performed "capite velato" (with covered head). This was believed a distinctively Roman form, in contrast to Etruscan, Greek and other foreign practices. The Etruscans seem to have sacrificed bareheaded ("capite aperto"). In Rome, the so-called "ritus graecus" (Greek rite) was used for deities believed Greek in origin or character; the officiant, even if citizen, wore Greek-style robes with wreathed or bare head, not the toga. It has been argued that the Roman expression of piety "capite velato" influenced Paul's prohibition against Christians praying with covered heads: "Any man who prays or prophesies with his head covered dishonors his head."


title: Toga

text: An officiant "capite velato" who needed free use of both hands to perform ritual could employ the "Gabinian cincture" ("cinctus Gabinus"), which tied the toga back. It was thought to derive from the priestly practice of ancient, warlike Gabii. Etruscan priests also employed the Gabine cinch. In Rome, it was one of the elements in making a declaration of war.


title: Toga

text: The traditional toga was made of wool, which was thought to possess powers to avert misfortune and the evil eye; the "toga praetexta" (used by magistrates, priests and freeborn youths) was always woollen. Wool-working was thought a highly respectable occupation for Roman women. A traditional, high-status mater familias demonstrated her industry and frugality by placing wool-baskets, spindles and looms in the household's semi-public reception area, the "atrium". Augustus was particularly proud that his wife and daughter had set the best possible example to other Roman women by, allegedly, spinning and weaving his clothing.


title: Toga

text: Hand-woven cloth was slow and costly to produce, and compared to simpler forms of clothing, the toga used an extravagant amount of it. To minimise waste, the smaller, old-style forms of toga may have been woven as a single, seamless, selvedged piece; the later, larger versions may have been made from several pieces sewn together; size seems to have counted for a lot. More cloth signified greater wealth and usually, though not invariably, higher rank. The purple-red border of the "toga praetexta" was woven onto the toga using a process known as "tablet weaving"; such applied borders are a feature of Etruscan dress.


title: Toga

text: Modern sources broadly agree that if made from a single piece of fabric, the toga of a high status Roman in the late Republic would have required a piece approximately in length; in the Imperial era, around , a third more than its predecessor, and in the late Imperial era around wide and up to in length for the most complex, pleated forms.


title: Toga

text: The toga was draped, rather than fastened, around the body, and was held in position by the weight and friction of its fabric. Supposedly, no pins or brooches were employed. The more voluminous and complex the style, the more assistance would have been required to achieve the desired effect. In classical statuary, draped togas consistently show certain features and folds, identified and named in contemporary literature.


title: Toga

text: The "sinus" (literally, a bay or inlet) appears in the Imperial era as a loose over-fold, slung from beneath the left arm, downwards across the chest, then upwards to the right shoulder. Early examples were slender, but later forms were much fuller; the loop hangs at knee-length, suspended there by draping over the crook of the right arm.


title: Toga

text: The "umbo" (literally "knob") was a pouch of the toga's fabric pulled out over the "balteus" (the diagonal section of the toga across the chest) in imperial-era forms of the toga. Its added weight and friction would have helped (though not very effectively) secure the toga's fabric onto the left shoulder. As the toga developed, the "umbo" grew in size.


title: Toga

text: The most complex togas appear on high-quality portrait busts and imperial reliefs of the mid-to-late Empire, probably reserved for emperors and the highest civil officials. The so-called "banded" or "stacked" toga (Latinised as "toga contabulata") appeared in the late 2nd century AD and was distinguished by its broad, smooth, slab-like panels or swathes of pleated material, more or less correspondent with "umbo", "sinus" and "balteus", or applied over the same. On statuary, one swathe of fabric rises from low between the legs, and is laid over the left shoulder; another more or less follows the upper edge of the "sinus"; yet another follows the lower edge of a more-or-less vestigial "balteus" then descends to the upper shin. As in other forms, the "sinus" itself is hung over the crook of the right arm. If its full-length representations are accurate, it would have severely constrained its wearer's movements. Dressing in a "toga contabulata" would have taken some time, and specialist assistance. When not in use, it required careful storage in some form of press or hanger to keep it in shape. Such inconvenient features of the later toga are confirmed by Tertullian, who preferred the "pallium". High-status (consular or senatorial) images from the late 4th century show a further ornate variation, known as the "Broad Eastern Toga"; it hung to the mid-calf, was heavily embroidered, and was worn over two "pallium"-style undergarments, one of which had full length sleeves. Its "sinus" was draped over the left arm.


title: Toga

text: In the long term, the toga saw both a gradual transformation and decline, punctuated by attempts to retain it as an essential feature of true "Romanitas". It was never a popular garment; in the late 1st century, Tacitus could disparage the urban plebs as a "vulgus tunicatus" ("tunic-wearing crowd"). Hadrian issued an edict compelling "equites" and senators to wear the toga in public; the edict did not mention commoners. The extension of citizenship, from around 6 million citizens under Augustus to between 40 and 60 million under the "universal citizenship" of Caracalla's Constitutio Antoniniana (212 AD), probably further reduced whatever distinctive value the toga still held for commoners, and accelerated its abandonment among their class. Meanwhile, the office-holding aristocracy adopted ever more elaborate, complex, costly and impractical forms of toga.


title: Toga

text: The toga nevertheless remained the formal costume of the Roman senatorial elite. A law issued by co-emperors Gratian, Valentinian II and Theodosius I in 382 AD (Codex Theodosianus 14.10.1) states that while senators in the city of Rome may wear the paenula in daily life, they must wear the toga when attending their official duties. Failure to do so would result in the senator being stripped of rank and authority, and of the right to enter the Curia Julia. Byzantine Greek art and portraiture show the highest functionaries of court, church and state in magnificently wrought, extravagantly exclusive court dress and priestly robes; some at least are thought to be versions of the Imperial toga. In the early European kingdoms that replaced Roman government in the West, kings and aristocrats alike dressed like the late Roman generals they sought to emulate, rather than the toga-clad senators of ancient tradition.


title: Gleiwitz incident

text: The Gleiwitz incident (; ) was a false flag attack on the radio station "Sender Gleiwitz" in Gleiwitz (then Germany and now Gliwice, Poland) staged by Nazi Germany on the night of 31 August 1939. Along with some two dozen similar incidents, the attack was manufactured by Germany as a "casus belli" to justify the invasion of Poland. Prior to the invasion, Adolf Hitler gave a radio address condemning the acts and announcing German plans to attack Poland, which began the next morning. Despite the German government using the attack as a justification to go to war with Poland, the Gleiwitz assailants were not Polish but were German SS officers wearing Polish uniforms.


title: Gleiwitz incident

text: During his declaration of war, Hitler did not mention the Gleiwitz incident but grouped all provocations staged by the SS as an alleged "Polish assault" on Germany. The Gleiwitz incident is the best-known action of Operation Himmler, a series of special operations undertaken by the "Schutzstaffel" (SS) to serve German propaganda at the outbreak of war. The operation was intended to create the appearance of a Polish aggression against Germany to justify the invasion of Poland. On September 3, Britain and France declared war on Germany, the European theatre of World War II had begun. Manufactured evidence for the Gleiwitz attack by the SS was provided by the German SS officer Alfred Naujocks in 1945.


title: Gleiwitz incident

text: Much of what is known about the Gleiwitz incident comes from the affidavit of "SS-Sturmbannführer" Alfred Naujocks at the Nuremberg Trials. In his testimony, he stated that he organised the incident under orders from Reinhard Heydrich and Heinrich Müller, chief of the Gestapo. On the night of 31 August, a small group of German operatives dressed in Polish uniforms and led by Naujocks seized the Gleiwitz station and broadcast a short anti-German message in Polish (sources vary on the content of the message). The operation was named ""Grossmutter gestorben"" (Grandmother died). The operation was to make the attack and the broadcast look like the work of Polish anti-German saboteurs.


title: Gleiwitz incident

text: To make the attack seem more convincing, the Gestapo executed Franciszek Honiok, a 43-year-old unmarried Upper Silesian Catholic farmer, known for sympathising with the Poles. He had been arrested the previous day by the Gestapo and dressed to look like a saboteur, then rendered unconscious by an injection of drugs, then killed by gunshot wounds. Honiok was left dead at the scene so that he appeared to have been killed while attacking the station. His corpse was then presented to the police and press as proof of the attack. Several prisoners from the Dachau concentration camp were drugged, shot dead on the site and their faces disfigured to make identification impossible. The Germans referred to them by the code phrase ""Konserve"" (canned goods). Some sources incorrectly refer to the incident as Operation Canned Goods.


title: Gleiwitz incident

text: In an oral testimony at the trials, Erwin von Lahousen stated that his division of the "Abwehr" was one of two that were given the task of providing Polish Army uniforms, equipment and identification cards; he was later told by Wilhelm Canaris that people from concentration camps had been disguised in these uniforms and ordered to attack the radio stations.


title: Gleiwitz incident

text: Oskar Schindler, who is credited with later saving the lives of 1,200 Jews during the Holocaust, played a role in supplying the Polish uniforms and weapons used in the operation as an agent for the "Abwehr".


title: Gleiwitz incident

text: The Gleiwitz incident was a part of a larger operation carried out by "Abwehr" and SS forces. Other orchestrated incidents were conducted along the Polish–German border at the same time as the Gleiwitz attack, such as a house burning in the Polish Corridor and spurious propaganda. The project was called Operation Himmler and comprised incidents intended to give the appearance of Polish aggression against Germany. German newspapers and politicians, including Adolf Hitler, had made accusations against Polish authorities for months before the 1939 invasion of organising or tolerating violent ethnic cleansing of ethnic Germans living in Poland. On 1 September, the day following the Gleiwitz attack, Germany launched "Fall Weiss" (Case White), the strategic plan for the invasion of Poland, which precipitated World War II in Europe. Hitler cited the border incidents in a speech in the Reichstag on the same day, with three of them called very serious, as justification for his invasion of Poland. Hitler had told his generals on 22 August, "I will provide a propagandistic casus belli. Its credibility doesn't matter. The victor will not be asked whether he told the truth".


title: Gleiwitz incident

text: American correspondents were summoned to the scene the next day but no neutral parties were allowed to investigate the incident in detail and the international public was skeptical of the German version of the incident.


title: Gleiwitz incident

text: There have been several adaptations of the incident in cinema. "Der Fall Gleiwitz" (1961), directed by Gerhard Klein for DEFA studios ("The Gleiwitz Case"; English subtitles), is an East German film that reconstructs the events.


title: Gleiwitz incident

text: Both "Die Blechtrommel" (1979), directed by Volker Schlöndorff and "" (1985), directed by Jim Goddard, briefly include the incident.


title: Gleiwitz incident

text: It was also mentioned in a video game; "" (2004), which stirred up some controversy in Poland where the game was briefly discussed in Polish media as anti-Polish falsification of history, before the issue was cleared up as a case of poor reporting.


title: Joint

text: A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between bones, ossicles, or other hard structures in the body which link an animal's skeletal system into a functional whole. They are constructed to allow for different degrees and types of movement. Some joints, such as the knee, elbow, and shoulder, are self-lubricating, almost frictionless, and are able to withstand compression and maintain heavy loads while still executing smooth and precise movements. Other joints such as sutures between the bones of the skull permit very little movement (only during birth) in order to protect the brain and the sense organs. The connection between a tooth and the jawbone is also called a joint, and is described as a fibrous joint known as a gomphosis. Joints are classified both structurally and functionally.


title: Joint

text: The number of joints depends on if sesamoids are included, age of the human and the definition of joints. However, the number of sesamoids is the same in most people with variations being rare.


title: Joint

text: Joints are mainly classified structurally and functionally. Structural classification is determined by how the bones connect to each other, while functional classification is determined by the degree of movement between the articulating bones. In practice, there is significant overlap between the two types of classifications.


title: Joint

text: Structural classification names and divides joints according to the type of binding tissue that connects the bones to each other. There are four structural classifications of joints:


title: Joint

text: Joints can also be classified functionally according to the type and degree of movement they allow: Joint movements are described with reference to the basic anatomical planes.


title: Joint

text: Joints can also be classified, according to the number of axes of movement they allow, into nonaxial (gliding, as between the proximal ends of the ulna and radius), monoaxial (uniaxial), biaxial and multiaxial. Another classification is according to the degrees of freedom allowed, and distinguished between joints with one, two or three degrees of freedom. A further classification is according to the number and shapes of the articular surfaces: flat, concave and convex surfaces. Types of articular surfaces include trochlear surfaces.


title: Joint

text: Joints can also be classified based on their anatomy or on their biomechanical properties. According to the anatomic classification, joints are subdivided into "simple" and "compound", depending on the number of bones involved, and into "complex" and "combination" joints:


title: Joint

text: Unmyelinated nerve fibers are abundant in joint capsules and ligaments as well as in the outer part of intraarticular menisci. These nerve fibers are responsible for pain perception when a joint is strained.


title: Joint

text: Damaging the cartilage of joints (articular cartilage) or the bones and muscles that stabilize the joints can lead to joint dislocations and osteoarthritis. Swimming is a great way to exercise the joints with minimal damage.


title: Joint

text: A joint disorder is termed arthropathy, and when involving inflammation of one or more joints the disorder is called arthritis. Most joint disorders involve arthritis, but joint damage by external physical trauma is typically not termed arthritis.


title: Joint

text: Arthropathies are called "polyarticular" (multiarticular) when involving many joints and "monoarticular" when involving only a single joint.


title: Joint

text: Arthritis is the leading cause of disability in people over the age of 55. There are many different forms of arthritis, each of which has a different cause. The most common form of arthritis, osteoarthritis (also known as degenerative joint disease), occurs following trauma to the joint, following an infection of the joint or simply as a result of aging and the deterioration of articular cartilage. Furthermore, there is emerging evidence that abnormal anatomy may contribute to early development of osteoarthritis. Other forms of arthritis are rheumatoid arthritis and psoriatic arthritis, which are autoimmune diseases in which the body is attacking itself. Septic arthritis is caused by joint infection. Gouty arthritis is caused by deposition of uric acid crystals in the joint that results in subsequent inflammation. Additionally, there is a less common form of gout that is caused by the formation of rhomboidal-shaped crystals of calcium pyrophosphate. This form of gout is known as pseudogout.


title: Joint

text: Temporomandibular joint syndrome (TMJ) involves the jaw joints and can cause facial pain, clicking sounds in the jaw, or limitation of jaw movement, to name a few symptoms. It is caused by psychological tension and misalignment of the jaw (malocclusion), and may be affecting as many as 75 million Americans.


title: Joint

text: The English word "joint" is a past participle of the verb "join", and can be read as "joined". Joint is derived from Latin "iunctus", past participle of the Latin verb "iungere", join, unite, connect, attach.


title: Joint

text: Humans have also developed lighter, more fragile joint bones over time due to the decrease in physical activity compared to thousands of years ago.


title: Midwest emo

text: Midwest emo (or Midwestern emo) refers to the emo scene and/or subgenre that developed in 1990s Midwestern United States. Employing unconventional vocal stylings, distinct guitar riffs and arpeggiated melodies, Midwest emo bands shifted away from the genre's hardcore punk roots and drew on indie rock and math rock approaches. According to the author and critic Andy Greenwald, "this was the period when emo earned many, if not all, of the stereotypes that have lasted to this day: boy-driven, glasses-wearing, overly sensitive, overly brainy, chiming-guitar-driven college music." Midwest emo is sometimes used interchangeably with "second-wave emo". Although not implied by the name, Midwest emo does not solely refer to bands and artists from the Midwestern United States, and the style is played by outfits internationally.


title: Midwest emo

text: According to "The Chicago Reader" critic Leor Galil, the second-wave bands of the Midwest emo scene "transformed the angular fury of D.C. emo into something malleable, melodic, and cathartic—its common features included cycling guitar parts, chugging bass lines, and unconventional singing that sounded like a sweet neighbor kid with no vocal training but plenty of heart." Incorporating elements from indie rock, the genre also features "gloomy chord progressions" and arpeggiated guitar melodies. Midwest emo is also commonly associated with the use of math rock elements.


title: Midwest emo

text: The definable traits of the Midwest emo have proven to be easily fused with other genres of underground independent music. Revival bands including The World Is a Beautiful Place & I Am No Longer Afraid to Die mixed the Midwestern emo sound with genres such as post-rock and orchestral music. Other outfits, including Patterns Make Sunrise, The Pennikurvers, and Everyone Asked About You, introduced elements of twee pop and indie pop into the sound of Midwest emo. This proved influential to the aforementioned Emo revival scene, with groups like Dowsing and Empire! Empire! (I Was a Lonely Estate) taking a similar approach.


title: Midwest emo

text: The Midwest emo scene came into prominence in the mid-1990s with bands such as American Football, Chamberlain, The Promise Ring, Cap'n Jazz, Cursive, Mineral and The Get Up Kids. Braid has been regarded as an important act to propel the Midwest emo sound across the United States. Some of the acts to practice the sound were originally not from the Midwestern United States, with Sunny Day Real Estate being from Washington and Mineral being from Texas.


title: Midwest emo

text: Midwest emo saw a notable resurgence over the late 2000s with labels such as Count Your Lucky Stars Records, as well as by bands such as CSTVT, Oliver Houston, Into It. Over It., Algernon Cadwallader and Snowing.


title: Combat Rock

text: Combat Rock is the fifth studio album by the English rock band the Clash. It was released on 14 May 1982 through CBS Records. In the United Kingdom, the album charted at number 2, spending 23 weeks in the UK charts and peaked at number 7 in the United States, spending 61 weeks on the chart. The album was propelled by Topper Headon's "Rock the Casbah" which became a staple in the newly launched MTV. "Combat Rock" continued the influence of funk and reggae like the previous albums, but also featured a more radio friendly sound which alienated some Clash fans. The recording and producing process of the album was tiring and full of infighting between Mick Jones and Joe Strummer. Headon's heroin addiction grew worse and he slowly became distant from the band. The band had disagreed on the creative process of the album and called in Glyn Johns to produce the more radio friendly sound of "Combat Rock."


title: Combat Rock

text: "Combat Rock" is the group's best-selling album, being certified double platinum in the United States and reaching number 2 in the U.K. Reception to the album believed the band had reached its peak maturity with "Combat Rock", as the sound was less anarchic but still as political as previous albums. It contains two of the Clash's signature songs, the singles "Rock the Casbah" and "Should I Stay or Should I Go". "Rock the Casbah" became highly successful in the United States and proved to be the band's anticipated U.S breakthrough. "Should I Stay or Should I Go" was not as successful until being re-released in 1991 and topping the charts in their native United Kingdom. "Combat Rock" is the last Clash album featuring the classic lineup. Topper Headon was fired days before the release of Combat Rock(due to his heroin addiction) and Mick Jones was infamously fired after the end of the Combat Rock tour in 1983.


title: Combat Rock

text: Following the triple-album "Sandinista!" (1980), singer/guitarist Joe Strummer felt the group was "drifting" creatively. Bassist Paul Simonon agreed with Strummer's dissatisfaction towards the "boring" professionalism of the Clash's then-managers Blackhill Enterprises. Strummer and Simonon convinced their bandmates to reinstate the band's original manager Bernie Rhodes in February 1981, in an attempt to restore the "chaos" and "anarchic energy" of the Clash's early days. This decision was not welcomed by guitarist Mick Jones, who was becoming progressively estranged from his bandmates.


title: Combat Rock

text: During this period, drummer Topper Headon escalated his intake of heroin and cocaine. His occasional drug usage had now become a habit that was costing him £100 per day and undermining his health. This drug addiction would be the factor that would later push his bandmates to fire him from the Clash, following the release of "Combat Rock".


title: Combat Rock

text: The album had the working title "Rat Patrol from Fort Bragg" during the recording and mixing stages. After early recording sessions in London, the group relocated to New York for recording sessions at Electric Lady Studios in November and December 1981. Electric Lady was where the band had recorded its previous album "Sandinista!" in 1980.


title: Combat Rock

text: While recording the album in New York, Mick Jones lived with his then-girlfriend Ellen Foley. Joe Strummer, Paul Simonon and Topper Headon stayed at the Iroquois Hotel on West 44th Street, a building famed for being the home of actor James Dean for two years during the early 1950s.


title: Combat Rock

text: After finishing the New York recording sessions in December 1981, the band returned to London for most of January 1982. Between January and March, the Clash embarked on a six-week tour of Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong and Thailand. During this tour, the album's cover photograph was shot by Pennie Smith in Thailand in March 1982.


title: Combat Rock

text: Following the gruelling Far East tour, the Clash returned to London in March 1982 to listen to the music that they had recorded in New York three months earlier. They had recorded 18 songs, enough material to possibly release as double-album. Having previously released the double-LP "London Calling" (1979) and the triple-LP "Sandinista!" (1980), the group considered whether they should again release a multi-LP collection.


title: Combat Rock

text: The band debated how many songs their new album should contain, and how long the songs' mixes should be. Mick Jones argued in favour of a double-album with lengthier, dancier mixes. The other band members argued in favour of a single album with shorter song mixes. This internal wrangling created tension within the band, particularly with Jones, who had mixed the first version.


title: Combat Rock

text: Manager Bernie Rhodes suggested that producer/engineer Glyn Johns be hired to remix the album. This editing took place in Johns' garden studio in Warnford, Hampshire (not at Wessex Studios, as is stated by some sources).


title: Combat Rock

text: Johns, accompanied by Strummer and Jones edited "Combat Rock" down from a 77-minute double album down to a 46-minute single LP. This was achieved by trimming the length of individual songs, such as by removing instrumental intros and codas from songs like "Rock the Casbah" and "Overpowered by Funk". Additionally, the trio decided to omit several songs entirely, dropping the final track count to 12.


title: Combat Rock

text: During these remixing sessions, Strummer and Jones also re-recorded their vocals for the songs "Should I Stay or Should I Go" and "Know Your Rights" and remixed the songs with the intent of maximising their impact as singles.


title: Combat Rock

text: The music on "Combat Rock" has been described as post-punk and new wave. A recurring motif of the album is the impact and aftermath of the Vietnam War. "Straight to Hell" describes the children fathered by American soldiers to Vietnamese mothers and then abandoned, while "Sean Flynn" describes the capture of photojournalist Sean Flynn, who was the son of actor Errol Flynn. Sean Flynn disappeared(and presumably killed) in 1970 after being captured by the Vietcong in Cambodia.


title: Combat Rock

text: Biographer Pat Gilbert describes many songs from "Combat Rock" as having a "trippy, foreboding feel", saturated in a "colonial melancholia and sadness" reflecting the Vietnam War. The band was inspired by Francis Ford Coppola's 1979 film about the Vietnam War, "Apocalypse Now", and had previously released the song "Charlie Don't Surf" on "Sandinista!", which referenced the film. Strummer later stated that he became "obsessed" of the film.


title: Combat Rock

text: Other "Combat Rock" songs, if not directly about the Vietnam War and U.S. foreign policy, depict American society in moral decline. "Inoculated City" satires the Nuremberg defense plea by soldiers on trial who've committed war crimes. The original version of this song included an unauthorized audio clip from a TV commercial for 2000 Flushes, a toilet bowl cleaner. The maker of this product threatened a lawsuit, forcing the group to edit the track, though the longer version was restored on later copies. "Red Angel Dragnet" was inspired by the January 1982 shooting death of Frank Melvin, a New York member of the Guardian Angels. The song quotes Martin Scorsese's 1976 movie "Taxi Driver", with Clash associate Kosmo Vinyl recording several lines of dialogue imitating the voice of main character Travis Bickle. Bickle sports a mohawk in the latter part of "Taxi Driver", this was a hairstyle adopted by Joe Strummer during the "Combat Rock" concert tour.


title: Combat Rock

text: The song "Ghetto Defendant" features beat poet Allen Ginsberg, who performed the song on stage with the band during the New York shows on their tour in support of the album. Ginsberg had researched punk music, and included phrases like "do the worm" and "slam dance" in his lyrics. At the end of the song he can be heard reciting the Heart Sutra, a popular Buddhist mantra.


title: Combat Rock

text: The song "Know Your Rights" starts off with: ""This is a public service announcement...with guitar!"" The musical style of the song was described as being one of the "more punk" songs on the album, reflecting the open and clear lyrics of the song. The lyrics represent the fraudulent rights for the lower and less respected class, with a nefarious Civil servant naming three rights, with each right having an exception to benefit the rich or being skewed against the lower class.


title: Combat Rock

text: Music for "Rock the Casbah" was written by the band's drummer Topper Headon, based on a piano part that he had been toying with. Finding himself in the studio without his three bandmates, Headon progressively taped the drum, piano and bass parts, recording the bulk of the song's musical instrumentation himself. The other Clash members were impressed with Headon's recording, stating that they felt the musical track was essentially complete. However, Strummer was not satisfied with the page of suggested lyrics that Headon gave him. Before hearing Headon's music, Strummer had already come up with the phrases ""rock the casbah"" and ""you'll have to let that raga drop"" as lyrical ideas that he was considering for future songs. After hearing Headon's music, Strummer went into the studio's toilets and wrote lyrics to match the song's melody.


title: Combat Rock

text: Following along the same note as "Sandinista!", "Combat Rock"s catalogue number "FMLN2" is the abbreviation for the El Salvador political party "Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional" or FMLN.


title: Combat Rock

text: Lead single "Know Your Rights" was released on 23 April 1982, and reached number 43 on the U.K. singles chart. "Combat Rock" was released on 14 May 1982 and reached number 2 on the U.K. album charts, kept off the top spot by Paul McCartney's "Tug of War". In the United States, "Combat Rock" reached number 7 on the album charts, selling in excess of one million copies. Combat Rock was the band's most successful album in the United States. However, in the U.K, Combat Rock was tied with the 1978 album Give 'Em Enough Rope for the highest charting album for the band in their native U.K.


title: Combat Rock

text: "Rock the Casbah", which was composed by drummer Topper Headon, reached number 8 on the U.S. singles chart. The single was accompanied by a distinctive video directed by Don Letts that aired frequently on the then-fledgling television channel MTV. Headon, despite composing the song, was not in the music video after being replaced by Terry Chimes for his raging heroin addiction.


title: Combat Rock

text: In January 2000, the album, along with the rest of the Clash's catalogue, was remastered and re-released. A fortieth anniversary reissue was released in May 2022 with demos and previously cut songs.


title: Combat Rock

text: "Combat Rock" peaked at number 2 on the UK Albums Chart, number 7 on the "Billboard" Pop albums, and the top ten on many charts in other countries. It was ranked at #4 among the top "Albums of the Year" for 1982 by "NME", with both "Straight to Hell" and "Know Your Rights" ranked among the year's top 50 tracks.


title: Combat Rock

text: The United States Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified "Combat Rock" as a Gold album in November 1982, Platinum in January 1983, and Multi-Platinum in June 1995.


title: Combat Rock

text: In a contemporary review for "The Village Voice", Robert Christgau lamented the same attempts at funk and dub the Clash had tried on "Sandinista!" (1980). Nonetheless, he dismissed the notion the band were selling out and believed they were "evolving" on "Combat Rock", writing songs at a "higher level of verbal, musical, and political density", albeit in less "terse and clear" fashion than on their early work.


title: Combat Rock

text: Douglas Wolk said in a retrospective review for "Blender" that while the record was originally seen as the Clash's "sellout move" because of its danceable sound and two hit singles, the other songs featured "audaciously bizarre arrangements and some of Strummer's smartest lyrics." "Q" magazine was less enthusiastic, deeming it "their biggest seller, but the beginning of the end." In 2000, "Alternative Press" called it "the penultimate Clash album ... employing lessons learned in the previous three years ... their most commercially rewarded release ... containing [their] most poignant song 'Straight to Hell'."


title: Combat Rock

text: "CMJ New Music Report" ranked "Combat Rock" at number five on its 2004 list of the Top 20 Most-Played Albums of 1982. Slant Magazine listed the album at No. 80 on its list of "Best Albums of the 1980s". Kurt Cobain listed it in his top fifty albums of all time.


title: Combat Rock

text: The songs added to the fortieth anniversary reissue were titled "The People's Hall". All tracks are written by the Clash.


title: Drogheda

text: Drogheda ( , ; , meaning "bridge at the ford") is an industrial and port town in County Louth on the east coast of Ireland, north of Dublin. It is located on the Dublin–Belfast corridor on the east coast of Ireland, mostly in County Louth but with the south fringes of the town in County Meath, north of Dublin. Drogheda has a population of approximately 41,000 inhabitants (2016), making it the eleventh largest settlement by population in all of Ireland, and the largest town in the Republic of Ireland by both population and area. It is the last bridging point on the River Boyne before it enters the Irish Sea. The UNESCO World Heritage Site of Newgrange is located west of the town.


title: Drogheda

text: Drogheda was founded as two separately administered towns in two different territories: Drogheda-in-Meath (i.e. the Lordship and Liberty of Meath, from which a charter was granted in 1194) and Drogheda-in-Oriel (or 'Uriel', as County Louth was then known). The division came from the twelfth-century boundary between two Irish kingdoms, colonised by different Norman interests, just as the River Boyne continues to divide the town between the dioceses of Armagh and Meath. In 1412 these two towns were united, and Drogheda became a county corporate, styled as "the County of the Town of Drogheda". Drogheda continued as a county borough until the establishment of county councils under the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, which saw all of Drogheda, including a large area south of the Boyne, become part of an extended County Louth. With the passing of the County of Louth and Borough of Drogheda (Boundaries) Provisional Order 1976, County Louth again grew larger at the expense of County Meath. The boundary was further altered in 1994 by the Local Government (Boundaries) (Town Elections) Regulations 1994. The 2007–2013 Meath County Development Plan recognises the Meath environs of Drogheda as a primary growth centre on a par with Navan.


title: Drogheda

text: The town is situated in an area which contains a number of archaeological monuments dating from the Neolithic period onwards, of which the large passage tombs of Newgrange, Knowth, and Dowth are probably the best known. The density of archaeological sites of the prehistoric and early Christian periods uncovered in the course of ongoing developments, (including during construction of the Northern Motorway or 'Drogheda Bypass'), have shown that the hinterland of Drogheda has been a settled landscape for millennia.


title: Drogheda

text: Despite local tradition linking Millmount to Amergin Glúingel, in his 1978 study of the history and archaeology of the town, John Bradley stated that "neither the documentary nor the archaeological evidence indicates that there was any settlement at the town prior to the coming of the Normans". The results of a number of often large-scale excavations carried out within the area of the medieval town appear to confirm this statement.


title: Drogheda

text: One of the earliest structures in the town is the motte-and-bailey castle, now known as Millmount Fort, which overlooks the town from a bluff on the south bank of the Boyne and which was probably erected by the Norman Lord of Meath, Hugh de Lacy, sometime before 1186. The wall on the east side of Rosemary Lane, a back-lane which runs from St. Laurence Street towards the Augustinian Church, is the oldest stone structure in Drogheda. It was completed in 1234 as the west wall of the first castle guarding access to the northern crossing point of the Boyne. A later castle, circa 1600, called "Laundy's Castle" stood at the junction of West Street and Peter's Street. On Meathside, the "Castle of Drogheda" or "The Castle of Comfort" was a tower house castle on the south side of the Bull Ring. It served as a prison, a sitting of the Irish parliament in 1494, and later as a tholsel building. The earliest known town charter is that granted to Drogheda-in-Meath by Walter de Lacy in 1194. In the 1600s, the name of the town was also spelled "Tredagh" in keeping with the common pronunciation, as documented by Gerard Boate in his work "Irelands' Natural History". In "c." 1655 it was spelled "Droghedagh" on a map by William Farriland.


title: Drogheda

text: Drogheda was an important walled town in the English Pale in the medieval period. It frequently hosted meetings of the Irish Parliament at that time. According to R.J. Mitchell in "John Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester", in a spill-over from the War of the Roses the Earl of Desmond and his two youngest sons (still children) were executed there on Valentine's Day 1468 on orders of the Earl of Worcester, the Lord Deputy of Ireland. It later came to light (for example in Robert Fabyan's "The New Chronicles of England and France"), that Elizabeth Woodville, the queen consort, was implicated in the orders given. The parliament was moved to the town in 1494 and passed Poynings' Law, the most significant legislation in Irish history, a year later. This effectively subordinated the Irish Parliament's legislative powers to the King and his English Council.


title: Drogheda

text: In the second siege of Drogheda, an assault was made on the town from the south, the tall walls breached, and the town was taken by Oliver Cromwell on 11 September 1649, as part of the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland and it was the site of a massacre of the Royalist defenders. In his own words after the siege of Drogheda, "When they submitted, their officers were knocked on the head, and every tenth man of the soldiers killed and the rest shipped to Barbados."


title: Drogheda

text: The Battle of the Boyne, 1690, occurred some west of the town, on the banks of the River Boyne, at Oldbridge.


title: Drogheda

text: In 1790, Drogheda Harbour Commissioners were established. They remained in place until 1997 when the Drogheda Port Company a commercial enterprise replaced them.


title: Drogheda

text: In 1825, the Drogheda Steam Packet Company was formed in the town, providing shipping services to Liverpool.


title: Drogheda

text: Drogheda's coat of arms features St. Laurence's Gate with three lions, and a ship emerging from either side of the barbican. The town's motto "Deus praesidium, mercatura decus" translates as "God our strength, merchandise our glory".


title: Drogheda

text: The star and crescent emblem in the crest of the coat of arms is mentioned as part of the mayor's seal


title: Drogheda

text: In 2010, Irish president Mary McAleese, in a speech delivered during an official visit to Turkey, stated that the star and crescent had been added in the aftermath of the Great Famine as gratitude for food supplies donated by the Ottoman Sultan, which had arrived at Drogheda by ship. Irish press quickly pointed out the story was a myth, with a local historian calling it 'nothing short of sheer nonsense'. However, later evidence, including a letter displayed at the office of the European Commission, confirms that Turkey came to the aid of the Irish during the Famine.


title: Drogheda

text: In 1921, the preserved severed head of Saint Oliver Plunkett, who was executed in London in 1681, was put on display in St. Peter's (Catholic) Church, where it remains today. The church is located on West Street, which is the main street in the town.


title: Drogheda

text: In 1979, Pope John Paul II visited Drogheda as part of his five-stop tour of Ireland. He arrived less than a month after the IRA assassination of Lord Mountbatten, Queen Elizabeth's cousin, in Mullaghmore. On 29 September 1979, he arrived in Dublin, where he gave his first mass. He then addressed 300,000 people in Drogheda, where he appealed "on his knees" to paramilitaries to end the violence in Ireland:


title: Drogheda

text: "Now I wish to speak to all men and women engaged in violence. I appeal to you, in language of passionate pleading. On my knees I beg you to turn away from the paths of violence and to return to the ways of peace. You may claim to seek justice. I too believe in justice and seek justice. But violence only delays the day of justice. Violence destroys the work of justice. Further violence in Ireland will only drag down to ruin the land you claim to love and the values you claim to cherish."


title: Drogheda

text: Two decades into the 21st century some of the historic core of Drogheda town has suffered urban decline. Some of the buildings have been derelict for some years and are in danger of collapse. There was a 2006 traffic plan for pedestrianisation of West Street. It was rejected at a vote of the elected councillors. They had come under pressure from traders in the area concerned about a potential further decline in customer footfall. But the issue has come up for debate again. When asked, Drogheda residents point out that a combination of expensive car-parking and high commercial rates had a push-pull effect on the town's centre. Shops were forced to close and at the same time shoppers brought their business to retail parks such as the Boyne Shopping Centre on Bolton Street. A substantial root-and-branch approach to renewal of the locality was proposed in “Westgate Vision: A Townscape Recovery Guide”. The Westgate area of Drogheda is to be subject to a 10-year regeneration by Louth County Council.


title: Drogheda

text: Drogheda has a hinterland of 70,000+ within a radius. According to the 2016 census, there were 40,956 people living in Drogheda town at that time.


title: Drogheda

text: As of the 2011 census, non-Irish nationals accounted for 16.1% of the population, compared with a national average of 12%. Polish nationals (1,127) were the largest group, followed by Lithuanian nationals (1,044 people). As of the 2016 census, 17.4% of the population were non-Irish nationals, with 676 people from the UK, 1,324 Polish nationals, 1,014 Lithuanians, 1,798 people from elsewhere in the EU, and 1,400 with other (non-EU) nationalities.


title: Drogheda

text: Drogheda has hosted the national traditional music festival, Fleadh Cheoil na hÉireann, in 2018 and again in 2019.


title: Drogheda

text: Drogheda is home to two brass bands: Drogheda Brass Band and Lourdes Brass Band. The town is known nationally for its choral tradition which goes back many years.


title: Drogheda

text: Drogheda hosted the international summer Samba festival in which Samba bands from around the world came to the town for three days of drumming and parades.


title: Drogheda

text: The composer and member of Aosdána, Michael Holohan, has lived in Drogheda since 1983. His compositions have been performed and broadcast both at home and internationally. Career highlights in Drogheda include "Cromwell" 1994, 'Drogheda 800' (RTECO, Lourdes Church); "The Mass of Fire" 1995, 'Augustinian 700' (RTÉ TV live broadcast); "No Sanctuary" 1997 with Nobel Laureate and poet Seamus Heaney (Augustinian Church); "Remembrance Sunday Service" and "Drogheda Unification" 600 (RTE TV live broadcast, St Peter's Church of Ireland) and two major concerts with The Boyne Valley Chamber Orchestra at Fleadh Cheoil na hÉireann in 2018 and 2019.


title: Drogheda

text: Drogheda regularly hosts “Music at the Gate”, a community-run event led by uilleann piper Darragh Ó Heiligh, next to Saint Laurence’s Gate in the centre of Drogheda. Other notable musicians from Drogheda include SJ McCardle, Drill Rappers A92, Seán Mathews and The Voice Squad.


title: Drogheda

text: October 2006 saw the opening of The Highlanes Gallery, the town's first dedicated municipal art gallery. Its location is the former Franciscan Church and Friary on St. Laurence Street. The gallery houses Drogheda's important municipal art collection, which dates from the 17th century. Drogheda's most famous visual artist was the abstract expressionist painter Nano Reid (1900–1981).


title: Drogheda

text: Drogheda is an ancient town that has a growing tourism industry. It has a UNESCO World Heritage site, Newgrange, located to the west of the town centre. Other tourist sites in the area include:


title: Drogheda

text: Drogheda has several international companies based in the town. Local employers include Coca-Cola International Services, State Street International Services, Natures Best, Yapstone Inc, the Drogheda Port Company, Glanbia and Flogas.


title: Drogheda

text: Drogheda also has a history of brewing and distilling, with companies Jameson Whiskey, Coca-Cola, Guinness, Jack Daniel's all having previously produced (or are still producing) their products in or near the town. These include the Boann distillery and brewery, Slane Whiskey (a Jack Daniel's-owned company), Listoke House, Dan Kellys (cider), and Jack Codys. The town formerly distilled Prestons whiskey, a Jameson Whiskey brand; Cairnes Beer, founded locally and sold to Guinness; and Coca-Cola concentrate.


title: Drogheda

text: Drogheda is located close to the M1 (E1 Euro Route 1) (main Dublin – Belfast motorway). The Mary McAleese Boyne Valley Bridge carries traffic from the M1, across the River Boyne, west of the town. It was opened on 9 June 2003 and is the longest cable-stayed bridge in Ireland. The town's postcode, or eircode, is A92.


title: Drogheda

text: Drogheda acquired rail links to Dublin in 1844, Navan in 1850 and Belfast in 1852. Passenger services between Drogheda and Navan were ended in 1958, however the line remains open for freight (Tara Mines/Platin Cement) traffic. In 1966 Drogheda station was renamed "MacBride". Drogheda railway station opened on 25 May 1844.


title: Drogheda

text: The station has direct trains on the Enterprise northbound to Dundalk, , , and Belfast Central, and southbound to Dublin Connolly. 1 Train a day to Belfast skips Drogheda


title: Drogheda

text: A wide variety of Iarnród Éireann commuter services connect southbound to , , , Dublin Connolly, , Dublin Pearse, Dún Laoghaire, , , , and Wexford.


title: Drogheda

text: Drogheda's bus station is located on Donore Road. Past Bus Éireann routes included the 184 to Garristown and 185 to Bellewstown.


title: Drogheda

text: Drogheda Borough Council is an elected local government body which is mandated under the Local Government Act 2001 to provide civic leadership and a forum for the democratic representation of the community. Responsibilities include amenity support, operation of the Litter Act, contribution to tourism development, event licensing, arts support, etc. The Borough Council executive comprises twelve elected Councillors, headed by the mayor. The mayor, elected in June 2019 for the period 2019–2020, was Paul Bell (Labour).


title: Drogheda

text: For local elections to Louth County Council, the town forms part of two local electoral areas – Drogheda East (6) and Drogheda West (4).


title: Drogheda

text: The local newspapers are the "Drogheda Independent" and "Drogheda Leader", known locally as "The D.I." and "The Leader". Both newspapers are published every Wednesday. The headquarters of" The Drogheda Independent" are on Shop Street and "The Drogheda Leader"'s offices are on Laurence Street.


title: Drogheda

text: The local radio station is LMFM, broadcasting on 95.8 FM. The headquarters of LMFM are on Marley's Lane on the south side of the town.


title: Drogheda

text: Drogheda is a regional centre for medical care. Its main hospital is Our Lady of Lourdes Hospital, a public hospital located in the town. and is part of the Louth Meath Hospital Group. Facilities include a 24-hour emergency department for the populations of County Louth, County Meath and the North-East of Ireland. The hospital provides 340 beds, of which 30 are reserved for acute day cases.


title: Drogheda

text: The Cottage Hospital on Scarlet Street is a former maternity hospital, which subsequently became a Geriatric Unit for a number of years.


title: Drogheda

text: There are six secondary schools situated in Drogheda. St. Joseph's secondary school in Newfoundwell is an all-boys school, as is St. Marys Diocesan School on Beamore Rd. The Sacred Heart School, situated in Sunnyside Drogheda, is an all-girls school. The Drogheda Grammar school, located on Mornington Road, St. Oliver's Community College, on Rathmullen Road, and Ballymakenny College, on the Ballymakenny Road, are mixed schools. Our Lady's College, in Greenhills is an all-girls school. There is also Drogheda Institute for Further Education (DIFE), a third-level college situated in Moneymore townland.