title: Ilya Naishuller

text: In 2013, Naishuller directed and starred in "Bad Motherfucker" – the music video for a Biting Elbows' hit single. Shot entirely in POV, Bad Mother Fucker became a viral online hit with over 150 million cumulative views The video caught the attention of Hollywood agents, actors and directors and was praised by Darren Aronofsky.


title: Ilya Naishuller

text: In 2015 Naishuller directed an independent feature "Hardcore", later renamed "Hardcore Henry". It starred Sharlto Copley and Tim Roth and was produced by Timur Bekmambetov, Inga Vainshtein Smith and Ekaterina Kononenko. Naishuller is also credited as screenwriter, director, producer and acted in the film as well. The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in 2015 and won the festival's People's Choice Award. It was released theatrically by STXfilms on April 8, 2016. It went on to gross $14.3 million USD, in the US. Simultaneously Naishuller and writers, Brain Philipson and Will Stewart, released the comic book titled 'Hardcore Akan #1', the origin story for "Hardcore Henry."


title: Ilya Naishuller

text: The music video "Kolshchik" that Naishuller directed for the Russian rock band Leningrad won the Berlin Music Video Awards in 2017, while taking the first place for the "Best Concept" category.


title: Ilya Naishuller

text: In 2021, Naishuller directed "Nobody", an American action film written by Derek Kolstad. The Universal Pictures film stars Bob Odenkirk, Connie Nielsen, Aleksey Serebryakov, RZA and Christopher Lloyd. The film premiered right as the COVID blocked theatrical window reopened, and achieved #1 at the US Box Office in the opening weekend.


title: Israeli Navy

text: The Israeli Navy (, "Ḥeil HaYam HaYisraeli" (English: The Israeli Sea Corps); ) is the naval warfare service arm of the Israel Defense Forces, operating primarily in the Mediterranean Sea theater as well as the Gulf of Eilat and the Red Sea theater. The current commander in chief of the Israeli Navy is Aluf David Sa'ar Salama. The Israeli Navy is believed to be responsible for maintaining Israel's offshore nuclear second strike capability.


title: Israeli Navy

text: The origins of the Israeli Navy lay in the founding of the Betar Naval Academy, a Jewish naval training school established in Civitavecchia, Italy, in 1934 by the Revisionist Zionist movement under the direction of Ze'ev Jabotinsky, The Academy trained cadets from all over Europe, Palestine and South Africa and produced some of the future commanders of the Israeli Navy. In September 1937, the training ship "Sarah I" visited Haifa and Tel Aviv as part of a Mediterranean tour.


title: Israeli Navy

text: In 1938, encouraged by the Jewish Agency, Dr. Shlomo Bardin founded the Marine High School in Bosmat, the Technion's Junior Technical College. 1943 witnessed the founding of the Palyam, the naval branch of the Palmach, whose training was undertaken at the maritime school. The Jewish merchant marine was also raised, operating SS "Tel-Aviv" and cargo ships such as "Atid".


title: Israeli Navy

text: In 1942, eleven hundred Haganah volunteers joined the Royal Navy, mostly in technical roles (12 of them were officers by the nomination agreement of the Jewish Agency with the Royal Navy). A few reached sea service and combat service. Two of them served with the Fleet Air Arm (FAA), one of whom was Edmond Wilhelm Brillant and the other Zvi Avidror. With the end of the Second World War and the start of the Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine, Palyam members took part in clandestine immigration activities, bringing Europe's Jews to Palestine, as well as commando actions against Royal Navy deportation ships. Royal Navy volunteers, meanwhile, rejoined the Haganah.


title: Israeli Navy

text: During the last months of British Mandate in Palestine, the former Royal Navy volunteers started work on the captured clandestine immigration ships (known as the Fleet of Shadows) in Haifa harbor, salvaged a few and pressed them into service. These were to become the Navy's first ships and saw service in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.


title: Israeli Navy

text: At the outset of the 1948 war and with the founding of the IDF, the Israeli Navy consisted of four former Aliyah Bet ships impounded in Haifa harbor. These ships were refurbished by a newly formed naval repair facility with the assistance of two private shipbuilding and repair companies. In October 1948, a submarine chaser was purchased from the United States. With the founding of the IDF in early 1948, the Israeli Navy was therefore formed from a core of the following personnel:


title: Israeli Navy

text: During the war, the warships served on coastal patrol duties and bombarded Arab targets on land, including Egyptian coastal installations in and around the Gaza area all the way to Port Said. The Israeli Navy also engaged the Egyptian Navy at sea during Operation Yoav, and the Egyptian Navy's flagship, "Emir Farouk", was sunk in an operation by Israeli naval commandos.


title: Israeli Navy

text: Palyam personnel often resisted efforts to instill order, discipline and rank in the newly formed service. Mess rooms were initially shared by both officers and enlisted men. Ships possessed a captain with nautical skills, but also a commanding officer regarded as political. This would cause a great deal of debate between veterans of the Palyam, Royal Navy volunteers from the Haganah and U.S. Navy Machal volunteers about what form the Navy should take. Commander Allen Burk is reputed to have said, out of despair, "You cannot make naval officers from cowboys".


title: Israeli Navy

text: Royal Navy Captain Ashe Lincoln, who was Jewish, advised Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion to purchase corvettes, frigates, destroyers, torpedo boats, and patrol boats to build up the Israeli Navy power. To that end, he urged Ben-Gurion to consult with professional navy advisers. This resulted in instructions to contact U.S. Navy advisors, mainly Commander Paul Shulman from the U.S. Navy.


title: Israeli Navy

text: The Israeli Navy suffered from a lack of professional command during its early days. Gershon Zak, head of the IDF "Sea Service", was a teacher and bureaucrat without any relevant experience. Having never been recruited into the IDF, Zak was a civilian and had no official rank. The early days of the Israeli Navy were therefore characterized by political infighting, as many groups and individuals jockeyed for power. Palyam politics blocked the nomination of Paul Shulman (a Jewish U.S. Navy officer with a rank of Commander who volunteered for the Israeli Navy) as Navy-Commander in Chief and he resigned in 1949. The first Navy-Commander in Chief awarded the rank of Aluf was Shlomo Shamir.


title: Israeli Navy

text: The conclusion of the 1948 war afforded the navy the time to build up its strength. Beginning in the early 1950s the navy purchased frigates, torpedo boats, destroyers, and eventually submarines. The material build-up was accompanied by the training of Israeli Navy officers in Royal Navy academies in the UK and Malta, as well as in France.


title: Israeli Navy

text: Until 1967 the Naval Headquarters were located at Stella Maris, on the slopes of Mount Carmel, Haifa. After the Six-Day War it was relocated to the Kirya in Tel Aviv, next to IDF Headquarters.


title: Israeli Navy

text: In the most significant engagement in its history, during the Yom Kippur War five Israeli Navy missile boats sank five Syrian ships without losses during the Battle of Latakia. As a result, the Syrian Navy remained in port for the remainder of the conflict. It was the first naval battle in history between surface-to-surface missile-equipped missile boats.


title: Israeli Navy

text: Another significant engagement was the Battle of Baltim, during which six Israeli Navy missile boats engaged four Egyptian Navy missile boats sinking three, again, without losses.


title: Israeli Navy

text: The surprise attack on the Israeli navy's flagship INS Hanit by an onshore Hezbollah battery was a turning point for naval doctrine and operations. Four seamen died when the YJ-83 missile hit the gunship because the vessel's missile defense systems had not been turned on at that time.


title: Israeli Navy

text: Squadrons 914, 915, and 916, based in Haifa, Eilat, and Ashdod respectively, consist of patrol boats. They are responsible for protecting Israel's shores and territorial waters.


title: Israeli Navy

text: The missile boat flotilla (Shayetet 3) is based at Haifa. It consists of the 31st and 32nd missile boat squadrons and the 33rd and 36th corvette squadrons.


title: Israeli Navy

text: For security reasons, applicants with dual citizenship must now officially renounce all other citizenships to be accepted into the submarine service training program.


title: Israeli Navy

text: Shayetet 13, or Flotilla 13, is an elite naval commando unit which specializes in sea-to-land incursions, counter-terrorism, sabotage operations, maritime intelligence gathering, maritime hostage rescue, and boarding. It is among the most highly trained and secretive units in the Israeli military.


title: Israeli Navy

text: Salvage and underwater works unit. Formed as the damage control branch of the Navy Shipyards, the unit later incorporated experienced Flotilla-13 divers.


title: Israeli Navy

text: Force protection and harbour security unit. Also in charge of diving checkups of civilian ships entering Israeli harbours.


title: Israeli Navy

text: Aircraft operated by the Israeli Navy, even when including on-board Navy mission specialists, are flown and maintained by Israeli Air Force personnel and are part of the air force command structure.


title: Israeli Navy

text: Currently under construction is a sixth Dolphin 2 submarine (INS "Drakon"). Additionally, Israel signed an MoU with Germany for the construction of three Dakar-class submarines with expected delivery in the late 2020s which will replace its three Dolphin 1 submarines delivered in the late 1990s.


title: Israeli Navy

text: On 26 August 2021, Israel Shipyards announced that the Israeli Navy has signed an agreement with it for the design and supply of a new class of missile boats based on Israel Shipyards' Sa'ar 72-class corvette that would replace its Sa'ar 4.5 ships starting in the mid-2020s. Israel Shipyards would also construct a large dry dock which would enable it to outfit these new corvettes with various Israeli-made systems, as well as to service and maintain the corvettes in addition to Dolphin submarines. On an 24 October 2021 interview with Jane's Information Group, the head of the Israeli Navys` Naval Vessels Department said that these new ""Reshef""-class vessel missile ships would be equipped with Rafael Advanced Defense Systems's C-Dome air-defence system.


title: Israeli Navy

text: He also said that their design was expected to be complete in about two years, and the first ship would likely take another two to four years to construct. Eight are to be built, with each replacing a Sa'ar 4.5 upon being commissioned.


title: Israeli Navy

text: The Israeli Navy is small compared to other Navies and the officers chain of command is as follows with respect to Royal – Navy / United States:


title: Israeli Navy

text: Sleeve rank of Israeli Navy Commander-in-Chief is a rank of honor. This began as special permission from Lt. General Amnon Lipkin-Shahak (then chief of staff of the IDF) and allows the Navy Commander-in-Chief to have a sleeve rank of Vice Admiral which is equal to Lt. General, the rank of the IDF Chief of Staff. However the "de facto" rank of Israeli Navy Commander-in-Chief is Rear Admiral and the gesture given to the navy is ceremonial only when meeting foreign commanding officers.


title: Israeli Navy

text: The same resolution as mentioned above applies to the rank of Commodore. There is ceremonial-only sleeve rank of Rear–Admiral while by the IDF hierarchy and chain of command he remains a commodore.


title: Dullahan

text: The Dullahan (Irish: Dubhlachan ; dúlachán, ), also called Gan Ceann (meaning "without a head" in Irish), is a type of mythological creature in Irish folklore. He is depicted as a headless rider, on a black horse, who carries his own head held high in his hand or under his arm.


title: Dullahan

text: Dullahan or Dulachan ( [Duḃlaċan]) referring to "hobgoblin" (generic term; cf. Dullahan described as "unseelie (wicked) fairy"), literally "signifies dark, sullen person", according to the lexicographer Edward O'Reilly, apparently containing the stem "dubh" meaning "black" in Irish. Dulachan and Durrachan are alternative words for this "hobgoblin", and these forms suggest etymological descent from "anger" or "malicious" or "fierce".


title: Dullahan

text: Dullahan was later glossed as "dark, angry, sullen, fierce or malicious being" encompassing both etymologies, though Thomas Crofton Croker considered the alternative etymology more dubious than the "dubh" "black" ("dark") etymology.


title: Dullahan

text: The story of the Dullahan's house comes from Ireland. He is depicted as a Headless Horseman, on a black horse, who carries his own head held high in his hand, or under his arm.


title: Dullahan

text: The rumour of a Dullahan's appearance often develops near a graveyard or a charnel vault where a wicked aristocrat is reputed to be buried.


title: Dullahan

text: Croker's "Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South of Ireland" (1828) contained a section on "The Dullahan" with five chapters, devoted to the lore of headless beings, followed by his own commentary.


title: Dullahan

text: A dullahan may also be a headless coachman who drives the horse-drawn carriage out of graveyards, or conversely, arrives driving the Death Coach at the doorstep of a person whose death is nigh approaching.


title: Dullahan

text: "Headless Coach" () or the "Soundless Coach" (literally "deaf coach", ; Hiberno-English: "Coshta Bower", corrupted to "coach-a-bower"). is the name given to the said vehicle driven by the dullahan.


title: Dullahan

text: In the story "Hanlon's Mill" collected by Croker, the protagonist Michael (Mick) Noonan encounters a black coach drawn by six headless black horses, driven by a headless coachman clad in black. Afterwards, Master Wrixon Ballygibblin had a fit and died, where Mick lived. Croker in connection to this story remarks that the appearance of "Headless Coach" foreshadows imminent death, or misfortune.


title: Dullahan

text: Croker reports one legend that a Headless Coach would run back and forth from Castle Hyde to a glen/valley beyond the village of Ballyhooly, in County Cork. In the same region in the town of Doneraile, it was said that the coach would visit the houses in succession, and whichever occupant dared to open the door would be splashed with a basin (basin-ful) of blood by the coachman. At any rate, the coach making a stop


title: Dullahan

text: "Cóiste Bodhar" was referred to as "Soundless Coach" by Robert Lynd, who gave an account of a "silent shadow" of a coach passing by, provided by an avowed witness from Connemara. However William Butler Yeats explained that "the 'deaf coach' was so called because of its rumbling sound".


title: Dullahan

text: According to one witness, only the silent shadow of the horse-drawn hearse, i.e, the "Soundless Coach" was seen passing by.


title: Dullahan

text: The tale "The Good Woman" an encounter with cloaked female figure, who turned out to be a headless Dullahan. Later, he encounters many, both males and females.


title: Dullahan

text: It happened to a resident of "White Knight's Country" at the foot the Galtee Mountains (Galtymore), a peasant named Larry Dodd, who was also the most skilled horse-breaker around. He traveled (westward) to Cashel where he bought a nag, intending to sell it at Kildorrery fair that June evening. He offered a ride to a cloaked female, stopping at "Kilnaslattery Church" to mend his shoe. When he grabbed her to exact a kiss as payment in kind for the ride, he discovered her to be a Dullahan. After losing grip of consciousness, he found that in the church ruins was a wheel of torture set with severed heads (skulls), and all around headless Dullahans, both men and women, nobles and commoners of various occupations. Larry was offered a drink, which caused his head to be severed in mid-sentence as he was about to compliment it, though his head reverted when he regained his senses. He also seemed to have lost his horse to the Dullahans.


title: Dullahan

text: The Dullahan has been ascribed with using the spine of a human corpse for a whip by a number of modern commentators.


title: Dullahan

text: The headless coachman merely bears a "long whip" in Croker's tale "The Harvest Dinner", with which he lashed the horses so furiously he almost struck a witness blind in an eye (the would-be-victim regarded it as deliberate assault). Croker deduces that the headless one as a way of habit always uses the long whip as weapon to destroy his witness's eye or eyes, reasoning that the coachman's wrath turns to the onlooker because he himself lack the ability to look, due to his headlessness.


title: Dullahan

text: The spine is mentioned in conjunction by Croker in his poem "The Death Coach", but the lines "The spokes are the dead men's thigh bones,/And the pole is the spine of the back" presumably refer to these bones being used on the axle and the wheel-spokes of the carriage. A later writer prosifying this description supplied additional details, so that the "two hollow skulls" used as lanterns on the carriage are set with candles, and the hammercloth made of pall material "mildew'd by damps" is embellished as being chewed by worms,


title: Dullahan

text: The head which the horseman carries "under [his] .. right arm" is described as follows in Croker's tale "The Headless Horseman":


title: Dullahan

text: ..such a head no mortal ever saw before. It looked like a large cream cheese hung round with black puddings: no speck of colour enlivened the ashy paleness of the depressed features; the skin lay stretched over the unearthly surface almost like the parchment head of a drum. Two fiery eyes of prodigious circumference, with a strange and irregular motion, flashed like meteors..


title: Dullahan

text: In the words of the modern storyteller Tony Locke of County Mayo, Dullahan's mouth, full of razor-sharp teeth, forms a grin reaching the sides of the head, its "massive" eyes "constantly dart about like flies", and the flesh has acquired the "smell, colour and consistency of mouldy cheese".


title: Imperial German Army

text: The Imperial German Army (1871–1919), officially referred to as the German Army (), was the unified ground and air force of the German Empire. It was established in 1871 with the political unification of Germany under the leadership of Prussia, and was dissolved in 1919, after the defeat of the German Empire in World War I (1914–1918). In the Federal Republic of Germany, the term ' identifies the German Army, the land component of the '.


title: Imperial German Army

text: The states that made up the German Empire contributed their armies; within the German Confederation, formed after the Napoleonic Wars, each state was responsible for maintaining certain units to be put at the disposal of the Confederation in case of conflict. When operating together, the units were known as the Federal Army ("). The Federal Army system functioned during various conflicts of the 19th century, such as the First Schleswig War from 1848–50 but by the time of the Second Schleswig War of 1864, tension had grown between the main powers of the confederation, the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia and the German Confederation was dissolved after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866.


title: Imperial German Army

text: Prussia formed the North German Confederation and the treaty provided for the maintenance of a Federal Army and a Federal Navy (' or '). Further laws on military duty also used these terms. Conventions (some later amended) were entered into between the North German Confederation and its member states, subordinating their armies to the Prussian army in time of war, and giving the Prussian Army control over training, doctrine and equipment.


title: Imperial German Army

text: Shortly after the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, the North German Confederation also entered into conventions on military matters with states that were not members of the confederation, namely Bavaria, Württemberg, and Baden. Through these conventions and the 1871 Constitution of the German Empire, an Army of the Realm (') was created. The contingents of the Bavarian, Saxon and Württemberg kingdoms remained semi-autonomous, while the Prussian Army assumed almost total control over the armies of the other states of the Empire. The Constitution of the German Empire, dated April 16, 1871, changed references in the North German Constitution from Federal Army to either Army of the Realm (') or German Army (").


title: Imperial German Army

text: After 1871, the peacetime armies of the four kingdoms remained relatively distinct. The term "German Army" was used in various legal documents, such as the Military Penal Code, but otherwise, the Prussian, Bavarian, Saxon and Württemberg armies maintained distinct identities. Each kingdom had its own War Ministry, Bavaria and Saxony published their own rank and seniority lists for their officers and the Württemberg list was a separate chapter of the Prussian army rank lists. Württemberg and Saxon units were numbered according to the Prussian system but Bavarian units maintained their own numbers (the 2nd Württemberg Infantry Regiment was Infantry Regiment No. 120 under the Prussian system).


title: Imperial German Army

text: The commander of the Imperial German Army, less the Bavarian contingent, was the Kaiser. He was assisted by a Military Cabinet and exercised control through the Prussian Ministry of War and the Great General Staff. The Chief of the General Staff became the Kaiser's main military advisor and the most powerful military figure in the Empire. Bavaria kept its own Ministry of War and General Staff, but coordinated planning with the Prussian Great General Staff. Saxony also maintained its own Ministry of War and the Ministry of War of Württemberg also continued to exist.


title: Imperial German Army

text: The command of the Prussian Army had been reformed in the wake of the defeats suffered by Prussia in the Napoleonic Wars. Rather than rely primarily on the martial skills of the individual members of the German nobility, who dominated the military profession, the Prussian Army instituted changes to ensure excellence in leadership, organization and planning. The General Staff system, which sought to institutionalize military excellence, was the main result. It sought to identify military talent at the lower levels and develop it thoroughly through academic training and practical experience on division, corps and higher staffs, up to the Great General Staff, the senior planning body of the army. It provided planning and organizational work during peacetime and wartime. The Prussian General Staff, proven in battle in the Wars of Unification, became the German General Staff upon the formation of the German Empire, given Prussia's leading role in the German Army.


title: Imperial German Army

text: In the German Empire, diplomatic relations were the responsibility of the Chancellor and his Foreign Minister. The German Army reported separately to the Emperor, and increasingly played a major role in shaping foreign policy when military alliances or warfare was at issue. In diplomatic terms, Germany used the Prussian system of military attaches attached to diplomatic locations, with highly talented young officers assigned to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, and military capabilities of their assigned nations. They used close observation, conversations, and paid agents to produce very high-quality reports that gave a significant advantage to the military planners. The military staff grew increasingly powerful, reducing the role of the Minister of War, and increasingly asserted itself in foreign policy decisions.


title: Imperial German Army

text: Otto von Bismarck, the Imperial Chancellor 1871–1890, was annoyed by military interference in foreign policy affairs – in 1887, for example, they tried to convince the Emperor to declare war on Russia; they also encouraged Austria to attack Russia. Bismarck never controlled the army, but he did complain vehemently, and the military leaders drew back. In 1905, when the Morocco affair was roiling international politics, the chief of the General staff Alfred von Schlieffen called for a preventive war against France. At a critical point in the July crisis of 1914, Helmuth von Moltke, the chief of staff, without telling the Emperor or chancellor, advised his counterpart in Austria to mobilize against Russia at once. During the First World War, "Generalfeldmarschall" Paul von Hindenburg increasingly set foreign policy, working directly with the Emperor—and indeed shaped his decision-making—leaving the chancellor and civilian officials in the dark. Historian Gordon A. Craig says that the crucial decisions in 1914, "were made by the soldiers and that, in making them, they displayed an almost complete disregard for political considerations."


title: Imperial German Army

text: The basic peacetime organizational structure of the Imperial German Army were the Army inspectorate ('), the army corps ('), the division and the regiment. During wartime, the staff of the Army inspectorates formed field army commands, which controlled the corps and subordinate units. During World War I, a higher command level, the army group ("), was created. Each army group controlled several field armies.


title: Imperial German Army

text: Germany was divided into army inspectorates, each of which oversaw three or four corps. There were five in 1871, with three more added between 1907 and 1913.


title: Imperial German Army

text: The basic organizational formation was the army corps ('). The corps consisted of two or more divisions and various support troops, covering a geographical area. The corps was also responsible for maintaining the reserves and ' in the corps area. By 1914, there were 21 corps areas under Prussian jurisdiction and three Bavarian army corps. Besides the regional corps, there was also a Guard Corps ('), which controlled the elite Prussian Guard units. A corps usually included a light infantry () battalion, a heavy artillery (') battalion, an engineer battalion, a telegraph battalion and a trains battalion. Some corps areas also disposed of fortress troops; each of the 25 corps had a Field Aviation Unit (") attached to it normally equipped with six unarmed "A" or "B" class unarmed two-seat observation aircraft apiece.


title: Imperial German Army

text: In wartime, the army corps became a mobile tactical formation and four " (Higher Cavalry Commands) were formed from the Cavalry Inspectorate, the equivalent of corps, being made up of two divisions of cavalry.


title: Imperial German Army

text: The areas formerly covered by the corps each became the responsibility of a " (Military District, sometimes translated as Corps Area). The Military Districts were to supervise the training and enlistment of reservists and new recruits. Originally each Military District was linked to an army corps; thus Wehrkreis I took over the area that I. "Armeekorps" had been responsible for and sent replacements to the same formation. The first sixteen Reserve Corps raised followed the same pattern; X. "Reserve-Korps" was made up of reservists from the same area as X. "Armeekorps". However, these links between rear areas and front line units were broken as the war went on and later corps were raised with troops from all over Germany.


title: Imperial German Army

text: The basic tactical formation was the division. A standard Imperial German division was organized into:


title: Imperial German Army

text: One of the divisions in a corps area usually also managed the corps ' region ('). In 1914, besides the Guard Corps (two Guard divisions and a Guard cavalry division), there were 42 regular divisions in the Prussian Army (including four Saxon divisions and two Württemberg divisions), and six divisions in the Bavarian Army.


title: Imperial German Army

text: These divisions were all mobilized in August 1914. They were reorganized, receiving engineer companies and other support units from their corps, and giving up most of their cavalry to form cavalry divisions. Reserve divisions were also formed, ' brigades were aggregated into divisions, and other divisions were formed from replacement (') units. As World War I progressed, additional divisions were formed, and by wars' end, 251 divisions had been formed or reformed in the German Army's structure.


title: Imperial German Army

text: The regiment was the basic combat unit as well as the recruiting base for soldiers. When inducted, a soldier entered a regiment, usually through its replacement or training battalion, and received his basic training. There were three basic types of regiment: infantry, cavalry and artillery. Other specialties, such as pioneers (combat engineers) and signal troops, were organized into smaller support units. Regiments also carried the traditions of the army, in many cases stretching back into the 17th and 18th centuries. After World War I, regimental traditions were carried forward in the ' and its successor, the ', but the chain of tradition was broken in 1945 as West German and East German units did not carry forward pre-1945 traditions.


title: Imperial German Army

text: Each Imperial German regiment of infantry had headquarters units, three battalions and one training battalion assigned to the regimental depot. Cavalry, field and horse artillery regiments were also similarly organized.


title: Imperial German Army

text: The German Empire was formed by 38 duchies and kingdoms each with their traditions of warfare. Although the new army of the united German Empire was nominally "German" and most state forces served integrated into the Prussian Army, the Bavarian Army, Saxon Army and Württemberg Army remained independent national contingents:


title: Imperial German Army

text: Nevertheless, in times of war, all of these would pledge allegiance to the Kaiser and the German nation. They did, however, remain organizationally distinct, being able to raise units of their own without assistance from the dominating Prussians. In one instance, Freiherr von Sonden (from Württemberg) was able to "quite legitimately send a request directly to the Ministry of War in Stuttgart for the raising of a new artillery regiment".


title: Imperial German Army

text: Regiments and units from separate constituents were also raised locally and often numbered independently from each other - for example, there was (among others) both a Bavarian 1st Infantry Regiment and a Württemberger 1st Infantry Regiment.


title: Imperial German Army

text: While the aforementioned contingents wore dinstinctive uniforms, with the differences becoming less over time, the origin of units would be denoted on the uniform in the colours of the rank insignia until the early 20th century. They also had different cockades on the headgear. The Imperial cockade was to be worn above the state cockade on hats and caps, while they were worn on the right (state on the left) of helmets and more specialised headgear.


title: Imperial German Army

text: When the British decided to reform their army in the 1860s, they surveyed the major European forces and decided that the Prussian system was the best one. That system was continued into the Imperial Army after 1871 and resulted in a modest cadre of professional officers and sergeants, and a large reserve force that could be quickly mobilised at the start of a war. The British could not use the system because they rejected conscription. The Japanese, however, were also observing the reserve system and, unlike the British, decided to copy the Prussian model. Barnett explains that every young man was drafted at age 18, with the upper-class becoming officers:


title: Imperial German Army

text: The German Empire accounted for 12% of global industrial output in 1914, making it the largest industrial base in Continental Europe, and behind only Great Britain (18%) and the United States (22%) worldwide. The Army closely cooperated with industry, especially in the "Great War", with particular focus on the very rapidly changing aircraft industry. The Army set prices and labor exemptions, regulated the supply of credit and raw materials, limited patent rights so as to allow cross-licensing among firms, and supervised management–labor relationships. The result was very rapid expansion and a high output of high-quality aircraft, as well as high wages that attracted the best machinists. Apart from aircraft, the Army's regulation of the rest of the war economy was largely inefficient.


title: Imperial German Army

text: The ', known before October 1916 as ' (The Air Corps of the German Empire), was the over-land air arm of the German Army during World War I (1914–1918). Although its name actually means something very close to "The German Air Force", it remained an integral part of the German Army for the duration of the war. The "Kaiserliche Marine" naval forces of the German Empire had their own, separate "Marine-Fliegerabteilung" maritime aviation forces, apart from the "Luftstreitkräfte" of the Army.


title: Imperial German Army

text: The German Army from 1871 to 1914 inherited the various traditions and military ranks of its constituent states, thus becoming a truly federal armed service.


title: Imperial German Army

text: Note: ' and ' were not ranks as such during this specific period of use, but "voluntary" military enlistee designations. They, however, wore a specific uniform distinction (twisted wool piping along their shoulder epaulette edging for ', the ' a narrow band across their lower shoulder epaulette) in the colours of their respective nation state. This distinction was never removed throughout their military service nor during any rank grade advancements.


title: Imperial German Army

text: Critics long believed that the Army's officer corps was heavily dominated by "Junker" aristocrats, so that commoners were shunted into low-prestige branches, such as the heavy artillery or supply. However, by the 1890s, the top ranks were opened to highly talented commoners.


title: Child prostitution

text: Child prostitution is prostitution involving a child, and it is a form of commercial sexual exploitation of children. The term normally refers to prostitution of a minor, or person under the legal age of consent.


title: Child prostitution

text: Child prostitution usually manifests in the form of sex trafficking, in which a child is kidnapped or tricked into becoming involved in the sex trade, or survival sex, in which the child engages in sexual activities to procure basic essentials such as food and shelter. Prostitution of children is commonly associated with child pornography, and they often overlap. Some people travel to foreign countries to engage in child sex tourism. Research suggests that there may be as many as 10 million children involved in prostitution worldwide. The practice is most widespread in South America and Asia, but prostitution of children exists globally, in undeveloped countries as well as developed. Most of the children involved with prostitution are girls, despite an increase in the number of young boys in the trade.


title: Child prostitution

text: All member countries of the United Nations have committed to prohibiting child prostitution, either under the Convention on the Rights of the Child or the Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography. Various campaigns and organizations have been created to try to stop the practice.


title: Child prostitution

text: Several definitions have been proposed for prostitution of children. The United Nations defines it as "the act of engaging or offering the services of a child to perform sexual acts for money or other consideration with that person or any other person". The Convention on the Rights of the Child's Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography defines the practice as "the act of obtaining, procuring or offering the services of a child or inducing a child to perform sexual acts for any form of compensation or reward". Both emphasize that the child is a victim of exploitation, even if apparent consent is given. The Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999, (Convention No 182) of the International Labour Organization (ILO) describes it as the "use, procuring or offering of a child for prostitution".


title: Child prostitution

text: According to the International Labour Office in Geneva, prostitution of children and child pornography are two primary forms of child sexual exploitation, which often overlap. The former is sometimes used to describe the wider concept of commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC). It excludes other identifiable manifestations of CSEC, such as commercial sexual exploitation through child marriage, domestic child labor, and the trafficking of children for sexual purposes.


title: Child prostitution

text: The terminology applied to the practice is a subject of dispute. The United States Department of Justice states, "The term itself implies the idea of choice, when in fact that is not the case." Groups that oppose the practice believe that the terms "child prostitution" and "child prostitute" carry problematic connotations because children are generally not expected to be able to make informed decisions about prostitution. As an alternative, they use the terms "prostituted children" and "the commercial sexual exploitation of children". Other groups use the term "child sex worker" to imply that the children are not always "passive victims".


title: Child prostitution

text: Children are often forced by social structures and individual agents into situations in which adults take advantage of their vulnerability and sexually exploit and abuse them by selling them or selling their bodies. Structure and agency commonly combine to force a child into commercial sex: for example, the prostitution of a child frequently follows from prior sexual abuse, often in the child's home. Many believe that the majority of prostituted children are from Southeast Asia and the majority of their clients are Western sex tourists, but sociologist Louise Brown argues that, while Westerners contribute to the growth of the industry, most of the children's customers are Asian locals.


title: Child prostitution

text: Prostitution of children usually occurs in environments such as brothels, bars and clubs, homes, or particular streets and areas (usually in socially run down places). According to one study, only about 10% of prostituted children have a pimp and over 45% entered the business through friends. Maureen Jaffe and Sonia Rosen from the International Child Labor Study Office write that cases vary widely:Some victims are runaways from home or State institutions, others are sold by their parents or forced or tricked into prostitution, and others are street children. Some are amateurs and others professionals. Although one tends to think first and foremost of young girls in the trade, there is an increase in the number of young boys involved in prostitution. The most disquieting cases are those children who are forced into the trade and then incarcerated. These children run the possible further risk of torture and subsequent death.Deputy Attorney General James Cole, of the United States Department of Justice, stated,Most of the victimized children who face prostitution are vulnerable children who are exploited. Many predators target runaways, sexual assault victims, and children who have been harshly neglected by their biological parents. Not only have they faced traumatic violence that affects their physical being, but become intertwined into the violent life of prostitution.


title: Child prostitution

text: Human trafficking is defined by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) as "the recruitment, transport, transfer, harbouring or receipt of a person by such means as threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud or deception for the purpose of exploitation". The UNODC approximates the number of victims worldwide to be around 2.5 million. UNICEF reports that since 1982 about 30 million children have been trafficked. Trafficking for sexual slavery accounts for 79% of cases, with the majority of victims being female, of which an estimated 20% are children. Women are also often perpetrators as well.


title: Child prostitution

text: In 2007 the UN founded United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking (UN.GIFT). In cooperation with UNICEF, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), and the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) the United Nations took a grant from the United Arab Emirates to establish UN.GIFT. UN.GIFT aims to fight human trafficking through a mutual support from its stakeholders which includes governments, businesses, and other large global actors. Their first initiative is to spread the word that human trafficking is immoral and has become a growing problem that it will take a global cooperation to cease its continuation. UN.GIFT strives to lower the demand for this exploitation and create a safe environment for potential victims.


title: Child prostitution

text: In some cases, victims of sex trafficking are kidnapped by strangers, either by force or by being tricked into becoming involved through lies and false promises. They may also be lured through the internet, as child victims of cybersex trafficking are transported and then coerced to perform sexual acts and or raped in front of a webcam on commercialized live streams. In these incidents, consumers use cryptocurrencies and other digital technologies to hide their identities. In other cases, the children's families allow or force them to enter the industry as a result of severe poverty. In cases where they are taken out of the country, traffickers prey on the fact that the children are often unable to understand the language of their new location and are unaware of their legal rights.


title: Child prostitution

text: Research indicates that traffickers have a preference for females age 12 and under because young children are more easily molded into the role assigned to them and because they are assumed to be virgins, which is valuable to consumers. The girls are then made to appear older, and documents are forged as protection against law enforcement. Victims tend to share similar backgrounds, often coming from communities with high crime rates and lack of access to education. However, victimology is not limited to this, and males and females coming from various backgrounds have become involved in sex trafficking.


title: Child prostitution

text: Psychotherapist Mary De Chesnay identifies five stages in the process of sex trafficking: vulnerability, recruitment, transportation, exploitation, and liberation. The final stage, De Chesnay writes, is rarely completed. Murder and accidental death rates are high, as are suicides, and very few trafficking victims are rescued or escape.


title: Child prostitution

text: The other primary form of prostitution of children is survival sex. The US Department of Justice states:


title: Child prostitution

text: A study commissioned by UNICEF and Save the Children and headed by sociologist Annjanette Rosga conducted research on prostitution of children in post-war Bosnia and Herzegovina. Rosga reported that poverty was a strong contributing factor. She stated, "The global sex trade is as much a product of everyday people struggling to survive in dire economic straits as it is an organized crime problem. Attacking the crime and not the poverty is treating the symptom but not the disease...It's not uncommon for girls to know what they're entering into, and to enter voluntarily to some degree. Maybe they think they'll be different and able to escape, or maybe they'd rather take the risk than feel powerless staying at home in poverty." Jaffe and Rosen disagree and argue that poverty alone does not often force children into prostitution, as it does not exist in a large scale in several impoverished societies. Rather, a number of external influences, such as poor family situations and domestic violence, factor into the problem.


title: Child prostitution

text: Prostitution of children in the form of survival sex occurs in both undeveloped and developed countries. In Asia, underage girls sometimes work in brothels to support their families. In Sri Lanka, parents will more often have their sons prostitute themselves rather than their daughters, as the society places more weight on sexual purity among females than males. Jaffe and Rosen write that prostitution of children in North America often results from "economic considerations, domestic violence and abuse, family disintegration and drug addiction". In Canada, a young man was convicted of charges relating to the prostitution of a 15-year-old girl online in 2012; he had encouraged her to prostitute herself as a means of making money, kept all of her earnings, and threatened her with violence if she did not continue.


title: Child prostitution

text: In the United States, where many prostituted children are homeless and runaways, the view of adolescent prostitution as primarily driven by pimp-exploiters and other "sex traffickers" was challenged by SNRG-NYC in their 2008 New York City study which interviewed over 300 under-age prostitutes and found that only 10% reported having pimps. A 2012 study done in Atlantic City, New Jersey, by the same group incorporated an extended qualitative ethnographic component that looked specifically at the relationship between pimps and adolescents engaged with street based sex markets. This study found the percentage of adolescents who had pimps to be only 14% and that those relationships were typically far more complex, mutual, and companionate than has been reported by social service providers, not-for-profits, and much of the news media. On the other hand, youths' status as being a runaway, homeless, or in the foster care system greatly increases their likelihood of being involved in commercial sex, according to the National Runaway Switchboard and the New York State Office of Children, with one-third of runaway youths in America being lured into prostitution within 48 hours on the streets.


title: Child prostitution

text: Prostituted children are often forced to work in hazardous environments without proper hygiene. They face threats of violence and are sometimes raped and beaten. Researchers Robin E. Clark, Judith Freeman Clark, and Christine A. Adamec write that they "suffer a great deal of abuse, unhappiness, and poor health" in general. For example, Derrick Jensen reports that female sex trafficking victims from Nepal are "'broken in' through a process of rapes and beatings, and then rented out up to thirty-five times per night for one to two dollars per man". Another example involved mostly Nepalese boys who were lured to India and sold to brothels in Mumbai, Hyderabad, New Delhi, Lucknow, and Gorakhpur. One victim left Nepal at the age of 14 and was sold into slavery, locked up, beaten, starved, and forcibly circumcised. He reported that he was held in a brothel with 40 to 50 other boys, many of whom were castrated, before escaping and returning to Nepal.


title: Child prostitution

text: Criminologist Ronald Flowers writes that prostitution of children and child pornography are closely linked; up to one in three prostituted children have been involved in pornography, often through films or literature. Runaway teenagers, he states, are frequently used for "porn flicks" and photographs. In addition to pornography, Flowers writes that, "Children caught up in this dual world of sexual exploitation are often victims of sexual assaults, sexual perversions, sexually transmitted diseases, and inescapable memories of sexual misuse and bodies that have been compromised, brutalized, and left forever tarnished."


title: Child prostitution

text: According to Humanium, an NGO that opposes the prostitution of children, the practice causes injuries such as "vaginal tearing, physical after-effects of torture, pain, infection, or unwanted pregnancy". As clients seldom take precautions against the spread of HIV, prostituted children face a high risk of contracting the disease, and the majority of them in certain locations contract it. Other sexually transmitted diseases pose a threat as well, such as syphilis and herpes. High levels of tuberculosis have also been found among prostituted children. These illnesses are often fatal. Steroids common in places such as Bangladesh, which are used to make child prostitutes look older, can cause diabetes, high blood pressure and are highly addictive.


title: Child prostitution

text: Former prostituted children often deal with psychological trauma, including depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Other psychological effects include anger, insomnia, sexual and personality confusion, inability to trust adults, and loss of confidence. Drug-related health problems included dental problems, hepatitis B and C, and serious liver and kidney problems. Other medical complications included reproductive problems and injuries from sexual assaults; physical and neurological problems from violent physical attacks; and other general health issues including respiratory problems and joint pains.


title: Child prostitution

text: Prostitution of children is illegal under international law, and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, Article 34, states, "the State shall protect children from sexual exploitation and abuse, including prostitution and involvement in pornography." The convention was first held in 1989 and has been ratified by 193 countries. In 1990, the United Nations appointed a Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution, and child pornography. Over at least the last decade, the international community has increasingly acknowledged the importance of addressing problems posed by the trafficking of children, child prostitution, and child pornography; activities that undermine the rights of children and are frequently linked to organized crime. While the legality of adult prostitution varies between different parts of the world, the prostitution of minors is illegal in most countries, and all countries have some form of restrictions against it.


title: Child prostitution

text: There is a dispute surrounding what constitutes a prostituted child. International law defines a child as any individual below the age of 18, but a number of countries legally recognize lower ages of consent and adulthood, usually ranging from 13 to 17 years of age. In the Czech Republic, for example, prostitution is legal for children older than 14. Thus, law enforcement officers are sometimes hesitant to investigate cases because of the differences in age of consent. The laws of some countries do, however, distinguish between prostituted teenagers and prostituted children. For example, the Japanese government defines the category as referring to minors between 13 and 18. However, it is currently defined as being under the age of 18.


title: Child prostitution

text: Consequences for offenders vary from country to country. In the People's Republic of China, all forms of prostitution are illegal, but having sexual contact with anyone under the age of 14, regardless of consent, will result in a more serious punishment than raping an adult. By contrast, Argentina's Criminal Code criminalizes the prostitution of minors, but only sanctions those who "promote or facilitate" prostitution, not the client who exploits the minor. In the United States, the legal penalty for participating in the prostitution of children includes five to twenty years in prison. The FBI established "Innocence Lost", a new department working to free children from prostitution, in response to the strong public reaction across the country to the news of Operation Stormy Nights, in which 23 minors were released from forced prostitution.


title: Child prostitution

text: Prostitution of children exists in every country, though the problem is most severe in South America and Asia. The number of prostituted children is rising in other parts of the world, including North America, Africa, and Europe. Exact statistics are difficult to obtain, and in some cases, such as that of Argentina, child prostitution is considered to be on the rise but without reliable statistics. However, it is estimated that there are around 10 million children involved in prostitution worldwide.


title: Child prostitution

text: The people who buy sex from minors are most often men who try to "rationalize their sexual involvement with children."


title: Child prostitution

text: Though most child prostitutes are girls, advocates point out that boys are also exploited, and that this is often overlooked and more strongly stigmatized. An ECPAT-USA study found that though gay, bisexual, and questioning boys were represented at higher percentage than the general population, the majority of boys in prostitution were heterosexual in sexual orientation despite typically performing homosexual acts.


title: Child prostitution

text: Anthropologist Heather Montgomery writes that society has a largely negative perception of prostitution of children, in part because the children are often viewed as having been abandoned or sold by their parents and families. The International Labour Organization includes the prostitution of children in its list of the "worst forms of child labour". At the 1996 World Congress Against the Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children it was called "a crime against humanity", "torture", and "slavery". Virginia Kendall, a district judge and expert on child exploitation and human trafficking, and T. Markus Funk, an attorney and law professor, write that the subject is an emotional one and that there are various perspectives about its prevention:


title: Child prostitution

text: Investigative journalist Julian Sher states that widespread stereotypes about the prostitution of children continued into the 1990s, when the first organized opposition arose and police officers began working to dispel common misconceptions. Criminologist Roger Matthews writes that concerns over pedophilia and child sexual abuse, as well as shifting perceptions of youth, led the public to see a sharp difference between prostitution of children and adult prostitution. While the latter is generally frowned upon, the former is seen as intolerable. Additionally, he states, children are increasingly viewed as "innocent" and "pure" and their prostitution as paramount to slavery. Through the shift in attitude, the public began to see minors involved in the sex trade as victims rather than as perpetrators of a crime, needing rehabilitation rather than punishment.


title: Child prostitution

text: Though campaigns against prostitution of children originated in the 1800s, the first mass protests against the practice occurred in the 1990s in the United States, led largely by ECPAT (End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism). The group, which historian Junius P. Rodriguez describes as "the most significant of the campaigning groups against child prostitution", originally focused on the issue of children being exploited in Southeast Asia by Western tourists. Women's rights groups and anti-tourism groups joined to protest the practice of sex tourism in Bangkok, Thailand. The opposition to sex tourism was spurred on by an image of a Thai youth in prostitution, published in "Time" and by the publication of a dictionary in the United Kingdom describing Bangkok as "a place where there are a lot of prostitutes". Cultural anthropologists Susan Dewey and Patty Kelly write that though they were unable to inhibit sex tourism and rates of prostitution of children continued to rise, the groups "galvanized public opinion nationally and internationally" and succeeded in getting the media to cover the topic extensively for the first time. ECPAT later expanded its focus to protest child prostitution globally.


title: Child prostitution

text: The late 1990s and early 2000s also saw the creation of a number of shelters and rehabilitation programs for prostituted children, and the police began to actively investigate the issue. The National Human Trafficking Resource Center (NHTRC) was later established by the Polaris Project as a national, toll-free hotline, available to answer calls from anywhere in the United States, 24 hours a day, seven days a week, every day of the year. The hotline was designed to allow callers to report tips and receive information on human trafficking.


title: Child prostitution

text: The opposition to prostitution of children and sexual slavery spread to Europe and elsewhere, and organizations pushed for prostituted children to be recognized as victims rather than offenders. The issue remained prominent in the following years, and various campaigns and organizations continued into the 2000s and 2010s.


title: Child prostitution

text: Prostitution of children dates to antiquity. Prepubescent boys were commonly prostituted in brothels in ancient Greece and Rome. According to Ronald Flowers, the "most beautiful and highest born Egyptian maidens were forced into prostitution... and they continued as prostitutes until their first menstruation." Chinese and Indian children were commonly sold by their parents into prostitution. Parents in India sometimes dedicated their female children to the Hindu temples, where they became "devadasis". Traditionally a high status in society, the devadasis were originally tasked with maintaining and cleaning the temples of the Hindu deity to which they were assigned (usually the goddess Renuka) and learning skills such as music and dancing. However, as the system evolved, their role became that of a temple prostitute, and the girls, who were "dedicated" before puberty, were required to prostitute themselves to upper-class men. The practice has since been outlawed but still exists.


title: Child prostitution

text: In Europe, child prostitution flourished until the late 1800s; minors accounted for 50% of individuals involved in prostitution in Paris. A scandal in 19th-century England caused the government there to raise the age of consent. In July 1885, William Thomas Stead, editor of "The Pall Mall Gazette", published "The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon", four articles describing an extensive underground sex trafficking ring that reportedly sold children to adults. Stead's reports focused on a 13-year-old girl, Eliza Armstrong, who was sold for £5 (the equivalent of around £500 in 2012), then taken to a midwife to have her virginity verified. The age of consent was raised from 13 to 16 within a week of publication. During this period, the term "white slavery" came to be used throughout Europe and the United States to describe prostituted children.


title: Gordon Moore

text: Gordon Earle Moore (born January 3, 1929) is an American businessman, engineer, and the co-founder and chairman emeritus of Intel Corporation. He is also the original proponent of Moore's law.


title: Gordon Moore

text: Moore was born in San Francisco, California, and grew up in nearby Pescadero, where his father was the county sheriff. He attended San José State University for two years before transferring to the University of California, Berkeley, where he received a B.S. degree in chemistry in 1950.


title: Gordon Moore

text: In September 1950, Moore enrolled at the California Institute of Technology. While at Caltech, Moore minored in physics and received a Ph.D. in chemistry in 1954. Moore conducted postdoctoral research at the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University from 1953 to 1956.


title: Gordon Moore

text: Moore joined MIT and Caltech alumnus William Shockley at the Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory division of Beckman Instruments, but left with the "traitorous eight," when Sherman Fairchild agreed to back them and created the influential Fairchild Semiconductor corporation.


title: Gordon Moore

text: In 1965, Moore was working as the director of research and development (R&D) at Fairchild Semiconductor. He was asked by Electronics Magazine to predict what was going to happen in the semiconductor components industry over the next ten years. In an article published on April 19, 1965, Moore observed that the number of components (transistors, resistors, diodes, or capacitors) in a dense integrated circuit had doubled approximately every year and speculated that it would continue to do so for at least the next ten years. In 1975, he revised the forecast rate to approximately every two years. Carver Mead popularized the phrase "Moore's law." The prediction has become a target for miniaturization in the semiconductor industry and has had widespread impact in many areas of technological change.


title: Gordon Moore

text: In July 1968, Robert Noyce and Moore founded NM Electronics, which later became Intel Corporation. Moore served as executive vice president until 1975 when he became president. In April 1979, Moore became chairman and chief executive officer, holding that position until April 1987, when he became chairman. He was named chairman emeritus in 1997. Under Noyce, Moore, and later Andrew Grove, Intel has pioneered new technologies in the areas of computer memory, integrated circuits, and microprocessor design. On April 11, 2022, Intel renamed its main Oregon site, the Ronler Acres campus in Hillsboro, Gordon Moore Park, and the building formerly known as RA4, Moore Center, after their founder.


title: Gordon Moore

text: In 2000, Moore and his wife established the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, with a gift worth about $5 billion. Through the foundation, they initially targeted environmental conservation, science, and the San Francisco Bay Area.


title: Gordon Moore

text: The foundation gives extensively in the area of environmental conservation, supporting major projects in the Andes-Amazon Basin and the San Francisco Bay area, among others. Moore was a director of Conservation International for some years. In 2002, he and Conservation International senior vice president Claude Gascon received the Order of the Golden Ark from Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld for their outstanding contributions to nature conservation.


title: Gordon Moore

text: Moore has been a member of Caltech's board of trustees since 1983, chairing it from 1993 to 2000, and is now a life trustee. In 2001, Moore and his wife donated $600 million to Caltech, at the time the largest gift ever to an institution of higher education. He said that he wants the gift to be used to keep Caltech at the forefront of research and technology.


title: Gordon Moore

text: In December 2007, Moore and his wife donated $200 million to Caltech and the University of California for the construction of the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT), expected to become the world's second largest optical telescope once it and the European Extremely Large Telescope are completed in the mid-2020s. The TMT will have a segmented mirror 30 meters across and be built on Mauna Kea in Hawaii. This mirror will be nearly three times the size of the current record holder, the Large Binocular Telescope.


title: Gordon Moore

text: The Moores, as individuals and through their foundation, have also, in a series of gifts and grants beginning in the 1990s, given some $166 million to the University of California, Berkeley to fund initiatives ranging from materials science and physics to genomics and data science.


title: Gordon Moore

text: In addition, through the foundation, his wife created the Betty Irene Moore Nursing Initiative, targeting nursing care in the San Francisco Bay Area and Greater Sacramento. In 2007, the foundation pledged $100 million over 11 years to establish a nursing school at the University of California, Davis. The Moores have also been long-time benefactors of other Northern California institutions, including Stanford University (over $190 million as of 2022), University of California, San Francisco, and University of California, Santa Cruz.


title: Gordon Moore

text: Moore has received many honors. He was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 1976 for contributions to semiconductor devices from transistors to microprocessors.


title: Gordon Moore

text: In 1990, Moore was presented with the National Medal of Technology and Innovation by President George H. W. Bush, "for his seminal leadership in bringing American industry the two major postwar innovations in microelectronics – large-scale integrated memory and the microprocessor – that have fueled the information revolution."


title: Gordon Moore

text: In 1998, he was inducted as a Fellow of the Computer History Museum "for his fundamental early work in the design and production of semiconductor devices as co-founder of Fairchild and Intel."


title: Gordon Moore

text: In 2001, Moore received the Othmer Gold Medal for outstanding contributions to progress in chemistry and science. Moore is also the recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the United States' highest civilian honor, as of 2002. He received the award from President George W. Bush. In 2002, Moore also received the Bower Award for Business Leadership.


title: Gordon Moore

text: In 2003, he was elected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2005.


title: Gordon Moore

text: Moore was awarded the 2008 IEEE Medal of Honor for "pioneering technical roles in integrated-circuit processing, and leadership in the development of MOS memory, the microprocessor computer, and the semiconductor industry." Moore was featured in the documentary film "Something Ventured" which premiered in 2011.


title: Gordon Moore

text: In 2009, Moore was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame. He was awarded the 2010 Dan David Prize for his work in the areas of Computers and Telecommunications.


title: Gordon Moore

text: The library at the Centre for Mathematical Sciences at the University of Cambridge is named after him and his wife Betty, as are the Moore Laboratories building (dedicated 1996) at Caltech and the Gordon and Betty Moore Materials Research Building at Stanford. The Electrochemical Society presents an award in Moore's name, the Gordon E. Moore Medal for Outstanding Achievement in Solid State Science and Technology, every two years to celebrate scientists' contributions to the field of solid state science. The Society of Chemical Industry (American Section) annually presents the Gordon E. Moore Medal in his honor to recognize early career success in innovation in the chemical industries.


title: Gordon Moore

text: Moore met his wife, Betty Irene Whitaker, while attending San Jose State College. They married in 1950 and had two sons, Steven and Kenneth.


title: Gordon Moore

text: Moore is an avid sport fisherman and actively pursues any type of fishing. He has extensively traveled the world, catching species from black marlin to rainbow trout. He has said his conservation efforts are partly inspired by his interest in fishing and his time spent outdoors.


title: Gordon Moore

text: In 2011, Moore's genome was the first human genome sequenced on Ion Torrent's Personal Genome Machine platform, a massively parallel sequencing device, which uses ISFET biosensors.


title: Recruit (company)

text: It had sales of over 2,269.3 billion Yen in FY2020, with overseas sales contributing 46% of total revenue.


title: Recruit (company)

text: The company based its core business around job matchmaking particularly between ready-to-graduate students and corporations in the '60s, further expanding into matchmaking of job change seekers, as well as real estate and rental information in the 1970s. By the end of the 1980s, the company was also engaged in the publication of classified ad magazines covering fields such as part-time job listings, automobile and overseas travel.


title: Recruit (company)

text: In 1988, the company was reported to be engaged in the Recruit scandal, which led to the retirement of founder Hiromasa Ezoe from the company and his shares being sold to Daiei.


title: Recruit (company)

text: After becoming a part of Daiei group, Daiei agreed to keep its stance as a "silent stakeholder" but didn't assume Recruit's debt, which totaled approximately 1,400.2 billion yen.


title: Recruit (company)

text: In June 2012 it was announced that Recruit planned to go public within a year. A holding company was established in October 2012, and it expected to list on either the Tokyo Stock Exchange or another exchange. Following repayment of debt repayment and the purchase of some of the shares held by Daiei, Recruit listed on the First Section of the Tokyo Stock Exchange on October 16, 2014.


title: Sybil (1976 film)

text: After suffering a small breakdown in front of her students (and then being forced to hear a neighbor play Chopin's Étude in A Minor, "Winter Wind", incessantly), Sybil Dorsett is given a neurological examination by Dr. Cornelia Wilbur, a psychiatrist. She admits to having blackouts and fears that they are getting worse. Dr. Wilbur theorizes that the incidents are a kind of hysteria, all related to a deeper problem. She asks Sybil to return at a later date for more counseling. Sybil says she will have to ask her father.


title: Sybil (1976 film)

text: Sybil's father, Willard Dorsett, and her stepmother, Freida, are in New York on a visit. Sybil meets them at a cafeteria for lunch. She explains to her father that the problems she used to have as a young girl have returned and that she wants to see a psychiatrist, Dr. Wilbur. Sybil's parents make it clear to Sybil that they disapprove of psychiatry. Sybil becomes upset and dissociates into Peggy, who becomes enraged and breaks a glass. Peggy angrily storms out of the cafeteria. Later that evening, Dr. Wilbur receives a late night call from someone who identifies herself as Vickie and says Sybil is about to jump out a hotel window. Dr. Wilbur rescues Sybil, who denies knowing Vickie. Suddenly, Sybil becomes hysterical and begins speaking like a young girl. This girl introduces herself as Peggy, and Wilbur realizes that Sybil is suffering from multiple personality disorder (now known as dissociative identity disorder).


title: Sybil (1976 film)

text: Vickie introduces herself to Wilbur at the next session. Vickie, who knows everything about the other personalities, tells Wilbur about some of them, including Marcia, who is suicidal, and Vanessa, who plays the piano although Sybil has not played in years and swears she has forgotten how to play piano.


title: Sybil (1976 film)

text: Over the weeks, each of the personalities introduces herself to Wilbur. At the same time, the personality Vanessa falls in love with a charming neighbor named Richard.


title: Sybil (1976 film)

text: Wilbur finally explains to Sybil about the other personalities. As proof, Wilbur plays the session's tape to allow Sybil to hear their voices, but when a voice that sounds like Sybil's mother Hattie speaks, an infant personality named Ruthie emerges. Wilbur is unable to communicate with the pre-verbal child and must wait until Sybil returns.


title: Sybil (1976 film)

text: Life becomes more chaotic for Sybil as the other personalities grow stronger. The personalities make Dr. Wilbur a Christmas card, but Sybil made everything purple, a color that frightens Peggy. Dr. Wilbur hypnotizes Vickie and asks about the purple. Vickie relates a memory of a time Sybil's mother locked young Sybil in the wheat bin in the barn. Thinking she was smothering, Sybil used her purple crayon to scratch on the inside of the bin so someone would know she had been there.


title: Sybil (1976 film)

text: Vanessa invites Richard and his son Matthew to have Christmas dinner, after which Richard spends the night in Sybil's apartment. Sybil has a nightmare and awakens as Marcia, who tries to throw herself off the roof. Richard rescues her and calls Wilbur. Soon afterwards, Richard moves away, crushing both Sybil and Vanessa. Once again confronted with her diagnosis, Sybil attempts to convince Wilbur that she has in fact been faking all of the other personalities the entire time and denies that multiple personalities exist within her.


title: Sybil (1976 film)

text: Wilbur goes in search of Sybil's father, who mentions that Sybil's mother Hattie was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia but denies that she ever abused Sybil. Wilbur also seeks out Sybil's pediatrician. The doctor gives Wilbur a frightening account of extensive internal scarring he found while treating Sybil for a bladder problem. Finally, Wilbur visits the old Dorsett house, where she discovers the green kitchen Sybil's selves have described many times. She also finds the purple crayon scratches inside the wheat bin. She takes them back to New York City to prove all the memories really happened.


title: Sybil (1976 film)

text: Dr. Wilbur takes Sybil for a drive, during which Peggy reveals the horrific physical abuse she suffered at her mother's hands. After Peggy exhausts herself, Sybil emerges, remembering everything that Peggy has just said. Finally, she is able to express her rage against her mother.


title: Sybil (1976 film)

text: Dr. Wilbur hypnotizes Sybil to introduce her to the other personalities. Sybil, who has always been frightened of Peggy, meets her at last and is surprised that she is only a young girl. Sybil embraces a weeping Peggy. A voiceover from Dr. Wilbur explains that after this incident, Sybil recovered her memories and went on to live a full and happy life as an academic.


title: Sybil (1976 film)

text: Sally Field stars in the title role, with Joanne Woodward playing the part of Sybil's psychiatrist, Cornelia B. Wilbur. Woodward herself had starred in "The Three Faces of Eve", in which she portrayed a woman with three personalities, winning the Academy Award for Best Actress for the role. Based on the book "Sybil" by Flora Rheta Schreiber, the movie dramatizes the life of a shy young graduate student, Sybil Dorsett (in real life, Shirley Ardell Mason), suffering from dissociative identity disorder as a result of the psychological trauma she suffered as a child. With the help of her psychiatrist, Sybil gradually recalls the severe child abuse that led to the development of 16 different personalities. Field's portrayal of Sybil won much critical acclaim, as well as an Emmy Award.


title: Sybil (1976 film)

text: The film, originally 198 minutes long, was initially shown over the course of two nights on NBC in 1976. Due to high public interest, the VHS version of "Sybil" was released in the 1980s, with one version running 122 minutes and another, extended version running 132 minutes. Several key scenes, including Sybil's final climactic "introduction" to her other personalities, are missing in both versions. The film is shown frequently on television, often with scenes restored or deleted to adjust for time constraints and the varying sensitivity of viewers. The DVD includes the full 198-minute version originally displayed on the NBC broadcast.


title: Lance corporal

text: Lance corporal is a military rank, used by many armed forces worldwide, and also by some police forces and other uniformed organisations. It is below the rank of corporal, and is typically the lowest non-commissioned officer (NCO), usually equivalent to the NATO Rank Grade OR-3.


title: Lance corporal

text: The presumed origin of the rank of lance corporal derives from an amalgamation of "corporal" from the Italian phrase "capo corporale" ("head of the body") with the now-archaic "lancepesade", which in turn derives from the Italian "lancia spezzata", which literally means "broken lance" or "broken spear", formerly a non-commissioned officer of the lowest rank. It can be translated as "one who has broken a lance in combat", and is therefore a leader. "Lance" or "lances fournies" was also a term used in Medieval Europe to denote a unit of soldiers (usually 5 to 10 men strong).


title: Lance corporal

text: After the independence of Brazil in 1822, the new Brazilian Army followed the Portuguese system of ranks, having also the rank of "anspeçada". The rank existed also in the Brazilian States' Military Police Forces and in the Military Firefighters Corps. The rank of "anspeçada" was discontinued in Brazil in the first half of the 20th century.


title: Lance corporal

text: In Commonwealth forces, a lance corporal is usually the second-in-command of a section. Lance corporals are commonly addressed as "corporal", with "lance jack" or "half-screw" (with corporals being "full screws") being common colloquialisms for the rank. Much like the use of bombardier instead of corporal in artillery units, lance corporals are known as lance bombardiers in the UK, Australia and New Zealand. The badge of rank is a single chevron worn on both sleeves or on an epaulette.


title: Lance corporal

text: Lance corporal is the lowest of the non-commissioned officer ranks in the Australian Army and New Zealand Army, falling between private and corporal. It is the only appointed rank, and thus demotion is easier than with other ranks. A commanding officer can demote a lance corporal, whereas other ranks require a court martial for demotion. A lance corporal is usually the second in command of a section, and is in control of the gun group in an infantry section. There is no equivalent rank within the Australian or New Zealand Air Force or Navy.


title: Lance corporal

text: Second corporal was also formerly used in Australia in the same way that it was used in the British Army.


title: Lance corporal

text: In the Bangladesh Army, the rank of lance corporal is above the rank of "sainik" (সৈনিক) and below the rank of corporal.


title: Lance corporal

text: The Canadian Armed Forces abolished the Canadian Army rank of lance corporal on their creation as a unified force in 1968. In terms of responsibilities, the current rank of master corporal equates most directly to the pre-unification appointment of lance corporal. In both cases, this rank was granted to the second-in-command of an infantry section.


title: Lance corporal

text: Lance corporal (LCpl or formerly L/Cpl) is the lowest ranking non-commissioned officer in the British Army and Royal Marines, between private and corporal (although officially they have a NATO grade of OR3, due to their having the same battlefield role of fire team commander as a sergeant in the U.S. Army they are often treated as OR5s when working with U.S. forces). The badge of rank is a single chevron worn on both sleeves, or on an epaulette on the front of the Combat Soldier 95 dress standard (although lance corporals in the Foot Guards, Honourable Artillery Company, 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards, and The Queen's Royal Hussars wear two chevrons and in the Household Cavalry two chevrons surmounted by a gild crown are worn). The Royal Artillery uses the term lance bombardier instead.


title: Lance corporal

text: The date of introduction of lance corporals to the British Army is unclear, but the rank is mentioned in late-18th century military essays such as Major William Young's "An essay on the Command of Small Detachments" (1766) and John Williamson's "The Elements of Military Arrangement" (1781):


title: Lance corporal

text: "When from sickness or other causes there are not in a company a sufficient number of non-commission officers to do the duty, the captain can appoint corporals to do the duty of serjeants, who are called lance serjeants, and private men to do the duty of corporals, who are called lance corporals."


title: Lance corporal

text: The designation "chosen man", used during the Napoleonic Wars, was possibly a precursor to the rank. The first mention of a lance corporal in "The Times" is in 1819, although the first mention in the "London Gazette" is not until 1831. The first mention in the "London Gazette" of a lance corporal in the Royal Marines is in 1838.


title: Lance corporal

text: Until 1 September 1961, lance corporal and lance bombardier were only appointments rather than substantive ranks, given to privates who were acting NCOs, and could be taken away by the soldier's commanding officer (whereas a full corporal or bombardier could only be demoted by court martial). The Royal Engineers and Army Ordnance Corps also used the similar rank of second corporal, which was a substantive rank (also wearing one chevron), until 1920. Until 1920, bombardiers in the Royal Artillery were equivalent to second corporals and until 1918 (when the rank of lance bombardier replaced it), acting bombardiers were equivalent to lance corporals (both wearing one chevron).


title: Lance corporal

text: In the infantry, a lance corporal usually serves as second-in-command of a section and commander of its delta fire team. It is also a rank commonly held by specialists such as clerks, drivers, signallers, machine-gunners, and mortarmen. In the Intelligence Corps and Royal Military Police, all other ranks are promoted to lance corporal on the completion of their training.


title: Lance corporal

text: On 1 April 2010, the rank of lance corporal was introduced into the RAF Regiment, although it is not used by other branches of the Royal Air Force. RAF Regiment lance corporals have powers of charge over aircraftmen, leading aircraftmen and senior aircraftmen, but not junior technicians or senior aircraftmen technicians, who, despite being OR2s, require a corporal or above to charge if required.


title: Lance corporal

text: The British cadet forces reflect the ranks of their parent services, so the Army Cadet Force, the Army section of the Combined Cadet Force (CCF), and the various marine cadet organisations use cadet lance corporal as their lowest NCO rank. In the CCF (RAF), this rank is also used as the lowest NCO rank (it was formerly known as junior corporal before its introduction into the RAF Regiment). The Air Training Corps and the naval cadet forces do not use the rank.


title: Lance corporal

text: The equivalent of lance corporal in the Finnish Defence Forces Army and Air Forces is "korpraali" (Finnish) or "korpral" (Swedish). Although it translates as "corporal", this is not considered an NCO rank.


title: Lance corporal

text: Typically, the promotion is given to rank-and-file conscripts who perform exceptionally well. Conscripts attending the NCO course are promoted to the rank during the first half of the NCO course, prior to promotion to corporal () or to being detailed to the Reserve Officer School.


title: Lance corporal

text: Reservists in the rank of private may be promoted to the rank if they distinguish themselves during a refresher exercise or in international deployment.


title: Lance corporal

text: In the Portuguese Army, the equivalent of a lance corporal rank used to be that of "anspeçada". This rank was replaced at the end of the 19th century by the present rank of "segundo-cabo" (second corporal), the former rank of "cabo" (corporal) being renamed "primeiro-cabo" (first corporal).


title: Lance corporal

text: The Lance Corporal (LCP) rank in the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) is between the rank of Private (PTE) and Corporal (CPL).


title: Lance corporal

text: Lance-corporals who are appointed second-in-command/third-in-command of a section can give commands to the rest of the section. National servicemen are usually promoted to this rank after completing their respective vocational courses and within the first year of service. Servicemen who fail to pass their Individual physical proficiency test (IPPT) during their active service will have their rank capped at LCP regardless of vocation.


title: Lance corporal

text: A lance-corporal wears rank insignia of a single point-down chevron with an arc above it (similar to an inverted US Army PFC rank insignia).


title: Lance corporal

text: In the National Cadet Corps (NCC), the National Police Cadet Corps (NPCC) and the National Civil Defence Cadet Corps (NCDCC), the rank of lance corporal is below the rank of corporal. Generally, the rank is awarded to cadets in secondary two. NCC, NPCC and NCDCC lance corporals rarely, if not never, have the chance to command a squad.


title: Lance corporal

text: NCC lance corporals wear the same rank insignia as that of the SAF, except that the letters 'NCC' are below the insignia so as to differentiate NCC cadets from SAF personnel. NPCC and NCDCC lance corporals wear the same rank insignia as that of an SCDF lance corporal, except that the letters 'NPCC' and 'NCDCC' are below the insignia so as to differentiate NPCC and NCDCC cadets from Singapore Police Force and Singapore Civil Defence Force personnel respectively.


title: Lance corporal

text: Lance corporal was a title used in the United States Army to denote privates serving as temporary non-commissioned officers. The title of lance corporal existed in the U.S. Army since at least 1802, as the U.S. Army Institute of Heraldry documents its first occurrence in an "unofficial journal" dated that year. The first official use of the title of lance corporal is documented in the "General Regulations for the Army, or, Military Institutes" (Articles 18 and 20), authorised by an Act of Congress on 2 March 1821 and published by the War Department in July 1821 and again on 1 March 1825.


title: Lance corporal

text: In the "General Regulations for the Army of the United States" (Article XVI, Paragraph 64), published on 25 January 1841, and again in the 1847 edition (Article XIII, Paragraph 121; Article XIV, Paragraph 134; and Article XLIX Paragraph 818), the title of lance corporal is authorised. Again, in the "Revised Army Regulations of 1861" published on 10 August 1861 and in the 1863 edition ""With An Appendix Containing the Changes and Laws Affecting Army Regulations And Articles Of War To June 25, 1863"" (Article 40, Paragraph 971), lance corporal is authorised. Lance corporal is again authorised in "Regulations of the Army of the United States and General Orders In Force on the 17th of February 1881" (Article LV, Paragraph 812) and in "Regulations of the Army of the United States 1895" (Article XXXII, Paragraph 257).


title: Lance corporal

text: In the edition of 1901 ""With Appendix Separately Indexed And Showing Changes to January 1, 1901"", in the Appendix, page 331, in "Headquarters of the Army, General Orders, No. 42, June 30, 1897, Part II", the lance corporal is authorised to wear "...a chevron having one bar..." In "Regulations for the Army of the United States 1904" (Article XXX, Paragraph 263), "...no company shall have more than one lance corporal at a time, unless there are noncommissioned officers absent by authority, during which absences there may be one for each absentee." This proscription appears again in Article XXX, Paragraph 272 of "Regulations for the Army of the United States 1910", and the editions of 1913, and 1917 ""Corrected to April 15, 1917 (Changes, Nos. 1 to 55)"".


title: Lance corporal

text: In 1920, the former lance corporal insignia of rank was assigned to the rank of private first class in "War Department Circular No. 303", dated 3 August 1920. However, the Institute of Heraldry states that some older US Army Tables of Organization and Equipment still in use in 1940 continued to authorise lance corporals.


title: Lance corporal

text: In February 1965, the US Army announced that effective from 1 September 1965, pay grade E-3 would be redesignated as lance corporal. The rank insignia was to be the pre-World War II specialist grade 6 insignia of one chevron above one arc, or "rocker". However, by September 1965 the plan was cancelled. The insignia was, however, adopted for pay grade E-3, which continued to be named private first class.


title: Lance corporal

text: Lance corporal (LCpl) is the third enlisted rank in order of seniority in the United States Marine Corps, just above private first class and below corporal. It is the most commonly held rank in the USMC, and the highest one that a marine can hold without being a non-commissioned officer.


title: Lance corporal

text: The USMC is the only component of the U.S. Armed Forces to currently have lance corporals. Promotion to lance corporal is based on time in grade, time in service, and the conduct of the marine. Further promotion to the NCO ranks (corporal and above) is competitive and takes into account the individual service record of the marine. There can only be a certain number of corporals and sergeants in each MOS, so even with a qualifying score, promotions may be delayed due to an excessive number of corporals occupying billets in a certain MOS.


title: Lance corporal

text: From the earliest years of the Corps, the ranks of lance corporal and lance sergeant were in common usage. The rank of lance corporal has been in the Marine Corps since the 1830s. Marines were appointed temporarily from the next lower rank to the higher grade but were still paid at the lower rank. As the rank structure became more firmly defined, the rank of lance sergeant fell out of use, with the rank of lance corporal remaining in the Corps into the 1930s, but this unofficial rank became redundant when the rank of private first class was established in 1917. The rank of lance corporal fell out of usage prior to World War II, before it was permanently established in the sweeping rank restructuring of 1958.


title: Lance corporal

text: Some law enforcement agencies, most notably the South Carolina Highway Patrol, use the rank for non-supervisory officers.


title: Lance corporal

text: Sweden uses the rank of "vicekorpral" (previously "vicekonstapel", or "vice constable", in the artillery and anti-aircraft artillery) between private and "korpral". It was primarily a training grade discontinued in 1972 but reinstated in 2009.


title: Henry Purcell

text: Purcell's style of Baroque music was uniquely English, although it incorporated Italian and French elements. Generally considered among the greatest English opera composers, Purcell is often linked with John Dunstaple and William Byrd as England's most important early music composers. No later native-born English composer approached his fame until Edward Elgar, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Gustav Holst, William Walton and Benjamin Britten in the 20th century.


title: Henry Purcell

text: Purcell was born in St Ann's Lane, Old Pye Street, Westminster – the area of London later known as Devil's Acre, a notorious slum – in 1659. Henry Purcell Senior, whose older brother Thomas Purcell was a musician, was a gentleman of the Chapel Royal and sang at the coronation of King Charles II of England. Henry the elder had three sons: Edward, Henry and Daniel. Daniel Purcell, the youngest of the brothers, was also a prolific composer who wrote the music for much of the final act of "The Indian Queen" after his brother Henry's death. The family lived just a few hundred yards west of Westminster Abbey from 1659 onwards.


title: Henry Purcell

text: After his father's death in 1664, Purcell was placed under the guardianship of his uncle Thomas, who showed him great affection and kindness. Thomas arranged for Henry to be admitted as a chorister. Henry studied first under Captain Henry Cooke, Master of the Children, and afterwards under Pelham Humfrey, Cooke's successor. The composer Matthew Locke was a family friend and, particularly with his semi-operas, probably also had a musical influence on the young Purcell. Henry was a chorister in the Chapel Royal until his voice broke in 1673 when he became assistant to the organ-builder John Hingston, who held the post of keeper of wind instruments to the King.


title: Henry Purcell

text: Purcell is said to have been composing at nine years old, but the earliest work that can be certainly identified as his is an ode for the King's birthday, written in 1670, when he was eleven. The dates for his compositions are often uncertain, despite considerable research. It is assumed that the three-part song "Sweet tyranness, I now resign" was written by him as a child. After Humfrey's death, Purcell continued his studies under Dr John Blow. He attended Westminster School and in 1676 was appointed copyist at Westminster Abbey. Henry Purcell's earliest anthem, "Lord, who can tell", was composed in 1678. It is a psalm that is prescribed for Christmas Day and also to be read at morning prayer on the fourth day of the month.


title: Henry Purcell

text: In 1679, he wrote songs for John Playford's "Choice Ayres, Songs and Dialogues" and an anthem, the name of which is unknown, for the Chapel Royal. From an extant letter written by Thomas Purcell we learn that this anthem was composed for the exceptionally fine voice of the Rev. John Gostling, then at Canterbury, but afterwards a gentleman of His Majesty's Chapel. Purcell wrote several anthems at different times for Gostling's extraordinary basso profondo voice, which is known to have had a range of at least two full octaves, from D below the bass staff to the D above it. The dates of very few of these sacred compositions are known; perhaps the most notable example is the anthem "They that go down to the sea in ships." In gratitude for the providential escape of King Charles II from shipwreck, Gostling, who had been of the royal party, put together some verses from the Psalms in the form of an anthem and requested Purcell to set them to music. The challenging work opens with a passage which traverses the full extent of Gostling's range, beginning on the upper D and descending two octaves to the lower.


title: Henry Purcell

text: Between 1680 and 1688 Purcell wrote music for seven plays. The composition of his chamber opera "Dido and Aeneas", which forms a very important landmark in the history of English dramatic music, has been attributed to this period, and its earliest production may well have predated the documented one of 1689. It was written to a libretto furnished by Nahum Tate, and performed in 1689 in cooperation with Josias Priest, a dancing master and the choreographer for the Dorset Garden Theatre. Priest's wife kept a boarding school for young gentlewomen, first in Leicester Fields and afterwards at Chelsea, where the opera was performed. It is occasionally considered the first genuine English opera, though that title is usually given to Blow's "Venus and Adonis": as in Blow's work, the action does not progress in spoken dialogue but in Italian-style recitative. Each work runs to less than one hour. At the time, "Dido and Aeneas" never found its way to the theatre, though it appears to have been very popular in private circles. It is believed to have been extensively copied, but only one song was printed by Purcell's widow in "Orpheus Britannicus", and the complete work remained in manuscript until 1840 when it was printed by the Musical Antiquarian Society under the editorship of Sir George Macfarren. The composition of "Dido and Aeneas" gave Purcell his first chance to write a sustained musical setting of a dramatic text. It was his only opportunity to compose a work in which the music carried the entire drama. The story of "Dido and Aeneas" derives from the original source in Virgil's epic the "Aeneid". During the early part of 1679, he produced two important works for the stage, the music for Nathaniel Lee's "Theodosius", and Thomas d'Urfey's "Virtuous Wife".


title: Henry Purcell

text: In 1679, Blow, who had been appointed organist of Westminster Abbey 10 years before, resigned his office in favour of Purcell. Purcell now devoted himself almost entirely to the composition of sacred music, and for six years severed his connection with the theatre. He had probably written his two important stage works before taking up his new office.


title: Henry Purcell

text: Soon after Purcell's marriage in 1682, on the death of Edward Lowe, he was appointed organist of the Chapel Royal, an office which he was able to hold simultaneously with his position at Westminster Abbey. His eldest son was born in this same year, but he was short-lived. His first printed composition, "Twelve Sonatas", was published in 1683. For some years after this, he was busy in the production of sacred music, odes addressed to the king and royal family, and other similar works. In 1685, he wrote two of his finest anthems, "I was glad" and "My heart is inditing," for the coronation of King James II. In 1690 he composed a setting of the birthday ode for Queen Mary, "Arise, my muse" and four years later wrote one of his most elaborate, important and magnificent works – a setting for another birthday ode for the Queen, written by Nahum Tate, entitled "Come Ye Sons of Art".


title: Henry Purcell

text: In 1687, he resumed his connection with the theatre by furnishing the music for John Dryden's tragedy "Tyrannick Love". In this year, Purcell also composed a march and passepied called "Quick-step", which became so popular that Lord Wharton adapted the latter to the fatal verses of "Lillibullero"; and in or before January 1688, Purcell composed his anthem "Blessed are they that fear the Lord" by the express command of the King. A few months later, he wrote the music for D'Urfey's play, "The Fool's Preferment". In 1690, he composed the music for Betterton's adaptation of Fletcher and Massinger's "Prophetess" (afterwards called "Dioclesian") and Dryden's "Amphitryon". In 1691, he wrote the music for what is sometimes considered his dramatic masterpiece, "King Arthur", or "The British Worthy ". In 1692, he composed "The Fairy-Queen" (an adaptation of Shakespeare's "A Midsummer Night's Dream"), the score of which (his longest for theatre) was rediscovered in 1901 and published by the Purcell Society. "The Indian Queen" followed in 1695, in which year he also wrote songs for Dryden and Davenant's version of Shakespeare's "The Tempest" (recently, this has been disputed by music scholars), probably including "Full fathom five" and "Come unto these yellow sands". "The Indian Queen" was adapted from a tragedy by Dryden and Sir Robert Howard. In these semi-operas (another term for which at the time was "dramatic opera"), the main characters of the plays do not sing but speak their lines: the action moves in dialogue rather than recitative. The related songs are sung "for" them by singers, who have minor dramatic roles.