title: Selective breeding

text: Purebred breeding aims to establish and maintain stable traits, that animals will pass to the next generation. By "breeding the best to the best," employing a certain degree of inbreeding, considerable culling, and selection for "superior" qualities, one could develop a bloodline superior in certain respects to the original base stock. Such animals can be recorded with a breed registry, the organization that maintains pedigrees and/or stud books. However, single-trait breeding, breeding for only one trait over all others, can be problematic. In one case mentioned by animal behaviorist Temple Grandin, roosters bred for fast growth or heavy muscles did not know how to perform typical rooster courtship dances, which alienated the roosters from hens and led the roosters to kill the hens after mating with them. A Soviet attempt to breed lab rats with higher intelligence led to cases of neurosis severe enough to make the animals incapable of any problem solving unless drugs like phenazepam were used.


title: Selective breeding

text: The observable phenomenon of hybrid vigor stands in contrast to the notion of breed purity. However, on the other hand, indiscriminate breeding of crossbred or hybrid animals may also result in degradation of quality. Studies in evolutionary physiology, behavioral genetics, and other areas of organismal biology have also made use of deliberate selective breeding, though longer generation times and greater difficulty in breeding can make these projects challenging in such vertebrates as house mice.


title: Selective breeding

text: Plant breeding has been used for thousands of years, and began with the domestication of wild plants into uniform and predictable agricultural cultigens. High-yielding varieties have been particularly important in agriculture.


title: Selective breeding

text: Selective plant breeding is also used in research to produce transgenic animals that breed "true" (i.e., are homozygous) for artificially inserted or deleted genes.


title: Selective breeding

text: Selective breeding in aquaculture holds high potential for the genetic improvement of fish and shellfish. Unlike terrestrial livestock, the potential benefits of selective breeding in aquaculture were not realized until recently. This is because high mortality led to the selection of only a few broodstock, causing inbreeding depression, which then forced the use of wild broodstock. This was evident in selective breeding programs for growth rate, which resulted in slow growth and high mortality.


title: Selective breeding

text: Control of the reproduction cycle was one of the main reasons as it is a requisite for selective breeding programs. Artificial reproduction was not achieved because of the difficulties in hatching or feeding some farmed species such as eel and yellowtail farming.


title: Selective breeding

text: A suspected reason associated with the late realisation of success in selective breeding programs in aquaculture was the education of the concerned people – researchers, advisory personnel and fish farmers. The education of fish biologists paid less attention to quantitative genetics and breeding plans.


title: Selective breeding

text: Another was the failure of documentation of the genetic gains in successive generations. This in turn led to failure in quantifying economic benefits that successful selective breeding programs produce. Documentation of the genetic changes was considered important as they help in fine tuning further selection schemes.


title: Selective breeding

text: Aquaculture species are reared for particular traits such as growth rate, survival rate, meat quality, resistance to diseases, age at sexual maturation, fecundity, shell traits like shell size, shell colour, etc.


title: Selective breeding

text: Gjedrem (1979) showed that selection of Atlantic salmon ("Salmo salar") led to an increase in body weight by 30% per generation. A comparative study on the performance of select Atlantic salmon with wild fish was conducted by AKVAFORSK Genetics Centre in Norway. The traits, for which the selection was done included growth rate, feed consumption, protein retention, energy retention, and feed conversion efficiency. Selected fish had a twice better growth rate, a 40% higher feed intake, and an increased protein and energy retention. This led to an overall 20% better Fed Conversion Efficiency as compared to the wild stock. Atlantic salmon have also been selected for resistance to bacterial and viral diseases. Selection was done to check resistance to Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus (IPNV). The results showed 66.6% mortality for low-resistant species whereas the high-resistant species showed 29.3% mortality compared to wild species.


title: Selective breeding

text: Rainbow trout ("S. gairdneri") was reported to show large improvements in growth rate after 7–10 generations of selection. Kincaid et al. (1977) showed that growth gains by 30% could be achieved by selectively breeding rainbow trout for three generations. A 7% increase in growth was recorded per generation for rainbow trout by Kause et al. (2005).


title: Selective breeding

text: In Japan, high resistance to IPNV in rainbow trout has been achieved by selectively breeding the stock. Resistant strains were found to have an average mortality of 4.3% whereas 96.1% mortality was observed in a highly sensitive strain.


title: Selective breeding

text: Coho salmon ("Oncorhynchus kisutch") increase in weight was found to be more than 60% after four generations of selective breeding. In Chile, Neira et al. (2006) conducted experiments on early spawning dates in coho salmon. After selectively breeding the fish for four generations, spawning dates were 13–15 days earlier.


title: Selective breeding

text: Selective breeding programs for the Common carp ("Cyprinus carpio") include improvement in growth, shape and resistance to disease. Experiments carried out in the USSR used crossings of broodstocks to increase genetic diversity and then selected the species for traits like growth rate, exterior traits and viability, and/or adaptation to environmental conditions like variations in temperature. Kirpichnikov "et al." (1974) and Babouchkine (1987) selected carp for fast growth and tolerance to cold, the Ropsha carp. The results showed a 30–40% to 77.4% improvement of cold tolerance but did not provide any data for growth rate. An increase in growth rate was observed in the second generation in Vietnam. Moav and Wohlfarth (1976) showed positive results when selecting for slower growth for three generations compared to selecting for faster growth. Schaperclaus (1962) showed resistance to the dropsy disease wherein selected lines suffered low mortality (11.5%) compared to unselected (57%).


title: Selective breeding

text: Growth was seen to increase by 12–20% in selectively bred "Iictalurus punctatus". More recently, the response of the Channel Catfish to selection for improved growth rate was found to be approximately 80%, that is, an average of 13% per generation.


title: Selective breeding

text: Selection for live weight of Pacific oysters showed improvements ranging from 0.4% to 25.6% compared to the wild stock. Sydney-rock oysters ("Saccostrea commercialis") showed a 4% increase after one generation and a 15% increase after two generations. Chilean oysters ("Ostrea chilensis"), selected for improvement in live weight and shell length showed a 10–13% gain in one generation.


title: Selective breeding

text: Bonamia ostrea is a protistan parasite that causes catastrophic losses (nearly 98%) in European flat oyster "Ostrea edulis" L. This protistan parasite is endemic to three oyster-regions in Europe. Selective breeding programs show that "O. edulis" susceptibility to the infection differs across oyster strains in Europe. A study carried out by Culloty et al. showed that ‘Rossmore' oysters in Cork harbour, Ireland had better resistance compared to other Irish strains. A selective breeding program at Cork harbour uses broodstock from 3– to 4-year-old survivors and is further controlled until a viable percentage reaches market size.


title: Selective breeding

text: Over the years ‘Rossmore' oysters have shown to develop lower prevalence of "B. ostreae" infection and percentage mortality. Ragone Calvo et al. (2003) selectively bred the eastern oyster, "Crassostrea virginica", for resistance against co-occurring parasites "Haplosporidium nelson" (MSX) and "Perkinsus marinus" (Dermo). They achieved dual resistance to the disease in four generations of selective breeding. The oysters showed higher growth and survival rates and low susceptibility to the infections. At the end of the experiment, artificially selected "C. virginica" showed a 34–48% higher survival rate.


title: Selective breeding

text: Selection for growth in Penaeid shrimps yielded successful results. A selective breeding program for "Litopenaeus stylirostris" saw an 18% increase in growth after the fourth generation and 21% growth after the fifth generation. "Marsupenaeus japonicas" showed a 10.7% increase in growth after the first generation. Argue et al. (2002) conducted a selective breeding program on the Pacific White Shrimp," Litopenaeus vannamei" at The Oceanic Institute, Waimanalo, USA from 1995 to 1998. They reported significant responses to selection compared to the unselected control shrimps. After one generation, a 21% increase was observed in growth and 18.4% increase in survival to TSV. The Taura Syndrome Virus (TSV) causes mortalities of 70% or more in shrimps. C.I. Oceanos S.A. in Colombia selected the survivors of the disease from infected ponds and used them as parents for the next generation. They achieved satisfying results in two or three generations wherein survival rates approached levels before the outbreak of the disease. The resulting heavy losses (up to 90%) caused by Infectious hypodermal and haematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV) caused a number of shrimp farming industries started to selectively breed shrimps resistant to this disease. Successful outcomes led to development of Super Shrimp, a selected line of "L. stylirostris" that is resistant to IHHNV infection. Tang et al. (2000) confirmed this by showing no mortalities in IHHNV- challenged Super Shrimp post larvae and juveniles.


title: Selective breeding

text: Selective breeding programs for aquatic species provide better outcomes compared to terrestrial livestock. This higher response to selection of aquatic farmed species can be attributed to the following:


title: Selective breeding

text: Selective breeding in aquaculture provide remarkable economic benefits to the industry, the primary one being that it reduces production costs due to faster turnover rates. This is because of faster growth rates, decreased maintenance rates, increased energy and protein retention, and better feed efficiency. Applying such genetic improvement program to aquaculture species will increase productivity to meet the increasing demands of growing populations.


title: Selective breeding

text: Selective breeding is a direct way to determine if a specific trait can evolve in response to selection. A single-generation method of breeding is not as accurate or direct. The process is also more practical and easier to understand than sibling analysis. Selective breeding is better for traits such as physiology and behavior that are hard to measure because it requires fewer individuals to test than single-generation testing.


title: Selective breeding

text: However, there are disadvantages to this process. Because a single experiment done in selective breeding cannot be used to assess an entire group of genetic variances, individual experiments must be done for every individual trait. Also, because of the necessity of selective breeding experiments to require maintaining the organisms tested in a lab or greenhouse, it is impractical to use this breeding method on many organisms. Controlled mating instances are difficult to carry out in this case and this is a necessary component of selective breeding.


title: Carpal bones

text: The carpal bones are the eight small bones that make up the wrist (or carpus) that connects the hand to the forearm. The term "carpus" is derived from the Latin carpus and the Greek καρπός (karpós), meaning "wrist". In human anatomy, the main role of the wrist is to facilitate effective positioning of the hand and powerful use of the extensors and flexors of the forearm, and the mobility of individual carpal bones increase the freedom of movements at the wrist.


title: Carpal bones

text: In tetrapods, the carpus is the sole cluster of bones in the wrist between the radius and ulna and the metacarpus. The bones of the carpus do not belong to individual fingers (or toes in quadrupeds), whereas those of the metacarpus do. The corresponding part of the foot is the tarsus. The carpal bones allow the wrist to move and rotate vertically.


title: Carpal bones

text: The eight carpal bones may be conceptually organized as either two transverse rows, or three longitudinal columns.


title: Carpal bones

text: When considered as paired rows, each row forms an arch which is convex proximally and concave distally. On the palmar side, the carpus is concave and forms the carpal tunnel, which is covered by the flexor retinaculum. The proximal row (comprising scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum and psiform) articulates with the surfaces of the radius and distal carpal row, and thus constantly adapts to these mobile surfaces. Within the proximal row, each carpal bone has slight independent mobility. For example, the scaphoid contributes to midcarpal stability by articulating distally with the trapezium and the trapezoid. In contrast, the distal row is more rigid as its transverse arch moves with the metacarpals.


title: Carpal bones

text: Biomechanically and clinically, the carpal bones are better conceptualized as three longitudinal columns:


title: Carpal bones

text: In this context the pisiform is regarded as a sesamoid bone embedded in the tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris. The ulnar column leaves a gap between the ulna and the triquetrum, and therefore, only the radial or scaphoid and central or capitate columns articulate with the radius. The wrist is more stable in flexion than in extension more because of the strength of various capsules and ligaments than the interlocking parts of the skeleton.


title: Carpal bones

text: Almost all carpals (except the pisiform) have six surfaces. Of these the "palmar" or "anterior" and the "dorsal" or "posterior surfaces" are rough, for ligamentous attachment; the dorsal surfaces being the broader, except in the lunate.


title: Carpal bones

text: The "superior" or "proximal," and "inferior" or "distal surfaces" are articular, the superior generally convex, the inferior concave; the "medial" and "lateral surfaces" are also articular where they are in contact with contiguous bones, otherwise they are rough and tuberculated.


title: Carpal bones

text: Occasionally accessory bones are found in the carpus, but of more than 20 such described bones, only four (the central, styloid, secondary trapezoid, and secondary pisiform bones) are considered to be proven accessory bones. Sometimes the scaphoid, triquetrum, and pisiform bones are divided into two.


title: Carpal bones

text: The carpal bones are ossified endochondrally (from within the cartilage) and the ossific centers appear only after birth.


title: Carpal bones

text: The formation of these centers roughly follows a chronological spiral pattern starting in the capitate and hamate during the first year of life. The ulnar bones are then ossified before the radial bones, while the sesamoid pisiform arises in the tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris after more than ten years.


title: Carpal bones

text: The hand is said to be in straight position when the third finger runs over the capitate bone and is in a straight line with the forearm. This should not be confused with the midposition of the hand which corresponds to an ulnar deviation of 12 degrees. From the straight position two pairs of movements of the hand are possible: abduction (movement towards the radius, so called radial deviation or abduction) of 15 degrees and adduction (movement towards the ulna, so called ulnar deviation or adduction) of 40 degrees when the arm is in strict supination and slightly greater in strict pronation.


title: Carpal bones

text: Flexion (tilting towards the palm, so called palmar flexion) and extension (tilting towards the back of the hand, so called dorsiflexion) is possible with a total range of 170 degrees.


title: Carpal bones

text: During radial abduction the scaphoid is tilted towards the palmar side which allows the trapezium and trapezoid to approach the radius. Because the trapezoid is rigidly attached to the second metacarpal bone to which also the flexor carpi radialis and extensor carpi radialis are attached, radial abduction effectively pulls this combined structure towards the radius. During radial abduction the pisiform traverses the greatest path of all carpal bones.


title: Carpal bones

text: Radial abduction is produced by (in order of importance) extensor carpi radialis longus, abductor pollicis longus, extensor pollicis longus, flexor carpi radialis, and flexor pollicis longus.


title: Carpal bones

text: It is produced by extensor carpi ulnaris, flexor carpi ulnaris, extensor digitorum, and extensor digiti minimi.


title: Carpal bones

text: Both radial abduction and ulnar adduction occurs around a dorsopalmar axis running through the head of the capitate bone.


title: Carpal bones

text: During palmar flexion the proximal carpal bones are displaced towards the "dorsal" side and towards the "palmar" side during dorsiflexion. While flexion and extension consist of movements around a pair of transverse axes — passing through the lunate bone for the proximal row and through the capitate bone for the distal row — palmar flexion occurs mainly in the radiocarpal joint and dorsiflexion in the midcarpal joint.


title: Carpal bones

text: Dorsiflexion is produced by (in order of importance) extensor digitorum, extensor carpi radialis longus, extensor carpi radialis brevis, extensor indicis, extensor pollicis longus, and extensor digiti minimi. Palmar flexion is produced by (in order of importance) flexor digitorum superficialis, flexor digitorum profundus, flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor pollicis longus, flexor carpi radialis, and abductor pollicis longus.


title: Carpal bones

text: Combined with movements in both the elbow and shoulder joints, intermediate or combined movements in the wrist approximate those of a ball-and-socket joint with some necessary restrictions, such as maximum palmar flexion blocking abduction.


title: Carpal bones

text: Anteroposterior gliding movements between adjacent carpal bones or along the midcarpal joint can be achieved by stabilizing individual bones while moving another (i.e. gripping the bone between the thumb and index finger).


title: Carpal bones

text: The structure of the carpus varies widely between different groups of tetrapods, even among those that retain the full set of five digits. In primitive fossil amphibians, such as "Eryops", the carpus consists of three rows of bones; a proximal row of three carpals, a second row of four bones, and a distal row of five bones. The proximal carpals are referred to as the radiale, intermediale, and ulnare, after their proximal articulations, and are homologous with the scaphoid, lunate, and triquetral bones respectively. The remaining bones are simply numbered, as the first to fourth centralia (singular: centrale), and the first to fifth distal carpals. Primitively, each of the distal bones appears to have articulated with a single metacarpal.


title: Carpal bones

text: However, the vast majority of later vertebrates, including modern amphibians, have undergone varying degrees of loss and fusion of these primitive bones, resulting in a smaller number of carpals. Almost all mammals and reptiles, for example, have lost the fifth distal carpal, and have only a single centrale - and even this is missing in humans. The pisiform bone is somewhat unusual, in that it first appears in primitive reptiles, and is never found in amphibians.


title: Carpal bones

text: Because many tetrapods have fewer than five digits on the forelimb, even greater degrees of fusion are common, and a huge array of different possible combinations are found. The wing of a modern bird, for example, has only two remaining carpals; the radiale (the scaphoid of mammals) and a bone formed from the fusion of four of the distal carpals.


title: Carpal bones

text: In crustaceans, "carpus" is the scientific term for the claws or "pincers" present on some legs. (See Decapod anatomy)


title: Carpal bones

text: The Latin word "carpus" is derived from Greek meaning "wrist". The root "carp-" translates to "pluck", an action performed by the wrist.


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: Contemporary Christian music, also known as CCM, Christian pop, and occasionally inspirational music is a genre of modern popular music, and an aspect of Christian media, which is lyrically focused on matters related to the Christian faith and stylistically rooted in Christian music. It was formed by those affected by the 1960s Jesus movement revival who began to express themselves in other styles of popular music, beyond the church music of hymns, gospel and Southern gospel music that was prevalent in the church at the time. Initially referred to as Jesus music, today, the term is typically used to refer to pop, but also includes rock, alternative rock, hip hop, metal, contemporary worship, punk, hardcore punk, latin, EDM, R&B-influenced gospel and country styles.


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: It has representation on several music charts including "Billboard"s Christian Albums, Christian Songs, Hot Christian AC (Adult Contemporary), Christian CHR, Soft AC/Inspirational and Christian Digital Songs as well as the UK's Official Christian & Gospel Albums Chart. Top-selling CCM artists will also appear on the "Billboard" 200. In the iTunes Store, the genre is represented as part of the Christian and gospel genre while the Google Play Music system labels it as Christian/Gospel.


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: The growing popularity of rock and roll music in the 1950s was initially dismissed by the church because it was believed to encourage sinfulness. Yet as evangelical churches adapted to appeal to more people, the musical styles used in worship changed as well by adopting the sounds of this popular style.


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: The genre became known as contemporary Christian music as a result of the Jesus movement revival in the latter 1960s and early 1970s, and was originally called Jesus music. "About that time, many young people from the sixties' counterculture professed to believe in Jesus. Convinced of the "bareness" of a lifestyle based on drugs, free sex and "radical politics", some of the Jesus 'hippies' became known as 'Jesus people'". However, there were people who felt that Jesus was another "trip". It was during the 1970s Jesus movement that Christian music started to become an industry within itself. "Jesus music" started by playing instruments and singing songs about love and peace, which then translated into love of God. Paul Wohlegemuth, who wrote the book "Rethinking Church Music", said "[the] 1970s will see a marked acceptance of rock-influenced music in all levels of church music. The rock style will become more familiar to all people, its rhythmic excesses will become refined, and its earlier secular associations will be less remembered."


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: Evangelical and Protestant Christianity formed a born again style of Christian music. Those involved were affected by the late 1960s to early 1970s Jesus movement, and colloquially self-referred to as "Jesus Freaks", as the counterculture movement of hippies, flower children, and flower power swept the nation. The Calvary Chapel was one such movement, which launched Maranatha Music in 1971. They soon began to express themselves in alternative styles of popular music and worship music.


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: Larry Norman is often remembered as the "father of Christian rock", because of his early contributions (before the Jesus movement) to the developing new genre that mixed rock rhythms with the Christian messages. Though his style was not initially well received by many in the Christian community of the time, he continued throughout his career to create controversial hard-rock songs such as "Why Should the Devil Have All the Good Music?". He is remembered as the artist "who first combined rock 'n' roll with Christian lyrics" in the Gospel Music Hall of Fame. Though there were Christian albums in the 1960s that contained contemporary-sounding songs, there were two albums recorded in 1969 that are considered to be the first complete albums of "Jesus rock": "Upon This Rock" (1969) by Larry Norman initially released on Capitol Records, and "Mylon – We Believe" by Mylon LeFevre, released by Cotillion, which was LeFevre's attempt at blending gospel music with southern rock. Unlike traditional or southern gospel music, this new Jesus music was birthed out of rock and folk music.


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: Pioneers of this movement also included Andraé Crouch and the Disciples, 2nd Chapter of Acts, Barry McGuire, Evie, Paul Clark, the Imperials and Keith Green among others. The small Jesus music culture had expanded into a multimillion-dollar industry by the 1980s. Many CCM artists such as Benny Hester, Amy Grant, DC Talk, Michael W. Smith, Stryper, and Jars of Clay found crossover success with Top 40 mainstream radio play.


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: The genre emerged and became prevalent in the 1970s and 1980s. Beginning in July 1978, "CCM Magazine" began covering "contemporary Christian music" artists and a wide range of spiritual themes until it launched online publications in 2009.


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: It has certain themes and messages behind the songs and their lyrics including praise and worship, faith, encouragement and prayer. These songs also focus on themes of devotion, inspiration, redemption, reconciliation and renewal. Many people listen to contemporary Christian music for comfort through tough times. The lyrics and messages conveyed in CCM songs have had varied, positive Christian messages over the decades. For instance, some of the songs have been aimed to evangelize and some of the lyrics are meant to praise and worship Jesus. One of the earliest goals of CCM was to spread the news of Jesus to non-Christians. In addition, contemporary Christian music also strengthens the faith of Christians.


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: Contemporary Christian music has influences from folk, gospel, pop and rock music. Genres of music such as soft rock, folk rock, alternative, hip-hop, etc. have played a large influence on CCM.


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: Charismatic churches have had a large influence on contemporary Christian music and are one of the largest producers of CCM. Hillsong Church is one of the many prominent CCM artists. Contemporary Christian music has also expanded into many subgenres. Christian punk, Christian hardcore, Christian metal and Christian hip hop, although not normally considered CCM, can also come under the genre's umbrella. Contemporary worship music is also incorporated in modern CCM. Contemporary worship is both recorded and performed during church services.


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: In the 2000s, contemporary worship music with a distinctly theological focus has emerged, primarily in the Baptist, Reformed and more traditional non-denominational branches of Protestant Christianity. Artists include well-known groups such as Shane & Shane and Hillsong United and modern hymn-writers, Keith & Kristyn Getty as well as others like Sovereign Grace Music, Matt Boswell and Aaron Keyes. The format is gaining traction in many churches and other areas in culture as well as being heard in CCM collections & musical algorithms on several internet streaming services.


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: Contemporary Christian music has been a topic of controversy in various ways since its beginnings in the 1960s. The Christian college Bob Jones University discourages its dormitory students from listening to CCM. Others simply find the concept of Christian pop/rock music to be an unusual phenomenon, since rock music has historically been associated with themes such as nonconformity, sexual promiscuity, rebellion, drug and alcohol use and other topics normally considered antithetical to the teachings of Christianity, especially organized Protestant strains of Christianity in the United States, which emphasize group cohesion at the expense of individual assertion. This controversy caused by evangelical pop music was explored by Gerald Clarke in his "Time" magazine article "New Lyrics for the Devil's Music".


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: Some writers from the Reformed Presbyterian tradition assert that the inclusion of CCM in a worship service violates the second commandment and the regulative principle of worship because it adds man-made inventions, lyrics and instrumental music to the biblically appointed way of worshipping God.


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: Contemporary Christian musicians and listeners have sought to extend their music into settings where religious music traditionally might not be heard. For instance, MercyMe's song "I Can Only Imagine" was a crossover success despite having a clear Christian message.


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: Paul Baker, author of "Contemporary Christian Music", addressed the question, "Is the music a ministry, or is it entertainment? The motives, on both sides, were nearly always sincere and well intentioned, rarely malicious."


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: "The responsibility of the church is not to provide escape from reality", according to Donald Ellsworth, the author of "Christian Music in Contemporary Witness", "but to give answers to contemporary problems through legitimate, biblical means."


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: Many studies on church growth show that churches have grown in size after changing the style of music. James Emery White, a consultant for preaching and worship within the Southern Baptist Convention, made a statement about how many churches that changed styles to using more contemporary Christian music, appeared to have a quicker growth.


title: Contemporary Christian music

text: Contemporary Christian album sales had increased from 31 million in 1996 to 44 million sales in 2000. Since EMI's purchase of Sparrow Records, sales had increased 100 percent. However, the main goal of the label continues to be aspiring to make a positive impact on the world through contemporary Christian music. The company has given back money to the CCM community. Overall, according to Tyler Huckabee of "The Week" online magazine on February 17, 2016, CCM sales had plummeted to 17 million in sales (related in part to the decline in the sales, mostly of compact discs, seen also in the overall music industry in the United States during the 2010s and competition with legal, purchased digital downloads of individual songs).


title: Fran Kranz

text: Francis Elliott Kranz (born July 13, 1981) is an American actor and film director. He is known for his portrayal of Topher Brink in the science fiction drama series "Dollhouse". He had prominent roles in the films "The Cabin in the Woods" and "Much Ado About Nothing". In 2012, he played Bernard in "Death of a Salesman", beginning a career on Broadway that continued with 2014's "You Can't Take It with You".


title: Fran Kranz

text: Kranz made his feature directorial debut with "Mass" (2021), which premiered at Sundance Film Festival to critical acclaim.


title: Fran Kranz

text: Kranz was born and raised in Los Angeles, California. He started acting in third and fourth grade, and knew from a very young age that he wanted to become an actor. He graduated from Harvard-Westlake School in 2000 and from Yale University in 2004, where he was a member of the improv comedy group The Ex!t Players.


title: Fran Kranz

text: In 2015, Kranz married actress Spencer Margaret Richmond, daughter of "Charlie's Angels" actress Jaclyn Smith and filmmaker Tony Richmond. In 2016, their first daughter was born.


title: British nationality law

text: British nationality law prescribes the conditions under which a person is recognised as being a national of the United Kingdom. The six different classes of British nationality each have varying degrees of civil and political rights, due to the UK's historical status as a colonial empire. The primary class of British nationality is British citizenship, which is associated with the United Kingdom itself and the Crown dependencies. Foreign nationals may naturalize as British citizens after meeting a minimum residence requirement (usually five years) and acquiring settled status.


title: British nationality law

text: British nationals associated with a current British Overseas Territory are British Overseas Territories citizens (BOTCs). Almost all BOTCs (except for those from Akrotiri and Dhekelia) have also been British citizens since 2002. Individuals connected with former British colonies may hold residual forms of British nationality, which do not confer an automatic right of abode in the United Kingdom and generally may no longer be acquired. These residual nationalities are the statuses of British Overseas citizen, British subject, British National (Overseas) and British protected person.


title: British nationality law

text: Generally, nationality refers to a person's legal belonging to a sovereign state and is the common term used in international treaties when addressing members of a country, while citizenship usually means the set of rights and duties a person has in that nation. This distinction is clearly defined in many non-English speaking countries but not in the Anglosphere, nor in the Romance-speaking world (except France). Historically, an individual associated with Britain was referred to neither as a national nor a citizen, but a British subject. British citizenship was not created until passage of the British Nationality Act 1981. This Act defined six types of nationality with varying degrees of civil and political rights, dependent on a person's connections with the United Kingdom, overseas territories, or former colonies. British citizens hold their status because of a close connection with the UK, usually through their own (or parents' or grandparents') birth, adoption, naturalisation, or registration as citizens of the UK.


title: British nationality law

text: Of these statuses, only British citizenship grants automatic right of abode in the United Kingdom. British Overseas Territories are areas outside of the British Islands where the UK holds sovereignty. Since 2002, nearly all BOTCs also hold British citizenship, except for those associated with Akrotiri and Dhekelia.


title: British nationality law

text: The other four categories are residual nationality classes that generally cannot be acquired. BOCs are people connected with former British colonies who have no close ties to the UK or overseas territories. BN(O)s are Hong Kong residents who voluntarily registered for this status before the territory's transfer to China in 1997. British subjects hold their status through a connection either to former British India or the Republic of Ireland before 1949. British protected persons come from areas controlled by the British Empire but were never formally incorporated as Crown territory (former protectorates, protected states, and territorial mandates and trusts).


title: British nationality law

text: English law and Scots law have always distinguished between the Monarch's subjects and aliens, but British nationality law was uncodified until the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914 codified existing common law and statute, with a few minor changes.


title: British nationality law

text: Some thought the single Imperial status of "British subject" was becoming increasingly inadequate to deal with a Commonwealth of independent member states. In 1948, the Commonwealth Heads of Government agreed that each member would adopt a national citizenship (Canada had already done so), but that the existing status of British subject would continue as a common status held by all Commonwealth citizens.


title: British nationality law

text: The British Nationality Act 1948 marked the first time that married British women gained independent nationality, regardless of the citizenship of their spouses. It established the status of "Citizen of the United Kingdom and Colonies" (CUKC), the national citizenship of the United Kingdom and colonies on 1 January 1949. Until the early 1960s there was little difference, if any, in British law between the rights of CUKCs and other British subjects, all of whom had the right at any time to enter, live and work in the UK.


title: British nationality law

text: Independence acts, passed when colonies were granted independence, contained nationality provisions. In general, these provisions withdrew CUKC status from anyone who became a citizen of the newly independent country, unless the person had a connection with the UK or a remaining colony (e.g. through birth in the UK). Exceptions were sometimes made in cases where the colonies did not become independent (notable cases include the Crown Colony of Penang and the Crown Colony of Malacca, which were made part of the Federation of Malaya in 1957; CUKC status was not withdrawn from CUKCs from Penang and Malacca even though they automatically acquired Malayan citizenship at the time of independence).


title: British nationality law

text: Between the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962 and the Immigration Act 1971, as a result of fears about increasing immigration by non-white Commonwealth citizens, the UK gradually tightened controls on immigration by British subjects from other parts of the Commonwealth. Following the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962, citizens of Commonwealth countries who had been born, or whose parent or grandparent had been born, in the United Kingdom still retained CUKC as a dual-nationality. A 1964 amendment to the 1948 citizenship Act (titled the "British Nationality Act 1964 ") ensured that those who had such a connection to the UK, but who had been, or were to be, required to renounce CUKC in order to obtain the citizenship of a Commonwealth country, were able to regain CUKC.


title: British nationality law

text: Many ethnic-Indians from former African colonies such as Kenya (which became independent in December, 1963) and Uganda (which had become independent in October 1962), who had been permitted to retain CUKC under the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962 lest they be denied the citizenship of their new Commonwealth countries and be left stateless, began to move to the United Kingdom following independence, resulting in the rapid passing of the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968 (fully titled "An Act to amend sections 1 and 2 of the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962, and Schedule 1 to that Act, and to make further provision as to Commonwealth citizens landing in the United Kingdom, the Channel Islands or the Isle of Man; and for purposes connected with the matters aforesaid") to stop this migration. The Act removed the rights of free entry to, and abode and work in, the United Kingdom from those British Subjects who were not born in, or possessed of a qualifying connection to, the United Kingdom. This applied not only to Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies from Commonwealth countries, but also to those Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies in the remaining colonies.


title: British nationality law

text: The Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968 made a number of changes to the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962, beginning with amending the definition of to whom the Act applied. By comparison:


title: British nationality law

text: The Immigration Act 1971 (fully titled "An Act to amend and replace the present immigration laws, to make certain related changes in the citizenship law and enable help to be given to those wishing to return abroad, and for purposes connected therewith") introduced the concept of "patriality", by which only British subjects (i.e. CUKCs and Commonwealth citizens) with sufficiently strong links to the British Islands (e.g. being born in the islands or having a parent or a grandparent who was born there), or who had legally resided in the United Kingdom for five years, had "right of abode", meaning they were exempt from immigration control and had the right to enter, live and work in the islands. The act, therefore, had "de facto" created two types of CUKCs: those with right of abode in the UK, and those without right of abode in the UK (who might or might not have right of abode in a Crown colony or another country). Despite differences in immigration status being created, there was no "de jure" difference between the two in a nationality context, as the 1948 Act still specified one tier of citizenship throughout the UK and its colonies. This changed in 1983, when the 1948 Act was replaced by a multi-tier nationality system.


title: British nationality law

text: The current principal British nationality law in force, since 1 January 1983, is the British Nationality Act 1981, which established the system of multiple categories of British nationality. To date, six tiers were created: "British citizens", "British Overseas Territories citizens", "British Overseas citizens", "British Nationals (Overseas)", "British subjects", and "British protected persons". Only British citizens and certain Commonwealth citizens have the automatic right of abode in the UK, with the latter holding residual rights they had prior to 1983.


title: British nationality law

text: The stripping of birth rights from at least some of the colonial CUKCs in 1968 and 1971, and the change of their citizenships in 1983, actually revoked the rights "irrevocably" granted them by Royal Charters at the founding of the colonies. Bermuda (fully "The Somers Isles or Islands of Bermuda"), by example, had been settled by the London Company (which had been in occupation of the archipelago since the 1609 wreck of the Sea Venture) in 1612, when it received its Third Royal Charter from King James I, amending the boundaries of the First Colony of Virginia far enough across the Atlantic to include Bermuda. The citizenship rights guaranteed to settlers by King James I in the original Royal Charter of the 10 April 1606, thereby applied to Bermudians:


title: British nationality law

text: These rights were confirmed in the Royal Charter granted to the London Company's spin-off, the Company of the City of London for the Plantacion of The Somers Isles, in 1615 on Bermuda being separated from Virginia:


title: British nationality law

text: In regards to former CUKCs of St. Helena, Lord Beaumont of Whitley in the House of Lords debate on the "British Overseas Territories Bill" on 10 July 2001, stated:


title: British nationality law

text: Aside from different categories of a nationality, the 1981 Act also ceased to recognise Commonwealth citizens as British subjects. There remain only two categories of people who are still British subjects: those who acquired British nationality through a connection with former British India (formerly known as British subjects without citizenship), and those connected with the Republic of Ireland before 1949 who have made a declaration to retain British nationality. British subjects connected with former British India lose British nationality if they acquire another citizenship.


title: British nationality law

text: In spite of the fact that the 1981 Act repealed most of the provisions of the 1948 Act and the nationality clauses in subsequent independence acts, the acquisition of new categories of British nationality created by the 1981 Act was often dependent on nationality status prior to 1 January 1983 (the date the 1981 Act entered into force), so many of the provisions of the 1948 Act and subsequent independence acts are still relevant. Not taking this into account might lead to the erroneous conclusion, for example, that the 1981 Act's repeal of the nationality clauses in the Kenya Independence Act of 1963 restored British nationality to those who lost their CUKC status as a result of Kenya's independence in 1963. This is one of the reasons for the complexity of British nationality law; in some cases, determining British nationality status requires an examination of several nationality acts in their original form.


title: British nationality law

text: Individuals born within the British Islands (the United Kingdom and Crown Dependencies) receive British citizenship at birth if at least one parent is a British citizen or considered to have settled status in the UK. Children born overseas are British citizens by descent if either parent is a citizen otherwise than by descent. Adopted children are treated as if they were naturally born to the adopting parents at the time of adoption. Children born abroad to members of the British Armed Forces or British citizens on Crown service are treated as if they were born in the UK.


title: British nationality law

text: All children born in the British Islands before 1983 automatically received citizenship at birth regardless of the nationalities of their parents. Children born in the UK to a resident Irish citizen at any time are always British citizens at birth. Since 1983, the status of a child born in the UK is dependent on whether their parents held British citizenship or settled status at the time of their birth.


title: British nationality law

text: Regulations concerning settled status for other European Union (EU), European Economic Area (EEA), and Swiss citizens have changed greatly over time, affecting the status of their children born during the different regulatory periods. EU/EEA citizens living in the UK before 2 October 2000 were automatically considered to be settled. Between that date and 29 April 2006, EU/EEA citizens were required to apply for permanent residency. Swiss citizens became subject to the same regulations on 1 June 2002. From 30 April 2006 until 30 June 2021, EU/EEA and Swiss citizens living in the UK for at least five years automatically received permanent resident status. Permanent resident status for these citizens expired on 1 July 2021, after which they have been required to hold settled status through the European Union Settlement Scheme or another path.


title: British nationality law

text: Foreigners may naturalise as British citizens after residing in the UK for more than five years and possessing indefinite leave to remain (ILR) for at least one year. The residency requirement is reduced to three years if an applicant is married to a British citizen and they immediately become eligible for naturalisation after receiving ILR or equivalent. Applicants must demonstrate proficiency in the English, Welsh, or Scottish Gaelic languages and pass the Life in the United Kingdom test.


title: British nationality law

text: Individuals born in a territory automatically receive BOTC status if at least one parent is a BOTC or has belonger status. Children born in an overseas territory to British citizen parents who are not settled in a territory are British citizens at birth, but not BOTCs. Parents do not necessarily need to be connected with the same overseas territory to pass on BOTC status. Alternatively, a child born in an overseas territory may be registered as a BOTC if either parent becomes a BOTC or settles in any overseas territory subsequent to birth. A child who lives in the same territory until age 10 and is not absent for more than 90 days in each year is also entitled to registration as a BOTC. Furthermore, an adopted child automatically become a BOTC on the effective day of adoption if either parent is a BOTC or has belonger status. In all cases that an individual is a British Overseas Territories citizen at birth or adoption within the territories, that person is a BOTC otherwise than by descent.


title: British nationality law

text: Individuals born outside of the territories are BOTCs by descent if either parent is a BOTC otherwise than by descent. Unmarried fathers cannot automatically pass on BOTC status, and it would be necessary for them to register children as BOTCs. If a parent is a BOTC by descent, additional requirements apply to register children as BOTCs. Parents in Crown service who have children abroad are exempted from these circumstances, and their children would be BOTCs otherwise than by descent, as if they had been born on their home territory.


title: British nationality law

text: Foreigners and non-BOTC British nationals may naturalise as British Overseas Territories citizens after residing in a territory for more than five years and possessing belonger status or permanent residency for more than one year. The residency requirement is reduced to three years if an applicant is married to a BOTC. All applicants for naturalisation and registration are normally considered by the governor of the relevant territory, but the Home Secretary retains discretionary authority to grant BOTC status. Since 2004, BOTC applicants aged 18 or older are required to take an oath of allegiance to the Sovereign and loyalty pledge to the relevant territory during their citizenship ceremonies.


title: British nationality law

text: All British Overseas Territories citizens other than those solely connected with Akrotiri and Dhekelia became British citizens on 21 May 2002, and children born on qualified overseas territories to dual BOTC-British citizens since that date are both BOTCs and British citizens otherwise than by descent. Prior to 2002, only BOTCs from Gibraltar and the Falkland Islands were given unrestricted access to citizenship. BOTCs naturalised after that date may also become British citizens by registration at the discretion of the Home Secretary. Becoming a British citizen has no effect on BOTC status; BOTCs may also simultaneously be British citizens.


title: British nationality law

text: It is generally not possible to acquire other forms of British nationality. British Overseas citizenship, British subjecthood, and British protected person status are only transferred by descent if an individual born to a parent holding one of these statuses would otherwise be stateless. British Overseas citizens retain their status by association with most former British colonies, British subjects are connected specifically with Ireland or British India before 1949, and British protected persons are associated with territories that were under British control but not formally incorporated as part of the British Empire. British National (Overseas) status was exclusively granted by voluntary registration to Hong Kong residents who had been British Dependent Territories citizens prior to the transfer of sovereignty to China in 1997 and cannot be newly acquired in any case.


title: British nationality law

text: Non-citizen British nationals may become British citizens by registration, rather than naturalisation, after residing in the United Kingdom for more than five years and possessing ILR for more than one year.


title: British nationality law

text: All categories of British nationality can be renounced by a declaration made to the Home Secretary. A person ceases to be a British national on the date the Home Secretary registers the declaration of renunciation. If a declaration is registered in the expectation of acquiring another citizenship but one is not acquired within six months of the registration, it does not take effect and the person remains a British national.


title: British nationality law

text: Renunciations made to other authorities are not recognised by the UK. The forms must be sent through the UK Border Agency's citizenship renunciation process.


title: British nationality law

text: There are provisions for the resumption of British citizenship or British overseas territories citizenship renounced for the purpose of gaining or retaining another citizenship. This can generally only be done once as a matter of entitlement. Further opportunities to resume British citizenship are discretionary.


title: British nationality law

text: British subjects, British Overseas citizens and British Nationals (Overseas) cannot resume their British nationality after renunciation.


title: British nationality law

text: British subjects (other than British subjects by virtue of a connection with the Republic of Ireland) and British protected persons lose British nationality upon acquiring any other form of nationality.


title: British nationality law

text: The British government does not publish the number of people it strips of citizenship, but independent research by a lawyer-run website, in 2022, found at least 464 people's citizenship was revoked in last 15 years.


title: British nationality law

text: After the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 came into force British nationals could be deprived of their citizenship if and only if the Secretary of State was satisfied they were responsible for acts seriously prejudicial to the vital interests of the United Kingdom or an Overseas Territory.


title: British nationality law

text: This was extended under the Immigration, Asylum and Nationality Act 2006: people with dual nationality who are British nationals can be deprived of their British citizenship if the Secretary of State is satisfied that "deprivation is conducive to the public good", or if nationality was obtained by means of fraud, false representation or concealment of a material fact. Between 2006 and the end of 2021 at least 464 people have had their citizenship removed by the government since the law was introduced. There is a right of appeal. This provision has been in force since 16 June 2006 when the Immigration, Nationality and Asylum Act 2006 (Commencement No 1) Order 2006 brought it into force. Loss of British nationality in this way applies also to dual nationals who are British by birth. The Secretary of State may not deprive a person of British nationality, unless obtained by means of fraud, false representation or concealment of a material fact, if they are satisfied that the order would make a person stateless.


title: British nationality law

text: This provision was again modified by the Immigration Act 2014 so as not to require that a third country would actually grant nationality to a person; British nationality can be revoked if "the Secretary of State has reasonable grounds for believing that the person is able, under the law of a country or territory outside the United Kingdom, to become a national of such a country or territory."


title: British nationality law

text: The powers to strip citizenship were initially very rarely used. Between 2010 and 2015, 33 dual nationals had been deprived of their British citizenship. In the two years to 2013 six people were deprived of citizenship; then in 2013, 18 people were deprived, increasing to 23 in 2014. In 2017, over 40 people had been deprived as of July (at this time increased numbers of British citizens went to join "Islamic State" and then tried to return).


title: British nationality law

text: The Home Office does not issue information on these cases and is resistant to answering questions, for example under the Freedom of Information Act 2000. It appears that the government usually waits until the person has left Britain, then sends a warning notice to their British home and signs a deprivation order a day or two later. Appeals are heard at the highly secretive Special Immigration Appeals Commission (SIAC), where the government can submit evidence that cannot be seen or challenged by the appellant.


title: British nationality law

text: Home Secretary Sajid Javid said in 2018 that until then deprivation of nationality had been restricted to "terrorists who are a threat to the country", but that he intended to extend it to "those who are convicted of the most grave criminal offences". The acting director of Liberty responded "The home secretary is taking us down a very dangerous road. ... making our criminals someone else’s problem is ... the government washing its hands of its responsibilities ... Banishment belongs in the dark ages."


title: British nationality law

text: A Nationality and Borders Bill was introduced to the British House of Commons in July 2021, sponsored by the Home Office under Home Secretary Priti Patel. In November 2021, an amendment to the Bill was introduced which, if passed, would allow people to be deprived of British citizenship without being given notice. At the time the Home Office reiterated its position on citizenship: "British citizenship is a privilege, not a right".


title: British nationality law

text: As of 2021, there is no restriction in British law on a British national simultaneously holding citizenship of other countries. As a particular case the Good Friday Agreement recognises the right of qualified residents of Northern Ireland to identify as British or Irish however people born in Northern Ireland are British citizens as per the British nationality act 1981.


title: British nationality law

text: There is also no restriction on having more than one valid British passport, whether that is of the same type (e.g. to avoid travel difficulties on presenting a passport bearing Israeli stamps) or of two different types (e.g. British Overseas Territories passports from Bermuda provide visa-free entry into Mexico and the United States, unlike full British passports).


title: British nationality law

text: However, restrictive rules apply to British protected persons and some British subjects who are not British citizens. A person who is a British subject other than by connection with the Republic of Ireland loses that status on acquiring any other nationality or citizenship, and a British protected person ceases to be such on acquiring any other nationality or citizenship. Although British Overseas citizens are not subject to loss of citizenship, British Overseas citizens may lose an entitlement to register as a British citizen under "s4B" of the 1981 Act if they acquire any other citizenship.


title: British nationality law

text: A number of countries do not allow multiple citizenship. If a person has British nationality and is also a national of a country that does not allow dual nationality, the authorities of that country may regard the person as having lost that nationality, or may refuse to recognise the British nationality. British nationals who acquire the nationality of a country that does not allow dual nationality may be required by the other country to renounce British nationality to retain the other citizenship. None of this affects a person's national status under British law.


title: British nationality law

text: Under the international Master Nationality Rule a state may not give diplomatic protection to one of its nationals with dual nationality in a country where the person also holds citizenship.


title: British nationality law

text: A British subject who acquired foreign citizenship by naturalisation before 1949 was deemed to have lost their British subject status at the time. No specific provisions were made in the 1948 legislation for such former British subjects to acquire or otherwise resume British nationality, and hence such a person would not be a British citizen today. However, women who lost British nationality on marriage to a foreign man before 1949 were deemed to have reacquired British subject status immediately before the coming into force of the 1948 act.


title: British nationality law

text: The UK is a signatory to the 1963 Convention on the Reduction of Cases of Multiple Nationality and on Military Obligations in Cases of Multiple Nationality (1963 Strasbourg Convention). Chapter 1 requires that persons naturalised by another European member country automatically forfeit their original nationality. The UK only ratified Chapter 2 of the convention, though, meaning the convention does not limit the ability of British citizens to become dual citizens of other European countries.


title: British nationality law

text: From 1 January 2004, all new applicants for British citizenship by naturalisation or registration aged 18 or over if their application is successful must attend a citizenship ceremony and either make an affirmation or take an oath of allegiance to the monarch, and make a pledge to the UK.


title: British nationality law

text: Persons from the Republic of Ireland born before 1949 reclaiming British subject status under section 31 of the 1981 Act do not need to attend a citizenship ceremony. If such a person subsequently applies for British citizenship by registration or naturalisation, attendance at a ceremony is required.


title: British nationality law

text: After the UK withdrew from the European Union (Brexit) in 2020, British nationals lost their citizenship of the European Union because the UK ceased to be a member state. However, the Brexit withdrawal agreement maintained some of those rights for some of the United Kingdom nationals in its Part Two (citizens' rights), particularly Title II (rights and obligations).


title: British nationality law

text: Before Brexit, British nationals who were "United Kingdom nationals for European Union purposes", namely:


title: British nationality law

text: were citizens of the European Union under European Union law and enjoyed rights of free movement and the right to vote in elections for the European Parliament until the UK left the EU in 2020. When in a non-EU country where there is no British embassy, British citizens had the right to get consular protection from the embassy of any other EU country present in that country. British citizens were able to live and work in any country within the EU as a result of the right of free movement and residence granted in of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union.


title: British nationality law

text: By virtue of a special provision in the UK's Accession Treaty, British citizens who were connected with the Channel Islands and Isle of Man (i.e. "Channel Islanders and Manxmen") never had the right to live in other European Union countries (except the Republic of Ireland through the long-established Common Travel Area) unless they had connections through descent or residence in the United Kingdom.


title: Man-Bat

text: Man-Bat (Dr. Robert Kirkland "Kirk" Langstrom) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Introduced in "Detective Comics" #400 (June 1970) as an enemy of the superhero Batman, the character belongs to the collective of adversaries that make up his rogues gallery. Originally portrayed as a supervillain, later incarnations show Man-Bat as a sympathetic villain or antihero.


title: Man-Bat

text: In the original version of the story, Kirk Langstrom was a zoologist who tried to give humans a bat's acute sonar sense. He managed to develop an extract that could supposedly do this, but upon testing it on himself, he transformed into an anthropomorphic, feral, half-bat hybrid, lacking sentience and acting purely on instinct. Batman managed to reverse the effects, but Langstrom would return as Man-Bat time and time again, albeit not necessarily as a villain, as Langstrom would sometimes retain enough sanity to use his powers for good. Several other characters have since appeared as similar Man-Bat creatures, including Langstrom's wife Francine and father Abraham.


title: Man-Bat

text: Since his debut at the end of the Silver Age of Comic Books, Man-Bat has been featured in various media adaptations, including television series and video games. In 2017, Man-Bat was ranked as "IGN"s 16th-best Batman villain.


title: Man-Bat

text: The character made his first appearance in "Detective Comics" #400 (June 1970) and was created by Frank Robbins and Neal Adams in collaboration with editor Julius Schwartz. The Man-Bat was the star of his own eponymous series in 1975–1976, which proved to be unpopular and was cancelled after only two issues.


title: Man-Bat

text: Dr. Kirk Langstrom, a zoologist who specializes in chiropterology, developes an extract intended to give humans a bat's acute sonar sense and tests the formula on himself. The extract works, but it has a horrible side effect: it transforms him into a monstrous human/bat hybrid creature. This side effect makes him so distraught that it temporarily affects his sanity. He goes on a mad rampage until Batman finds a way to reverse the effects. Later, Langstrom takes the concoction again and the Man-Bat returns. He also coaxes his wife, Francine Langstrom, into drinking the serum and she goes through the same transformation, becoming the She-Bat. Together, they terrorize Gotham City until Batman once again restores them to normal.


title: Man-Bat

text: On some occasions, Langstrom takes the serum and retains enough sanity to work for the forces of good. During one of these periods, he works with the detective Jason Bard. On another occasion, in "Action Comics" #600, Jimmy Olsen inadvertently puts Superman into a cave occupied by the Man-Bat to protect him from kryptonite radiation that had reached Earth following the explosion of Krypton. The Man-Bat calms the maddened Superman and then summons Hawkman, who helps Superman overcome the radiation. Kirk and Francine have a daughter, Rebecca ("Becky"), and a son, Aaron. Because of the effects the serum has on Aaron's DNA, he is born with a deadly illness. Francine turns him into a young Man-Bat to save his life. This occurs in issue #3 of the "Man-Bat" miniseries by Chuck Dixon.


title: Man-Bat

text: The Man-Bat is sighted in Alexander Luthor Jr.'s Secret Society of Super Villains during the events of the 2005–2006 storyline "Infinite Crisis".


title: Man-Bat

text: In the aftermath of that storyline, both Kirk and Francine are shown to be alive in the 2006 "One Year Later" storyline. Talia al Ghul binds and gags Francine, and then threatens to poison her if Kirk does not give her the Man-Bat formula. After Langstrom gives her the formula, she releases Francine as promised. Talia utilizes the Man-Bat to turn some generic members of the League of Assassins into Man-Bat Commandos.


title: Man-Bat

text: In "Gotham Underground", the Man-Bat is apprehended by the Suicide Squad. He is one of the villains seen in "Salvation Run". Francine appears in "Batman and the Outsiders", serving as the team's technical advisor, and her assistant Salah Miandad operates the "blank" OMAC drone known as ReMAC. In issue #10 of that series, Kirk appears, seemingly healthy and also aiding Francine.


title: Man-Bat

text: In the 2008 miniseries "Final Crisis", the Man-Bat is turned into a Justifier and is shown attacking Switzerland's Checkmate Headquarters. During the 2009 "Battle for the Cowl" storyline, following Batman's apparent death, Kirk is haunted by nightmares of becoming the Man-Bat and killing his wife. When Francine disappears, he takes the serum and tries to follow her. After an altercation with the Outsiders, he returns to his human form and is captured by Doctor Phosphorus, who reveals that the serum is not necessary to trigger the change. Kirk discovers that Phosphorus has also captured Francine and becomes the Man-Bat to save her.


title: Man-Bat

text: During the 2009–2010 "Blackest Night" storyline, Francine tracks down Kirk (as the Man-Bat), having created a cure, and revealed that Kirk's next transformation would be permanent if he did not drink it. Kirk attempts to take the cure, but his Man-Bat persona will not let him. Just as Kirk is about to drink it, Francine is wounded in the crossfire of the battle between Black Lantern Solomon Grundy and Bizarro (the latter of whom is already at the scene, trying to prevent Kirk from taking the cure). Distraught at Francine's injuries, Kirk transforms into the Man-Bat, seemingly permanently. In "Batgirl" (vol. 3) #10-11, the Man-Bat is seen under the control of the Calculator as a techno-zombie. In the "Collision" storyline of "Red Robin", following Red Robin's actions against Ra's al Ghul and the League of Assassins, the latter attempts to murder people related to the Bat-Family. The Man-Bat, following Red Robin's orders, protects Julie Madison, a former lover of Bruce Wayne, against Ra's al Ghul's assassins.


title: Man-Bat

text: In The New 52 (a 2011 reboot of the DC Comics universe), the majority of Kirk Langstrom's history is rebooted. The Man-Bat serum first appears in "Detective Comics" (vol. 2) #18 (May 2013). Ignatius Ogilvy also comes into possession of the Man-Bat serum, which he uses as an airborne virus to spread throughout Gotham City's "900 Block".


title: Man-Bat

text: In "Detective Comics" (vol. 2) #19 (June 2013), Kirk Langstrom first appears where he and his wife Francine are escorted by Batwoman to Batman's location. Langstrom reveals that he is the creator of the serum, intending to help deaf people. Taking responsibility as the creator of the serum, he uses a sample of the serum Batman had obtained to inject himself. This creates an anti-virus which also spreads through the air. Langstrom is turned into a Man-Bat (the last remaining Man-Bat) as his anti-virus cures the remaining citizens of Gotham. It was later revealed that Emperor Penguin was the one who released the virus. Emperor Penguin later made use of Langstrom's Man-Bat serum when he combined it with the Venom drug and one of Poison Ivy's plant concoctions to empower himself.


title: Man-Bat

text: Langstrom re-appears in "Batman Inc." (vol. 2) #10 (June 2013) apparently giving Batman the serum. He claims to be working on an aerosol antidote to the serum as well. The backup feature of "Detective Comics" (vol. 2) #21 (August 2013), focuses on Langstrom and his wife. He changes from the Man-Bat form into his human form and becomes addicted to the Man-Bat serum, taking it every night. He apparently does not remember his actions from the previous night, yet worries that a string of reported killings are his fault.


title: Man-Bat

text: During the "Forever Evil" storyline, the Man-Bat is among the villains recruited by the Crime Syndicate of America to join the Secret Society of Super-Villains. The Scarecrow and the Man-Bat attempt to steal the frozen Talons (assassins that are associated with the Court of Owls) from Blackgate while the Penguin is having a meeting with Bane. Bane arrives at Blackgate as the Man-Bat and his fellow Man-Bats are attempting to transport the Talons to Mr. Freeze and is able to keep one from leaving. The final issues of the "" series would establish that Kirk is the son of a corrupt wealthy pharmaceutical businessman named Abraham Langstrom, who considers his son as a failure when compared to Bruce Wayne, the son of his business rival Thomas Wayne. Abraham would steal his son's serum, make some of his own improvements and use it to target the homeless (because no one would miss them) before being stopped by Batman, though he is able to plead temporary insanity to avoid going to prison.


title: Man-Bat

text: In the "Watchmen" sequel "Doomsday Clock", the Man-Bat is featured on the news as an example of the "Superman Theory" where the government has been experimenting on humans to give them superpowers. The Man-Bat later accompanied Black Adam in his attack on the White House.


title: Man-Bat

text: In "Harley Quinn Rebirth", Langstrom's wife goes on a rampage against Harley and her friends, turning Harley and her friend Tony into Man-Bats as part of the Penguin's plan to break Harley's spirit. Their other friends get Langstrom released and he helps them find the antidote before predictably escaping himself.


title: Man-Bat

text: By taking his bat gland extract, Kirk Langstrom transforms himself into a bat-like creature. When taking an antidote or if the serum wears off, he reverts back to human form. As the Man-Bat, his strength, resiliency, speed, and agility are all augmented to inhuman levels. He possesses an extra set of digits in his leathery wings that allows Kirk to fly. With bat radar, Kirk can emit high-pitch sound waves and hear those echoes when they bounce off nearby objects, enabling him to navigate perfectly in the darkness. If in the Man-Bat form for long periods of time, he loses control over his bestial side that works purely on instinct, thus making him prone to harm friend or foe alike.


title: Man-Bat

text: As Kirk, he is a highly intelligent scientist in the fields of biochemistry and zoology (particularly chiropterology).


title: Man-Bat

text: As mentioned above, Talia al Ghul captured Kirk Langstrom and threatened to poison Francine if he did not give her the Man-Bat formula. Kirk gives in to Talia al Ghul's demands where she uses the Man-Bat formula on some generic members of the League of Assassins to turn them into the group's Man-Bat Commandos.


title: Man-Bat

text: During the "Batman R.I.P." storyline, Talia al Ghul sends the Man-Bat Commandos to destroy Jezebel Jet's airplane.


title: Man-Bat

text: In 2011, "The New 52" rebooted the DC universe. Various Man-Bats have appeared under the control of Talia al Ghul in her plot to destroy Batman. It is later explained that Talia al Ghul had an agent steal the serum from Langstrom's laboratory to use on her soldiers to create the Man-Bat Commandos.


title: Man-Bat

text: During the "Forever Evil" storyline, some Man-Bat Commandos were used to help the Crime Syndicate hunt down the Rogues. The Mirror Master managed to trap some of them in the Mirror World. When a Man-Bat snatches up the Weather Wizard, the other Rogues members chase after it until it crashes into a solid wall of ice upon arriving in Mr. Freeze's territory.


title: Man-Bat

text: Back when Thomas and Martha were still alive, Kirk Langstrom had a father named Abraham whose company, Patriarch Biopharmaceuticals, competed with Wayne Enterprises. Years after the death of Thomas and Martha, Abraham continued his shady deals which involved exploiting his son's Man-Bat serum which he planned to profit from. He soon became addicted to the upgraded serum. When he became Man-Bat, Abraham targeted the homeless people of Gotham City, draining them of their blood. This caused Batman to team up with Kirk Langstrom to fight Abraham. Because the skin of Abraham's Man-Bat form was tough, Batman injected himself with the cure and tricked Abraham into drinking his blood enough to transform back to normal. Batman then handed Abraham over to the police. After evading incarceration by claiming that he had no knowledge on what his Man-Bat form did, Abraham returned to his company, though he was wary of the fact that Batman may catch him if he ever makes a mistake.


title: Man-Bat

text: In "Countdown to Final Crisis: The Search For Ray Palmer", an alternate version of the Man-Bat is shown. He is from "Gotham by Gaslight" (Earth-19), and has experimented with bats similar to his mainstream counterpart. He is later defeated by the Blue Beetle and Batman.


title: Man-Bat

text: In the alternate timeline of the "Flashpoint" event, the Man-Bat is killed by Miranda Shrieve, the granddaughter of Matthew Shrieve. In a flashback, the Man-Bat is invited by Lt. Matthew Shrieve to be a new member of the Creature Commandos and then betrayed. Miranda also kills his entire family. It is revealed that the Man-Bat was working with General Sam Lane, who is responsible for the deaths of Miranda's family.


title: Man-Bat

text: In the "Elseworlds" story "", a captured Man-Bat makes an appearance in Professor Hamilton's Cadmus Labs.


title: Man-Bat

text: In the "Batman Beyond" comic series set decades after "Batman: The Animated Series", it is revealed that shortly after Batman cures Francine of the Man-Bat serum, she and Kirk start to live a peaceful life, start studying sonics and have two children. However, Francine developes an aggressive form of Parkinson's and had a short life expectancy, leading Kirk to try and perfect the Man-Bat serum to save her life. By the time he does it, it is too late. Following this, his children leave him, angered that he did not spend as much time with her during her final days. Devastated by losing his family, Kirk turns to the serum, which has been perfected to the point where he is able to talk and control his actions, and starts living in secret as the Man-Bat. Three years prior, he rescues a girl named Tey, who was a hostage of the Jokerz, and injects her with the Man-Bat serum, leading the two to fall in love. In the present, Kirk, now a white-bearded Man-Bat, tries building his own cult of Man-Bats, plans to use Kanium to help his cult control themselves better in their Man-Bat forms and sets up a destructive weapon that concerns the police. Bruce tries to reason with Kirk, but it only results in Kirk viewing both of them as monsters and setting up his bomb to destroy the two of them. However, Batman rescues Bruce in time. The Man-Bat tells Bruce to use his second chance wisely as he detonates the bomb to kill himself.


title: Man-Bat

text: The Man-Bat appears in the "Smallville" comic "Smallville Season Eleven". In Gotham City, the yellow rings of Parallax head to Arkham Asylum. There, Batman and Nightwing are doing their best to contain the newly powered inmates of Arkham, including the Man-Bat, who have already been transformed into Yellow Lanterns. Luckily, Superman arrives just in time to offer assistance to Batman and Nightwing. Superman is fighting with the Man-Bat and before taking him down, Superman says to the Man-Bat that, if there is more man than bat inside of him, then he takes no joy in this. Emil Hamilton succeeds into finding a way to reboot the rings, so when he does, all the Yellow Lanterns, including the Man-Bat, are released from the influence of fear and lose their powers, with the rings turning black. After their rings get rebooted and they lose their powers, the inmates of Arkham fall from the sky, unable to do anything to escape from their eventual death, but Superman manages to save them all. After Parallax's defeat, all the now-depowered criminals return to Arkham Asylum.


title: Man-Bat

text: In the "" prequel comic, the Man-Bat appears in the villain's exclusive bar World's End, attempting to enjoy a drink when Wonder Woman and the Flash arrive in their search for Mirror Master. In Year Five, the Man-Bat meets with Black Mask, the Bronze Tiger, the Mad Hatter, the Scarecrow, and Tweedledum and Tweedledee until their meeting is crashed by Damian Wayne. When the villains start to overwhelm Damian, Deadman arrives where he possesses the Bronze Tiger and knocks out the villains before calling for help.


title: Man-Bat

text: In the prequel comic to "Injustice 2", Man-Bat is shown to be a member of this universe's Suicide Squad. He is eventually murdered when Grodd usurps Solivar and Ra's al Ghul, who previously held custody of the Squad.


title: Yoga nidra

text: Yoga nidra (, ) or yogic sleep in modern usage is a state of consciousness between waking and sleeping, typically induced by a guided meditation.


title: Yoga nidra

text: A state called yoga nidra is mentioned in the Upanishads and the "Mahabharata", while a goddess named Yoganidrā appears in the "Devīmāhātmya". Yoga nidra is linked to meditation in Shaiva and Buddhist tantras, while some medieval hatha yoga texts use "yoganidra" as a synonym for the deep meditative state of samadhi. These texts however offer no precedent for the modern technique of guided meditation. That derives from 19th and 20th century Western "proprioceptive relaxation" as described by practitioners such as Annie Payson Call and Edmund Jacobson.


title: Yoga nidra

text: The modern form of the technique, pioneered by Dennis Boyes in 1973, made widely known by Satyananda Saraswati in 1976, and then by Swami Rama, Richard Miller, and others has spread worldwide. It is applied by the US Army to assist soldiers to recover from post-traumatic stress disorder. There is limited scientific evidence that the technique helps relieve stress.


title: Yoga nidra

text: The Hindu epic "Mahabharata", completed by the 3rd century CE, mentions a state called "yoganidra", and associates it with Lord Vishnu:


title: Yoga nidra

text: The "Devīmāhātmya", written around the 6th century CE, mentions a goddess whose name is Yoganidrā. The god Brahma asks Yoganidrā to wake up Vishnu to go and fight the Asuras or demigods named Madhu and Kaitabha. These early mentions do not define any yoga technique or practice, but describe the god Vishnu's transcendental sleep in between the Yugas, the cycles of the universe, and the manifestation of the goddess as sleep itself.


title: Yoga nidra

text: Yoganidra is first linked to meditation in Shaiva and Buddhist tantras. In the Shaiva text "Ciñcinīmatasārasamuccaya" (7.164), yoganidra is called "peace beyond words"; in the "Mahāmāyātantra" (2.19ab) it is named as a state in which perfected Buddhas may access secret knowledge. In the 11th or 12th century, yoganidra is first used in Hatha yoga and Raja yoga texts as a synonym for samadhi, a deep state of meditative consciousness where the yogi no longer thinks, moves, or breathes. The "Amanaska" (2.64) asserts that "Just as someone who has suddenly arisen from sleep becomes aware of sense objects, so the yogin wakes up from that [world of sense objects] at the end of his yogic sleep."


title: Yoga nidra

text: By the 14th century, the "Yogatārāvalī" (24–26) gives a more detailed description, stating that yoganidra "removes all thought of the world of multiplicity" in the advanced yogi who has completely uprooted his "network of Karma". He then enters the "fourth state", namely turiya or samadhi, beyond the usual states of waking, dreaming, and deep sleep, "that special thoughtless sleep, which consists of [just] consciousness." The 15th century "Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā" goes further, stating (4.49) that "One should practice Khecarī Mudrā until one is asleep in yoga. For one who has achieved Yoganidrā, death never occurs." Khecarī Mudrā is the Hatha yoga practice of folding the tongue back so that it reaches inside the nasal cavity, where it can enable the yogi to reach samadhi. In the 17th century "Haṭha Ratnāvalī" (3.70), Yoganidrasana is first described. It is an asana or yoga pose where the legs are wrapped around the back of the neck. The text says that the yogi should sleep in this position, which "bestows bliss". These texts view yoganidra as a state, not a practice in itself.


title: Yoga nidra

text: The yoga scholar Mark Singleton states that while relaxation is a primary feature of modern Western yoga, its relaxation techniques "have no precedent in the pre-modern yoga tradition", but derive mostly from 19th and 20th century Western "proprioceptive relaxation". This prescriptive approach was described by authors such as the "relaxationist" Annie Payson Call in her 1891 book "Power through Repose", and the Chicago psychiatrist Edmund Jacobson, the creator of progressive muscle relaxation and biofeedback, in his 1934 book "You Must Relax!".


title: Yoga nidra

text: In 1973, Dennis Boyes published his book "Le Yoga du sommeil éveillé; méthode de relaxation, yoga nidra" ("The Yoga of Waking Sleep: method of relaxation, yoga nidra") in Paris, France. This is the first known usage of "yoga nidra" in a modern sense. In the book, Boyes makes use of relaxation techniques including the direction of attention to each part of the body:


title: Yoga nidra

text: The French journal "Revue 3 Millénaire", reviewing Boyes's approach in 1984, writes that Boyes proposes relaxation in order to "reach the state of emptiness". The person thus imperceptibly moves to a stage where relaxation becomes meditation, and can remain there once the mind's obsession with external objects or thoughts is removed.


title: Yoga nidra

text: In modern times, Satyananda Saraswati claimed to have experienced yoga nidra when he was living with his guru Sivananda Saraswati in Rishikesh. In 1976, he constructed a system of relaxation through guided meditation, which he popularized in the mid-20th century. He explained yoga nidra as a state of mind between wakefulness and sleep that opened deep phases of the mind, suggesting a connection with the ancient tantric practice called nyasa, whereby Sanskrit mantras are mentally placed within specific body parts, while meditating on each part (of the bodymind). The form of practice taught by Satyananda includes eight stages (internalisation, resolve (sankalpa), rotation of consciousness, breath awareness, manifestation of opposites, creative visualization, repeated resolve (sankalpa) and externalisation). Satyananda used this technique, along with suggestion, on the child who was to become his successor, Niranjanananda Saraswati, from the age of four. He claimed to have taught him several languages by this method.


title: Yoga nidra

text: Satyananda's multi-stage yoga nidra technique is not found in ancient or medieval texts. However, the yoga scholars Jason Birch and Jacqueline Hargreaves note that there are analogues for several of his yoga nidra activities.


title: Yoga nidra

text: Yoga nidra in this modern sense is a state in which the body is completely relaxed, and the practitioner becomes systematically and increasingly aware of the inner world by following a set of verbal instructions. This state of consciousness is different from meditation, in which concentration on a single focus is required. In yoga nidra the practitioner remains in a state of light withdrawal of the 5 senses (pratyahara) with four senses internalised, that is, withdrawn, and only hearing still connects to any instructions given.


title: Yoga nidra

text: Swami Rama taught a form of yoga nidra (in a broad sense) which involves an exercise called shavayatra, "inner pilgrimage [through the body]", which directs the attention around "61 sacred points of the body" during relaxation in shavasana, corpse pose. A second exercise, shithali karana, is said to induce "a very deep state of relaxation", and is described as a preliminary for yoga nidra (in a narrow sense). It too is performed in shavasana, involving exhalations imagined as directed from the crown of the head to different points around the body, each repeated 5 or 10 times. The yoga nidra exercise itself involves directed breathing lying on the left side, then the right side, then in shavasana. When in shavasana, the attention is directed in turn to the eyebrow, throat, and heart centres or chakras.


title: Yoga nidra

text: The western pioneer of yoga as therapy, Richard Miller, has developed the use of yoga nidra for rehabilitating soldiers in pain, using the Integrative Restoration (iRest) methodology. Miller worked with Walter Reed Army Medical Center and the United States Department of Defense studying the efficacy of the approach. According to "Yoga Journal", "Miller is responsible for bringing the practice to a remarkable variety of nontraditional settings" which includes "military bases and in veterans' clinics, homeless shelters, Montessori schools, Head Start programs, hospitals, hospices, chemical dependency centers, and jails." The iRest protocol was used with soldiers returning from Iraq and Afghanistan suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The Surgeon General of the United States Army endorsed Yoga Nidra as a complementary alternative medicine (CAM) for chronic pain in 2010.


title: Yoga nidra

text: In 2021, the yoga teachers Uma Dinsmore-Tuli and Nirlipta Tuli jointly published a "declaration of independence for Yoga Nidrā Shakti". In it they stated that yoga nidra had become commodified and promoted by commercial organisations for profit; that abuse had taken place within those organisations; and that the organisations had propagated origin stories for yoga nidra "that privilege their own founders" and exclude or neglect older roots of the practice. They state their shock at abuses by Satyananda, Swami Rama, Amrit Desai, and Richard Miller. They invite practitioners and teachers to learn about the history of yoga nidra outside organisational boundaries, and to work without "trademarked versions" of the practice.


title: Yoga nidra

text: The Mindful Yoga teacher Anne Cushman states that "This body-sensing journey [that I teach in Mindful Yoga] ... is one variation of the ancient practice of Yoga nidra ... and of the body-scan technique commonly used in the Buddhist Vipassana tradition."


title: Yoga nidra

text: The cultural historian Alistair Shearer writes that the name yoga nidra is an umbrella term for different systems of "progressive relaxation or 'guided meditation'." He comments that Satyananda promoted his version of yoga nidra, claiming it was ancient, when its connections to ancient texts "seem vague at best". Shearer writes that other teachers have defined yoga nidra as "the state of conscious sleep" in which inner awareness is maintained, without reference to Satyananda's method of progressive relaxation by directing attention to different parts of the body. Shearer attributes this "inner lucidity" to the "buddhi" (intellect, literally "wakefulness") of Sankhya philosophy. He compares "buddhi" to the "intellect" discussed by Saint Augustine and the Apostolic Fathers at about the same time as Patanjali's "Yoga Sutra".


title: Yoga nidra

text: Scientific evidence for the action of yoga nidra is patchy. Parker (2019) conducted a single-observation study of a famous yogi; in it, Swami Rama demonstrated conscious entry into NREM delta wave sleep through yoga nidra, while a disciple produced delta and theta waves even with eyes open and talking. A therapeutic model was developed by Datta and Colleagues (2017) and the same appeared to be useful for insomnia patients. Datta and colleagues (2022) report a beneficial effect of yoga nidra on the sleep of 45 male athletes, noting that sportsmen often have sleep problems. Their small randomised controlled trial found improvements in subjective sleep onset latency, time in bed, and sleep efficiency with 4 weeks of yoga nidra compared to progressive muscular relaxation (used as the control).


title: Yoga nidra

text: Primary research, sometimes on a small scale, has been conducted on various aspects of yoga nidra. One found an association of yoga nidra meditation with increased endogenous dopamine release in the ventral striatum of the brain. The reduced desire for action in the state is associated with the reduced flow of blood in parts of the brain connected with controlling actions, the prefrontal cortex, the cerebellum and the subcortex.


title: Yoga nidra

text: Another study reported that yoga nidra improves heart rate variability, a measure of balance in the autonomic nervous system, whether or not it is preceded by a session of hatha yoga asanas.


title: Yoga nidra

text: Informal studies have suggested possible benefits of yoga nidra, without the large scale or strictly controlled trials that would be required to demonstrate medical benefit. A study suggested that regular practice of yoga relaxation could reduce tension and anxiety, while autonomic symptoms of high anxiety such as headache, giddiness, chest pain, palpitations, sweating and abdominal pain appeared to respond well. The approach has been used to help soldiers from war cope with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). A 2019 study suggests that yoga nidra can alleviate stress and improve self-esteem of university students.


title: Rizal

text: Rizal, officially the Province of Rizal (), is a province in the Philippines located in the Calabarzon region in Luzon. Its capital is the city of Antipolo. It is about east of Manila. The province is named after José Rizal, one of the main national heroes of the Philippines. Rizal is bordered by Metro Manila to the west, Bulacan to the north, Quezon to the east and Laguna to the southeast. The province also lies on the northern shores of Laguna de Bay, the largest lake in the country. Rizal is a mountainous province perched on the western slopes of the southern portion of the Sierra Madre mountain range.


title: Rizal

text: Pasig served as its capital until 2008, even it became a part of the newly created National Capital Region since November 7, 1975. A provincial capitol has been in Antipolo since 2009, making it the administrative center. On June 19, 2020, President Rodrigo Duterte signed Republic Act No. 11475, which designated Antipolo as the capital of Rizal. The change took place on July 7, 2020.


title: Rizal

text: Tagalog settlement arrived some time in the pre-Spanish period. The provincial territory began with the organization of the Tondo province and Laguna province during the Spanish administration. Some of the towns like Pasig, Parañaque, Taytay and Cainta were already thriving.


title: Rizal

text: From the reports of the "Encomiendas" in 1582–1583, the Encomiendas of "Moron" (Morong) was under the jurisdiction of La Laguna and, the Encomiendas of "Passi" (Pasig), "Taitay" (Taytay) and "Tagui" (Taguig) belonged to the Province of Tondo. It was recorded that in 1591, the Encomiendas of Moron and Taitay were under the jurisdiction of the Franciscan Order in the Province of La Laguna; and the Encomiendas of "Nabotas" (Navotas), "Tambobo" (Malabon), Tondo, Parañaque (then La Huerta, Parañaque), "Longalo" (Don Galo, Parañaque), Tagui and Pasig were under the jurisdiction of the Augustinians in the Province of Tondo.


title: Rizal

text: In 1853, a new political subdivision named "Distrito Politico-Militar de los Montes de San Mateo" () was formed. This consisted of the towns of Antipolo, Bosoboso, Cainta and Taytay from the Province of Tondo; and the towns of Morong, Baras, Tanay, Pililla, Angono, Binangonan and Jala-jala from the Province of La Laguna, with the capital at Morong. This district was changed to "Distrito Politico-Militar de Morong" four years later.


title: Rizal

text: In 1860, by virtue of "Circular No. 83", dated September 2, 1785, the Province of Tondo became the Province of Manila. All its towns were placed under the administration, fiscal supervision and control of the Governor of the new province.


title: Rizal

text: The town of Mariquina (Marikina) became the capital of the Province of Manila during the tenure of the revolutionary government of Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo. The Politico-Military District of Morong had for its capital the town of Antipolo from 1898 to 1899 and the town of Tanay from 1899 to 1900.


title: Rizal

text: On February 6, the First Philippine Commission sought to establish civil government in the country through a provincial organization act after the Filipino-Spanish and Filipino-American conflicts.


title: Rizal

text: Therefore, on June 5, 1901, a historic meeting was held at the Pasig Catholic Church for the organization of a civil government in the Province of Manila and District of Morong, with 221 delegates in attendance. The first Philippine Commission, headed by William Howard Taft and composed of Commissioners Luke E. Wright, Henry C. Ide, Bernard Moses and Dean C. Worcester, discussed with the Assembly the issue of whether or not to write the Province of Manila with the District of Morong, was not self-sufficient to operate as a separate province.


title: Rizal

text: Although the delegates from Morong, Hilarion Raymundo, and José Tupas, objected to the proposal, Juan Sumulong of Antipolo strongly advocated the move. After much acrimonious debate and upon the suggestion of Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera the body agreed on the creation of a new province independent of the Province of Manila. The new province was aptly named after José Rizal, the country's national hero.


title: Rizal

text: On June 11, 1901, the province of Rizal was officially and legally created by virtue of "Act No. 137" by the First Philippine Commission which during the time was acting as the unicameral legislative body in the island of Luzon.


title: Rizal

text: The new province was composed of 32 municipalities, 19 from the old Province of Manila (i.e. Cainta, Caloocan, Las Piñas, Malibay, Mariquina (Marikina), Montalban (Rodriguez), Muntinlupa, Navotas, Novaliches, Parañaque, Pasig, Pateros, Pineda (Pasay), San Felipe Neri (Mandaluyong), San Juan del Monte (San Juan), San Mateo, San Pedro Macati (Makati), Taguig, Tambobong (Malabon)); and 13 from the Politico-Military District of Morong (i.e. Angono, Antipolo, Baras, Binangonan, Bosoboso, Cardona, Jalajala, Morong, Pililla, Quisao, Tanay, Taytay and Teresa). The City of Manila from the old Province of Manila was treated as a separate entity. The seat of the provincial government was Pasig.


title: Rizal

text: The number of municipalities changed with the municipal boundaries through time, mostly occurring within the provincial boundary. On October 12, 1903, the former municipalities of Bosoboso, Malibay, Novaliches and Quisao were absorbed by Antipolo, Pasay, Caloocan and Pililla, respectively, by virtue of "Act No. 942". On November 25, 1903, Muntinlupa was ceded to the Province of La Laguna and became part of the municipality of Biñan, but was later returned to Rizal on March 22, 1905 and became part of Taguig until December 17, 1917.


title: Rizal

text: On October 12, 1939, Quezon City was established, which included parts of Caloocan, and later on, Novaliches and parts of Marikina, Pasig and San Juan.


title: Rizal

text: In 1942, Quezon City and the towns of Caloocan, Makati, Mandaluyong, Parañaque, Pasay, and San Juan were merged with Manila to form the City of Greater Manila, by virtue of Executive Order No. 400 signed by President Manuel L. Quezon as an emergency measure. The city was dissolved by President Sergio Osmeña in 1945, thus restoring the pre-war status of the merged cities and towns.


title: Rizal

text: Through "Presidential Decree No. 824", Rizal was partitioned on November 7, 1975 to form Metro Manila. The municipalities of Las Piñas, Parañaque, Muntinlupa, Taguig, Pateros, Makati, Mandaluyong, San Juan, Malabon, Navotas, Pasig and Marikina, and the three cities of Caloocan, Pasay and Quezon City were excised to form the new region, while the other 14 towns remained in Rizal.