title: Minnie (singer)

text: On March 23, 2016, Minnie was revealed to the public through Cube Entertainment's official Instagram. On November 5, she was featured in Jeon So-yeon's performance stage at Unpretty Rapstar 3 concert. In June 2017, she participated in a promotional video for Rising Star Cosmetics along with Song Yuqi and Shuhua, future members of (G)I-dle. The same year, Minnie was given an opportunity to feature for Line Friends' "Twinkle Twinkle Little Star" and six songs in "Dance Party! – Children's English Songs".


title: Minnie (singer)

text: On May 2, 2018, Minnie debuted with (G)I-dle with their mini-album "I Am" and the title song "Latata". She received positive reviews for having a unique, attractive, and soothing voice.


title: Minnie (singer)

text: In their second album, "I Made", Minnie participated in composing, songwriting, and arranging "Blow Your Mind" which was first released through "To Neverland". A self-directed music video was released. Minnie confessed that she makes songs on piano and is taking MIDI classes to improve composing. She was credited in composing "For You" for (G)I-dle's Japanese debut album, "Latata". In October 2019, (G)I-dle took part in Queendom by Mnet. In the first preliminary stage, the viewers were overwhelmed with Minnie's Thai intro enchantment for "Latata", and was well received from viewers in South Korea and Thailand. In the third pre-contest unit stage, Minnie represents (G)I-dle's vocal member. She shared the stage with AOA's Hyejeong performing "Instagram" by Dean. The stage was voted the most anticipated unit stage by the contestants. Moreover, the song re-entered music charts and grew popularity amongst the general public due to their performance. On October 15, it was announced that Minnie teamed up with Wengie, a Chinese Australian YouTuber for a collaboration song "Empire" on October 18. "Empire" debuted at number 22 on the "Billboard" World Digital Songs.


title: Minnie (singer)

text: In 2020, Minnie participated in writing and composing "I'm the Trend" and "Tung-Tung (Empty)" alongside FCM Houdini. "I'm the Trend" is a song dedicated for Neverland, and was unveiled during her group's first online concert , on July 5, 2020. "Tung-Tung (Empty)" is an emotional song that expresses the feeling of a tired heart which was once full but became empty. Through Minnie's words, "I hope that many people will sympathize with this song because it conveys loneliness." The song was released for (G)I-dle's Japanese second extended play "Oh My God".


title: Minnie (singer)

text: In September, Minnie made her acting debut in a Netflix's sitcom "So Not Worth It" alongside Park Se-wan, Shin Hyun Seung, Got7's Youngjae and Han Hyun-min. The show centers on multinational students living their lives together in a dorm in Seoul. Minnie plays a fictionalized version of herself, a genre savvy Thai girl who loves Korean dramas.


title: Minnie (singer)

text: In October, Minnie sung "Getaway" as part of "My Dangerous Wife" soundtrack and "We Already Fell In Love" together with Miyeon as part of "Do Do Sol Sol La La Sol " soundtrack On October 6, Glance TV introduced their new fashion show "Minnie Soojin's i'M THE TREND" and paired Minnie and Soojin together. The duo will have a styling battle every time for the title of 'Trend Center', which is a combination of a trend setter and an idol center. In addition, the duo will revealed their styling secrets, various outfits, shopping tips and video pictorial 'Fashion Film'. The show premiered on October 14 through Naver Style TV. On November 22, Minnie appeared on "Play Seoul", a program produced by the Seoul Tourism Foundation and KBS where influential K-stars can share with global fans their experiences in Seoul in real-time. The show aims to promote safe post-COVID19 tourism in Seoul. Minnie alongside Yuqi introduced the hip alley ways in Seoul by visiting Euljiro and Itaewon for their cafes and restaurants.


title: Minnie (singer)

text: In 2021, Minnie co-composed "Moon" and "Dahlia", which was released on January 11 for her group's fourth extended play "I Burn". On September 23, the singer featured in "Money Honey", a collaboration song with Thai rappers and . The song features lyrics about love that can't be exchanged with money or any other materials. It was released as a digital single on


title: Minnie (singer)

text: Minnie is multilingual. She speaks several languages including Thai, English, Korean, Japanese and Mandarin.


title: Minnie (singer)

text: Minnie landed her first solo magazine cover for "L'Officiel"'s Thailand June 2021 edition. Since then she has been on the cover of Sudsapda, "Vogue", "Harper's Bazaar", and "Elle". She also appeared in an advertisement for Nespresso and Chiara Ferragni's limited edition coffee drink.


title: Minnie (singer)

text: Journalist Jake Lau of "South China Morning Post", noted that Minnie has a versatile voice: "she sings in a soft, breathy voice when performing more emotive songs and acoustic renditions [...] But on more powerful songs such as Lion, Minnie can belt out the powerful high notes". Apart from her voice, she is also known for her striking eyes and strong gaze that is featured in many of (G)I-dle's music videos.


title: Minnie (singer)

text: Growing up in a family of musicians, Minnie stated that the music video of "A Thousand Miles" by Vanessa Carlton where she starts playing the song while the piano was moving, ignited her dreams as a musician. She commented, "Ever since I saw that MV, [...] I started thinking that I will sing and play the piano. I must become an artist like that". She also cites Super Junior whose songs she often sang to while growing up that led her into K-Pop. Through a magazine interview, Minnie considered American singer Alicia Keys as her role model since her childhood. She explained that she used to watch a lot of television with her mother when she was a child, and the performance by Keys’ 2003 hit "If I Ain't Got You" was what inspired her to pursue music. She also cited Australian singer Troye Sivan, Thai singer Stamp Apiwat, and American singer Charlotte Lawrence as her inspirations and hopes to collaborate with them someday.


title: Minnie (singer)

text: Through an interview with "HelloAsia", she revealed that she gets inspired by her own story or from other people's stories or movies.


title: Minnie (singer)

text: All song credits are adapted from the Korea Music Copyright Association's database, unless otherwise noted.


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: "God Save the Queen" is a song by the English punk rock band the Sex Pistols. It was released as the band's second single and was later included on their only studio album, "Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols". The song was released during Queen Elizabeth II's Silver Jubilee in 1977.


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: The record's lyrics, as well as the cover, were controversial at the time; both the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and the Independent Broadcasting Authority refused to play the song, including a total ban of its airing by the BBC. The original title for the song was "No Future", with the lyrics themselves being a general expression of the band's view of the monarchy or any individual or establishment commanding general obligation.


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: The song reached No. 1 on the "NME" charts in the United Kingdom, and made it to No. 2 on the official UK Singles Chart as used by the BBC. This led to accusations by some that the charts had been "fixed" to prevent the song from reaching No. 1.


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: The song's title is taken directly from the British national anthem. At the time, it was highly controversial for its equation of the queen with a "fascist regime" and for the lyric "there is no future in England's dreaming". According to Glen Matlock, who had co-written the song—although he was no longer a member of the band by the time it was released—the bass was inspired by the Move's "Fire Brigade". Guitarist Steve Jones stated that when Matlock first played him the song it did not sound like 'God Save the Queen': "It was like 'Love Me Do' or something".


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: Although many believe it was created because of the Silver Jubilee, the band have denied it, with Paul Cook saying that "it wasn't written specifically for the Queen's Jubilee. We weren't aware of it at the time. It wasn't a contrived effort to go out and shock everyone." Johnny Rotten has explained the lyrics as follows: "You don't write 'God Save the Queen' because you hate the English race. You write a song like that because you love them, and you're fed up with them being mistreated." He intended to evoke sympathy for the English working class and a general resentment towards the monarchy.


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: On 7 June 1977, the Jubilee holiday, the band attempted to play the song from a boat named the "Queen Elizabeth" on the River Thames, near the Palace of Westminster. After a scuffle involving attendee Jah Wobble and a cameraman, 11 people, including Malcolm McLaren, the man who organised the concert, and several other members of the band's entourage, were arrested when the boat docked.


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: The single was released on 27 May 1977, and was regarded by many of the general public as an assault on Queen Elizabeth II and the monarchy. During the media furore over the single, Lydon and producers Bill Price and Chris Thomas were subject to a razor attack outside a pub in Highbury, London.


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: Agreeing with the apparent anti-Windsor message, American postmodern author William S. Burroughs sent a congratulatory letter to the Sex Pistols following the release of the song.


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: Before the group signed to Virgin, a small number of copies of "God Save the Queen" had been pressed on the A&M label. These are now among the most valuable records ever pressed in the UK, with a resale value as of 2006 of between £500 and £13,000 a copy, depending on condition of the disc. The highest recorded sale price of $22,155 was achieved at auction in 2006 by UK collector Marshal Peters who sold a copy of the single complete with its A&M card envelope, of which only nine copies are known to exist. The B-side of the A&M single was "No Feeling", an early rough mix or performance of "No Feelings". (A later version was released on the Pistols' debut album.) "Record Collector" named the A&M single the most collectable record of all time.


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: Upon its release, the song was banned from both the BBC and radio stations regulated by the Independent Broadcasting Authority with Radio 2 controller Charles McLelland saying the song was "in gross bad taste". Additionally, the major retailers Boots, WHSmith, and Woolworths all declined to sell the record. Nevertheless, it peaked at No. 2 (below Rod Stewart's "I Don't Want to Talk About It" released as a double A-side budget single along with "The First Cut Is the Deepest") on the official UK Singles Chart used by the BBC; it did so during the week of the Silver Jubilee's official observation. On the singles chart displayed in branches of WH Smith, the single's position at No. 2 was represented by a blank line.


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: However, various sources state that it was indeed the highest-selling single of the week, and it has been suggested that the song was deliberately blocked from reaching the top spot on the "official" BMRB chart. According to a 1998 article in "The Independent", for one week compilers "decreed that shops which sold their own records could not have those records represented in the chart", and thus sales from Virgin Megastores were not counted. Virgin had few doubts that theirs was the higher-selling single; the company's sales total out of stock exceeded the officially cited sales for the Rod Stewart single. The "NME" magazine chart did in fact place the single at number-one during the Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II. In 2001, the BBC described the song as having "reached number one in the UK".


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: "God Save the Queen" was featured on "Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols", the band's only album, and several compilation albums.


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: "Rolling Stone" ranked "God Save the Queen" number 175 on its list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time and it is also one of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. It was "Sounds" magazine's Single of the Year in 1977. In 1989, it was eighteenth in the list of "NME" writers' all-time top 150 singles. "Q" magazine in 2002 ranked it first on its list of "The 50 Most Exciting Tunes Ever..." and third on its list of "100 Songs That Changed the World" in 2003. In 2007, "NME" launched a campaign to get the song to number 1 in the British charts and encouraged readers to purchase or download the single on 8 October. However, it only made number 42. In 2010, the "New Statesman" listed it as one of the "Top 20 Political Songs".


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: In 2010, the song was ranked among the top 10 most controversial songs of all time in a poll conducted by PRS for Music.


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: In recent years, Lydon has denied that he is anti-monarchy, stating on Richard & Judy in 2002: "I was never pro them or anti them. I just think if we're going to have a monarchy it may as well work properly. I mean, we pay for it, after all". On Piers Morgan Live in 2015, Lydon stated: "I never said I didn't [love the Queen], I just don't like the institution".


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: In 2002, the song was re-released to coincide with the Queen's Golden Jubilee, whereupon the single charted in the top 20. In 2012, it was announced that the single would be re-released on 28 May 2012, coinciding with the 35th anniversary of the original release and the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II. Lydon has voiced his disapproval over the re-release and the campaign, saying in a statement: "I would like to very strongly distance myself from the recent stories and campaign to push 'God Save the Queen' for the number one spot... this campaign totally undermines what The Sex Pistols stood for." The 2012 re-release peaked at no. 80 in the singles chart. Rights holder UMC re-released the record for the Queen's Platinum Jubilee in 2022, with 1,977 vinyl copies having the same tracks as the original A&M version and the rest labelled as a Virgin release. The record sold 5,712 vinyl copies and became the number one single on the Official Physical Singles Chart Top 100 of 10 June 2022 to 16 June 2022, with a chart placing of number 57 in the main chart when the 279 downloads were added.


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: In recent years, John Lydon has moderated his views on The Royal Family. In 2001, he stated: "Is the Queen a moron? I probably think so. That women has her precious little to do with her so-called subjects, other than ignore the hell out of us... We're just there to prop up her tiara". The following year, he denied he was an anti-monarchy in an interview on Richard & Judy: "I was never pro them or anti them. I just think if we're going to have a monarchy it may as well work properly. I mean, we pay for it, after all". Despite his previous 2001 comments about the Queen, Lydon stated on Piers Morgan Live in 2015: "I never said I didn't [love the Queen], I just don't like the institution". In another interview with Piers Morgan on Piers Morgan Uncensored in 2022, the year of Platinum Jubilee, Lydon further expressed his respect for the Queen: "I'm [not] completely dead against The Royal Family as human beings. I'm actually really really proud of the Queen for surviving and doing so well. I applaud her for that. That is a fantastic achievement. I’m not a curmudgeon about that. I just think that if I’m paying my tax money to support this system, I should have a say so on how it’s spent". Guitarist Steve Jones and bassist Glen Matlock also expressed their views on the monarchy in 2022. Jones stated: "I’ve never had any connection to the monarchy, to be honest. It meant nothing to me, still doesn’t. So to me ['God Save The Queen'] was just a laugh, it was a giggle". While Matlock stated in an interview with Good Morning Britain: "I've nothing personal against the queen, lots of people love and respect her, but I do think she's a bit of a sop to what's going on".


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: The song could be heard during "Journey Along the Thames", a two-minute film directed by Danny Boyle and played at the beginning of the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony, an event opened by the queen, and held during her Diamond Jubilee. A camera traverses the route the band took in the boat the "Queen Elizabeth", between Tower Bridge and Westminster, as the song plays.


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: On 3 November 2016, Andrew Rosindell, a Conservative MP, argued in an early day motion for a return to the broadcasting of the national anthem at the end of BBC One transmissions each day (The practice was dropped in 1997, due to BBC One adopting 24-hour broadcasting by simulcasting BBC News 24 overnight, rendering closedown obsolete), to commemorate the Brexit vote and Britain's subsequent withdrawing from the European Union. At the evening of the same day, BBC Two's "Newsnight" programme ended its nightly broadcast with host of that night Kirsty Wark saying that they were "incredibly happy to oblige" Rosindell's request, and then played a clip of the Sex Pistols' similarly named song, much to Rosindell's discontent.


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: The single's picture sleeve, featuring a defaced image of Queen Elizabeth II, was designed by Jamie Reid and in 2001 was ranked No. 1 in a list of the 100 greatest record covers of all time by "Q" magazine. A photograph of the image is held by the National Portrait Gallery, London.


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: A cover version by the English heavy metal band Motörhead was released as a single in 2000 to promote their album, "We Are Motörhead".


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: The cover art gives further reference to the Sex Pistols by using the same cut-out words to form the title as the Sex Pistols' single cover.


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: A performance of the song recorded during the band's twenty-fifth anniversary concert at Brixton Academy, on 22 October 2000, appears on their 25 & Alive Boneshaker DVD.


title: God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)

text: On the 18 March 1983 episode of "SCTV" in the "Mel's Rock Pile" segment, Mel Slirrup (Eugene Levy) has a tribute to punk rock featuring a number by the band the Queenhaters—Martin Short (lead singer), Andrea Martin (lead guitarist/back-up vocals), Eugene Levy (rhythm guitarist), Joe Flaherty (bass), and John Candy (drummer)—performing "I Hate the Bloody Queen", a sound-alike song that almost matches the original it is spoofing, with references to the Falklands War ("I'd like to drown the Queen/Off the coast of Argentine/Throw her off a battleship/With her Falkland war machine!") and the problems that Princess Diana was, and would be soon having with her in-laws ("I feel sorry for you, Lady Di/Having a mother-in-law like that!"). This spoof of the Sex Pistols "God Save the Queen" even has its own cover version by Mudhoney on the tribute album "Oh Canaduh! 2".


title: Physician assistant

text: A physician assistant or physician associate (PA) is a type of mid-level health care provider. In North America PAs may diagnose illnesses, develop and manage treatment plans, prescribe medications, and may serve as a principal healthcare provider. PAs are required in many states to have a direct agreement with a physician.


title: Physician assistant

text: In the United States and Canada, PAs are certified by their respective certifying bodies. The educational model was initially based upon the accelerated training of physicians during the shortage of qualified medical providers during World War II. In the UK, PAs were introduced in 2003. They support GPs, but require oversight from a physician.


title: Physician assistant

text: The occupational title of physician assistant and physician associate originated in the United States in 1967 at Duke University. The role has been adopted in the US, Canada, UK and Ireland, each with their own nomenclature.


title: Physician assistant

text: Physician assistants or associates train to work in settings such as hospitals, clinics and other types of health facilities, or virtually via telemedicine. PAs are commonly found working in teaching and research as well as hospital administration and other clinical environments. PAs may practice in primary care or medical specialties, including emergency medicine, surgery and cardiology.


title: Physician assistant

text: Physician assistant or associate programs are approximately 27 months (3 academic years) and award master’s degrees. Physician assistant programs are highly competitive. Of the 27,283 PA program applicants in the US in 2021, 8,802 were accepted into at least 1 program (32% of all PA program applicants). Of the applicants accepted, 65.3% had applied to PA programs during previous cycles. The average PA program's acceptance rate is approximately 7%.


title: Physician assistant

text: In order to become a PA, a bachelor’s degree is required. Some PA programs offer a pre-professional phase that is open to recent high school graduates and students with some college credit. In these programs, the pre-professional phase require students to complete undergraduate course work in order to obtain a bachelor’s degree before they enter the professional phase of their training.


title: Physician assistant

text: Most US PA programs require completing an application through a platform known as Centralized Application Service for Physician Assistants (CASPA). CASPA is an internet-based application platform, sponsored and administered exclusively by the PA Education Association (PAEA). Most entry-level PA programs require prerequisites courses in anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, biology, microbiology, chemistry, organic chemistry, English composition/writing, genetics, medical terminology, psychology and statistics. Many PA programs also require prior healthcare experience with hands-on patient care. Healthcare experience can often be obtained by working as a medical assistant, emergency medical technician (EMT), paramedic, medic or medical corpsman, lab assistant/phlebotomist, registered nurse (RN), certified nurse assistant (CNA), surgical technologist, or emergency room technician. Most students have about three years of healthcare experience before entering a program.


title: Physician assistant

text: PA programs include both classroom instruction and clinical education. Clinical education includes rotations in the clinical setting where students gain over 2,000 hours of experience in family medicine, internal medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics, general surgery, emergency medicine and behavioral health.


title: Physician assistant

text: Following graduation from an accredited PA program in the US, graduates must pass a board exam, known as the Physician Assistant National Certifying Exam (PANCE), in order to obtain certification. This exam is administered by the National Commission on Certification of Physician Assistants (NCCPA). In order to maintain certification, a PA must pass a comprehensive recertification exam, known as the Physician Assistant National Recertification Exam (PANRE), every 10 years.


title: Physician assistant

text: While residency training is typically not required for PAs, it has become increasingly more common in a variety of specialties, including surgery and emergency medicine. The first postgraduate residency program for PAs was established in surgery at Montefiore Medical Center in Bronx, NY in 1971 by Marvin Gliedman, MD, Richard Rosen, MD, and Clara Vanderbilt, R-PA. In 1975, Montefiore’s Postgraduate Residency for Physician Assistants in Surgery was followed by the Norwalk Hospital/Yale School of Medicine’s Surgical Physician Assistant Residency Program. Today, postgraduate programs in the US are accredited by the ARC-PA Accreditation Review Commission on Education for the Physician Assistant (ARC-PA). Accredited programs include the Norwalk Hospital/Yale School of Medicine’s Surgical Physician Assistant Residency Program, the John’s Hopkins Hospital Postgraduate PA Surgical Residency, Duke Physician Assistant Surgical Residency Program, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Cardiothoracic Physician Assistant Residency Program, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Critical Care Advanced Practice Provider Residency, MD Anderson Cancer Center Postgraduate Physician Assistant Fellowship in Oncology, Texas Children’s Hospital Community Surgery Physician Assistant Fellowship, Texas Children’s Hospital Orthopedic Physician Assistant Fellowship, Texas Children’s Hospital Surgery Physician Assistant Fellowship, Arrowhead Orthopedic’s PA Orthopaedic Surgery Fellowship, and Emory Critical Care Nurse Practitioner and Physician Assistant Residency Program. Several non-accredited programs include NYU Langone Health Emergency Medicine Advanced Practice Provider Fellowship, Columbia Physician Assistant Emergency Medicine Fellowship, and the University of Florida PA Surgical Residency.


title: Physician assistant

text: In 1961 Charles Hudson recommended that the American Medical Association create new medical provider certifications. Eugene A. Stead of the Duke University Medical Center assembled the first class of physician assistants in 1965, composed of four former US Navy Hospital Corpsmen. He based the curriculum of the PA program on his first-hand knowledge of the fast-track training of medical doctors during World War II. Two other physicians, Richard Smith at the University of Washington, and Hu Myers at Alderson-Broaddus College launched their own programs in the mid-late 1960s. Dr. J. Willis Hurst started the Emory University Physician Assistant Program in 1967.


title: Physician assistant

text: Beginning in January 1971, the US Army produced eight classes of physician assistants, at 30 students per class, through the Academy of Health Sciences, Brooke Medical Center (academically accredited by Baylor University).


title: Physician assistant

text: In 2017, approximately 68% of physician assistants in the United States identified as women and approximately 32% identified as men.


title: Physician assistant

text: The profession expanded globally. It can now be found in Afghanistan, Australia, Canada, Germany, Ghana, India, Israel, Liberia, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia, and the United Kingdom. As a profession physician assistants have greatly influenced the theory and conceptualization of socially accountable health professional education.


title: Physician assistant

text: In 2011, Health Workforce Australia began developing the role of physician assistant throughout the country culminating with registration and a PA Program based out of James Cook University. Despite all initial indicators showing that the new profession would be successfully integrated into the health care system, the progress has floundered resulting in the majority of PAs in Australia being unemployed.


title: Physician assistant

text: , there are approximately 800 physician assistants working in healthcare settings in Canada. The first formally trained physician assistants graduated in 1984 from the Canadian Forces Medical Services School at Borden, Ontario. The Canadian Medical Association (CMA) recognized physician assistants as a health professional in 2003. Physician assistants are able to perform medical functions such as ordering tests, diagnosing diseases, prescribing medications, treating patients, educating patients and performing various medical and surgical procedures. Physician assistants are labeled under the federal government national occupational classification code 3124: allied primary health practitioners.


title: Physician assistant

text: The first civilian physician assistant education programs were launched in 2008 at the University of Manitoba and McMaster University. In 2010, a third civilian program was launched by the consortium of physician assistant education (University of Toronto, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, and The Michener Institute). Admission to the physician assistant program in all three of the university programs across Canada are highly competitive with grades, education, interviews, professional experience, credentials, personal statements and testing considered in the candidate selection process. Approximately 15 seats at the University of Manitoba are available yearly while the two other programs in Ontario respectively have approximately 30 seats at the University of Toronto and approximately 24 seats at McMaster University. In Canada, the education of a physician assistant generally consists of three years of professional post-graduate university education. The education is delivered over a two calendar year time-frame by completing fall, winter and summer semesters for both years of the program in either a master level university physician assistant program or post-graduate professional university bachelor level physician assistant program. Physician assistant graduates become eligible for the certification exam by being a graduate of a Canadian physician assistant program that is recognized by the Physician Assistant Certification Council of Canada (Canadian Armed Forces physician assistant program, University of Manitoba, McMaster University and the consortium of physician assistant education all of which are accredited by the Canadian Medical Association).


title: Physician assistant

text: Physician assistants resemble and provide many of the functions of physicians in Canada and act as advanced-level medical provider. Physician assistants may be compared to the role of nurse practitioner by the general public and may be confused as the same profession. Nurse practitioners in Canada practice under an advanced nursing model. Physician assistants practice under a medical model, similarly modeled after medical school (physician) education. Nurse practitioners practice within their defined specific scope of practice autonomously and sometimes collaboratively. The defined scopes of a nurse practitioner include the areas of (family care, adults and paediatrics). Physician assistants are permitted to practice in all medical specialties by mirroring the practice of a physician with a full range of skills and scope by practicing both autonomously as a clinician and collaboratively with physicians when required. Some examples of practice areas for physician assistants include (emergency medicine, critical care medicine, cardiology, psychiatry, community and family medicine, neurology, surgery, orthopaedics, internal medicine, oncology, gastroenterology, military medicine, respirology, dermatology, women's health and many more specialities). Physician assistants may perform certain roles which have been traditionally only provided by physicians in clinical practice, making the PA's medical training over other providers unique in this regard.


title: Physician assistant

text: Physician assistant salaries in civilian practice in Canada are relatively new and can range from approximately $80,000 CAD for entry level positions to $142,000 CAD a year for experienced providers which are not on call and up to $178,000 CAD for experienced providers which are on call. The physician assistant profession is newer to civilian practice in Canada. The compensation report published in 2019 by the Canadian Association of Physician Assistants outlines the typical salaries across Canada being an entry median salary of approximately $80,000 CAD and an experienced median salary of approximately $105,000 CAD.


title: Physician assistant

text: Physician assistants are currently practicing across Canada in the Canadian Armed Forces as commissioned officers in domestic and international environments and have been in practice since the 1960s. Physician assistants outside of the Canadian Armed Forces practice usually in the public health care system in the provinces of Manitoba, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Alberta. Physician assistants have been regulated in Manitoba since 1999 and in New Brunswick since 2009 and are registrants of their respective provincial college of physicians and surgeons. In Ontario, Alberta and Nova Scotia the profession is not regulated at this time. Physician assistants in Ontario were introduced in 2007 to the public health system as a joint venture between the Ontario Ministry of Health and the Ontario Medical Association. In Alberta, a registry has been established for physician assistants under the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Alberta with future regulation underway. In Ontario, future regulation has been discussed by the Ontario Ministry of Health in which physician assistants would be members of the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Ontario. Physician assistants are represented by the Canadian Association of Physician Assistants, which originally was formed in October 1999 as the "Canadian Academy of Physician Assistants".


title: Physician assistant

text: The first PA program in India was established in 1992 with a focus on expanding cardiovascular surgery. Since then, eight additional programs have developed (in total seven baccalaureate and two master's level programs).


title: Physician assistant

text: Physician Associates were introduced by the Health Service Executive in the mid-2010's. The Royal College of Surgeons has offered a PA postgraduate degree since 2016, with 28 graduating by . PAs may not write prescriptions.


title: Physician assistant

text: In February 2015, Health Workforce New Zealand completed a Phase-2 trial of PAs who worked for a period of two years (2013–2015) in four clinical settings. Specifically, the sites included one rural emergency department and three primary care settings (two rural and one urban) located on the North and South Islands of New Zealand. At conclusion of the trial, several clinics continued to employ PAs while the process of health regulation makes its way through the government bureaucracy.


title: Physician assistant

text: The position of physician associate was established in the United Kingdom in 2005. It evolved from that of physician assistant, developed in the US in the 1960s. In 2012, the profession voted to change the name to "physician associate" to distinguish it from another with the same name within the NHS. Hillingdon Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust was asked to manage the recruitment of 200 physician associates who are expected to come from the US for 40 NHS trusts in September 2015.


title: Physician assistant

text: In 2022 it was reported that private company Operose Health, owned by US company Centene Corporation, which had acquired many UK National Health Service (NHS) GP practices, was using many PAs—at less than half the cost of a GP—and allowing them essentially to act as GPs, without required supervision. A BBC reporter worked undercover at an Operose practice for six weeks, reporting on many problems. A senior GP said that the company was prioritising profit, putting patients at risk.


title: Physician assistant

text: The Faculty of Physician Associates is the professional body for Physician Associates working in the United Kingdom. A joint venture between the Royal College of Physicians of London and the previous professional body, the United Kingdom Associate of Physician Associates, the Faculty officially launched in July 2015, taking over all professional responsibilities. The Faculty oversee the managed voluntary register, which all practising associates are encouraged to join, as well as setting and running the National Assessment Examination and National Recertification Examination.


title: Physician assistant

text: Physician Associates/Assistants are trained under the medical model, similarly to physicians, to deliver medical care in both primary and secondary care settings. Upon graduation, they can specialize in various areas, including acute medicine, primary care, emergency medicine, surgery, and psychiatry. Practitioners provide medical services similar to those provided by house officers or senior house officers. They are trained to perform tasks including diagnosis, taking medical histories, treatment, and complex medical procedures.


title: Physician assistant

text: The title physician associate is not a protected medical profession. Hence, even if a PA has trained in pharmacology and IRMER (ability to request radiology imaging – X-rays), they are not able to prescribe or request imaging. No regulatory body governs PAs. Since June 2010, physician associates have been able to obtain membership of the Managed Voluntary Register for physician associates. This database, run by PAs for PAs, aims to identify all qualified PAs who are able to practise. Its intent is to maintain high standards. To remain on the register, physician associates are required to re-certify every 5–6 years and maintain up-to-date practice through accumulating continuous professional development hours, which must be completed on an annual basis.


title: Physician assistant

text: In 2018 Matt Hancock announced a plan regulate PAs, details of which have not been announced. The General Medical Council agreed to be the regulatory body for PAs, with regulation beginning in 2022.


title: Physician assistant

text: Training is through a two-year accelerated medical training (MSc or Postgraduate Diploma) in Physician Associate Studies. at least 32 universities offered these programs:


title: Physician assistant

text: Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London requires candidates to hold a minimum of 2:2 or above in a Life Science, Biomedical Science, or Healthcare subject. Due to the competitive nature of this course, a ranking system defines the interview shortlist.


title: Physician assistant

text: Aberdeen requires a science-based degree with a minimum 2:1 grade achieved while St George's requires a science-based degree with a minimum 2:2 grade. This includes sport science, biology, psychology and biomedical degrees. Applicants should preferably have healthcare experience. Applications from other professionals such as nurses, radiographers and paramedics will also be considered.


title: Physician assistant

text: University of Bradford requires a 2:1 (or above) undergraduate degree in a Life Science, Biomedical Science, or Healthcare subject. Under exceptional circumstances, extensive experience in healthcare practice may contribute/compensate absent the above requirements.


title: Physician assistant

text: The average starting salary of a PA-R is Band 7 (£37,000), and can vary based on locations. In London, the average salary is around £43,000 and goes up to 50k with experience, particularly with lead PAs. PAs are also able to do "locum" shifts on top of their full-time job. Compensation of physician associates in the United Kingdom remains lower than in the United States and Canada. However, compensation of physician associates is on the same pay band as other advanced care providers such as nurse practitioners.


title: Physician assistant

text: A physician assistant may use the initials "PA", "PA-C", "APA-C", "RPA" or "RPA-C", where the "-C" indicates "Certified" and the "R" indicates "Registered". The "R" designation is unique to a few states, mainly in the Northeast. APA stands for aeromedical physician assistant and indicates that a physician assistant successfully completed the US Army Flight Surgeon Primary Course. During training, PA students are designated PA-S. The use of "PA-C" is limited to certified PAs who comply with the regulations of the National Commission on Certification of Physician Assistants and who have passed PANCE.


title: Physician assistant

text: Students undertaking physician assistant or associate training may refer to themselves as a physician assistant student, physician associate student in applicable countries, student physician assistant or student physician associate in applicable countries. PA students may add "S" at the end of their student designation (PA-S). Students may also use the corresponding year of their training in their student designation. For example, students in the second year of their physician assistant or physician associate training may use (PA-S2) as their student designation.


title: Physician assistant

text: The American Academy of Physician Associates has spent over $22 million since 2018 campaigning to change the word "assistant" to "associate" in the title of physician assistant. The campaign has been heavily criticized by physicians. There are opposing views which see this change more accurately reflects the clinician’s role on the patient care team .


title: Physician assistant

text: In the United States, the profession is represented by the American Academy of Physician Assistants. All PAs must graduate from a nationally accredited ARC-PA program as well as passing the national certification exam. In 1970 the American Medical Association passed a resolution to develop educational guidelines and certification procedures for PAs. The Duke University Medical Center Archives had established the Physician Assistant History Center, dedicated to the study, preservation, and presentation of the history of the profession. The PA History Center became its own institution in 2011, was renamed the PA History Society, and relocated to Johns Creek, Georgia.


title: Physician assistant

text: , 243 accredited PA programs operated in the United States, with dozens more in development. Most educational programs are graduate programs leading to the award of master's degrees in either Physician Assistant Studies, Health Science (Master of Health Science), or Medical Science (MMSc), and require a bachelor's degree and Graduate Record Examination or Medical College Admission Test scores for entry. The majority of PA programs in the United States employ the CASPA application for selecting students. Professional licensure is regulated by state medical boards. PA students train at medical schools and academic medical centers across the country.


title: Physician assistant

text: Physician assistant education is based on medical education; it typically requires 2 to 3 years of full-time graduate study like most master's degrees. (Medical school lasts four years plus a specialty-specific residency.) Training consists of classroom and laboratory instruction in medical and behavioral sciences, followed by clinical rotations in internal medicine, family medicine, surgery, pediatrics, obstetrics and gynecology, emergency medicine, and geriatric medicine, as well as elective rotations. PAs are not required to complete residencies after they complete their schooling (unlike physicians). Postgraduate training programs are offered in certain specialties for PAs, though these are optional and shorter in length than medical residency.


title: Physician assistant

text: PA clinical postgraduate programs are clinical training programs that differ from on the job training given their inclusion of education and supervised clinical experience to meet learning objectives. Montefiore Medical Center Postgraduate Surgical Physician Assistant Program was established in 1971 as the first recognized clinical postgraduate PA program. 49 programs address specialties such as Neurology, Trauma/Critical Care and Oncology. 50 programs joined the Association of Postgraduate Physician Assistant Programs to establish educational standards for postgraduate PA programs.


title: Physician assistant

text: In the United States, a graduate from an accredited PA program must pass the NCCPA-administered Physician Assistant National Certifying Exam (PANCE) before becoming a PA-C; this certification is required for licensure in all states. The content of the exam is covered in the PANCE BLUEPRINT. In addition, a PA must log 100 Continuing Medical Education hours and reregister his or her certificate with the NCCPA every two years. Every ten years (formerly six years), a PA must also recertify by successfully completing the Physician Assistant National Recertifying Exam (PANRE)


title: Physician assistant

text: There is a growing number of doctoral programs for certified PAs leading to a Doctor of Medical Science (DMSc) but there is no requirement for one to have a doctorate in order to practice.


title: Physician assistant

text: "National Physician Assistant Week" is celebrated annually in the US from October 6 through October 12. This week was chosen to commemorate the anniversary of the first graduating physician assistant class at Duke University on October 6, 1967. October 6 is also the birthday of the profession's founder, Eugene A. Stead, Jr., MD.


title: Physician assistant

text: Physician assistants have their own licenses with distinct scope of practice. Each of the 50 states has different laws regarding the prescription of medications by PAs and the licensing authority granted to each category within that particular state through the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). PAs in Kentucky and Puerto Rico are not allowed to prescribe any controlled substances.


title: Physician assistant

text: Several other states place a limit on the type of controlled substance or the quantity that can be prescribed, dispensed, or administered by a PA.


title: Physician assistant

text: Depending upon the specific laws of any given state board of medicine, the PA must have a formal relationship on file with a collaborative physician. The collaborating physician must also be licensed in the state in which the PA is working, although he or she may physically be located elsewhere. Physician collaboration can be in person, by telecommunication systems or by other reliable means (for example, availability for consultation). In emergency departments the laws governing PA practice differ by state, generally allowing a broad scope of practice and limited direct supervision.


title: Physician assistant

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, several state governments changed regulations regarding PA scope of practice, including:


title: Physician assistant

text: The first employer of PAs was the then-Veterans Administration, known today as the Department of Veterans Affairs. Today it is the largest single employer of PAs, employing nearly 2,000.


title: Physician assistant

text: According to the AAPA, as of 2020 there are more than 148,560 certified PAs in the United States, up from 115,547 in 2016.


title: Physician assistant

text: "Money" magazine, in conjunction with Salary.com, listed the PA profession as the "fifth best job in America" in May 2006, based both on salary and job prospects, and on an anticipated 10-year job growth of 49.65%. In 2010, CNN Money rated the physician assistant career as the number two best job in America.


title: Physician assistant

text: The US Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics report on PAs states, "...Employment of physician assistants is projected to grow 37 percent from 2016 to 2026, much faster than the average for all occupations..." This is due to several factors, including an expanding health care industry, an aging baby-boomer population, concerns for cost containment, and newly implemented restrictions to shorten physician resident work hours.


title: Physician assistant

text: In the 2008 AAPA census, 56 percent of responding PAs worked in physicians' offices or clinics and 24 percent were employed by hospitals. The remainder were employed in public health clinics, nursing homes, schools, prisons, home health care agencies, and the United States Department of Veterans Affairs Fifteen percent of responding PAs work in counties classified as non-metropolitan by Economic Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture; approximately 17% of the US population resides in these counties.


title: Physician assistant

text: For PAs in primary care practice, malpractice insurance policies with $100,000–300,000 in coverage can cost less than $600 per year; premiums are higher for PAs in higher-risk specialties.


title: Physician assistant

text: According to Bureau of Labor Statistics, in 2020 the median pay for physician assistants working full-time was $115,390 per year or $55.48 per hour, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $162,470. Physician assistants in emergency medicine, dermatology, and surgical subspecialties may earn up to $200,000 per year.


title: Physician assistant

text: PAs are employed by the United States Department of State as "foreign service health practitioners". PAs working in this capacity may be deployed anywhere in the world where there is a State Department facility. They provide primary care to US government employees and their families in American embassies and consulates around the world. An important part of their jobs is to get to know what resources are available locally that they can count on in an emergency. They have other important roles, such as advising their ambassadors on the health situation in the country and provide health education to the diplomatic community. In order to be considered for the position, these PAs must be licensed and have at least two years of recent experience in primary care.


title: Physician assistant

text: Military PAs serve in the White House Medical Unit, where they provide care to the president and vice president and their families as well as White House staff.


title: Physician assistant

text: They are employed by several organizations with the intelligence community, specifically the Central Intelligence Agency. While much of the job description is classified, they work under the Directorate of Support and are deployed to "austere environments" where they provide medical care, including trauma stabilization, and teach in the fields of survival, field medicine, and tactical combat casualty care.


title: Physician assistant

text: United States Army PAs serve as Medical Specialist Corps officers, typically within Army combat or combat support battalions located in the continental United States, Alaska, Hawaii, and overseas. These include infantry, armor, cavalry, airborne, artillery, and (if the PA qualifies) special forces units. They serve as the "front line" of Army medicine and along with combat medics are responsible for the total health care of soldiers assigned to their unit, as well as of their family members.


title: Physician assistant

text: PAs also serve in the Air Force and Navy as clinical practitioners and aviation medicine specialists, as well as in the Coast Guard and Public Health Service. The skills required for these PAs are similar to that of their civilian colleagues, but additional training is provided in advanced casualty care, medical management of chemical injuries, aviation medicine, and military medicine. In addition, military PAs are also required to meet the officer commissioning requirements, and maintain the professional and physical readiness standards of their respective services.


title: Physician assistant

text: The marine physician assistant is a US Merchant Marine staff officer. A certificate of registry is granted through The United States Coast Guard National Maritime Center located in Martinsburg, West Virginia. Formal training programs for marine physician assistants began in September, 1966 at the Public Service Health Hospital located in Staten Island, N.Y.


title: Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 1981

text: This is a list of "Billboard" magazine's Top Hot 100 songs of 1981. The Top 100, as revealed in the year-end edition of "Billboard" dated December 26, 1981, is based on Hot 100 charts from the issue dates of November 1, 1980 through October 31, 1981.


title: 2022 Malaysia Super League

text: The 2022 Malaysia Super League (), is the 19th season of the Malaysia Super League, the top-tier professional football league in Malaysia for association football clubs since its establishment in 2004, and the 41st season of top-flight Malaysia football overall.


title: 2022 Malaysia Super League

text: Southeast Asia (SEA) players are required to have acquired at least 30 international caps for their senior national team with no period restriction on when they are earned while those who has less than 30 international caps will be subjected to MFL approval.


title: 2022 Malaysia Super League

text: Johor Darul Ta'zim, Selangor and Terengganu who have their "B" team playing in the Premier League can register another 4 players (3 + 1 AFC). These players can play for the "A" team as long as they fulfilled the relevant regulations under the handbook.


title: 2022 Malaysia Super League

text: The following foreigners are registered by JDT II, Selangor II and Terengganu FC II for the Malaysia Premier League.


title: 2022 Malaysia Super League

text: The table lists the positions of teams after each week of matches.<br>In order to preserve chronological evolvements, any postponed matches are not included to the round at which they were originally scheduled but added to the full round they were played immediately afterward.


title: Vocational school

text: A vocational school is a type of educational institution, which, depending on the country, may refer to either secondary or post-secondary education designed to provide vocational education or technical skills required to complete the tasks of a particular and specific job. In the case of secondary education, these schools differ from academic high schools which usually prepare students who aim to pursue tertiary education, rather than enter directly into the workforce. With regard to post-secondary education, vocational schools are traditionally distinguished from four-year colleges by their focus on job-specific training to students who are typically bound for one of the skilled trades, rather than providing academic training for students pursuing careers in a professional discipline. While many schools have largely adhered to this convention, the purely vocational focus of other trade schools began to shift in the 1990s "toward a broader preparation that develops the academic" as well as technical skills of their students.


title: Vocational school

text: This type of institution may also be called a trade school, career center, career college, or vocational college.


title: Vocational school

text: Vocational schools were called "technical colleges" in Australia, and there were more than 20 schools specializing in vocational educational training (VET). Only four technical colleges remain, and these are now referred to as "trade colleges". At these colleges, students complete a modified year 12 certificate and commence a school-based apprenticeship in a trade of their choice. There are two trade colleges in Queensland; Brisbane, the Gold Coast, Australian Industry Trade College and one in Adelaide, St. Patrick's Technical College, and another in Perth, Australian Trades College.


title: Vocational school

text: In Queensland, students can also undertake VET at private and public high schools instead of studying for their overall position (OP), which is a tertiary entrance score. However these students usually undertake more limited vocational education of one day per week whereas in the trade colleges the training is longer.


title: Vocational school

text: Education in Canada is a provincial responsibility, and education evolved independently in each province, much like separate countries.


title: Vocational school

text: Vocational School is an old antiquated term that was previously used until the late 1960s when the education system evolved from basic primary education to include High School and then technical schools or colleges in the mid 1960s. In the past (pre mid 1960s) some provinces Vocational schools in Western Canada were sometimes called "colleges" in Canada. However, a college may also refer to an institution that offers part of a university degree, or credits that may be transferred to a university.


title: Vocational school

text: In Ontario Technical schools like Central Technical School in Toronto, which was started in the late 1800s to train workers in the evening, eventually evolved into high schools when the education system was extended to high school level. When the public education system was expanded in the by the early 1920s high school level education was provided in Technical / Commercial Schools or Collegiate Institutes in a hybrid high school/ college level like situation. In Ontario prior to the mid 1960s a Vocational School was a trades or job training school that provided training in a very focused trades related area, and these were started in the early 1950s, and the few that existed were merged as departments of the Community colleges that were established starting in the mid 1960s .


title: Vocational school

text: Secondary schools had evolved into three separated streams: technical schools, commercial and collegiates (the academic schools). By the mid 1960s in suburban areas purpose built High Schools for slow learners or individuals that were being trained for jobs after high school was also termed "vocational schools". By the early late 1960s many of the technical and commercial school programs in large populated areas like around Toronto, were being merged or had purpose built combined schools were being built. While the schools still exist, the curriculum has changed so that no matter which type of school one attends, they can still attend any post-secondary institution and still study a variety of subjects and others (either academic or practical). In Ontario, the Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities divided post-secondary education into universities, community colleges and private career colleges.


title: Vocational school

text: In the Province of Quebec, there are some vocational programs offered at institutions called CEGEPs ("collège d'enseignement général et professionnel"), but these too may function as an introduction to university. Generally, students complete two years at a CEGEP directly out of high school, and then complete three years at a university (rather than the usual four), to earn an undergraduate degree. Alternatively, some CEGEPs offer vocational training, but it is more likely that vocational training will be found at institutions separate from the academic institutions, though they may still be called colleges. Although many (if not most) vocational programs are in high school.


title: Vocational school

text: In the United States, there is a very large difference between career college and vocational college. The term "career college" is generally reserved for post-secondary for-profit institutions. Conversely, vocational schools are government-owned or at least government-supported institutions, requiring two full years of study, and their credits are usually accepted elsewhere in the academic world. In some instances, charter academies or magnet schools may take the place of the final years of high school.


title: Vocational school

text: Career colleges on the other hand are generally not government supported in any capacity, occupy periods of study less than a year, and their training and certifications are rarely recognized by the larger academic world. In addition, as most career colleges are private schools, this group may be further subdivided into non-profit schools and proprietary schools, operated for the sole economic benefit of their owners.


title: Vocational school

text: As a result of this emphasis on the commercialization of education, a widespread poor reputation for quality was retained by a great number of career colleges for over promising what the job prospects for their graduates would actually be in their field of study upon completion of their program, and for emphasizing the number of careers from which a student could choose.


title: Vocational school

text: Even though the popularity of career colleges has exploded in recent years, the number of government-sponsored vocational schools in the United States has decreased significantly.


title: Vocational school

text: The Association for Career and Technical Education (ACTE) is the largest American national education association dedicated to the advancement of career and technical education or vocational education that prepares youth and adults for careers.


title: Vocational school

text: Earlier vocational schools such as California Institute of Technology and Carnegie Mellon University have gone on to become full degree-granting institutions.


title: Vocational school

text: In Central and Eastern Europe, a vocational education is represented in forms of (professional) vocational technical schools often abbreviated as PTU, technical colleges (technikum) and technical high school.


title: Vocational school

text: Vocational school or Vocational college is considered a post-secondary education type school, but combines coursework of a high school and junior college stretching for six years. In Ukraine, the term is used mostly for sports schools sometimes interchangeably with the term college. Such college could be a separate entity or a branch of bigger university. Successful graduates receive a specialist degree.


title: Vocational school

text: PTUs are usually a preparatory vocational education and are equivalent to the general education of the third degree in the former Soviet education, providing a lower level of vocational education (apprenticeship). It could be compared to a trade high school. In the 1920-30s, such PTUs were called schools of factory and plant apprenticeship, and later 1940s - vocational schools. Sometime after 1959, the name PTU was established, however, with the reorganization of the Soviet educational system these vocational schools renamed into lyceums. There were several types of PTUs such as middle city PTU and rural PTU.


title: Vocational school

text: Technical college (technicum) is becoming an obsolete term for a college in different parts of Central and Eastern Europe. Technicums provided a middle level of vocational education. Aside of technicums and PTU there also were vocational schools (Russian: Профессиональные училища) that also provided a middle level of vocational education. In 1920-30s Ukraine, technicums were a (technical) vocational institutes, however, during the 1930-32s Soviet educational reform they were degraded in their accreditation.


title: Vocational school

text: Institutes were considered a higher level of education; however, unlike universities, they were more oriented to a particular trade. With the reorganization of the Soviet education system, most institutes have been renamed as technical universities.


title: Vocational school

text: In ex-Yugoslavian countries (Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Montenegro and North Macedonia) there are technical high schools that can have three or four years courses. If a person finishes three year course he will get a trade degree, or technician degree if he finishes four. After technical high school a person can go to university. In Croatia there are two types of universities where people can continue their education: Classical universities (Sveučilište) and Universities of applied sciences (Veleučilište). In Universities of applied sciences, after three years students get a bachelors degree like in classical university, and after 5 years they get a professional specialist degree.


title: Vocational school

text: In Greece vocational school is known as Vocational Lyceum (2006–Present), it was named Technical Vocational Lyceum (1985-1998). It is an upper secondary education school (high school) of Greece, with three-year duration. Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Vocational majors are in Electrical Installation, Electronics and Automation, Meganotronics, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Cooling, Nursing, Hairdressing, Graphic Design,Food Technology, Dental Technology, Aesthetic and Makeup, and others.


title: Vocational school

text: The Finnish system is divided between vocational and academic paths. Currently about 47 percent of Finnish students at age 16 go to vocational school. The vocational school is a secondary school for ages 16–21, and prepares the students for entering the workforce. The curriculum includes little academic general education, while the practical skills of each trade are stressed. The education is divided into eight main categories with a total of about 50 trades. The basic categories of education are


title: Vocational school

text: The vocational schools are usually owned by the municipalities, but in special cases, private or state vocational schools exist. The state grants aid to all vocational schools on the same basis, regardless of the owner. On the other hand, the vocational schools are not allowed to operate for profit. The Ministry of Education issues licences to provide vocational education. In the licence, the municipality or a private entity is given permission to train a yearly quota of students for specific trades. The licence also specifies the area where the school must be located and the languages used in the education.


title: Vocational school

text: The vocational school students are selected by the schools on the basis of criteria set by the Ministry of Education. The basic qualification for the study is completed nine-year comprehensive school. Anyone may seek admission in any vocational school regardless of their domicile. In certain trades, bad health or invalidity may be acceptable grounds for refusing admission. The students do not pay tuition and they must be provided with health care and a free daily school lunch. However, the students must pay for the books, although the tools and practice material are provided to the students for free.


title: Vocational school

text: In tertiary education, there are higher vocational schools ("ammattikorkeakoulu" which is translated to "polytechnic" or "university of applied sciences"), which give three- to four-year degrees in more involved fields, like engineering (see insinööri (amk)) and nursing.


title: Vocational school

text: In contrast to the vocational school, an academically orientated upper secondary school, or senior high school () teaches no vocational skills. It prepares students for entering the university or a higher vocational school.


title: Vocational school

text: A vocational school in Ireland is a type of secondary education school which places a large emphasis on vocational and technical education; this led to some conflict in the 1960s when the Regional Technical College system was in development. Since 2013 the schools have been managed by Education and Training Boards, which replaced Vocational Education Committees which were largely based on city or county boundaries. Establishment of the schools is largely provided by the state; funding is through block grant system providing about 90% of necessary funding requirements.


title: Vocational school

text: Vocational schools typically have further education courses in addition to the traditional courses at secondary level. For instance, post leaving certificate courses which are intended for school leavers and pre-third level education students.


title: Vocational school

text: Until the 1970s the vocational schools were seen as inferior to the other schools then available in Ireland. This was mainly because traditional courses such as the leaving certificate were not available at the schools, however this changed with the "Investment in Education" (1962) report which resulted in an upgrade in their status. Currently about 25% of secondary education students attend these schools.


title: Vocational school

text: In the Middle Ages boys learned a vocation through an apprenticeship. They were usually 10 years old when they entered service, and were first called "leerling" (apprentice), then "gezel" (journeyman) and after an exam - sometimes with an example of workmanship called a "meesterproef" (masterpiece) - they were called "meester" (master craftsman). In 1795, all of the guilds in the Netherlands were disbanded by Napoleon, and with them the guild vocational schooling system. After the French occupation, in the 1820s, the need for quality education caused more and more cities to form day and evening schools for various trades.


title: Vocational school

text: In 1854, the society "Maatschappij tot verbetering van den werkenden stand" (society to improve the working class) was founded in Amsterdam, that changed its name in 1861 to the "Maatschappij voor de Werkende Stand" (Society for the working class). This society started the first public vocational school ("De Ambachtsschool") in Amsterdam, and many cities followed. At first only for boys, later the "Huishoudschool" (housekeeping) was introduced as vocational schooling for girls. Housekeeping education began in 1888 with the Haagsche Kookschool in The Hague.


title: Vocational school

text: In 1968 the law called the "Mammoetwet" changed all of this, effectively dissolving the Ambachtsschool and the Huishoudschool. The name was changed to LTS ("lagere technische school", lower technical school), where mainly boys went because of its technical nature, and the other option, where most girls went, was LBO ("lager beroepsonderwijs", lower vocational education). In 1992 both LTS and LBO changed to VBO ("voorbereidend beroepsonderwijs", preparatory vocational education) and since 1999 VBO together with MAVO ("middelbaar algemeen voortgezet onderwijs", intermediate general secondary education) changed to the current VMBO ("voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs", preparatory intermediate vocational education).


title: Vocational school

text: In India vocational schools are mainly run by the government under the guidance of the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship. Courses offered by the Government of India are Udaan, Polytechnics, Parvaaz, National Rural Livelihood Mission, Industrial Training Institutes, Aajeevika mission of national rural livelihood, Craftsmen Training Scheme. The Skill India movement has empowered the standards of all these institutions. Apart from these the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) has included many vocational subjects in their senior secondary education.


title: Vocational school

text: In Japan vocational schools are known as . They are a part of Japan's higher education system. There are two-year schools that many students study at after finishing high school (although it is not always required that students graduate from high school). Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Some examples are computer technology, fashion and English.


title: Yumna Zaidi

text: Yumna Zaidi (; born 30 July 1989), is a Pakistani television actress. She has established her career as one of the leading television actress in Urdu-television industry and is known for portraying diverse characters in social to romantic dramas. Zaidi is the recipient of three Lux Style Awards.


title: Yumna Zaidi

text: Zaidi first appeared as a supporting character in ARY Digital domestic-drama "Thakan" (2012) and then played lead roles in several television series, including the melodrama "Khushi Ek Roag", the romantic drama "Teri Raah Main Rul Gai", (both 2012) the family drama "Meri Dulari" and the revenge drama "Ullu Baraye Farokht Nahi" (both 2013), the later of which earned her praise and a nomination of Hum Award for Best Supporting Actress. She gained popularity and Hum Award for Best Actress and Best Actress Popular nominations by portraying a troubled wife in Farooq Rind's tragic-romance "Rishtay Kuch Adhooray Se" (2014), and continued to receive praise for portraying diverse characters in jealous-drama "Mausam" (2014), the comedy drama "Jugnoo" (2015) (both earned three Hum Awards nominations), the tragic-romance "Guzaarish" (2015), the romance "Zara Yaad Kar" (2016), the dark revenge "Pinjra" and the romantic comedy "Yeh Raha Dil" (both 2017), the later of which earned him a further nomination. Zaidi then gained critical successes and established herself by starring in "Dar Si Jaati Hai Sila" (2017), "Inkaar" (2019), "Pyar Ke Sadqay" (2020) and "Dil Na Umeed To Nahi" (2021), the second and third of these earned her Lux Style Award for Best Television Actress.


title: Yumna Zaidi

text: Zaidi, born and raised in Lahore, resides in Texas and works in between Karachi-Lahore. Her Father Zameendar Zaidi was a business man who died in June 2019, and mother Shabana Naheed Zaidi is a house wife. She is From a village Arif Wala in Pakpattan, Punjab. She has done a masters in interior designing and has some experience in Radio Jockey and hosting.


title: Yumna Zaidi

text: She did not aspire to pursue a career in acting, however, on the insistence of her friend Affan Waheed, she dabbled with acting by playing a supporting role in the ARY Digital's 2012 domestic drama "Thakan", and followed it with a leading role in the melodrama "Khushi Ek Roag". She then appeared in Urdu 1's "Teri Raah Main Rul Gai" opposite Samiya Mumtaz and Sami Khan where she played the character of Maryam.


title: Yumna Zaidi

text: Zaidi received praise for portraying emotionally intense characters in the dramas, Geo TV's "Meri Dulari" (2013) and Hum TV's "Ullu Baraye Farokht Nahi" (2013), the later of which garnered her a Best Supporting Actress nomination at Hum Awards. Her acclaimed role of a troubled wife in the tragic romance "Rishtay Kuch Adhooray Se" (2013), established her as a leading actress of Pakistan and earned her the Hum Award for Best Actress and Best Actress Popular nominations. Zaidi subsequently did a special appearance in 2013 series "Sannata" and played supporting role in Kashif Nisar's directorial "Kis Se Kahoon" alongside Sajal Ali and Agha Ali. She gained wider recognition for portraying a range of characters in the dramas "Mausam" (2014), "Madawa" (2015), "Guzaarish" (2015), and "Jugnoo" (2015), "Kaanch Ki Guriya" (2015), "Paras" (2015) and "Aap ki Kaneez" (2015), some of which garnered her several Best Actress nominations.


title: Yumna Zaidi

text: In 2016 she appeared in Momina Duraid's "Zara Yaad Kar" where she played the lead character of Uzma Ikhtiar opposite Zahid Ahmed and Sana Javed.


title: Yumna Zaidi

text: She then appeared in Hum TV's "Yeh Raha Dil" in 2017 opposite Ahmed Ali. Zaidi played the character of Hayat whose mother has died and father deserted her at a young age. Her on-screen chemistry with Ali was praised by viewers and earned her nomination of Best on-screen couple at Hum Awards. Later she signed Kashif Nisar's directorial "Pinjra". In the same year she appeared as Sila, a victim of sexual harassment in Bee Gul's directed "Dar Si Jaati Hai Sila" opposite Noman Ijaz and Saman Ansari. A critic from "The News International" praised her saying, "With fewer dialogues and a tough subject at hand, Yumna pulled off her role effortlessly, making it believable from beginning till the end".


title: Yumna Zaidi

text: As of 2018–2019, she appeared in "Pukaar" as Samra, widow of the feudal lord and appeared in 7th Sky Entertainment's Project "Dil Kiya Karey", directed by Mehreen Jabbar. She played a role of Hajra in social drama "Inkaar" opposite Imran Ashraf and Sami Khan and made special appearance in Angeline Malik's anthology series "Choti Choti Batain". She further appeared in an extended cameo in "Ishq Zahe Naseeb" and as Raina in telefilm "Shaadi Impossible".


title: Yumna Zaidi

text: Zaidi is widely active in media and appeared in talkshows often. In 2016 after the banned on crime drama series "Udaari", she raised her voice saying "It is based on a social cause and we should create awareness in our society through such drama serials". She walked the ramp for designer Aisha Farid's collection "Crystalline" on Hum TV's "Bridal Couture Week". She also appeared in celebrity comedy talkshow "Mazaaq Raat" in 2017.


title: Kmart Australia

text: Kmart Australia Limited (commonly known as Kmart) is an Australian chain of department stores owned by the Kmart Group division of Wesfarmers. The company operates 323 stores across Australia and New Zealand, with its head office located in Mulgrave, Melbourne. Kmart Group, the department store division of Wesfarmers, also owns and operates Target Australia and online retailer Catch.com.au.


title: Kmart Australia

text: Kmart Australia Limited was born out of a joint venture between G.J Coles & Coy Limited (Coles) and the S.S. Kresge Company which was the company that operated Kmart stores in the United States. Kresge owned 51% of the common stock in the company and Coles owned the remaining 49%, together they began to develop Kmart stores in Australia in 1968. The first store opened in Burwood East a suburb of Melbourne, Victoria on 30 April 1969 with an estimated 40,000 people passing through the checkouts and taking in over $97,000 (equivalent to A$ in 2022) on the first day. The store was opened by Mrs HB Cunningham, wife of the president and chairman of the S.S. Kresge Company.


title: Kmart Australia

text: The doors had been closed 45 minutes after opening as a safety measure. The site was renovated in 2010 to be a shopping mall known as "Burwood One."


title: Kmart Australia

text: In 1978 Kresge (since 1977 known as the "Kmart Corporation") exchanged its 51% stake in Kmart Australia for a 20% stake. In 1994 Coles bought back all shares held by Kresge/Kmart Corporation.


title: Kmart Australia

text: A long-term licensing agreement between Sears allowed Wesfarmers to use the Kmart name in Australia and New Zealand. In August 2017, Wesfarmers purchased the Kmart brand name for use in Australia and New Zealand for $100 million, ending the licensing agreement.


title: Kmart Australia

text: In 2006, Coles Group announced plans for Kmart, along with BI-LO and the Coles Group liquor brands, to be merged into the Coles brand. The first re-branded store was planned to open in 2007, with 40 stores, mostly former 'Super K' stores divided last decade into separate Coles and Kmart stores, reformed into Coles Superstores. By March 2007 the plans for these super centres were deferred pending the sale of all or part of Coles Group, and in August 2007, incoming owners Wesfarmers said super centres would almost certainly not proceed.


title: Kmart Australia

text: Kmart's performance immediately prior to the Wesfarmers takeover was poor. In May 2007, it reported a sales drop of 3.2% for the third quarter, and an overall drop in sales of 3.9% for the first three-quarters.


title: Kmart Australia

text: In August 2007, Wesfarmers said it would consider selling all or part of Kmart, or converting some stores to the Target brand. Wesfarmers took control of Coles Group in November 2007 and by March 2008 had decided to retain Kmart and invest $300m in the chain over the next five years.


title: Kmart Australia

text: After continuing poor performance in 2009, the 2010 financial year saw a large increase in EBIT, reporting revenue of A$4.02 billion (equivalent to A$ in 2022) and an EBIT of A$190 million (equivalent to A$ in 2022), an increase in EBIT of over 74%. This increase was achieved under the leadership of Guy Russo, who focused on lowering prices and who started to introduce more on-trend pieces.


title: Kmart Australia

text: As of August 2015, Kmart has 214 stores trading across Australia – 52 in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory, 47 in Victoria, 41 in Queensland, 23 in Western Australia, 15 in South Australia, 5 in Tasmania and 2 in the Northern Territory. There are 20 stores in New Zealand.


title: Kmart Australia

text: In August 2018, Continental AG acquired Kmart Tyre and Auto Service for $350 million. The business is now called Mycar.


title: Kmart Australia

text: For fiscal year 2020-2021, Kmart Australia reported AU$9.982 billion in revenue with a growth of 8.3% from the previous year.


title: Kmart Australia

text: Since 1988, Kmart and The Salvation Army have collected over five million gifts from customers, which are then distributed to those in need. The concept for the Kmart Wishing Tree Appeal first came about when Eve Mitchell, a team member from the Kmart store in Noarlunga suggested Kmart use its network of stores as gift collection points, assisting charity groups at Christmas. Over 464,000 gifts were donated to the 2010 appeal.


title: Kmart Australia

text: In February 2010, Kmart requested permission from the NSW State Government to open their stores on Anzac Day (a day of remembrance) prior to the traditional 1 pm time, claiming their customers would be inconvenienced by their closure. The request was heavily criticised by politicians, ex-Diggers (veterans), and customers. Kmart's Managing Director Guy Russo withdrew the request in early March, saying, "I got this one wrong and on behalf of Kmart, I apologise."


title: Kmart Australia

text: A report from the online New Zealand magazine "The Spinoff" revealed that two prominent online "influencers" were paid by a PR company working for Kmart when they appeared in a 1 News segment where they appeared to extol the brand.


title: Protein folding

text: Protein folding is the physical process by which a protein chain is translated to its native three-dimensional structure, typically a "folded" conformation by which the protein becomes biologically functional. Via an expeditious and reproducible process, a polypeptide folds into its characteristic three-dimensional structure from a random coil. Each protein exists first as an unfolded polypeptide or random coil after being translated from a sequence of mRNA to a linear chain of amino acids. At this stage the polypeptide lacks any stable (long-lasting) three-dimensional structure (the left hand side of the first figure). As the polypeptide chain is being synthesized by a ribosome, the linear chain begins to fold into its three-dimensional structure.


title: Protein folding

text: Folding of many proteins begins even during translation of the polypeptide chain. Amino acids interact with each other to produce a well-defined three-dimensional structure, the folded protein (the right hand side of the figure), known as the native state. The resulting three-dimensional structure is determined by the amino acid sequence or primary structure (Anfinsen's dogma).


title: Protein folding

text: The correct three-dimensional structure is essential to function, although some parts of functional proteins may remain unfolded, so that protein dynamics is important. Failure to fold into native structure generally produces inactive proteins, but in some instances misfolded proteins have modified or toxic functionality. Several neurodegenerative and other diseases are believed to result from the accumulation of amyloid fibrils formed by misfolded proteins, infectious varieties of which are known as prions. Many allergies are caused by incorrect folding of some proteins, because the immune system does not produce antibodies for certain protein structures.


title: Protein folding

text: Denaturation of proteins is a process of transition from the folded to the unfolded state. It happens in cooking, in burns, in proteinopathies, and in other contexts.


title: Protein folding

text: The duration of the folding process varies dramatically depending on the protein of interest. When studied outside the cell, the slowest folding proteins require many minutes or hours to fold primarily due to proline isomerization, and must pass through a number of intermediate states, like checkpoints, before the process is complete. On the other hand, very small single-domain proteins with lengths of up to a hundred amino acids typically fold in a single step. Time scales of milliseconds are the norm and the very fastest known protein folding reactions are complete within a few microseconds. The folding time scale of a protein depends on its size, contact order and circuit topology.


title: Protein folding

text: Understanding and simulating the protein folding process has been an important challenge for computational biology since the late 1960s.


title: Protein folding

text: The primary structure of a protein, its linear amino-acid sequence, determines its native conformation. The specific amino acid residues and their position in the polypeptide chain are the determining factors for which portions of the protein fold closely together and form its three-dimensional conformation. The amino acid composition is not as important as the sequence. The essential fact of folding, however, remains that the amino acid sequence of each protein contains the information that specifies both the native structure and the pathway to attain that state. This is not to say that nearly identical amino acid sequences always fold similarly. Conformations differ based on environmental factors as well; similar proteins fold differently based on where they are found.


title: Protein folding

text: Formation of a secondary structure is the first step in the folding process that a protein takes to assume its native structure. Characteristic of secondary structure are the structures known as alpha helices and beta sheets that fold rapidly because they are stabilized by intramolecular hydrogen bonds, as was first characterized by Linus Pauling. Formation of intramolecular hydrogen bonds provides another important contribution to protein stability. α-helices are formed by hydrogen bonding of the backbone to form a spiral shape (refer to figure on the right). The β pleated sheet is a structure that forms with the backbone bending over itself to form the hydrogen bonds (as displayed in the figure to the left). The hydrogen bonds are between the amide hydrogen and carbonyl oxygen of the peptide bond. There exists anti-parallel β pleated sheets and parallel β pleated sheets where the stability of the hydrogen bonds is stronger in the anti-parallel β sheet as it hydrogen bonds with the ideal 180 degree angle compared to the slanted hydrogen bonds formed by parallel sheets.


title: Protein folding

text: The α-Helices and β-Sheets are commonly amphipathic, meaning they have a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic portion. This ability helps in forming tertiary structure of a protein in which folding occurs so that the hydrophilic sides are facing the aqueous environment surrounding the protein and the hydrophobic sides are facing the hydrophobic core of the protein. Secondary structure hierarchically gives way to tertiary structure formation. Once the protein's tertiary structure is formed and stabilized by the hydrophobic interactions, there may also be covalent bonding in the form of disulfide bridges formed between two cysteine residues. These non-covalent and covalent contacts take a specific topological arrangement in a native structure of a protein. Tertiary structure of a protein involves a single polypeptide chain; however, additional interactions of folded polypeptide chains give rise to quaternary structure formation.


title: Protein folding

text: Tertiary structure may give way to the formation of quaternary structure in some proteins, which usually involves the "assembly" or "coassembly" of subunits that have already folded; in other words, multiple polypeptide chains could interact to form a fully functional quaternary protein.


title: Protein folding

text: Folding is a spontaneous process that is mainly guided by hydrophobic interactions, formation of intramolecular hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, and it is opposed by conformational entropy. The process of folding often begins co-translationally, so that the N-terminus of the protein begins to fold while the C-terminal portion of the protein is still being synthesized by the ribosome; however, a protein molecule may fold spontaneously during or after biosynthesis. While these macromolecules may be regarded as "folding themselves", the process also depends on the solvent (water or lipid bilayer), the concentration of salts, the pH, the temperature, the possible presence of cofactors and of molecular chaperones.


title: Protein folding

text: Proteins will have limitations on their folding abilities by the restricted bending angles or conformations that are possible. These allowable angles of protein folding are described with a two-dimensional plot known as the Ramachandran plot, depicted with psi and phi angles of allowable rotation.


title: Protein folding

text: Protein folding must be thermodynamically favorable within a cell in order for it to be a spontaneous reaction. Since it is known that protein folding is a spontaneous reaction, then it must assume a negative Gibbs free energy value. Gibbs free energy in protein folding is directly related to enthalpy and entropy. For a negative delta G to arise and for protein folding to become thermodynamically favorable, then either enthalpy, entropy, or both terms must be favorable.


title: Protein folding

text: Minimizing the number of hydrophobic side-chains exposed to water is an important driving force behind the folding process. The hydrophobic effect is the phenomenon in which the hydrophobic chains of a protein collapse into the core of the protein (away from the hydrophilic environment). In an aqueous environment, the water molecules tend to aggregate around the hydrophobic regions or side chains of the protein, creating water shells of ordered water molecules. An ordering of water molecules around a hydrophobic region increases order in a system and therefore contributes a negative change in entropy (less entropy in the system). The water molecules are fixed in these water cages which drives the hydrophobic collapse, or the inward folding of the hydrophobic groups. The hydrophobic collapse introduces entropy back to the system via the breaking of the water cages which frees the ordered water molecules. The multitude of hydrophobic groups interacting within the core of the globular folded protein contributes a significant amount to protein stability after folding, because of the vastly accumulated van der Waals forces (specifically London Dispersion forces). The hydrophobic effect exists as a driving force in thermodynamics only if there is the presence of an aqueous medium with an amphiphilic molecule containing a large hydrophobic region. The strength of hydrogen bonds depends on their environment; thus, H-bonds enveloped in a hydrophobic core contribute more than H-bonds exposed to the aqueous environment to the stability of the native state.


title: Protein folding

text: In proteins with globular folds, hydrophobic amino acids tend to be interspersed along the primary sequence, rather than randomly distributed or clustered together. However, proteins that have recently been born de novo, which tend to be intrinsically disordered, show the opposite pattern of hydrophobic amino acid clustering along the primary sequence.


title: Protein folding

text: Molecular chaperones are a class of proteins that aid in the correct folding of other proteins "in vivo". Chaperones exist in all cellular compartments and interact with the polypeptide chain in order to allow the native three-dimensional conformation of the protein to form; however, chaperones themselves are not included in the final structure of the protein they are assisting in. Chaperones may assist in folding even when the nascent polypeptide is being synthesized by the ribosome. Molecular chaperones operate by binding to stabilize an otherwise unstable structure of a protein in its folding pathway, but chaperones do not contain the necessary information to know the correct native structure of the protein they are aiding; rather, chaperones work by preventing incorrect folding conformations. In this way, chaperones do not actually increase the rate of individual steps involved in the folding pathway toward the native structure; instead, they work by reducing possible unwanted aggregations of the polypeptide chain that might otherwise slow down the search for the proper intermediate and they provide a more efficient pathway for the polypeptide chain to assume the correct conformations. Chaperones are not to be confused with folding catalyst proteins, which catalyze chemical reactions responsible for slow steps in folding pathways. Examples of folding catalysts are protein disulfide isomerases and peptidyl-prolyl isomerases that may be involved in formation of disulfide bonds or interconversion between cis and trans stereoisomers of peptide group. Chaperones are shown to be critical in the process of protein folding "in vivo" because they provide the protein with the aid needed to assume its proper alignments and conformations efficiently enough to become "biologically relevant". This means that the polypeptide chain could theoretically fold into its native structure without the aid of chaperones, as demonstrated by protein folding experiments conducted "in vitro"; however, this process proves to be too inefficient or too slow to exist in biological systems; therefore, chaperones are necessary for protein folding "in vivo." Along with its role in aiding native structure formation, chaperones are shown to be involved in various roles such as protein transport, degradation, and even allow denatured proteins exposed to certain external denaturant factors an opportunity to refold into their correct native structures.


title: Protein folding

text: A fully denatured protein lacks both tertiary and secondary structure, and exists as a so-called random coil. Under certain conditions some proteins can refold; however, in many cases, denaturation is irreversible. Cells sometimes protect their proteins against the denaturing influence of heat with enzymes known as heat shock proteins (a type of chaperone), which assist other proteins both in folding and in remaining folded. Heat shock proteins have been found in all species examined, from bacteria to humans, suggesting that they evolved very early and have an important function. Some proteins never fold in cells at all except with the assistance of chaperones which either isolate individual proteins so that their folding is not interrupted by interactions with other proteins or help to unfold misfolded proteins, allowing them to refold into the correct native structure. This function is crucial to prevent the risk of precipitation into insoluble amorphous aggregates. The external factors involved in protein denaturation or disruption of the native state include temperature, external fields (electric, magnetic), molecular crowding, and even the limitation of space (i.e. confinement), which can have a big influence on the folding of proteins. High concentrations of solutes, extremes of pH, mechanical forces, and the presence of chemical denaturants can contribute to protein denaturation, as well. These individual factors are categorized together as stresses. Chaperones are shown to exist in increasing concentrations during times of cellular stress and help the proper folding of emerging proteins as well as denatured or misfolded ones.


title: Protein folding

text: Under some conditions proteins will not fold into their biochemically functional forms. Temperatures above or below the range that cells tend to live in will cause thermally unstable proteins to unfold or denature (this is why boiling makes an egg white turn opaque). Protein thermal stability is far from constant, however; for example, hyperthermophilic bacteria have been found that grow at temperatures as high as 122 °C, which of course requires that their full complement of vital proteins and protein assemblies be stable at that temperature or above.


title: Protein folding

text: The bacterium "E. coli" is the host for bacteriophage T4, and the phage encoded gp31 protein () appears to be structurally and functionally homologous to "E. coli" chaperone protein GroES and able to substitute for it in the assembly of bacteriophage T4 virus particles during infection. Like GroES, gp31 forms a stable complex with GroEL chaperonin that is absolutely necessary for the folding and assembly in vivo of the bacteriophage T4 major capsid protein gp23.


title: Protein folding

text: Some proteins have multiple native structures, and change their fold based on some external factors. For example, the KaiB protein switches fold throughout the day, acting as a clock for cyanobacteria. It has been estimated that around 0.5–4% of PDB (Protein Data Bank) proteins switch folds.


title: Protein folding

text: A protein is considered to be misfolded if it cannot achieve its normal native state. This can be due to mutations in the amino acid sequence or a disruption of the normal folding process by external factors. The misfolded protein typically contains β-sheets that are organized in a supramolecular arrangement known as a cross-β structure. These β-sheet-rich assemblies are very stable, very insoluble, and generally resistant to proteolysis. The structural stability of these fibrillar assemblies is caused by extensive interactions between the protein monomers, formed by backbone hydrogen bonds between their β-strands. The misfolding of proteins can trigger the further misfolding and accumulation of other proteins into aggregates or oligomers. The increased levels of aggregated proteins in the cell leads to formation of amyloid-like structures which can cause degenerative disorders and cell death. The amyloids are fibrillary structures that contain intermolecular hydrogen bonds which are highly insoluble and made from converted protein aggregates. Therefore, the proteasome pathway may not be efficient enough to degrade the misfolded proteins prior to aggregation. Misfolded proteins can interact with one another and form structured aggregates and gain toxicity through intermolecular interactions.