title: Emerging market

text: In 2009, Dr. Kvint published this definition: "an emerging market country is a society transitioning from a dictatorship to a free-market-oriented-economy, with increasing economic freedom, gradual integration with the Global Marketplace and with other members of the GEM (Global Emerging Market), an expanding middle class, improving standards of living, social stability and tolerance, as well as an increase in cooperation with multilateral institutions"


title: Emerging market

text: In 2008 Emerging Economy Report, the Center for Knowledge Societies defines "emerging economies" as those "regions of the world that are experiencing rapid informationalization under conditions of limited or partial industrialization". It appears that emerging markets lie at the intersection of non-traditional user behavior, the rise of new user groups and community adoption of products and services, and innovations in product technologies and platforms.


title: Emerging market

text: More critical scholars have also studied key emerging markets like Mexico and Turkey. Thomas Marois (2012, 2) argues that financial imperatives have become much more significant and has developed the idea of 'emerging finance capitalism' – an era wherein the collective interests of financial capital principally shape the logical options and choices of government and state elites over and above those of labor and popular classes.


title: Emerging market

text: Julien Vercueil recently proposed an pragmatic definition of the "emerging economies", as distinguished from "emerging markets" coined by an approach heavily influenced by financial criteria. According to his definition, an emerging economy displays the following characteristics:


title: Emerging market

text: At the beginning of the 2010s, more than 50 countries, representing 60% of the world's population and 45% of its GDP, matched these criteria. Among them, the BRICs.


title: Emerging market

text: The term "rapidly developing economies" is being used to denote emerging markets such as The United Arab Emirates, Chile and Malaysia that are undergoing rapid growth.


title: Emerging market

text: In recent years, new terms have emerged to describe the largest developing countries such as BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, and China), along with "BRICET" (BRIC + Eastern Europe and Turkey), "BRICS" (BRIC + South Africa), "BRICM" (BRIC + Mexico), MINT (Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria and Turkey), Next Eleven (Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, the Philippines, South Korea, Turkey, and Vietnam) and CIVETS (Colombia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Egypt, Turkey and South Africa). These countries do not share any common agenda, but some experts believe that they are enjoying an increasing role in the world economy and on political platforms.


title: Emerging market

text: Lists of emerging (or developed) markets vary; guides may be found in such investment information sources as "EMIS" (a Euromoney Institutional Investor Company), "The Economist", or market index makers (such as MSCI).


title: Emerging market

text: In an Opalesque.TV video, hedge fund manager Jonathan Binder discusses the current and future relevance of the term "emerging markets" in the financial world. Binder says that in the future investors will not necessarily think of the traditional classifications of "G10" (or G7) versus "emerging markets". Instead, people should look at the world as countries that are fiscally responsible and countries that are not. Whether that country is in Europe or in South America should make no difference, making the traditional "blocs" of categorization irrelevant. Guégan "et al." (2014) also discuss the relevance of the terminology "emerging country" comparing the credit worthiness of so-called emerging countries to so-called developed countries. According to their analysis, depending on the criteria used, the term may not always be appropriate.


title: Emerging market

text: The 10 "Big Emerging Markets" (BEM) economies are (alphabetically ordered): Argentina, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Poland, South Africa, South Korea and Turkey. Egypt, Iran, Nigeria, Pakistan, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, and Thailand are other major emerging markets.


title: Emerging market

text: Newly industrialized countries are emerging markets whose economies have not yet reached developed status but have, in a macroeconomic sense, outpaced their developing counterparts.


title: Emerging market

text: Individual investors can invest in emerging markets by buying into emerging markets or global funds. If they want to pick single stocks or make their own bets they can do it either through ADRs (American depositor Receipts – stocks of foreign companies that trade on US stock exchanges) or through exchange traded funds (exchange traded funds or ETFs hold basket of stocks). The exchange traded funds can be focused on a particular country (e.g., China, India) or region (e.g., Asia-Pacific, Latin America).


title: Emerging market

text: Emerging markets share the economic characteristics such as low income, high growth economies that use market liberalization as their main means of growth. Of course, emerging economies can develop out of such emerging status, entering the post-emerging stage. When emerging markets "graduate" from their economic status, they are referred to as emerged markets. Countries like Israel, Poland, South Korea, Taiwan, the Czech Republic, and city-states such as Singapore have transitioned from emerging to “emerged”. These emerged markets tend to be characterized by higher incomes and relatively stable political schemes, compared to those categorized as emerging markets.


title: Emerging market

text: A few countries appear in every list (BRICS, Mexico, Turkey). Indonesia and Turkey are categorized with Mexico and Nigeria as part of the MINT economies. While there are no commonly agreed upon parameters on which the countries can be classified as "Emerging Economies", several firms have developed detailed methodologies to identify the top performing emerging economies every year


title: Emerging market

text: EAGLEs (emerging and growth-leading economies): Expected Incremental GDP in the next 10 years to be larger than the average of the G7 economies, excluding the US.


title: Emerging market

text: NEST: Expected Incremental GDP in the next decade to be lower than the average of the G6 economies (G7 excluding the US) but higher than Italy's.


title: Emerging market

text: The Emerging Market Bond Index Global (EMBI Global) by J.P. Morgan was the first comprehensive EM sovereign index in the market, after the EMBI+. It provides full coverage of the EM asset class with representative countries, investable instruments (sovereign and quasi-sovereign), and transparent rules.


title: Emerging market

text: The EMBI Global includes only USD-denominated emerging markets sovereign bonds and uses a traditional, market capitalization weighted method for country allocation. As of March end 2016, the EMBI Global's market capitalization was $692.3bn.


title: Emerging market

text: For country inclusion, a country's GNI per capita must be below the Index Income Ceiling (IIC) for three consecutive years to be eligible for inclusion to the EMBI Global. J.P. Morgan defines the Index Income Ceiling (IIC) as the GNI per capita level that is adjusted every year by the growth rate of the World GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$), provided by the World Bank annually. An existing country may be considered for removal from the index if its GNI per capita is above the Index Income Ceiling (IIC) for three consecutive years as well as the country's long term foreign currency sovereign credit rating (the available ratings from all three agencies: S&P, Moody's & Fitch) is A-/A3/A- (inclusive) or above for three consecutive years.


title: Emerging market

text: J.P. Morgan has introduced what is called an "Index Income Ceiling" (IIC), defined as the income level that is adjusted every year by the growth rate of the World GNI per capita, provided by the World Bank as "GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$) annually". Once a country has GNI per capita below or above the IIC level for three consecutive years, the country eligibility will be determined.


title: Emerging market

text: The Emerging Markets Index by MasterCard is a list of the top 65 cities in emerging markets. The following countries had cities featured on the list (as of 2008):


title: Emerging market

text: Released for the first time in 2016 by Lourdes Casanova, Anne Miroux and collaborators at the Emerging Markets Institute at Samuel Curtis Johnson Graduate School of Management, Cornell University, the Emerging Market Multinationals Report annually compares the economic performance of the emerging economies with the rest of the World, as well as investment, revenues, valuation, transactions, and other business data of emerging markets multinationals companies (EMNCs) with big companies, based on a theme defined every year.


title: Emerging market

text: The report organizes emerging countries with the definition of the E20+1, considering the size, as measured by nominal gross domestic product (GDP), and weight each country in terms of the demography and social variables. It is also considered the emerging economy groupings of major international organizations such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the United Nations (UN) as well as those from think tanks and research institutes.


title: Emerging market

text: In the first semester of 2021, EMI released the EMI Quarterly Report, analyzing data of stock markets and M&A of emerging countries. In 2022, EMI launched the EMI EMNC Rankings, ranking the 500 largest companies by revenue (EMNC 500R), the 500 largest market capitalized companies (500MC), and listing 200 best ESG performers companies (200ESG).


title: Emerging market

text: "Global Growth Generators", or 3G (countries), is an alternative classification determined by Citigroup analysts as being countries with the most promising growth prospects for 2010–2050. These consist of Indonesia, Egypt, seven other emerging countries, and two countries not previously listed before, specifically Iraq and Mongolia. There has been disagreement about the reclassification of these countries, among others, for the purpose of acronym creation as was seen with the BRICS.


title: Emerging market

text: Estimating the demand for products or services in emerging markets and developing economies can be complex and challenging for managers. These countries have unique commercial environments and may be limited in terms of reliable data, market research firms, and trained interviewers. Consumers in some of these countries may consider surveys an invasion of privacy. Survey respondents may try to please researchers by telling them what they want to hear rather than providing honest answers to their questions. However some companies have dedicated their entire business units for understanding the dynamics of emerging markets owing to their peculiarity.


title: Emerging market

text: The following table lists the 25 largest emerging economies by GDP (nominal) and GDP (PPP) in their respective peak year. Members of the G-20 major economies are in bold.


title: Qibla

text: The qibla () is the direction towards the Kaaba in the Sacred Mosque in Mecca, which is used by Muslims in various religious contexts, particularly the direction of prayer for the salah. In Islam, the Kaaba is believed to be a sacred site built by prophets Abraham and Ishmael, and that its use as the qibla was ordained by Allah in several verses of the Quran revealed to Muhammad in the second Hijri year. Prior to this revelation, Muhammad and his followers in Medina faced Jerusalem for prayers. Most mosques contain a "mihrab" (a wall niche) that indicates the direction of the qibla.


title: Qibla

text: The qibla is also the direction for entering the "ihram" (sacred state for the hajj pilgrimage); the direction to which animals are turned during "dhabihah" (Islamic slaughter); the recommended direction to make "dua" (supplications); the direction to avoid when relieving oneself or spitting; and the direction to which the deceased are aligned when buried. The qibla may be observed facing the Kaaba accurately ("ayn al-ka'bah") or facing in the general direction ("jihat al-ka'bah"). Most Islamic scholars consider that "jihat al-ka'bah" is acceptable if the more precise "ayn al-ka'bah" cannot be ascertained.


title: Qibla

text: The most common technical definition used by Muslim astronomers for a location is the direction of the great circle—in the Earth's sphere—passing through the location and the Kaaba. This is the direction of the shortest possible path from a place to the Kaaba, and allows the exact calculation ("hisab") of the qibla using a spherical trigonometric formula that takes the coordinates of a location and of the Kaaba as inputs (see formula below). The method is applied to develop mobile applications and websites for Muslims, and to compile qibla tables used in instruments such as the qibla compass. The qibla can also be determined at a location by observing the shadow of a vertical rod on the twice-yearly occasions when the sun is directly overhead in Mecca—on 27 and 28 May at 12:18 Saudi Arabia Standard Time (09:18 UTC), and on 15 and 16 July at 12:27 SAST (09:27 UTC).


title: Qibla

text: Before the development of astronomy in the Islamic world, Muslims used traditional methods to determine the qibla. These methods included facing the direction that the companions of Muhammad had used when in the same place; using the setting and rising points of celestial objects; using the direction of the wind; or using due south, which was Muhammad's qibla in Medina. Early Islamic astronomy was built on its Indian and Greek counterparts, especially the works of Ptolemy, and soon Muslim astronomers developed methods to calculate the approximate directions of the qibla, starting from the mid-9th century. In the late 9th and 10th centuries, Muslim astronomers developed methods to find the exact direction of the qibla which are equivalent to the modern formula. Initially, this "qibla of the astronomers" was used alongside various traditionally determined qiblas, resulting in much diversity in medieval Muslim cities. In addition, the accurate geographic data necessary for the astronomical methods to yield an accurate result was not available before the 18th and 19th centuries, resulting in further diversity of the qibla. Historical mosques with differing qiblas still stand today throughout the Islamic world. The spaceflight of a devout Muslim, Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor, to the International Space Station (ISS) in 2007 generated a discussion with regard to the qibla direction from low Earth orbit, prompting the Islamic authority of his home country, Malaysia, to recommend determining the qibla "based on what is possible" for the astronaut.


title: Qibla

text: The qibla is the direction of the Kaaba, a cube-like building at the centre of the Sacred Mosque ("al-Masjid al-Haram") in Mecca, in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia. Other than its role as qibla, it is also the holiest site for Muslims, also known as the House of God ("Bait Allah") and where the (the circumambulation ritual) is performed during the Hajj and umrah pilgrimages. The Kaaba has an approximately rectangular ground plan with its four corners pointing close to the four cardinal directions. According to the Quran, it was built by Abraham and Ishmael, both of whom are prophets in Islam. Few historical records remain detailing the history of the Kaaba before the rise of Islam, but in the generations prior to Muhammad, the Kaaba had been used as a shrine of the pre-Islamic Arabic religion.


title: Qibla

text: The qibla status of the Kaaba (or the Sacred Mosque in which it is located) is based on the verses 144, 149, and 150 of the al-Baqarah chapter of the Quran, each of which contains a command to "turn your face toward the Sacred Mosque" ("fawalli wajhaka shatr al-Masjid il-Haram"). According to Islamic traditions, these verses were revealed in the month of Rajab or Shaban in the second Hijri year (624 CE), or about 15 or 16 months after Muhammad's migration to Medina. Prior to these revelations, Muhammad and the Muslims in Medina had prayed towards Jerusalem as the qibla, the same direction as the prayer direction—the mizrah—used by the Jews of Medina. Islamic tradition says that these verses were revealed during a prayer congregation; Muhammad and his followers immediately changed their direction from Jerusalem to Mecca in the middle of the prayer ritual. The location of this event became the Masjid al-Qiblatayn ("The Mosque of the Two Qiblas").


title: Qibla

text: There are different reports of the qibla direction when Muhammad was in Mecca (before his migration to Medina). According to a report cited by historian al-Tabari and exegete (textual interpreter) al-Baydawi, Muhammad prayed towards the Kaaba. Another report, cited by al-Baladhuri and also by al-Tabari, says that Muhammad prayed towards Jerusalem while in Mecca. Another report, mentioned in Ibn Hisham's biography of Muhammad, says that Muhammad prayed in such a way as to face the Kaaba and Jerusalem simultaneously. Today Muslims of all branches, including the Sunni and the Shia, all pray towards the Kaaba. Historically, one major exception was the Qarmatians, a now-defunct syncretic Shia sect which rejected the Kaaba as the qibla; in 930, they sacked Mecca and for a time took the Kaaba's Black Stone to their centre of power in Al-Ahsa, with the intention of starting a new era in Islam.


title: Qibla

text: Etymologically, the Arabic word "qibla" () means "direction". In Islamic ritual and law, it refers to a special direction faced by Muslims during prayers and other religious contexts. Islamic religious scholars agree that facing the qibla is a necessary condition for the validity of salah—the Islamic ritual prayer—in normal conditions; exceptions include prayers during a state of fear or war, as well as non-obligatory prayers during travel. The (Muhammad's tradition) also prescribes that Muslims face the qibla when entering the "ihram" (sacred state for hajj), after the middle (stone-throwing ritual) during the pilgrimage. Islamic etiquette ("adab") calls for Muslims to turn the head of an animal when it is slaughtered, and the faces of the dead when they are buried, toward the qibla. The qibla is the preferred direction when making a supplication and is to be avoided when defecating, urinating, and spitting.


title: Qibla

text: Inside a mosque, the qibla is usually indicated by a "mihrab", a niche in its qibla-facing wall. In a congregational prayer, the imam stands in it or close to it, in front of the rest of the congregation. The "mihrab" became a part of the mosque during the Umayyad period and its form was standardised during the Abbasid period; before that, the qibla of a mosque was known from the orientation of one of its walls, called the qibla wall. The term "mihrab" itself is attested only once in the Quran, but it refers to a place of prayer of the Israelites rather than a part of a mosque. The Mosque of Amr ibn al-As in Fustat, Egypt, one of the oldest mosques, is known to have been built originally without a "mihrab", though one has since been added.


title: Qibla

text: "Ayn al-ka'bah" ("standing so as to face the Kaaba head-on") is a position facing the qibla so that an imaginary line extending from the person's line of sight would pass through the Kaaba. This manner of observing the qibla is easily done inside the Great Mosque of Mecca and its surroundings, but given that the Kaaba is less than wide, this is virtually impossible from distant locations. For example, from Medina, with a straight-line distance from the Kaaba, a one-degree deviation from the precise imaginary line—an error hardly noticeable when setting one's prayer mat or assuming one's posture—results in a shift from the site of the Kaaba. This effect is amplified when further than Mecca: from Jakarta, Indonesia—some away, a one-degree deviation causes more than a shift, and even an arc second's deviation——causes a more than shift from the location of the Kaaba. In comparison, the construction process of a mosque can easily introduce an error of up to five degrees from the calculated qibla, and the installation of prayer rugs inside the mosque as indicators for worshipers can add another deviation of five degrees from the mosque's orientation.


title: Qibla

text: A minority of Islamic religious scholars—for example Ibn Arabi (d. 1240)—consider "ayn al-ka'bah" to be obligatory during the ritual prayer, while others consider it obligatory only when one is able. For locations further than Mecca, scholars such as Abu Hanifa (d. 699) and Al-Qurtubi (d. 1214) argue that it is permissible to assume "jihat al-ka'bah", facing only the general direction of the Kaaba. Others argue that the ritual condition of facing the qibla is already fulfilled when the imaginary line to the Kaaba is within one's field of vision. For instance, there are legal opinions that accept the entire southeastern quadrant in Al-Andalus (Islamic Iberian Peninsula), and the southwestern quadrant in Central Asia, to be valid qibla. Arguments for the validity of "jihat al-ka'bah" include the wording of the Quran, which commands Muslims only to "turn [one's] face" toward the Great Mosque, and to avoid imposing requirements that would be impossible to fulfill if "ayn al-ka'bah" were to be obligatory in all places. The Shafi'i school of Islamic law, as codified in Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi's 11th-century "Kitab al-Tanbih fi'l-Fiqh", argues that one must follow the qibla indicated by the local mosque when one is not near Mecca or, when not near a mosque, to ask a trustworthy person. When this is not possible, one is to make one's own determination—to exercise "ijtihad"—by the means at one's disposal.


title: Qibla

text: A great circle, also called the orthodrome, is any circle on a sphere whose centre is identical to the centre of the sphere. For example, all lines of longitude are great circles of the Earth, while the equator is the only line of latitude that is also a great circle (other lines of latitude are centered north or south of the centre of the Earth). The great circle is the theoretical basis in most models that seek to mathematically determine the direction of the qibla from a locality. In such models, the qibla is defined as the direction of the great circle passing through the locality and the Kaaba. One of the properties of a great circle is that it indicates the shortest path connecting any pair of points along the circle—this is the basis of its use to determine the qibla. The great circle is similarly used to find the shortest flight path connecting the two locations—therefore the qibla calculated using the great circle method is generally close to the direction of the locality to Mecca. As the ellipsoid is a more accurate figure of the Earth than a perfect sphere, modern researchers have looked into using ellipsoidal models to calculate the qibla, replacing the great circle by the geodesics on an ellipsoid. This results in more complicated calculations, while the improvement in accuracy falls well within the typical precision of the setting out of a mosque or the placement of a mat. For example, calculations using the GRS 80 ellipsoidal model yields the qibla of 18°47′06″ for a location in San Francisco, while the great circle method yields 18°51′05″.


title: Qibla

text: The great circle model is applied to calculate the qibla using spherical trigonometry—a branch of geometry that deals with the mathematical relations between the sides and angles of triangles formed by three great circles of a sphere (as opposed to the conventional trigonometry which deals with those of a two-dimensional triangle). In the accompanying figure (captioned "Calculating the qibla"), a location formula_1, the Kaaba formula_2, and the north pole formula_3 form a triangle on the sphere of the earth. The qibla is indicated by formula_4, which is the direction of the great circle passing through both formula_1 and formula_2. The qibla can also be expressed as an angle, formula_7 (or formula_8), of the qibla with respect to the north, also called the "inhiraf al-qibla". This angle can be calculated as a mathematical function of the local latitude formula_9, the latitude of the Kaaba formula_10, and the longitude difference between the locality and the Kaaba formula_11. This function is derived from the cotangent rule which applies to any spherical triangle with angles formula_12, formula_13, formula_14 and sides formula_15, formula_16, formula_17:


title: Qibla

text: Applying this formula in the spherical triangle formula_19 (substituting formula_20) and applying trigonometric identities obtain:


title: Qibla

text: For example, the qibla from the city of Yogyakarta, Indonesia, can be calculated as follows. The city's coordinates, formula_9, are 7.801389°S, 110.364444°E, while the Kaaba's coordinates, formula_10, are 21.422478°N, 39.825183°E. The longitude difference formula_11 is (110.364444 minus 39.825183) 70.539261. Substituting the values into the formula obtains:


title: Qibla

text: This formula was derived by modern scholars, but equivalent methods have been known to Muslim astronomers since the 9th century (3rd century ), developed by various scholars, including Habash al-Hasib (active in Damascus and Baghdad ), Al-Nayrizi (Baghdad, ), Ibn Yunus (10th–11th century), Ibn al-Haytham (11th century), and Al-Biruni (11th century). Today spherical trigonometry also underlies nearly all applications or websites which calculate the qibla.


title: Qibla

text: When the qibla angle with respect to the north, formula_8, is known, true north needs to be known to find the qibla in practice. Common practical methods to find it include the observation of the shadow at the culmination of the sun—when the sun crosses exactly the local meridian. At this point, any vertical object would cast a shadow oriented in the north–south direction. The result of this observation is very accurate, but it requires an accurate determination of the local time of culmination as well as making the correct observation at that exact moment. Another common method is using the compass, which is more practical because it can be done at any time; the disadvantage is that the north indicated by a magnetic compass differs from true north. This magnetic declination can measure up to 20°, which can vary in different places on Earth and changes over time.


title: Qibla

text: As observed from Earth, the sun appears to "shift" between the Northern and Southern Tropics seasonally; additionally, it appears to move from east to west daily as a consequence of the earth's rotation. The combination of these two apparent motions means that every day the sun crosses the meridian once, usually not precisely overhead but to the north or to the south of the observer. In locations between the two tropics—latitudes lower than 23.5° north or south—at certain moments of the year (usually twice a year) the sun passes almost directly overhead. This happens when the sun crosses the meridian while being at the local latitude at the same time.


title: Qibla

text: The city of Mecca is among the places where this occurs, due to its location at 21°25′ N. It occurs twice a year, firstly on 27/28 May at about 12:18 Saudi Arabia Standard Time (SAST) or 09:18 UTC, and secondly on 15/16 July at 12:27 SAST (09:27 UTC). As the sun reaches the zenith of the Kaaba, any vertical object on earth that receives sunlight cast a shadow that indicates the qibla ("see picture"). This method of finding the qibla is called "rasd al-qiblat" ("observing the qibla"). Since night falls on the hemisphere opposite of the Kaaba, half the locations on Earth (including Australia as well as most of the Americas and the Pacific Ocean) cannot observe this directly. Instead, such places observe the opposite phenomenon when the sun passes above the antipodal point of the Kaaba (in other words, the sun passes directly underneath the Kaaba), causing shadows in the opposite direction from those observed during "rasd al-qiblat". This occurs twice a year, on 14 January 00:30 SAST (21:30 UTC the previous day) and 29 November 00:09 SAST (21:09 UTC the previous day). Observations made within five minutes of the "rasd al-qiblat" moments or its antipodal counterparts, or at the same time of the day two days before or after each event, still show accurate directions with negligible difference.


title: Qibla

text: Spherical trigonometry provides the shortest path from any point on earth to the Kaaba, even though the indicated direction might seem counterintuitive when imagined on a flat world map. For example, the qibla from Alaska obtained through spherical trigonometry is almost due north. This apparent counter-intuitiveness is caused by projections used by world maps, which by necessity distort the surface of the Earth. A straight line shown by the world map in using the Mercator projection is called the rhumb line or the loxodrome, which is used to indicate the qibla by a minority of Muslims. It can result in a dramatic difference in some places; for example, in some parts of North America the flat map shows Mecca in the southeast while the great circle calculation shows it to the northeast. In Japan the map shows it to the southwest, while the great circle shows it to the northwest. The majority of Muslims, however, follow the great circle method.


title: Qibla

text: A retroazimuthal projection is any map projection which preserves the angular direction (the azimuth) of the great circle path from any point of the map to a point selected as the center of the map. The initial purpose of its development was to help finding the qibla, by choosing the Kaaba as the center point. The earliest surviving works using this projection were two astrolabe-shaped brass instruments created in 18th-century Iran. They contain grids covering locations between Spain and China, label the locations of major cities along with their names, but do not show any coastline. The first of the two was discovered in 1989; its diameter is and it has a ruler with which one can read the direction of Mecca from the markings on the instrument's circumference, and the distance to Mecca from the markings on the ruler. Only the second one is signed by its creator, Muhammad Husayn. The first formal design of a retroazimuthal projection in the Western literature is the Craig projection or the Mecca projection, created by the Scottish mathematician James Ireland Craig, who worked at the Survey Department of Egypt, in 1910. His map is centered in Mecca and its range is limited to show the predominantly Muslim lands. Extending the map further than 90° in longitude from the center will result in crowding and overlaps.


title: Qibla

text: Historical records and surviving old mosques show that throughout history the qibla was often determined by simple methods based on tradition or "folk science" not based on mathematical astronomy. Some early Muslims used due south everywhere as the qibla, literally following Muhammad's instruction to face south while he was in Medina (Mecca is due south of Medina). Some mosques as far away as al-Andalus to the west and Central Asia to the east face south, even though Mecca is nowhere near that direction. In various places, there are also the "qiblas of the companions" ("qiblat al-sahaba"), those which were used there by the Companions of the Prophet—the first generation of Muslims, who are considered role models in Islam. Such directions were used by some Muslims in the following centuries, side by side with other directions, even after Muslim astronomers used calculations to find more accurate directions to Mecca. Among the directions described as the qiblas of the companions are due south in Syria and Palestine, the direction of the winter sunrise in Egypt, and the direction of the winter sunset in Iraq. The direction of the winter sunrise and sunset are also traditionally favoured because they are parallel to the walls of the Kaaba.


title: Qibla

text: The determination of qibla has been an important problem for Muslim communities throughout history. Muslims are required to know the qibla to perform their daily prayers, and it is also needed to determine the orientation of mosques. When Muhammad lived among the Muslims in Medina (which, like Mecca, is also in the Hejaz region), he prayed due south, according to the known direction of Mecca. Within the few generations after Muhammad's death in 632, Muslims had reached places far away from Mecca, presenting the problem of determining the qibla in new locations. Mathematical methods based on astronomy would develop only at the end of the 8th century or the beginning of the 9th, and even then they were not initially popular. Therefore, early Muslims relied on non-astronomical methods.


title: Qibla

text: There was a wide range of traditional methods in determining the qibla during the early Islamic period, resulting in different directions even from the same place. In addition to due south and the qiblas of the companions, the Arabs also knew a form of "folk" astronomy—called so by the historian of astronomy David A. King to distinguish it from conventional astronomy, which is an exact science—originating from pre-Islamic traditions. It used natural phenomenon, including the observation of the Sun, the Moon, the stars, and wind, without any basis in mathematics. These methods yield specific directions in individual localities, often using the fixed setting and rising points of a specific star, the sunrise or sunset at the equinoxes, or at the summer or the winter solstices. Historical sources record several such qiblas, for example: sunrise at the equinoxes (due east) in the Maghreb, sunset at the equinoxes (due west) in India, the origin of the north wind or the fixed location of the North Star in Yemen, the rising point of the star "Suhayl" (Canopus) in Syria, and the midwinter sunset in Iraq. Such directions appear in texts of "fiqh" (Islamic jurisprudence) and texts of folk astronomy. Astronomers (aside from folk astronomers) typically do not comment on these methods, but they were not opposed by Islamic legal scholars. The traditional directions were still in use when methods were developed to calculate the qibla more accurately, and they still appear in some surviving medieval mosques today.


title: Qibla

text: The study of astronomy—known as "ilm al-falak" () in the Islamic intellectual tradition—began to appear in the Islamic World in the second half of the 8th century, centred in Baghdad, the principal city of the Abbasid Caliphate. Initially, the science was introduced through the works of Indian authors, but after the 9th century the works of Greek astronomers such as Ptolemy were translated into Arabic and became the main references in the field. Muslim astronomers preferred Greek astronomy because they considered it to be better supported by theoretical explanations and therefore it could be developed as an exact science; however, the influence of Indian astronomy survives especially in the compilation of astronomical tables. This new science was applied to develop new methods of determining the qibla, making use of the concept of latitude and longitude taken from Ptolemy's "Geography" as well as trigonometric formulae developed by Muslim scholars. Most textbooks of astronomy written in the medieval Islamic World contain a chapter on the determination of the qibla, considered one of the many things connecting astronomy with Islamic law ("sharia"). According to David A. King, various medieval solutions for the determination of the qibla "bear witness to the development of mathematical methods from the 3rd/9th to the 8th/14th centuries and to the level of sophistication in trigonometry and computational techniques attained by these scholars".


title: Qibla

text: The first mathematical methods developed in the early 9th century were approximate solutions to the mathematical problem, usually using a flat map or two-dimensional geometry. Since in reality the earth is spherical, the directions found were inexact, but they were sufficient for locations relatively close to Mecca (including as far away as Egypt and Iran) because the errors were less than 2°.


title: Qibla

text: Exact solutions, based on three-dimensional geometry and spherical trigonometry, began to appear in the mid-9th century. Habash al-Hasib wrote an early example, using an orthographic projection. Another group of solutions uses trigonometric formulas, for example Al-Nayrizi's four-step application of Menelaus's theorem. Subsequent scholars, including Ibn Yunus, Abu al-Wafa, Ibn al-Haitham and Al-Biruni, proposed other methods which are confirmed to be accurate from the viewpoint of modern astronomy.


title: Qibla

text: Muslim astronomers subsequently used these methods to compile tables showing the qibla from a list of locations, grouped by their latitude and longitude differences from Mecca. The oldest known example, from Baghdad, contained entries for each degree and arc minute up to 20°. In the 14th century, Shams al-Din al-Khalili, an astronomer who served as a "muwaqqit" (timekeeper) in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, compiled a qibla table for 2,880 coordinates with longitude differences of up to 60° from Mecca, and with latitudes ranging from 10° to 50°. King opines that among the medieval qibla tables, al-Khalili's work is "the most impressive from the view of its scope and its accuracy".


title: Qibla

text: The accuracy of applying these methods to actual locations depend on the accuracy of its input parameters—the local latitude and the latitude of Mecca, and the longitude difference. At the time of the development of these methods, the latitude of a location could be determined to several arc minutes' accuracy, but there was no accurate method to determine a location's longitude. Common methods used to estimate the longitude difference included comparing the local timing of a lunar eclipse versus the timing in Mecca, or measuring the distance of caravan routes; the Central Asian scholar Al-Biruni made his estimate by averaging various approximate methods. Because of longitudinal inaccuracy, medieval qibla calculations (including those using mathematically accurate methods) differ from the modern values. For example, while the Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo was built using the "qibla of the astronomers", but the mosque's qibla (127°) differs somewhat from the results of modern calculations (135°) because the longitude difference used was off by three degrees.


title: Qibla

text: Accurate longitude values in the Islamic world were available only after the application of cartographic surveys in the 18th and 19th centuries. Modern coordinates, along with new technologies such as GPS satellites and electronic instruments, resulted in the development of practical instruments to calculate the qibla. The qibla found using modern instruments might differ from the direction of mosques, because a mosque might be built before the advent of modern data, and orientation inaccuracies might have been introduced during the building process of modern mosques. When this is known, sometimes the direction of the mosque's "mihrab" is still observed, and sometimes a marker is added (such as lines drawn in the mosque) that can be followed instead of the "mihrab".


title: Qibla

text: Muslims use various instruments to find the qibla direction when not near a mosque. The qibla compass is a magnetic compass which includes a table or a list of qibla angles from major settlements. Some electronic versions use satellite coordinates to calculate and indicate the qibla automatically. Qibla compasses have existed since around 1300, supplemented by the list of qibla angles often written on the instruments themselves. Hotel rooms with Muslim guests may use a sticker showing the qibla on the ceiling or a drawer. With the advent of computing, various mobile apps and websites use formulae to calculate the qibla for their users.


title: Qibla

text: Because varying methods have been used to determine the qibla, mosques were built throughout history in different directions, including some that still stand today. Methods based on astronomy and mathematics were not always used, and the same determination method could yield different qiblas due to differences in the accuracy of data and calculations. Egyptian historian Al-Maqrizi (d. 1442) recorded various qibla angles used in Cairo at the time: 90° (due east), 117° (winter sunrise, the "qibla of the sahaba"), 127° (calculated by astronomers, such as Ibn Yunus), 141° (Mosque of Ibn Tulun), 156° (the rising point of Suhayl/Canopus), 180° (due south, emulating the qibla of Muhammad in Medina), and 204° (the setting point of Canopus). The modern qibla for Cairo is 135°, which was not known at the time. This diversity also results in the non-uniform layout in Cairo's districts, because the streets are often oriented according to the varying orientation of the mosques. Historical records also indicate the diversity of qiblas in other major cities, including Córdoba (113°, 120°, 135°, 150°, and 180° were recorded in the 12th century) and Samarkand (180°, 225°, 230°, 240°, and 270° were recorded in the 11th century). According to the doctrine of "jihat al-ka'bah", the diverse directions of qiblas are still valid as long as they are still in the same broad direction. In Mecca itself, many early mosques were constructed that were not directly facing the Kaaba.


title: Qibla

text: In 1990, the scholar of geography Michael E. Bonine conducted a survey of the main mosques of all major cities in present-day Morocco—constructed from the Idrisid period (8th–10th centuries) up to the Alaouite period (17th century to present). While modern calculations yield the qiblas of between 91° (almost due east) in Marrakesh and 97° in Tangier, only mosques constructed in the Alaouite period are constructed with qiblas relatively close to this range. The qibla of older mosques vary considerably, with concentrations occurring between 155°–160° (slightly east of south) as well as 120°–130° (almost southeast). In 2008, Bonine also published a survey of the main city mosques of Tunisia, in which he found that most were aligned close to 147°. This is the direction of the Great Mosque of Kairouan, originally built in 670 and last rebuilt by the Aghlabids in 862, which is often credited as the model used by the other mosques. Among the mosques surveyed, the Great Mosque of Sousse was the only one with a significant difference, facing further south at 163°. The actual direction to Mecca as calculated using the great circle method ranges from 110° to 113° throughout the country.


title: Qibla

text: Variations of the qibla also occur in Indonesia, the country with the world's largest Muslim population. The astronomically calculated qibla ranges from 291°—295° (21°—25° north of west) depending on the exact location in the archipelago. However, the qibla is often known traditionally simply as "the west", resulting in mosques built oriented due west or to the direction of sunset—which varies slightly throughout the year. Different opinions exist among Indonesian Islamic astronomers: Tono Saksono "et al." argues in 2018 that facing the qibla during prayers is more of a "spiritual prerequisite" than a precise physical one, and that an exact direction to the Kaaba itself from thousands of kilometres away requires an extreme precision impossible to achieve when building a mosque or when standing for prayers. On the other hand, Muhammad Hadi Bashori in 2014 opines that "correcting the qibla is indeed a very urgent thing", and can be guided by simple methods such as observing the shadow.


title: Qibla

text: In the history of the region, disputes about the qibla had also occurred in the then-Dutch East Indies in the 1890s. When the Indonesian scholar and future founder of Muhammadiyah, Ahmad Dahlan, returned from his Islamic and astronomy studies in Mecca, he found that mosques in the royal capital of Yogyakarta had inaccurate qiblas, including the Kauman Great Mosque, which faced due west. His efforts in adjusting the qibla were opposed by the traditional "ulama" of the Yogyakarta Sultanate, and a new mosque built by Dahlan using his calculations was demolished by a mob. Dahlan rebuilt his mosque in the 1900s, and later the Kauman Great Mosque would also be reoriented using the astronomically calculated qibla.


title: Qibla

text: Places long settled by Muslim populations tend to have resolved the question of the direction of the qibla over time. Other countries, like the United States and Canada, have had large Muslim communities only in the past several decades, and the determination of the qibla can be a matter of debate. The Islamic Center of Washington, D.C. was built in 1953 facing slightly north of east and initially puzzled some observers, including Muslims, because Washington, D.C.'s latitude is 17°30′ north of Mecca. Even though a line drawn on world maps—such as those using the Mercator projection—would suggest a southeastern direction to Mecca, the astronomical calculation using the great circle method does yield a north-of-east direction (56°33′). Nevertheless, most early mosques in the United States face east or southeast, following the apparent direction on world maps. As the Muslim community grew and the number of mosques increased, in 1978, an American Muslim scientist, S. Kamal Abdali, wrote a book arguing that the correct qibla from North America was north or northeast as calculated by the great circle method which identifies the shortest path to Mecca. Abdali's conclusion was widely circulated and then accepted by the Muslim community, and mosques were subsequently reoriented as a result. In 1993, two religious scholars, Riad Nachef and Samir Kadi, published a book arguing for a southeastern qibla, writing that the north/northeast qibla was invalid and resulted from a lack of religious knowledge. In reaction, Abdali published a response to their arguments and criticism in an article entitled "The Correct Qibla" online in 1997. The two opinions resulted in a period of debate about the correct qibla. Eventually most North American Muslims accepted the north/northeast qibla with a minority following the east/southeast qibla.


title: Qibla

text: The International Space Station (ISS) orbits the earth at high speed—the direction from it to Mecca changes significantly within a few seconds. Before his flight to the ISS, Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor requested, and the Malaysian National Fatwa Council provided, guidelines which have been translated into multiple languages. The council wrote that the qibla determination should be "based on what is possible" and recommended four options, saying that one should pray toward the first option if possible and, if not, fall back successively on the later ones:


title: Qibla

text: In line with the fatwa council, other Muslim scholars argue for the importance of flexibility and adapting the qibla requirement to what an astronaut is capable of fulfilling. Khaleel Muhammad of San Diego State University opined "God does not take a person to task for that which is beyond his/her ability to work with." Kamal Abdali argued that concentration during a prayer is more important than the exact orientation, and he suggested keeping the qibla direction at the start of a prayer instead of "worrying about possible changes in position". Before Sheikh Muszaphar's mission, at least eight Muslims had flown to space, but none of them publicly discussed issues relating to worship in space.


title: Ricky Whittle

text: Richard George Whittle (born 31 December 1979) is a British actor. Whittle first came to prominence as a model for Reebok in the early 2000s. He is known in the United Kingdom for his role as Calvin Valentine in the soap opera "Hollyoaks". In 2009, he finished second in the BBC reality competition "Strictly Come Dancing". In 2012, Whittle crossed over to American television when he booked a recurring role on VH-1's "Single Ladies", followed by a recurring role on ABC's "Mistresses" in 2014. From 2014 to 2016, Whittle appeared in The CW's post-apocalyptic drama "The 100" as Lincoln. Whittle starred in the Starz television series "American Gods" for three seasons.


title: Ricky Whittle

text: Richard George Whittle was born on 31 December 1979 in Oldham, England, to Harry and Maggie (Goodwin) Whittle. He is the oldest of three children. His mother is from England and his father is from Jamaica. His father was in the Royal Air Force so the family moved to a different country every few years. However, Whittle was primarily raised in Northern Ireland and revealed that he'd been bullied as a child because he was the only black child in school. At one point, Whittle told his mother he wanted to be white so he could fit in. Whittle studied law at Southampton Solent University where he was football team captain. In order to pay for text books, he started to model. However, Whittle left university just before graduation.


title: Ricky Whittle

text: Whittle took up modelling in college. He would go on to become the face of Reebok in 2000. Whittle made his acting debut in 2002 the television series "Dream Team" which aired on Sky 1. The actor said the show was a "dream job" for a young actor just starting out. Whittle's agent surprised him and sent him to audition for "Dream Team". Whittle credits his career to his co-star Terence Maynard whom he auditioned with. Whittle left the show in 2006 after series 9 and in May 2006, it was announced that Whittle had joined the cast of the Channel 4 soap opera "Hollyoaks" in the role of Calvin Valentine. In December 2009, it was announced that Whittle would leave "Hollyoaks" and the character would be killed off in 2010. In an interview with "Digital Spy" he explained his reasons for leaving "Hollyoaks" and revealed his plans to try his hand at American television and film. He only planned to do four years with the series.


title: Ricky Whittle

text: In the summer of 2009, Whittle joined series 7 of the BBC reality series, "Strictly Come Dancing". He was paired with professional dancer Natalie Lowe. Whittle would place second after sports presenter Chris Hollins. He permanently relocated to Los Angeles in the summer of 2011 to further his career.


title: Ricky Whittle

text: Upon his arrival in the US, Whittle met with someone to put a reel together. The meeting led to him signing with manager Ken Jacobsen. Jacobsen has also represented James Franco, Michelle Williams and Hilary Swank. Not long after, Whittle was cast in the feature film "Austenland" opposite Keri Russell, Jane Seymour and Jennifer Coolidge. Whittle joked that he only booked the role because of his body as the audition tape he submitted cut off his head. He found it ironic that it filmed on location in the UK when he travelled to Los Angeles to pursue American TV projects. After that, Whittle had no problem booking gigs. However, his immigration status caused him to pull out of a few projects. Whittle was set to film an episode of the NBC sitcom "Up All Night" when his management contacted him the night before to inform him that the network wouldn't accept his visa. After this incident, Whittle decided to apply for his green card.


title: Ricky Whittle

text: In March 2012, it was announced that Whittle was cast in the recurring role of Charles, a love interest of Denise Vasi's character, in the second season of the VH1 comedic-drama "Single Ladies". Whittle submitted his audition tape just as he returned to the UK for Christmas. While he was too young for the role he initially auditioned for, the producers found another role for him. Whittle was initially supposed to appear in two episodes, and that turned into six. However, Whittle made such an impression on producer Stacy A. Littlejohn that she wrote him into the rest of the season. Whittle filmed the series in Atlanta from January to June 2012.


title: Ricky Whittle

text: In 2013, Whittle appeared in an episode of the CBS drama "NCIS", "Detour." In 2014, Whittle joined the cast of The CW's post-apocalyptic drama "The 100" in the role of Lincoln. On 25 July 2014, at San Diego Comic-Con, it was announced that Whittle had been promoted to series regular for season 2. Around the same time, Whittle booked the recurring role of Daniel on ABC's prime-time drama "Mistresses". Whittle wrapped filming for "The 100" the week before he was scheduled to start production on "Mistresses". Daniel Zamora is the love interest for April played by Rochelle Aytes. Whittle appeared in 10 episodes.


title: Ricky Whittle

text: In January 2016, it was reported that Whittle was in talks for the lead role on another series. During an interview with "AfterBuzz TV" in April 2016, Whittle announced his decision to leave "The 100". Whittle controversially accused the show's creator Jason Rothenberg of bullying him into leaving the series by marginalizing his character. The actor explained that once Warner Bros. Television President Peter Roth and The CW President Mark Pedowitz were made aware of the situation, he was allowed to audition for other projects.


title: Ricky Whittle

text: In January 2016, it was announced that Whittle had been cast as Shadow Moon, the lead role in Starz television adaptation of Neil Gaiman's 2001 novel "American Gods" opposite Ian McShane. Though Whittle had no prior knowledge of the novel, he was a fan favourite pick to play Shadow when Starz announced the series in August 2015. Out of the 2,000 audition tapes submitted, Whittle was chosen out of approximately 600 actors that met with the producers. Whittle submitted 16 audition tapes over the five-month process. In September 2017 Whittle was cast opposite Sanaa Lathan in the Netflix original film, "Nappily Ever After" based on the novel of same name by Trisha R. Thomas. On 16 April 2018 it was announced that Whittle signed with talent agency William Morris Endeavor.


title: Ricky Whittle

text: Whittle dated his "Hollyoaks" co-star Carley Stenson from 2007 to 2009. The two have remained close friends. Whittle dated Kirstina Colonna from 2016 until 2018.


title: Internal Family Systems Model

text: The Internal Family Systems Model (IFS) is an integrative approach to individual psychotherapy developed by Richard C. Schwartz in the 1980s. It combines systems thinking with the view that the mind is made up of relatively discrete subpersonalities, each with its own unique viewpoint and qualities. IFS uses family systems theory to understand how these collections of subpersonalities are organized.


title: Internal Family Systems Model

text: IFS posits that the mind is made up of multiple parts, and underlying them is a person's core or true Self. Like members of a family, a person's inner parts can take on extreme roles or subpersonalities. Each part has its own perspective, interests, memories, and viewpoint. A core tenet of IFS is that every part has a positive intent, even if its actions are counterproductive and/or cause dysfunction. There is no need to fight with, coerce, or eliminate parts; the IFS method promotes internal connection and harmony to bring the mind back into balance.


title: Internal Family Systems Model

text: IFS therapy aims to heal wounded parts and restore mental balance. The first step is to access the core Self and then, from there, understand the different parts in order to heal them.


title: Internal Family Systems Model

text: IFS focuses on the relationships between parts and the core Self. The goal of therapy is to create a cooperative and trusting relationship between the Self and each part.


title: Internal Family Systems Model

text: There are three primary types of relationships between parts: protection, polarization, and alliance.


title: Internal Family Systems Model

text: IFS practitioners report a well-defined therapeutic method for individual therapy based on the following principles. In this description, the term "protector" refers to either a manager or firefighter.


title: Internal Family Systems Model

text: The first step is to help the client access the Self. Next, the Self gets to know the Protector(s), its positive intent, and develops a trusting relationship with it. Then, with the Protector's permission, the client accesses the Exile(s) to uncover the childhood incident or relationship which is the source of the burden(s) it carries. The Exile is retrieved from the past situation and guided to release its burdens. Finally, the Protector can then let go of its protective role and assume a healthy one.


title: Internal Family Systems Model

text: Therapists Sharon A. Deacon and Jonathan C. Davis suggested that working with one's parts may "be emotional and anxiety-provoking for clients", and that IFS may not work well with delusional, paranoid, or schizophrenic clients who may not be grounded in reality and therefore misuse the idea of "parts". It is worth noting that, as of yet, there is no evidence in support of these concerns.


title: Fish oil

text: Fish oil is oil derived from the tissues of oily fish. Fish oils contain the omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), precursors of certain eicosanoids that are known to reduce inflammation in the body and improve hypertriglyceridemia. There has been a great deal of controversy in recent years about the role of fish oil in cardiovascular disease, with recent meta-analyses reaching different conclusions about its potential impact. The most promising evidence supports supplementation for prevention of cardiac death.


title: Fish oil

text: Fish oil and omega-3 fatty acids have also been studied in a wide variety of other conditions such as clinical depression, anxiety, cancer, and macular degeneration, yet their benefit in these conditions has also not been verified.


title: Fish oil

text: The fish used as sources do not actually produce omega-3 fatty acids. Instead, the fish accumulate the acids by consuming either microalgae or prey fish that have accumulated omega-3 fatty acids. Fatty predatory fish like sharks, swordfish, tilefish, and albacore tuna may be high in omega-3 fatty acids, but due to their position at the top of the food chain, these species may also accumulate toxic substances through biomagnification. For this reason, the United States Environmental Protection Agency recommends limiting consumption (especially for women of childbearing age) of certain (predatory) fish species (e.g., albacore tuna, shark, king mackerel, tilefish and swordfish) due to high levels of the toxic contaminant mercury. Dioxins, like PCBs and chlordane, as well as other chlorinated cyclodiene insecticides are also present. Fish oil is used in aquaculture feed, in particular for feeding farmed salmon.


title: Fish oil

text: Marine and freshwater fish oil vary in contents of arachidonic acid, EPA and DHA. The various species range from lean to fatty, and their oil content in the tissues has been shown to vary from 0.7% to 15.5%. They also differ in their effects on organ lipids. Studies have revealed that there is no relation between either 1) total fish intake or 2) estimated omega−3 fatty acid intake from all fish and serum omega−3 fatty acid concentrations. Only fatty fish intake, particularly salmonid, and estimated EPA + DHA intake from fatty fish has been observed to be significantly associated with increase in serum EPA + DHA.


title: Fish oil

text: As of 2019, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved four fish oil-based prescription drugs, namely Lovaza, Omtryg (both omega-3 acid ethyl esters), Vascepa (ethyl eicosapentaenoic acid), and Epanova (omega-3 carboxylic acids). Notably, none of these drugs is actually fish oil: they are all derivatives of acids found in fish oil.


title: Fish oil

text: Often marketed and sold for consumption as part of the diet or in dietary supplements in contemporary societies, fish oils also have found roles in external use, as emollients


title: Fish oil

text: The most widely available dietary source of EPA and DHA is cold-water oily fish, such as salmon, herring, mackerel, anchovies, and sardines. Oils from these fish have a profile of around seven times as much omega-3 oils as omega-6 oils. Other oily fish, such as tuna, also contain omega-3 in somewhat lesser amounts. Although fish is a dietary source of omega-3 oils, fish do not synthesize them; they obtain them from the algae (microalgae in particular) or plankton in their diets.


title: Fish oil

text: EPA and DHA are available as dietary supplements most commonly as fish oil capsules, softgels, and gummies, krill oil, and less commonly as algae oil. Generally, salmon oil has more DHA than EPA while other fish oils such as herring, mackerel, anchovies, sardines, and pollock have more EPA than DHA. (See Supplements section below.)


title: Fish oil

text: In a 2009 letter on a pending revision to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, the American Heart Association recommended 250–500 mg/day of EPA and DHA. The Guidelines were revised again for 2015–2020; included is a recommendation that adults consume at least eight ounces of a variety of types of fish per week, equating to at least 250 mg/day of EPA + DHA. The Food and Drug Administration recommends not exceeding 3 grams per day of EPA + DHA from all sources, with no more than 2 grams per day from dietary supplements.


title: Fish oil

text: The effect of fish oil consumption on prostate cancer is controversial. For instance, one study showed decreased risk with higher blood levels of DPA. However, another reported increased risk of more aggressive prostate cancer with higher blood levels of combined EPA and DHA. Some evidence indicated an association between high blood levels of omega-3 fatty acids and an increased prostate cancer risk.


title: Fish oil

text: There has been a great deal of controversy in recent years about the role of fish oil in cardiovascular disease, with recent meta-analyses reaching different conclusions about its potential impact. Multiple evaluations suggest fish oil has little or no reduction in cardiovascular mortality, in distinction to earlier observational data, though there appears to be a small reduction in the incidence of actual cardiac events and strokes with its use. In 2007, the American Heart Association had recommended the consumption of 1 gram of fish oil daily, preferably by eating fish, for patients with coronary artery disease, but cautioned pregnant and nursing women to avoid eating fish with high potential for mercury contaminants including mackerel, shark, and swordfish. (Optimal dosage was related to body weight.)


title: Fish oil

text: The US National Institutes of Health lists three conditions for which fish oil and other omega-3 sources are most highly recommended: hypertriglyceridemia (high triglyceride level), preventing secondary cardiovascular disease, and hypertension (high blood pressure). It then lists 27 other conditions for which there is less evidence. It also lists possible safety concerns: "Intake of 3 grams per day or greater of omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of bleeding, although there is little evidence of significant bleeding risk at lower doses. Very large intakes of fish oil/omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of hemorrhagic (bleeding) stroke."


title: Fish oil

text: There is also some evidence that fish oil may have a beneficial effect on certain abnormal heart rhythms. However, a 2012 meta-analysis found no such significant benefit.


title: Fish oil

text: A 2008 meta-study by the "Canadian Medical Association Journal" found fish oil supplementation did not demonstrate any preventative benefit to cardiac patients with ventricular arrhythmias. A 2012 meta-analysis published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, covering 20 studies and 68,680 patients, found that omega-3 fatty acid supplementation did not reduce the chance of death, cardiac death, heart attack, or stroke. A 2018 meta-analysis of randomized trials with a total of 77,000 participants published in "JAMA" found a 3% reduction in the relative risk for those who supplemented fish oil; however, this effect was not statistically significant, but suggested a very minor benefit.


title: Fish oil

text: In 2018, Cochrane conducted their own meta-analysis with a total of 79 studies and 112,000 participants and found a 5% reduction in the relative risk for cardiovascular mortality and a 7% reduction in the relative risk for coronary heart disease for those who supplemented with Omega-3s.


title: Fish oil

text: There have been some human trials that have concluded that consuming omega-3 fatty acids slightly reduces blood pressure (DHA could be more effective than EPA). It is important to note that because omega-3 fatty acids can increase the risk of bleeding, a qualified healthcare provider should be consulted before supplementing with fish oil.


title: Fish oil

text: A 2008 Cochrane systematic review found that limited data is available. In the one eligible study, omega-3s were an effective adjunctive therapy for depressive but not manic symptoms in bipolar disorder. The authors found an "acute need" for more randomised controlled trials.


title: Fish oil

text: A 2009 metastudy found that patients taking omega-3 supplements with a higher EPA:DHA ratio experienced fewer depressive symptoms. The studies provided evidence that EPA may be more efficacious than DHA in treating depression. However, this metastudy concluded that due to the identified limitations of the included studies, larger, randomized trials are needed to confirm these findings.


title: Fish oil

text: In a 2011 meta-analysis of PubMed articles about fish oil and depression from 1965 to 2010, researchers found that "nearly all of the treatment efficacy observed in the published literature may be attributable to publication bias."


title: Fish oil

text: A 2014 meta-analysis of eleven trials conducted respectively on patients with a DSM-defined diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD) and of eight trials with patients with depressive symptomatology but no diagnosis of MDD demonstrated significant clinical benefit of omega-3 PUFA treatment compared to placebo. The study concluded that: "The use of omega-3 PUFA is effective in patients with diagnosis of MDD and on depressive patients without diagnosis of MDD."


title: Fish oil

text: A Cochrane meta-analysis published in June 2012 found no significant protective effect for cognitive decline for those aged 60 and over and who started taking fatty acids after this age. A co-author of the study said to "Time", "Our analysis suggests that there is currently no evidence that omega-3 fatty acid supplements provide a benefit for memory or concentration in later life".


title: Fish oil

text: Some studies reported better psychomotor development at 30 months of age in infants whose mothers received fish oil supplements for the first four months of lactation. In addition, five-year-old children whose mothers received modest algae based docosahexaenoic acid supplementation for the first 4 months of breastfeeding performed better on a test of sustained attention. This suggests that docosahexaenoic acid intake during early infancy confers long-term benefits on specific aspects of neurodevelopment.


title: Fish oil

text: In addition, provision of fish oil during pregnancy may reduce an infant's sensitization to common food allergens and reduce the prevalence and severity of certain skin diseases in the first year of life. This effect may persist until adolescence with a reduction in prevalence and/or severity of eczema, hay fever and asthma.


title: Fish oil

text: A 2014 Cochrane review found that, based on two large studies, fish oil supplements did not appear to be effective for maintenance of remission in Crohn's disease.


title: Fish oil

text: Fish oil is a commonly used dietary supplement, with sales in the US alone reaching $976 million in 2009. By 2020 the global omega-3 supplement market size had reached $5.58 billion, and fish oil based supplements accounted for 63.1% of that market.


title: Fish oil

text: Fish oil supplements are available mainly as liquids or capsules. Most of these capsules are single-piece gel capsules or softgels. Also available are enteric-coated capsules that pass through the stomach before dissolving in the small intestine, thus helping prevent indigestion and "fish burps". Poorly manufactured enteric-coated products have the potential to release ingredients too early. ConsumerLab.com, a for-profit supplement testing company, reported that 1 of the 24 enteric-coated fish oil supplements it evaluated released ingredients prematurely. Fish oil products may use other techniques to hide the fishy taste. For example, added lemon or strawberry flavor tends to produce a more agreeable product and are usually present in fish oil gummies.


title: Fish oil

text: Generally, oily fish have more EPA than DHA versus salmon which has more DHA than EPA. To illustrate the amounts of EPA and DHA in supplements, a softgel capsule containing fish oil derived from pollock might contain a total of 642 mg of total fish oil, of which 584 mg are omega-3 fatty acids, with 377 mg EPA and 158 mg DHA. That same company's salmon oil softgel contains 1008 mg of total fish oil, of which 295 mg are omega-3 fatty acids, with 95 mg EPA and 118 mg DHA.


title: Fish oil

text: According to ConsumerLab.com tests, the concentrations of EPA and DHA in supplements can vary from between 8 and 80% fish oil content. The concentration depends on the source of the omega-3s, how the oil is processed, and the amounts of other ingredients included in the supplement. However, the bioavailability of EPA and DHA from both capsular and emulsified fish oils has been shown to be high. A ConsumerLab.com publication in 2010 stated that 3 of 24 fish oil supplements tested contained less EPA and/or DHA than was claimed on the label. A 2012 report stated that 4 of 35 fish oil supplements that were tested contained less EPA or DHA than was claimed on the label, and 3 of 35 contained more.


title: Fish oil

text: Problems of quality have been identified in periodic tests by independent researchers of marketed supplements containing fish oil and other marine oils. These problems may include contamination, inaccurate listing of EPA and DHA levels, spoilage, and formulation issues.


title: Fish oil

text: A report by the Harvard Medical School studied five popular brands of fish oil, including Nordic Ultimate, Kirkland and CVS. They found that the brands had "negligible amounts of mercury, suggesting either that mercury is removed during the manufacturing of purified fish oil or that the fish sources used in these commercial preparations are relatively mercury-free".


title: Fish oil

text: There appears to be little risk of contamination by microorganisms, proteins, lysophospholipids, cholesterol, and trans-fats.


title: Fish oil

text: Dioxins and PCBs may be carcinogenic at low levels of exposure over time. These substances are identified and measured in one of two categories, dioxin-like PCBs and total PCBs. While the US FDA has not set a limit for PCBs in supplements, the Global Organization for EPA and DHA (GOED) has established a guideline allowing for no more than 3 picograms of dioxin-like PCBs per gram of fish oil. In 2012, samples from 35 fish oil supplements were tested for PCBs. Trace amounts of PCBs were found in all samples, and two samples exceeded the GOED's limit. Although trace amounts of PCBs contribute to overall PCB exposure, Consumerlab.com claims the amounts reported by tests it ordered on fish oil supplements are far below those found in a single typical serving of fish.


title: Fish oil

text: Peroxides can be produced when fish oil spoils. A study commissioned by the government of Norway concluded there would be some health concern related to the regular consumption of oxidized (rancid) fish/marine oils, particularly in regards to the gastrointestinal tract, but there is not enough data to determine the risk. The amount of spoilage and contamination in a supplement depends on the raw materials and processes of extraction, refining, concentration, encapsulation, storage and transportation. ConsumerLab.com reports in its review that it found spoilage in test reports it ordered on some fish oil supplement products.


title: Fish oil

text: Fish oil itself is available as a prescription, but the majority of fish oil products available via prescription are derivatives of fish oil. Such products are described elsewhere in this article. These preparations, with the purpose of treating or preventing medical disorder, are only available with a doctor's prescription. In the US, such prescriptions undergo the same Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulatory requirements as other prescription medications, including with regard to both efficacy and safety. Purity is also regulated by the FDA. The prescription fish oil derivative medicines differ from over-the-counter fish oil supplements. Prescription fish oil is considered a safe and effective option to reduce triglycerides. There are various prescription fish oil products that have been approved and permitted by the FDA for decreasing triglyceride levels. Prescription fish oil products having DHA work by raising LDL-C levels to reduce triglycerides, like fibrates. Heart experts advise that prescription fish oil helps in decreasing additional levels of blood fats. Prescription fish oils might only help when triglycerides reach a specific upper level. Prescription fish oil pills, capsules and tablets have more omega-3 fatty acids than those which are non-prescription. The FDA regularly monitors prescription fish oil for standards like purity and for quality and safety.


title: Fish oil

text: As of 2019, four fish oil-based prescription drugs have been approved in the United States for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia, namely:


title: Fish oil

text: A 2013 review concluded that the potential for adverse events amongst older adults taking fish oil "appear mild–moderate at worst and are unlikely to be of clinical significance".


title: Fish oil

text: The FDA recommends that consumers do not exceed more than 3 grams per day of EPA and DHA combined, with no more than 2 grams from a dietary supplement. This is not the same as 3000 mg of fish oil. A 1000 mg pill typically has only 300 mg of omega-3; 10 such pills would equal 3000 mg of omega-3.


title: Fish oil

text: According to the European Food Safety Authority's (EFSA) Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies, supplementation of 5 grams of EPA and DHA combined does not pose a safety concern for adults. A 1987 study found that healthy Greenlandic Inuit had an average intake of 5.7 grams of omega-3 EPA per day which had many effects including prolonged bleeding times, such as slower blood clotting.


title: Fish oil

text: Two 2021 systematic reviews and meta-analyses concluded that more than 1 g/d marine omega-3 fatty acids is associated with an increased risk of atrial fibrillation.


title: Fish oil

text: The liver and liver products (such as cod liver oil) of fish and many animals (such as seals and whales) contain omega-3, but also the active form of vitamin A. At high levels, this form of the vitamin can be dangerous (Hypervitaminosis A).


title: Fish oil

text: Consumers of oily fish should be aware of the potential presence of heavy metals and fat-soluble pollutants like PCBs and dioxins, which are known to accumulate up the food chain. After extensive review, researchers from Harvard's School of Public Health in the "Journal of the American Medical Association" (2006) reported that the benefits of fish intake generally far outweigh the potential risks.


title: Fish oil

text: Fish oil supplements came under scrutiny in 2006, when the Food Standards Agency in the UK and the Food Safety Authority of Ireland reported polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) levels that exceeded the European Union maximum limits in several fish oil brands,


title: Fish oil

text: which required temporary withdrawal of these brands. To address the concern over contaminated fish oil supplements, the International Fish Oil Standards (IFOS) Program, a third-party testing and accreditation program for fish oil products, was created by Nutrasource Diagnostics Inc. in Guelph, Ontario, Canada.


title: Fish oil

text: A March 2010 lawsuit filed by a California environmental group claimed that eight brands of fish oil supplements contained excessive levels of PCBs, including CVS/pharmacy, Nature Made, Rite Aid, GNC, Solgar, Twinlab, Now Health, Omega Protein and Pharmavite. The majority of these products were either cod liver or shark liver oils. Those participating in the lawsuit claim that because the liver is the major filtering and detoxifying organ, PCB content may be higher in liver-based oils than in fish oil produced from the processing of whole fish.


title: Fish oil

text: An analysis based on data from the Norwegian Women and Cancer Study (NOWAC) with regards to the dangers of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in cod liver came to the conclusion that "in Norwegian women, fish liver consumption was not associated with an increased cancer risk in breast, uterus, or colon. In contrast, a decreased risk for total cancer was found."


title: Fish oil

text: Microalgae oil is a vegetarian alternative to fish oil. Supplements produced from microalgae oil provide a balance of omega-3 fatty acids similar to fish oil, with a lower risk of pollutant exposure.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: The Ford Falcon is a model line of cars that was produced by Ford from the 1960 to 1970 model years. The first compact car marketed by the American Big Three automobile manufacturers (though antedated by the Rambler American), the Falcon was the third car line introduced by Ford, following the full-sized Ford and the Ford Thunderbird.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: In contrast to its competitors, the Falcon was developed as a scaled-down version of the full-size Ford Galaxie sedan. Through its production, the Falcon was offered in the same body styles as its full-sized Galaxie counterpart, including two-door and four-door sedans, two-door hardtops and convertibles, two-door and four-door station wagons (the former, serving as a basis of the final Ford sedan delivery), and coupe utility pickups (serving as the basis of the Ford Ranchero). During its production, the Falcon served as the basis for multiple Ford vehicle lines, including the first generations of the Ford Mustang pony car and the Ford Econoline/Ford Club Wagon vans.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: Through the 1960s, Ford produced three generations of the Falcon, all derived on the same platform architecture. For the 1970 model year, the Falcon was replaced by the Ford Maverick, through the 1975 introduction of the Ford Granada, the chassis of the 1960 Ford Falcon was used through the 1980 model year in North America, and until 1991 in Argentina. Following its initial 1970 discontinuation, Ford marketed a second "1970½" Falcon, serving as its lowest-price intermediate series, slotted below the Ford Fairlane and Ford Torino.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: Edsel Ford first used the term "Falcon" for a more luxurious Ford he designed in 1935. He decided the new car did not fit with Ford's other offerings, so this design eventually became the Mercury.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: Historically, the "Big Three" auto manufacturers (GM, Ford, and Chrysler), focused purely on the larger and more profitable vehicles in the US and Canadian markets. Towards the mid-1950s, all three manufacturers realized that this strategy would no longer work. Large automobiles were becoming increasingly expensive, making smaller cars such as Fiats, Renaults, Toyotas, and Volkswagens increasingly attractive. Furthermore, many American families were now in the market for a second car, and market research showed women especially thought the full-size car had grown too large and cumbersome.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: At the same time, research showed many buyers would prefer to buy US or Canadian if the domestic manufacturers offered a smaller car with lower cost of ownership. Thus, all three introduced compacts: the Valiant from Chrysler (becoming the Plymouth Valiant in 1960, and joined by a downsized Dodge Dart in 1961), GM's Chevrolet Corvair, and the Ford Falcon. Studebaker also introduced the Lark, and Rambler downsized its near-compact American in 1959. Ford United Kingdom had begun production of the Ford Anglia in 1939, and the earlier Ford Model Y in 1932, followed by the Ford Zephyr, but they were not sold in North America. Ford of Germany built the Ford Eifel, followed by the Ford Köln, which was mechanically similar to the British Model Y, followed later by the Ford Taunus in 1939, but were also not sold in North America. The European Fords, Anglia, Zephyr, and Taunus, were in production at the same time the Falcon was introduced.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: The project which became the Falcon was started and sponsored by Ford General Manager Robert S. McNamara, who commissioned a team to create what by American standards of the time would be a small car, but elsewhere in the world considered a mid-size. McNamara, who was promoted to Group Vice President of Cars and Trucks by the time the Falcon was launched, was intimately involved in development, insisting on keeping the costs and weight of the car as low as possible. Engineer Harley Copp employed a unibody atop a standard suspension and sourced parts from Ford's existing bin to keep the price low, while providing room for six passengers in reasonable comfort. The sales success of the conventional Falcon along with slow sales of GM's rear-engined Corvair led General Motors to introduce their own compact car based on the Falcon's principles, the Chevy II.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: The 1960 Falcon was powered by a small, lightweight 95-hp (70 kW), 144 CID (2.4 L) Mileage Maker straight-six with a single-barrel carburetor. Unibody construction, which had previously been introduced by Ford on the luxurious 1958 Ford Thunderbird and Lincoln Continental, accommodated coil spring front suspension, leaf spring rear suspension, and drum brakes front and rear. A three-speed manual column shift was standard, and the two-speed Ford-O-Matic automatic was optional. It had room for six passengers. Body styles included two- and four-door sedans, two- or four-door station wagons, and the Ranchero car-based pickup, transferred onto the Falcon platform for 1960 from the Fairlane. The Comet, originally intended for the defunct Edsel marque and based on the 1960 Falcon, was launched in the US in March 1960. (By 1962, the Comet adopted more Mercury-based styling and was folded into the Mercury line as the Mercury Comet.)


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: The market shift that spurred the development of the Falcon and its competitors also precipitated the demise of several well-established marques in the late-1950s and early-1960s. Besides the infamous tale of the Edsel, DeSoto, and Packard nameplates all disappeared from the marketplace, while the Nash and Hudson companies were merged to become American Motors Corporation and Studebaker survived until 1967.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: In 1960, Ford's Canadian subsidiary introduced the Falcon-based Frontenac. It was designed to give Mercury-Meteor dealers a smaller model to sell, since the Comet was originally intended as an Edsel, which was sold by Ford-Monarch dealers. Produced for the 1960 model year only, the Frontenac was essentially a rebadged 1960 Falcon with its own unique grille, tail lights, and external trim, including red maple-leaf insignia. Despite strong sales (5% of Ford's total Canadian output), the Frontenac was discontinued and replaced by the Comet for 1961.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: Robert McNamara, a Ford executive who became Ford's president briefly before being offered the job of U.S. Defense Secretary, is regarded by many as "the father of the Falcon". McNamara left Ford shortly after the Falcon's introduction, but his faith in the concept was vindicated with record sales; over half a million sold in the first year and over a million sold by the end of the second year.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: The 1961 model year introduced an optional 101-hp, 170-CID (2.8-L) six, and two new models were introduced; a bucket-seat and console sedan model in a higher trim level called the Futura, and a sedan delivery.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: The Ford Falcon brochure featured Charlie Brown and Lucy from the "Peanuts" comic strip, who remained until 1965. The television marketing of the model line featured the first animated appearances of the characters from Charles Schulz's acclaimed comic strip, "Peanuts", with announcer contribution from Paul Frees. Ford boasted of the good fuel economy achieved by the six-cylinder Ford Falcon models in advertising. The fuel economy was good, a claimed , compared to other American cars at the time.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: The 1962 model year had a Squire model of the four-door station wagon with faux wood trim on the sides. The bucket-seat "Futura" model was offered with a slightly upgraded interior, factory-installed safety belts, different side trim (spears), and different emblems. Halfway through the model year, Ford changed the roof line at the back window to more of a Thunderbird design and offered a four-speed transmission for the first time. The two-door Futura sedan (also referred to as an illusion hardtop' because of the chrome trim around the side window opening) sported a flat rear window in place of the panoramic (wrap-around) window on earlier models to bring its design in line with other Ford cars of the era. In 1962, Ford introduced the Ford Falcon Club Wagon and Deluxe Club Wagon, an eight-passenger, Ford Econoline cab over engine van. Ford also promoted that in a Mobilgas economy run, the Falcon got .


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: In 1963, even more models were available. Now a four-door Futura and a Deluxe wagon were available. Futura Convertible and Futura Sports Convertible models were also included in the 1963 range. Later, hardtops, and the new "Sprint" model were introduced. Halfway through the model year (February 1963), the Fairlane's 164-hp "Challenger" 260-CID (4.3-L) V8 engine was offered for the first time.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: The only time a V8 option was available in a first-generation Falcon was the 1963½ model, and these cars were produced in very limited numbers (Sprint two-door hardtop (bucket seats) 10,479 produced and Sprint convertible (bucket seats) 4,602 produced). These first-generation Falcon Sprint cars were the basis for the 1964½ Mustangs released by Ford one year later. Many (if not most) of the interior, chassis, suspension, and drivetrain components were derived from those used on the 1963½ Ford Falcon Sprint and/or Fairlane models. In simplest terms, the 1963½ Falcon Sprint is nearly mechanically identical to the 1964½ Mustang, while being aesthetically different.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: The second generation 1964 Falcon, launched in 1963, featured revised, more squared-off styling. Later in the 1964 model year, Ford's new offering for that market was launched: the Ford Mustang, based heavily on the Falcon's unified frame design. TV commercials now used the character "Hazel" as well as the Peanuts cartoon characters. The Ford Motor Company was a sponsor of the show, and also sponsored "The Ford Show" during the late 1950s. For the 1964 year, Ford added a Sprint Package, which gave the Falcon the Fairlane's 260 V8, a stiffer suspension, and a louder exhaust. Because the Mustang had the same options that the Sprint had for only a small amount more, the Sprint never caught on. Even with the addition of the 289 V8 in late 1964, the Sprint was overshadowed by the Mustang, and was discontinued after 1965. The Mustang dealt Falcon sales in North America a blow from which they would never recover. Front suspension was coil springs pivot-mounted on upper arms plus double-acting absorbers. Six-cylinder cars had four-lug hubs with 13-in steel wheels. V-8 cars got five-lug wheels. For 1965, changes were minimal, including a simpler grille and revised side trim on deluxe models. Production ended on June 26, 1965, for convertible Falcons. A padded instrument panel, power steering, power brakes, a radio, a remote-control trunk release, and a parking brake warning light were optional.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: From 1965, the three-speed Cruise-O-Matic automatic transmission was available. Front seat belts were standard.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: In late 1965, Ford launched the third generation Falcon, based on a shortened Fairlane platform with revised styling. At the top of the line was the highly trimmed Futura Sports Coupe, which featured chrome side window frames, giving this two-door sedan the look of a hardtop. It also featured a premium all-vinyl interior. Large "Sports Coupe" script on the "C" pillar was borrowed from the 1964–1965 Fairlane Sports Coupe. The heater-defroster became standard. Brakes were 9-in for six-cylinder Falcons, and 10-in for V8s. The two-door hardtop and convertible were dropped, while the station wagon and Ranchero were moved to a larger platform shared with the contemporary Fairlane. The Ranchero left the Falcon line and adopted the Fairlane's front sheet metal for 1967. The 1966 Falcon was used in the Trans-Am series. The 1967 models were mostly the same as the 1966 models, but more Federally-mandated safety equipment was added, including a dual-circuit brake system, energy-absorbing steering wheel with a large, padded center hub, 4-way flashers, soft interior panels, and mountings for front shoulder belts (which were available as an option). A reminder light was added for the seatbelts; 1968 was the first model year for the square tail lights.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: 1968 and 1969 Falcons got new side marker lights or reflectors, front outboard shoulder belts, and headrests for cars built after January 1, 1969. The basic body and mechanical specifications remained the same as 1966–1967 models.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: The final model year for the Falcon in North America was 1970. Continuing sales declines and the inability of the car to meet forthcoming safety standards resulted in a short run of 1970 models identical to the 1969 version being built through the end of December, 1969; none of the 1970-model Falcons used a locking steering column that would be standard on all other 1970 Ford products (except Mavericks built before September 1969). "Despite the listing of a plain Falcon series in some early literature, it appears that all Falcons bore the Futura name this year." Although the Falcon, Fairlane, and Fairlane 500 names would disappear, the Futura name would reappear in 1978 on the Fairmont Futura Sport Coupe.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: For the second half of the 1970 model year, Ford renewed the Falcon model line for a final time in North America. Shifting size segments, the Falcon became the lowest-price Ford intermediate car, slotted below the Ford Fairlane and Ford Torino, with which it shared a chassis and bodywork while the Ford Maverick replaced the market segment held by the Falcon. To distinguish the model line from the compact 1970 Falcon (discontinued by December 1969), Ford assigned the intermediate Falcon with a 1970½ model year designation.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: The 1970½ Falcon was offered in three body styles (distinguished by no grille badging), including a two-door pillared sedan (unique to the Falcon), four-door sedan (shared with the Fairlane and Torino), and five-door station wagon (shared with the Fairlane and Torino). To comply with federal safety regulations, the Falcon was fitted with a locking steering column and 3-point outboard seatbelts. As the lowest-price intermediate series, the Falcon was marketed with a limited number of luxury and convenience options, including standard manual windows (optional power windows were limited to the station wagon), radios (were all optional), and air conditioning (heater was standard). The model line was offered with the entire range of powertrains offered to Ford intermediates, ranging from a 155 hp 250 cubic-inch inline-6 to the 370 hp 429 Cobra Jet Ram Air V8.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: For 1971, Ford adopted the Torino nameplate across its entire intermediate model line, leading to the retirement of both the Falcon and Fairlane nameplates in North America, and the entry level status was given to the Ford Pinto.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: Variations of the Ford Falcon were manufactured in Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile and Mexico. Early Mexican built versions of the Ford Maverick used the "Falcon Maverick" name.


title: Ford Falcon (North America)

text: From 1961 to 1967, passenger versions of the Ford Econoline and Ford Club Wagon were marketed under the Ford Falcon name.


title: Whang-od

text: Whang-od Oggay (; born February 17, 1917), also known as Maria Oggay, is a Filipina tattoo artist from Buscalan, Tinglayan, Kalinga, Philippines. She is often described as the "last" and oldest "mambabatok" (traditional Kalinga tattooist) and is part of the Butbut people of the larger Kalinga ethnic group.


title: Whang-od

text: She has been tattooing headhunters and women of the indigenous people of Butbut in Buscalan, Kalinga, since she was 15 years old, but the Butbut warriors who used to earn tattoos by protecting villages or killing enemies no longer exist. Despite this, Whang-od continues to practice her traditional art form on tourists visiting Buscalan.


title: Whang-od

text: The National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA) conferred on Whang-od the prestigious "Dangal ng Haraya Award" at Tabuk, the capital of Whang-od's ethnic province of Kalinga, in 2018. She was nominated for the National Living Treasures Award (Gawad Manlilikha ng Bayan) in 2017. Her nomination is still being processed by the NCCA.


title: Whang-od

text: Whang-od started tattooing at the age of 15, a traditional artform that she learned from her father who was considered a master tattooist in the region. Traditionally, only men with special tattooing ancestry were allowed to learn the art. Whang-od was an exception due to her talent and potential seen by her father. In later life, Whang-od's chosen apprentices constituted of only women, breaking the patrimonial tradition for the first time in recorded Kalinga history. Despite breaking tradition, her community accepted her decision. She has been doing the "batok", the traditional hand-tapped tattooing, on male headhunters who earned the tattoos by protecting villages or killing enemies. She also tattoos women of the Butbut people in Buscalan, Kalinga, primarily for aesthetic purposes. As a traditional Kalinga tattooist or "mambabatok", she has done fortune telling and chants while doing tattoos. Every design she creates contains symbolic meanings specific to the "mambabatok" culture. For example, a warrior who had killed an enemy would be given an eagle tattoo upon his return from battle.


title: Whang-od

text: She was first tattooed as a teenager with the designs consisting of a ladder and a python. The python tattoo was especially important in her people's sacred stories. According to their indigenous religion, the python scale tattoo was first given to Lagkunawa, a beautiful noblewoman from the village of Tinglayan (Whang-od's home village). It was a gift from the hero-god Banna, who fell in love with the mortal. Ever since, the tattoo was passed on through the generations. "Fatok" is the term used for tattooing women to show beauty and wealth. When a woman's arm is tattooed just like Whang-od's own tattoos, the family of the woman is obliged to pay the tattoo artist a piglet or a bundle of harvested rice (locally called as "dalan"). On the other hand, "fi-ing" is the term used for tattooing of male Butbut warriors on their chests and arms. Whang-od used to practice "fi-ing" until headhunting was discouraged by the government. "Fi-ing" was last practiced in 1972.


title: Whang-od

text: Though headhunters no longer exist, Whang-od still applies the tattoos on Buscalan tourists. She however no longer chants when tattooing tourists, as the chants are only for the beautification of Kalinga women and for the celebration of Kalinga men's victory in battle. Some of her notable customers include Rhian Ramos, Drew Arellano, Liza Diño and Ice Seguerra.


title: Whang-od

text: Her early tattoo works did not earn her any income but due to the influx of tourists in her town, she was earning at least Php 5,000 a day for her tattooing in 2015. She accepts around twenty to thirty customers every day. She only does simple tattoos nowadays due to her advanced age. Her apprentices, all women, have continued the tradition for her and their people.


title: Whang-od

text: The tattoo ink she uses is composed of indigenous materials, usually a mixture of charcoal and water that is tapped into the skin using a thorn from a calamansi or pomelo tree. This ancient technique of "batok" dates back a thousand years and is relatively painful compared to conventional techniques. She uses designs found in nature and basic geometric shapes. She has numerous signature tattoos, but since 2017, her signature tattoo is composed of three dots, representing herself and her two apprentices, depicted as a continuation of the art form from the older to the next generation.


title: Whang-od

text: Aside from being a tattoo artist, Whang-od is a respected village elder and plays the nose flute. She also does agricultural tasks, such as feeding pigs and chickens; and cultivating rice.


title: Whang-od

text: When she was very young, Whang-od had a boyfriend named Ang-Batang, a Butbut warrior. She performed a "batok" on Ang-Batang after the warrior's first victory in a battle. Many elders opposed her relations with Ang-Batang, believing the man's bloodline was not pure. A marriage was eventually arranged for Ang-Batang and Whang-od's best friend Hogkajon. Ang-Batang died as the result of a logging accident when Whang-od was 25 years old.