title: 16PF Questionnaire

text: However it is the primary traits that provide a clear definition of the individual's unique personality. Two people might have exactly the same level of Extraversion, but still be quite different from each other. For example, they may both be at the 80% on Extraversion, and both tend to move toward others to the same degree, but they may be doing it for quite different reasons. One person might achieve an 80% on Extraversion by being high on Social Boldness (Factor H: confident, bold, talkative, adventurous, fearless attention-seeking) and on Liveliness (Factor F: high-energy, enthusiastic, fun-loving, impulsive), but Reserved (low on Factor A: detached, cool, unfeeling, objective). This individual would be talkative, bold, and impulsive but not very sensitive to others people's needs or feelings. The second Extravert might be high on Warmth (Factor A: kind, soft-hearted, caring and nurturing), and Group-Oriented (low Factor Q2: companionable, cooperative, and participating), but Shy (low on Factor H: timid, modest, and easily embarrassed). This second Extravert would tend to show quite different social behavior and be caring, considerate, and attentive to others but not forward, bold or loud—and thus have quite a different effect on his/her social environment.


title: 16PF Questionnaire

text: Today, the global traits of personality are commonly known as the Big Five. The Big Five traits are most important for getting an abstract, theoretical understanding of the big, overarching domains of personality, and in understanding how different traits of personality relate to each other and how different research findings relate to each other. The big-five are important for understanding and interpreting an individual's personality profile mainly in getting a broad overview of their personality make-up at the highest level of personality organization. However, it is still the scores on the more specific primary traits that define the rich, unique personality make-up of any individual. These more-numerous primary traits have repeatedly been found to be the most powerful in predicting and understanding the complexity of actual daily behavior (Ashton, 1998; Goldberg, 1999; Mershon & Gorsuch, 1988; Paunonen & Ashton, 2001).


title: Straits Settlements

text: The Straits Settlements were a group of British territories located in Southeast Asia. Originally established in 1826 as part of the territories controlled by the British East India Company, the Straits Settlements came under British Raj control in 1858 and then under direct British control as a Crown colony on 1 April 1867. In 1946, following the end of the Second World War and the Japanese occupation, the colony was dissolved as part of Britain's reorganisation of its Southeast Asian dependencies in the area.


title: Straits Settlements

text: The Straits Settlements originally consisted of the four individual settlements of Penang, Singapore, Malacca, and Dinding. Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands were added in 1886. The island of Labuan, off the coast of Borneo, was also incorporated into the colony with effect from 1 January 1907, becoming a separate settlement within it in 1912. Most of the territories now form part of Malaysia, from which Singapore separated in 1965. The Cocos (or Keeling) Islands were transferred to Australian control in 1955. Christmas Island was transferred in 1958. Their administration was combined in 1996 to form the Australian Indian Ocean Territories.


title: Straits Settlements

text: The first settlement was the Penang territory, in 1786. This originally comprised Penang Island, then known as the "Prince of Wales Island". This was later extended to encompass an area of the mainland, which became known as Province Wellesley (now Seberang Perai). The first grant was in 1800, followed by another in 1831. Further adjustments to Province Wellesley's border were made in 1859, and with the Treaty of Pangkor in 1874.


title: Straits Settlements

text: Province Wellesley, on the mainland opposite the island of Penang, was ceded to Great Britain in 1800 by the Sultan of Kedah, on its northern and eastern border; Perak lies to the south. The boundary with Kedah was rectified by treaty with Siam (now Thailand) in 1867. It was administered by a district officer, with some assistants, answering to the resident councillor of Penang. Province Wellesley consisted, for the most part, of a fertile plain, thickly populated by Malays, and occupied in some parts by sugar-planters and others engaged in similar agricultural industries and employing Chinese and Tamil labour. About a tenth of the whole area was covered by low hills with thick jungle. Large quantities of rice were grown by the Malay inhabitants, and between October and February, there was snipe-shooting in the paddy fields. A railway from Butterworth, opposite Penang, runs into Perak, and thence via Selangor and Negri Sembilan to Malacca, with an extension via Muar under the rule of the Sultan of Johor, and through the last-named state to Johor Bahru, opposite the island of Singapore.


title: Straits Settlements

text: Singapore became the site of a British trading post in 1819 after its founder, Stamford Raffles, successfully involved the East India Company in a dynastic struggle for the throne of Johore. Thereafter the British came to control the entire island of Singapore, which was developed into a thriving colony and port. In 1824 the Dutch conceded any rights they had to the island in the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, and from 1832, Singapore was the seat of government of the Straits Settlements.


title: Straits Settlements

text: The Dutch colony of Malacca was ceded to the British in the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 in exchange for the British possession of Bencoolen and for British rights in Sumatra. Malacca's importance was in establishing an exclusive British zone of influence in the region, and it was overshadowed as a trading post by Penang, and later, Singapore.


title: Straits Settlements

text: The Dindings — named after the Dinding River in present-day Manjung District — which comprised Pangkor Island, and the towns of Lumut and Sitiawan on the mainland, were ceded by Perak to the British government under the Pangkor Treaty of 1874. Hopes that its excellent natural harbour would prove to be valuable were doomed to disappointment, and the territory sparsely inhabited and altogether unimportant both politically and financially, was returned to and administered by the government of Perak in February 1935.


title: Straits Settlements

text: The establishment of the Straits Settlements followed the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, by which the Malay archipelago was divided into a British zone in the north and a Dutch zone in the south. This resulted in the exchange of the British settlement of Bencoolen (on Sumatra) for the Dutch colony of Malacca and undisputed control of Singapore. The Settlements were largely Chinese in population, with a tiny but important European minority. Their capital was moved from George Town, the capital of Penang, to Singapore in 1832. Their scattered nature proved to be difficult and, after the company lost its monopoly in the china trade in 1833, expensive to administer.


title: Straits Settlements

text: During their control by the East India Company, the Settlements were used as penal settlements for Indian civilian and military prisoners, earning them the title of the "Botany Bays of India". The years 1852 and 1853 saw minor uprisings by convicts in Singapore and Penang. Upset with East India Company rule, in 1857 the European population of the Settlements sent a petition to the British Parliament asking for direct rule; but the idea was overtaken by events—the Indian Rebellion of 1857.


title: Straits Settlements

text: When a "Gagging Act" was imposed to prevent the uprising in India spreading, the Settlements' press reacted with anger, classing it as something that subverted "every principle of liberty and free discussion". As there was little or no vernacular press in the Settlements, such an act seemed irrelevant: it was rarely enforced and ended in less than a year.


title: Straits Settlements

text: On 1 April 1867 the Settlements became a British Crown colony, making the Settlements answerable directly to the Colonial Office in London instead of the government of British India based in Calcutta. Earlier, on 4 February 1867, Letters Patent had granted the Settlements a colonial constitution. This allocated much power to the Settlements' Governor, who administered the colony of the Straits Settlements with the aid of an Executive Council, composed wholly of official (i.e., ex-officio) members, and a legislative council, composed partly of official and partly of nominated members, of which the former had a narrow permanent majority. The work of administration, both in the colony and in the Federated Malay States, was carried on by means of a civil service whose members were recruited by competitive examination held annually in London.


title: Straits Settlements

text: In 1886 the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (which were settled and once owned by a Scottish family named Clunies-Ross) and Christmas Island, formerly attached to Ceylon, were transferred to the care of the government of the Straits Settlements in Singapore. In 1907 the former Crown Colony of Labuan, in Borneo, which for a period was vested in the British North Borneo Company, was resumed by the British government and was vested in the governor of the Straits Settlements.


title: Straits Settlements

text: The governor was also High Commissioner for the Federated Malay States on the peninsula, for British North Borneo, the sultanate of Brunei and Sarawak in Borneo. British residents controlled the native states of Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan, and Pahang, but on 1 July 1896, when the federation of these states was effected, a resident-general, responsible to the (governor as) high commissioner, was placed in supreme charge of all the British protectorates in the peninsula.


title: Straits Settlements

text: During World War II, the Japanese invaded Malaya and the Straits Settlements by landing on Kelantan on 8 December 1941. On 16 December Penang became the first Straits Settlement to fall into Japanese hands. Malacca fell on 15 January and Singapore fell on 15 February, following the Battle of Singapore. The Straits Settlements, along with the rest of the Malay Peninsula, remained under Japanese occupation until the end of the war (August 1945).


title: Straits Settlements

text: After the war, the colony was dissolved with effect from 1 April 1946, with Singapore becoming a separate Crown colony (and ultimately an independent republic), while Penang and Malacca joined the new Malayan Union (a predecessor of modern-day Malaysia). Labuan was briefly annexed to Singapore, before being attached to the new colony of British North Borneo.


title: Straits Settlements

text: The following are the area and population, with details of race distribution, of the colony of the Straits Settlements, the figures being those of the census of 1901:


title: Straits Settlements

text: The population, which was 306,775 in 1871 and 423,384 in 1881, had in 1901 reached a total of 572,249. As in former years, the increase was solely due to immigration, more especially of Chinese, though a considerable number of Tamils and other natives of India settled in the Straits Settlements. The total number of births registered in the colony in 1900 was 14,814, and the ratio per 1,000 of the population during 1896, 1897, and 1898 respectively was 22–18, 20–82 and 21–57; while the number of registered deaths for the years 1896–1900 gave a ratio per 1000 of 42–21, 36–90, 30–43, 31–66 and 36-25 respectively, the number of deaths registered during 1900 being 23,385. The cause to which the excess of deaths over births is to be attributed is to be found in the fact that the Chinese and Indian population, which numbered 339,083, or over 59 per cent of the whole, was composed of 261,412 males and only 77,671 females, and a comparatively small number of the latter were married women and mothers of families. Male Europeans also outnumbered females by about two to one. Among the Malays and Eurasians, who alone had a fair proportion of both sexes, infant mortality was excessive due to early marriages and other causes.


title: Straits Settlements

text: Singapore 176,587 Chinese; Penang 56,333 Chinese and 52,041 natives of India; and Malacca 598 Chinese. The total number of immigrants for 1906 was therefore 285,560, as against 39,136 emigrants, mostly Chinese returning to China. In 1867, the date of the transfer of the colony from the East India Company to the Crown, the total population was estimated at 283,384.


title: Straits Settlements

text: In the early nineteenth century, the most common currency used in the East Indies was the Spanish dollar, including issues both from Spain and from the new world Spanish colonies, most significantly Mexico. Locally issued coinages included the Kelantan and Trengganu keping, and the Penang dollar.


title: Straits Settlements

text: In 1837, the Indian rupee was made the sole official currency in the Straits Settlements, as it was administered as part of India.


title: Straits Settlements

text: However, Spanish dollars continued to circulate and 1845 saw the introduction of coinage for the Straits Settlements using a system of 100 cents = 1 Straits dollar, with the dollar equal to the Spanish dollar or Mexican peso. In 1867, the administration of the Straits Settlements was separated from India and the dollar was made the standard currency.


title: Straits Settlements

text: The revenue of the colony in 1868 amounted to $1,301,843. That for 1906 was $9,512,132, exclusive of $106,180 received for land sales. Of this sum, $6,650,558 was derived from import duties on opium, wines, and spirits, and licences to deal in these articles, $377,972 from land revenue, $592,962 from postal and telegraphic revenue, and $276,019 from port and harbour dues.


title: Straits Settlements

text: Expenditures, which in 1868 amounted to $1,197,177, rose in 1906 to $8,747,819. The total cost of the administrative establishments amounted to $4,450,791, of which $2,586,195 were personal emoluments and $1,864,596 other charges. The military expenditure (the colony paid on this account 20 per cent of its gross revenue to the British government by way of military contribution) amounted in 1906 to $1,762,438; $578,025 was expended on upkeep and maintenance of existing public works, and $1,209,291 on new roads, streets, bridges, and buildings.


title: Ian Richardson

text: He portrayed the Machiavellian Tory politician Francis Urquhart in the BBC's "House of Cards" (1990–1995) television trilogy. Richardson was also a leading Shakespearean stage actor.


title: Ian Richardson

text: Richardson's other notable work included a portrayal of Sherlock Holmes in two films ("The Sign of Four" and "The Hound of the Baskervilles"), significant roles in "Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy", "Brazil", "M. Butterfly", and "Dark City", and as the lead in the Broadway production of "Marat/Sade".


title: Ian Richardson

text: Richardson was born in Edinburgh, the only son and eldest of three children of Margaret (née Drummond; 1910–1988) and John Richardson (1909–1990). He was educated in the city, at Balgreen Primary School, Tynecastle High School and George Heriot's School. He first appeared on stage at the age of 14, in an amateur production of Charles Dickens' "A Tale of Two Cities". The director encouraged his talent but warned that he would need to lose his Scottish accent to progress as an actor. His mother arranged elocution lessons, and he became a stage manager with the semi-professional Edinburgh People's Theatre.


title: Ian Richardson

text: After National Service in the Army (part of which he spent as an announcer and drama director with the British Forces Broadcasting Service) he obtained a place at the College of Dramatic Arts in Glasgow. After a period at the Old Rep (also known as the Birmingham Repertory Theatre), he appeared with the Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC), of which he was a founding member, from 1960 to 1975.


title: Ian Richardson

text: Although he later gained his highest profile in film and television work such as "House of Cards" (1990), Richardson was primarily a classical stage actor. His first engagement after training was with Birmingham Repertory Theatre, where his performance of "Hamlet" led to an offer of a place with the RSC. He was a versatile member of the company for more than 15 years, playing villainy, comedy and tragedy to equal effect. He was The Herald in Peter Brook's production of "Marat/Sade" in London in 1964; in the New York City transfer he took the lead role of Jean-Paul Marat (and so became the first actor to appear nude on the Broadway stage), a performance he repeated for the 1967 film "Marat/Sade".


title: Ian Richardson

text: In 1972, he appeared in the musical "Trelawney", with which the Bristol Old Vic reopened after its refurbishment. It proved a great success, transferring to London, first to the Sadler's Wells Theatre and later to the Prince of Wales Theatre. Richardson played the hero, Tom Wrench, a small-part player who wants to write about "real people". He had a song, "Walking On", lamenting his lack of scope in the company, in which he explains that as a "walking gentleman" he will be forever "walking on", whilst Rose Trelawney will go on to be a star.


title: Ian Richardson

text: While at the RSC, Richardson played leading roles in many productions for director John Barton. These included the title role in "Coriolanus" (1967), Cassius in "Julius Caesar" (1968), Angelo in "Measure for Measure" (1970) and Iachimo in "Cymbeline". Work for other directors at Stratford included the title role in "Pericles" (1969), directed by Terry Hands; the title role in "Richard III" (1975), directed by Barry Kyle; and Berowne in David Jones' production of "Love's Labour's Lost" (1973). Richardson cited the role of Berowne as one of his all-time favorite parts. Richardson's "Richard II" (alternating the parts of the king and Bolingbroke with Richard Pasco) in 1974, and repeated in New York and London in the following year, was hugely celebrated.


title: Ian Richardson

text: A significant Shakespearean cameo role was a brief performance as Hamlet in the gravedigger scene as part of episode six, "Protest and Communication", of Kenneth Clark's "Civilisation" television series in 1969. This was performed at Kirby Hall in Northamptonshire with Patrick Stewart as Horatio and Ronald Lacey as the gravedigger.


title: Ian Richardson

text: On leaving the RSC, he played Professor Henry Higgins in the 20th anniversary Broadway revival of "My Fair Lady" (1976) and received the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Musical and a nomination for the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical. He also appeared on Broadway as onstage narrator in the original production of Edward Albee's play "Lolita" (1981), an adaptation of Vladimir Nabokov's book that was not critically well received.


title: Ian Richardson

text: In 1995, he played The Miser at Chichester, and in 1997 he played The Magistrate, also at Chichester, which transferred to the Savoy Theatre.


title: Ian Richardson

text: In 2002, Richardson joined Sir Derek Jacobi, Sir Donald Sinden and Dame Diana Rigg in an international tour of "The Hollow Crown"., and this was repeated the following year with Dame Janet Suzman in the female roles. A Canadian tour substituted Alan Howard for Jacobi and Vanessa Redgrave for Suzman. He also appeared in "The Creeper" by Pauline Macaulay at the Playhouse Theatre in London, and on tour. His last stage appearance was in 2006 as Sir Epicure Mammon in "The Alchemist" at the National Theatre in London.


title: Ian Richardson

text: In 1963, he played Le Beau in Michael Elliott's television production of "As You Like It", playing alongside Vanessa Redgrave. In 1964, he played Antipholus of Ephesus in "The Comedy of Errors" as part of the "Festival" television series. In 1966, he played Jean-Paul Marat in the Royal Shakespeare Company production of Peter Weiss' "Marat/Sade", directed by Peter Brook. In 1967, he played The Constable in "A Man Takes a Drink" as part of a television series entitled "The Revenue Men". He played Bertram in John Barton's television version of "All's Well That Ends Well" in 1968, as well as playing Oberon in the Peter Hall film of "A Midsummer Night's Dream". He took part in the television production of John Mortimer's "A Voyage Round My Father" in "Plays of Today" in 1969 as well as appeared in the television adaptation of "The Canterbury Tales" (1969).


title: Ian Richardson

text: He played one musical role on film, the Priest in "Man of La Mancha", the 1972 screen version of the Broadway musical. Also in 1972, he played Anthony Beavis in the television series "Eyeless in Gaza".


title: Ian Richardson

text: He also appeared in BBC radio plays, notably in 'The House on the Strand' by Daphne du Maurier, in 1973.


title: Ian Richardson

text: In 1974, he played King Richard II/Bolingbroke in "Richard II", part of the "Camera Three" television series. In 1978, he played Robespierre in the BBC's "Play of the Month" production of "Danton's Death". In 1979, he played Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery in the TV miniseries "Ike".


title: Ian Richardson

text: His first major role was his appearance as Bill Haydon ("Tailor") in the BBC adaptation of "Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy" (1979). He again played the part of Field Marshal Montgomery in "Churchill and the Generals" in 1979, a BBC television videotaped play concerning the relationship between Winston Churchill and generals of the Allied forces between 1940 and 1945.


title: Ian Richardson

text: In the 1980s, he became well known as Major Neuheim in the award-winning "Private Schulz" and as Sir Godber Evans in Channel 4's adaptation of "Porterhouse Blue". Richardson also performed the role of Sherlock Holmes for two of six planned television movies, "The Sign of Four" and "The Hound of the Baskervilles", in 1983, which were both critically acclaimed. He appeared in "Brazil" (1985) and played Jawaharlal Nehru in the television serial, "Lord Mountbatten: The Last Viceroy" (1986). He portrayed Anthony Blunt, the Soviet spy and Surveyor of The King's Pictures in the BBC film "Blunt: the Fourth Man" (1986) opposite Anthony Hopkins as Guy Burgess. In 1988, he played Edward Spencer, the eccentric and oblivious English landowner in 1920s Ireland in "Troubles", from J. G. Farrell's award-winning novel. In 1987, he played a variation on this role, when he portrayed the Bishop of Motopo in the non-musical television film "Monsignor Quixote", based on Graham Greene's modernised take on "Don Quixote". He played Sir Nigel Irvine in John Mackenzie's adaptation of Frederick Forsyth's novel "The Fourth Protocol" (1987).


title: Ian Richardson

text: Richardson also appeared in commercials for Grey Poupon Dijon mustard in the United States in his role as Prime Minister Francis Urquhart, opposite Paul Eddington as Prime Minister Jim Hacker.


title: Ian Richardson

text: Richardson's most acclaimed television role was as Machiavellian politician Francis Urquhart in the BBC adaptation of Michael Dobbs's "House of Cards" trilogy. He won the BAFTA Best Television Actor Award for his portrayal in the first series, "House of Cards" (1990), and was nominated for both of the sequels "To Play the King" (1993) and "The Final Cut" (1995).


title: Ian Richardson

text: In 1990, he also starred in a TV production of "The Winslow Boy" with Emma Thompson and Gordon Jackson. He received another BAFTA film nomination for his role as Falkland Islands governor Sir Rex Hunt in the film "An Ungentlemanly Act" (1992), and played corrupt politician Michael Spearpoint, British Director of the European Economic Community, in the satirical series "The Gravy Train" and "The Gravy Train Goes East". He narrated the BBC docudrama "A Royal Scandal" (1996).


title: Ian Richardson

text: Other roles in this period include Polonius in "Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead" (1990), wine dealer Sir Mason Harwood in "Year of the Comet" (1992), the French ambassador in "M. Butterfly" (1993), Martin Landau's butler in "B*A*P*S" (1997), a malevolent alien in "Dark City" (1998), The Kralahome in "The King and I" (1999), Cruella de Vil's Barrister, Mr. Torte QC, in the live-action film "102 Dalmatians" (2000), and a corrupt aristocrat in "From Hell" (2001).


title: Ian Richardson

text: In 1999, Richardson became known to a young audience as the main character Stephen Tyler in both series of the family drama "The Magician's House" (1999–2000). Following this he played Lord Groan in the major BBC production "Gormenghast" (2000), and later that year he starred in the BBC production "" (2000–2001) (screened in PBS's "Mystery!" series in the US), playing Arthur Conan Doyle's mentor, Dr. Joseph Bell, a role he welcomed as an opportunity to play a character from his native Edinburgh. He once more returned to fantasy in the recurring role of the villainous Canon Black in the short-lived BBC cult series "Strange" (2003).


title: Ian Richardson

text: In 2005, he took on the role of a curiously detached Chancellor in the television drama "Bleak House". He also played the Judge in the family-based film, "The Adventures of Greyfriars Bobby" (2005). Additionally, in that year, he appeared in ITV's main Christmas drama "The Booze Cruise 2", playing Marcus Foster, a slimy upper class businessman forced to spend time with "the lower classes". He returned to this role for a sequel the following Easter.


title: Ian Richardson

text: In June 2006, he was made an honorary Doctor of the University of Stirling. The honour was conferred on him by the university's Chancellor, fellow actor Dame Diana Rigg.


title: Ian Richardson

text: In December 2006, Richardson starred in Sky One's two-part adaptation of the Terry Pratchett novel "Hogfather" (1997). He voiced the main character of the novel, Death, who steps in to take over the role of the Father Christmas-like Hogfather. The DVD of that miniseries, released shortly after his death, opens with a dedication to his memory.


title: Ian Richardson

text: His final film appearance was as Judge Langlois in "Becoming Jane" (2007), released shortly after his death.


title: Ian Richardson

text: During the last 15 years of his life he appeared five times on television acting opposite his son Miles Richardson, though this was usually with one or the other in a minor role.


title: Ian Richardson

text: Ian Richardson died in his sleep of a heart attack on the morning of 9 February 2007, aged 72. He was survived by his wife, Maroussia Frank, an actress, and two sons, one of whom, Miles, is an actor. Richardson's body was cremated. His ashes were placed in the foundation of the auditorium of the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in Stratford during renovations in 2008.


title: Ian Richardson

text: Dame Helen Mirren dedicated her 2006 Best Actress BAFTA award for her portrayal of Queen Elizabeth II in the film "The Queen" to Richardson. In her acceptance speech she said that without his support early in her career, she might not have been so successful, before breaking down and leaving the stage. Other tributes and reminiscences by Richardson's colleagues are offered in a memoir by Sharon Mail, "We Could Possibly Comment: Ian Richardson Remembered" (2009).


title: Perlin noise

text: Ken Perlin developed Perlin noise in 1983 as a result of his frustration with the "machine-like" look of computer-generated imagery (CGI) at the time. He formally described his findings in a SIGGRAPH paper in 1985 called "An Image Synthesizer". He developed it after working on Disney's computer animated sci-fi motion picture "Tron" (1982) for the animation company Mathematical Applications Group (MAGI). In 1997, Perlin was awarded an Academy Award for Technical Achievement for creating the algorithm, the citation for which read:


title: Perlin noise

text: Perlin did not apply for any patents on the algorithm, but in 2001 he was granted a patent for the use of 3D+ implementations of simplex noise for texture synthesis. Simplex noise has the same purpose, but uses a simpler space-filling grid. Simplex noise alleviates some of the problems with Perlin's "classic noise", among them computational complexity and visually-significant directional artifacts.


title: Perlin noise

text: Perlin noise is a procedural texture primitive, a type of gradient noise used by visual effects artists to increase the appearance of realism in computer graphics. The function has a pseudo-random appearance, yet all of its visual details are the same size. This property allows it to be readily controllable; multiple scaled copies of Perlin noise can be inserted into mathematical expressions to create a great variety of procedural textures. Synthetic textures using Perlin noise are often used in CGI to make computer-generated visual elementssuch as object surfaces, fire, smoke, or cloudsappear more natural, by imitating the controlled random appearance of textures in nature.


title: Perlin noise

text: It is also frequently used to generate textures when memory is extremely limited, such as in demos. Its successors, such as fractal noise and simplex noise, have become nearly ubiquitous in graphics processing units both for real-time graphics and for non-real-time procedural textures in all kinds of computer graphics.


title: Perlin noise

text: Perlin noise is most commonly implemented as a two-, three- or four-dimensional function, but can be defined for any number of dimensions. An implementation typically involves three steps: defining a grid of random gradient vectors, computing the dot product between the gradient vectors and their offsets, and interpolation between these values.


title: Perlin noise

text: Define an "n"-dimensional grid where each grid intersection has associated with it a fixed random "n"-dimensional unit-length gradient vector, except in the one dimensional case where the gradients are random scalars between -1 and 1.


title: Perlin noise

text: For working out the value of any candidate point, first find the unique grid cell in which the point lies. Then, identify the formula_1 corners of that cell and their associated gradient vectors. Next, for each corner, calculate an offset vector. An offset vector is a displacement vector from that corner to the candidate point.


title: Perlin noise

text: For each corner, we take the dot product between its gradient vector and the offset vector to the candidate point. This dot product will be zero if the candidate point is exactly at the grid corner.


title: Perlin noise

text: Note that a gradient vector's influence grows with distance, which can be avoided by normalizing the offset vector to a length of formula_2 first. This would introduce noticeable sharp changes, except the distance is taken into account in the following interpolation step. Normalizing the offset vector is however not a common practice.


title: Perlin noise

text: For a point in a two-dimensional grid, this will require the computation of 4 offset vectors and dot products, while in three dimensions it will require 8 offset vectors and 8 dot products. In general, the algorithm has formula_3 complexity, where formula_4 is the number of dimensions.


title: Perlin noise

text: The final step is interpolation between the formula_1 dot products. Interpolation is performed using a function that has zero first derivative (and possibly also second derivative) at the formula_1 grid nodes. Therefore, at points close to the grid nodes, the output will approximate the dot product of the gradient vector of the node and the offset vector to the node. This means that the noise function will pass through zero at every node, giving Perlin noise its characteristic look.


title: Perlin noise

text: If formula_7, an example of a function that interpolates between value formula_8 at grid node 0 and value formula_9 at grid node 1 is


title: Perlin noise

text: Noise functions for use in computer graphics typically produce values in the range [-1.0,1.0] and can be scaled accordingly.


title: Perlin noise

text: Many implementations of Perlin noise use the same permutation set that Ken Perlin used in his original implementation. That implementation is as follows:


title: Perlin noise

text: int permutation[] = { 151, 160, 137, 91, 90, 15, 131, 13, 201, 95, 96, 53, 194, 233, 7, 225, 140, 36,


title: Perlin noise

text: This specific permutation is not absolutely required, though it does require a randomized array of the values [0–255] (inclusive). If creating a new permutation table, care should be taken to ensure uniform distribution of the values.


title: Perlin noise

text: For each evaluation of the noise function, the dot product of the position and gradient vectors must be evaluated at each node of the containing grid cell. Perlin noise therefore scales with complexity formula_3 for formula_4 dimensions. Alternatives to Perlin noise producing similar results with improved complexity scaling include simplex noise and OpenSimplex noise.


title: Scott McKenzie

text: Scott McKenzie (born Philip Wallach Blondheim III; January 10, 1939 – August 18, 2012) was an American singer and songwriter who recorded the 1967 hit single and generational anthem "San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Some Flowers in Your Hair)".


title: Scott McKenzie

text: Philip Wallach Blondheim III was born in Jacksonville, Florida, on January 10, 1939, the son of Philip Wallach Blondheim Jr. and the former Dorothy Winifred Hudson. His family moved to Asheville, North Carolina, when he was six months old. He grew up in North Carolina and Alexandria, Virginia, where he became friends with John Phillips, the son of one of his mother's friends. In the mid-1950s, he sang briefly with Tim Rose in a high-school group named The Singing Strings. He graduated high school from St. Stephens School for Boys in Alexandria.


title: Scott McKenzie

text: In New York City, The Abstracts became The Smoothies and recorded two singles with Decca Records, produced by Milt Gabler. During his time with The Smoothies, Blondheim decided to change his name for business reasons:


title: Scott McKenzie

text: In 1961, Phillips and McKenzie met Dick Weissman and formed the folk group The Journeymen at the height of the folk music craze. They recorded three albums and seven singles for Capitol Records. After The Beatles became popular in 1964, The Journeymen disbanded. McKenzie and Weissman became solo performers, while Phillips formed the group The Mamas & the Papas with Denny Doherty, Cass Elliot, and Michelle Phillips and moved to California.


title: Scott McKenzie

text: McKenzie originally declined an opportunity to join the group, saying in a 1977 interview "I was trying to see if I could do something by myself. And I didn't think I could take that much pressure." Two years later, he left New York and signed with Lou Adler's Ode Records.


title: Scott McKenzie

text: John Phillips wrote and co-produced "San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair)" for McKenzie. Phillips played guitar on the recording, and session musician Gary L. Coleman played orchestra bells and chimes. The bass line of the song was supplied by session musician Joe Osborn. Hal Blaine played drums.


title: Scott McKenzie

text: It was released on May 13, 1967 in the United States and was an instant hit, reaching number 4 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number 2 in the Canadian "RPM Magazine" charts. It was also a number 1 in the UK and several other countries, selling over 7 million copies globally.


title: Scott McKenzie

text: McKenzie released the single "Like an Old Time Movie", which Phillips wrote, composed, and produced, and which was a top-40 hit (number 24 on Billboard; number 27 in Canada). His first album, "The Voice of Scott McKenzie," was followed with an album titled "Stained Glass Morning." He stopped recording in the early 1970s, living in Joshua Tree, California and Virginia Beach, Virginia.


title: Scott McKenzie

text: McKenzie wrote and composed the song "What About Me" that launched the career of Canadian singer Anne Murray in 1968. (Murray's United States breakthrough, with Gene McLellan's "Snowbird", would not follow for several years.)


title: Scott McKenzie

text: In 1986, he started singing with a new version of The Mamas and the Papas. With Terry Melcher, Mike Love, and John Phillips, he co-wrote "Kokomo" (1988), a number 1 single for The Beach Boys.


title: Scott McKenzie

text: By 1998, he had retired from the road version of The Mamas and the Papas, and resided in Los Angeles until his death. He appeared at the Los Angeles tribute concert for John Phillips in 2001, amongst other 1960s contemporary acts.


title: Scott McKenzie

text: McKenzie died on August 18, 2012 in Los Angeles at the age of 73. He had suffered from Guillain–Barré syndrome from 2010 until his death.


title: Physalis

text: Physalis (, , , , from φυσαλλίς "phusallís" "bladder") is a genus of approximately 75 to 90 flowering plants in the nightshade family (Solanaceae), which are native to the Americas and Australasia. At least 46 species are endemic to Mexico. Cultivated and weedy species have been introduced worldwide. A defining feature of "Physalis" is a large, papery husk derived from the calyx, which partly or fully encloses the fruit. Many species bear edible fruit, and some species are cultivated.


title: Physalis

text: The typical "Physalis" fruit is similar to a firm tomato in texture, and like strawberries or pineapple in flavor, with a mild acidity. Some species, such as the Cape gooseberry and tomatillo, have been bred into many cultivars with varying flavors, from tart to sweet to savory. Nations including Colombia, India, and Mexico have a significant economic trade in "Physalis" fruit. The fruit of many species are generically referred to as physalis, groundcherries, husk tomatoes, husk cherries, poha berries, and golden berries.


title: Physalis

text: "Physalis" species are herbaceous plants growing to tall, similar to the common tomato, a plant of the same family, but usually with a stiffer, more upright stem. They can be either annual or perennial. Most require full sun and fairly warm to hot temperatures. Some species are sensitive to frost, but others tolerate cold when dormant in winter.


title: Physalis

text: A 52-million-year-old fossil fruit of "Physalis" has been found in Patagonia, named as "Physalis infinemundi".


title: Physalis

text: Estimates for the earliest use of Physalis for human consumption range from 900BCE to 5000BCE. Archaeological sites support the historical use of Physalis as a food for indigenous people in what is now northern Mexico and portions of the United States.


title: Physalis

text: "Physalis" fruit are rich in cryptoxanthin. The fruit can be used like the tomato. Once extracted from its husk, it can be eaten raw and used in salads. Some varieties are added to desserts, used as flavoring, made into fruit preserves, or dried and used like raisins. They contain pectin and can be used in pie filling. Ground cherries are called "poha" in the Hawaiian language, and poha jam and preserves are traditional desserts made from "Physalis" plants grown on the Hawaiian Islands.


title: Physalis

text: A 2013 literature review identified more than one hundred works with medical use of various Physalis species from the Americas. Preparations included all parts of the plants (fruits, leaves, flowers, stems, and roots) and took forms including decoction, infusion, and soaking. Herbal preparations are known to be administered internally and externally.


title: Physalis

text: Physalis plants grow in most soil types and do very well in poor soils and in pots. They require moisture until fruiting. Plants are susceptible to many of the common tomato diseases and pests, and other pests such as aphids, whiteflies, spider mites, and the false potato beetle ("Leptinotarsa juncta") also attack them. Propagation is by seed.


title: Physalis

text: In the United States, Louisiana erroneously classifies Physalis subglabrata (smooth groundcherry) as a hallucinogenic plant, and its cultivation for other than ornamental purposes is outlawed under State Act 159 of 2005. In the Gran Chaco region of South America, the consumption of the different species of Physalis for food has declined due to sociocultural and environmental changes. Factors generally stem from the ongoing effects of colonization, including loss of ancestral territories to forestry exploitation and industrial agriculture as well as the decline of seasonal human migrations which were formerly part of the cycle of propagation, harvest, and consumption of Physalis.


title: Physalis

text: "Physalis" is divided into subgenera and sections. The taxonomy of "Physalis" is still an active area of taxonomic classification. About 75 to 90 species are placed in the genus.


title: Physalis

text: In 1831, Nees von Esenbeck was among the first researchers to complete a review of the "Physalis" species that had been described until that time in order to identify synonyms and subtaxa within the genus. In 1837, George Don named the sections proposed by Nees von Esenbeck, including three names that are still in use: "Physalodendron" for woody species, "Eurostorhiza" for perennials with rhizomatous roots, and "Epeteiorhiza" for annual species.


title: Physalis

text: Michel Félix Dunal in 1852 and Per Axel Rydberg in 1896 also published efforts to subdivide "Physalis", although these were not generally consistent with the taxonomy advocated by Esenbeck and Don. Rydberg's taxonomy identified seven species groups within a section Rydberg called "Euphysalis"; these groups became the basis of sections which remain in use.


title: Physalis

text: Margaret Y. Menzel's research in the 20th century provided new insights into "Physalis" taxonomy, including the results of her crossing experiments with 28 "Physalis" species and their karyological data. The groups of species previously set up by Rydberg were raised to sections by this research. A summary of all taxonomic research regarding the genus was published in 1989 by Radovan Hendrych, and the most recent major taxonomic publications were made in 1994 and 1999 by Mahinda Martínez.


title: Physalis

text: A genetic study by Whitson and Manos in 2005 found evidence that supports the "Physalodendron" and "Rydbergis" subgenera. The same research indicated that evidence was weak for most of the recognized species sections within the "Rydbergis" subgenus, but that other subgroupings might be appropriate instead. This and other phylogenic research led to the Whitson proposal in 2016 to establish "Alkekengi officinarum" as the type of a new genus rather than the type species of "Physalis".


title: Physalis

text: The basic number for Physalis species is 12, and most Physalis species are diploid with "2n = 24". This basic number is typical for members of the Solanaceae family. Research has identified several species that have experienced polyploidy, including "Physalis angulata", "Physalis floridana", "Physalis pubescens", and "Physalis peruvania".


title: Physalis

text: Physalis species are generally self-compatible and autogamous, although some may exhibit self-incompatibility and require pollen from another plant to bear fruit or produce seed. A study in 2022 found self-compatibility for all seven Physalis that were observed, which included Physalis peruviana and Physalis ixocarpa. The same study found that fruit fixation and viable seed formation occurred in most inter-specific crosses. The authors did not grow offspring to the second generation.


title: Physalis

text: Menzel performed crosses between Physalis species to assess hybridization in 1951 which showed that perennial species are prone to hybridization while annual Physalis species exhibited barriers between crossing. Hinton identified natural hybridization events between Physalis virginiana and Physalis heterophylla , which Hinton hypothesized could be the result of self-incompatibility and lack of "Physalis virginiana" pollen. Sullivan reported in 1985 that natural hybridization rarely occurs among four species from the Physalis viscosa complex.


title: Clover (creature)

text: Clover is the production name given to the giant monster in the 2008 film "Cloverfield". The creature was originally conceived by producer J. J. Abrams and was designed by artist Neville Page. In the film, the monster's name is never mentioned; the name "Cloverfield" is only given to the US Department of Defense case file of the incidents depicted in the film. The Department of Defense names the creature "LSA" for Large-Scale Aggressor in the film's Blu-ray special feature called "Cloverfield Special Investigation Mode".


title: Clover (creature)

text: The monster was first referred to in the viral marketing campaign for "Cloverfield", including a recording of its roar, foreign news clips about a monster attack and sonar images. It then made its first full appearance in the film, where it was seen to be 25 stories tall and rampaging through New York City while being attacked by the United States military.


title: Clover (creature)

text: A similar monster appears in the four-part manga series "Cloverfield/Kishin" (2008) by Yoshiki Togawa, which serves as a spin-off from the film.


title: Clover (creature)

text: Clover does not appear in the second film of the "Cloverfield" franchise, the 2016 film "10 Cloverfield Lane".


title: Clover (creature)

text: Despite its size, Clover was conceived by the film's creators as being a newborn. In "The Cloverfield Paradox" (2018), a similar but significantly larger creature is seen at the conclusion of the film. Earlier in the film, a massive shadow is seen by the character Michael Hamilton, but it is not made clear if the shadow is from the creature seen at the end of the film, from the original Clover, or from a different member of their species.


title: Clover (creature)

text: J. J. Abrams conceived of a new monster after he and his son visited a toy store in Japan while promoting "". He explained, "We saw all these Godzilla toys, and I thought, we need our own [American] monster, and not like King Kong, King Kong's adorable. But I wanted something that was just insane and intense".


title: Clover (creature)

text: The monster was designed by artist Neville Page. He sought a biological rationale for the creature, though many of his ideas would not show up on screen. Page designed the creature as immature and suffering from "separation anxiety". He compared the creature to a rampaging elephant, saying "there's nothing scarier than something huge that's spooked". Page said of the creature's backstory, "For me, one of the most key moments in our collective brainstorming was the choice to make the creature be something that we would empathize with. It is not out there just killing. It is confused, lost, scared. It's a newborn. Having this be a story point (one that the audience does not know), it allowed for some purposeful choices about its anatomy, movement and, yes, motivations". The creature was developed by visual effects supervisor Kevin Blank and Phil Tippett's company Tippett Studio. Blank described the intended goal of the creature, "Rather than the monster having a personality [like Godzilla or King Kong], it's more of an entity or an event".


title: Clover (creature)

text: Director Matt Reeves described the creature's reaction to its surroundings thus: "It’s this new environment that it finds frightening". To indicate this, Reeves suggested the addition of white in the creature's eyes so it would look similar to a spooked horse. The filmmakers generated and used the idea of parasites because the film could not realistically have scenes between the human protagonists and the enormous creature.


title: Clover (creature)

text: Although conceived by the film's creators as infantile, the creature is 25 stories tall (corresponding to 250+ feet or 76+ meters) and withstands missiles, artillery shells, and bombs with minimal injury.


title: Clover (creature)

text: It is vaguely quadrupedal, though capable of standing upright over short distances. The limbs are comparatively long and thin compared with the body core, and according to creator Neville Page, this, coupled with its quadrupedal stance, is meant to imply that it is a newborn: he speculates that the adults may be bipedal. The forelimbs are large in proportion to the body, and the hind legs stubby. The creature's head at first glance appears to be a solid sphere; but it can open its mouth extremely wide. Above the eyes on either side of the head are fleshy pouches which inflate when breathing.


title: Clover (creature)

text: The creature's design includes appendages on its underbelly, described by Neville Page as an "elongated, and articulated external esophagus with the business end terminating in teethlike fingers". They were designed to relate the scale of human prey to the huge scale of the creature. The scenes from the film where people were consumed by these appendages were cut from the final edit, but the fourth and final chapter of "Cloverfield/Kishin" shows this.


title: Clover (creature)

text: The creature is covered with parasites, which it sheds as part of a "post-birth ritual". Abrams described the parasites as "horrifying, dog-sized creatures that just scatter around the city and add to the nightmare of the evening". Reeves added that "The parasites have a voracious, rabid, bounding nature, but they also have a crab-like crawl. They have the viciousness of a dog, but with the ability to climb walls and stick to objects." The top half of the parasite's head is the mandible. The top and lower jaws end in serrated edges and have four pairs of eyes each. The rest of the parasite consists of a crustacean-like carapace, several pairs of claws, and arms. A deep blue-purple muscular membrane stretches between the top and lower jaws. When a human is bitten, the victim becomes ill and bleeds profusely, mainly from the eyes, and shortly after this, the torso expands and explodes. They are called HSPs (Human Scale Parasites) on the Blu-ray Special Investigation Mode.


title: Clover (creature)

text: Artist Neville Page, in response to claims that the design of the creature was similar to that of the 2006 South Korean film "The Host", said, "They are [similar] in that they ravage and seem to originate from the water, but the end results are quite different. However, when I finally saw some of the concept art, there were some very obvious similarities. But then again, I think that we were both channeling similar biological possibilities."


title: Clover (creature)

text: The viral marketing campaign for "Cloverfield" suggested that the creature was an ancient amphibious organism awakened by the drilling of Chuai Station, an oil platform of the Japanese company Tagruato which had the purpose of extracting a substance called Sea Bed Nectar that would become the secret ingredient of a drink called Slusho.


title: Clover (creature)

text: Based on the success of "Cloverfield", which earned over $40 million during its opening weekend in January 2008, the toy company Hasbro began accepting orders for a 14-inch limited edition toy figure of the monster to be shipped to fans starting December 24, 2008. It comes with several accessories, including the disembodied head of the Statue of Liberty, two changeable heads (one with an open mouth, one with a closed mouth), and 10 static figures of the monster's parasites.


title: Clover (creature)

text: Reviewing the film "Cloverfield", the "San Jose Mercury News" described the creature as "a monster for the MySpace generation". Reviewer James Berardinelli noted, "The movie follows the "Jaws" rule that monsters are usually more intimidating when they are shown infrequently and only in brief glimpses". Amy Biancolli of the "Houston Chronicle" described the creature as retaining "an air of mystery—a monstrous "je ne sais quoi" that makes him all the freakier." Richard Corliss of "Time" complained of the recycled elements of the creature, such as its emergence mimicking the original "Godzilla" film and its parasites being similar to the "toy meanies" from the 1984 film "Gremlins".


title: Clover (creature)

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" expressed acceptance of the lack of explanation for the creature's origin, explaining that it "is all right with me after the tiresome opening speeches in so many of the 30 or more "Godzilla" films". Peter Howell of the "Toronto Star" thought that the "main" creature was disappointing, while he considered the "mutant spider crabs" that came from it as "way scarier". Lawrence Person of "Locus Online" describes it as "like a cross between a truly giant mantis and Johnny the Skeletal Torso." Todd McCarthy of "Variety" found that the creature was more reassuring as it appeared more in the film, explaining, "Its very nature as a walking, stalking being suggests it can somehow be killed by conventional means". Chris Vognar of "The Dallas Morning News" applauded the creature's appearance as cinematic:


title: Lewis Machine and Tool Company

text: Lewis Machine and Tool Company (LMT) is an American armaments company founded by Karl Lewis, in 1980. LMT manufactures weapon systems including the M4 carbine, and the M203 grenade launcher. LMT products are used by the military forces of the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Estonia, and the United States.


title: Lewis Machine and Tool Company

text: Lewis Machine and Tool Company produces a patented AR-15-pattern bolt design featuring a redesigned extractor intended to improve extraction of cartridges under adverse conditions. The company also produces a redesigned bolt carrier intended to improve the performance of the rifle's direct-impingement gas operation.


title: Lewis Machine and Tool Company

text: Lewis Machine and Tool Company created the Monolithic Rail Platform (MRP), a one-piece, Picatinny-topped AR-15-pattern upper receiver made from a forged aluminum block. The MRP upper receiver has a quick-change barrel system. Its top rail position matches M4 and E3-type weapons for optical and sight compatibility.


title: Lewis Machine and Tool Company

text: In late 2009, LMT introduced the .308 Modular Weapon System LM308MWS, which uses the 7.62×51mm NATO round.


title: Lewis Machine and Tool Company

text: In February 2012, the British Transport Police began to use AR-pattern short-barreled rifles produced by LMT.


title: Lewis Machine and Tool Company

text: In 2009, Lewis Machine & Tool Co was contracted to supply the British Ministry of Defence (MOD) with 440 LM308MWS 7.62×51mm rifles under the official service designation as the L129A1. Its NATO Stock Number (NSN) is 1005-99-226-6708. As of December 2014, over 3,000 units have been supplied to UK forces.


title: Lewis Machine and Tool Company

text: The LM308MWS was submitted for the British Ministry of Defence's Urgent Operational Requirement (UOR) for immediate deployment of a semiautomatic 7.62 NATO caliber sharpshooter rifle in Afghanistan. Other rifles submitted included the FN Herstal SCAR-H, Heckler & Koch HK417 and Sabre Defence XR-10. LMT's rifle was chosen, earning it the L129A1 designation and entered service April 2010 in Afghanistan. The standard optic for the L129A1 is the TA648-308 6×48 Trijicon ACOG. It can fire standard 7.62 mm ball ammunition, but the official issue rounds are 155-grain L42A1-A3 sniper and L59A1 "High Performance" ball ammunition. The ACOG is mounted to a Picatinny rail to which is fitted a Trijicon RM01 1 x Ruggedized Miniature Reflex (RMR) for Close Quarters Battle use.


title: Lewis Machine and Tool Company

text: The LM308MWS standard US commercial model differs slightly from the UK issued L129A1 in barrel length and twist rate. Its muzzle device is a standard M16A2 flash suppressor. It uses detachable fixed sights instead of folding sights. Its furniture is black instead of brown. Finally, the designation on the receiver is "LM308MWS" instead of "L129A1."


title: Lewis Machine and Tool Company

text: There are also UK commercial variants of the L129A1 and the CQB MRP Defender. Designated the LMT308SP and CQB 5.56SP, the models are a straight pull action rifle, and not semi-automatic due to UK laws.


title: Lewis Machine and Tool Company

text: The New Zealand Army adopted the rifle in October 2011. It differs from its UK counterpart in the use of a Leupold adjustable 4.5-14× scope, canted iron sights and a foldable foregrip.


title: Lewis Machine and Tool Company

text: On 12 August 2015, the New Zealand Ministry of Defence announced that it would be replacing the current Steyr AUG rifle for the three branches of the New Zealand Defence Force with a rifle from LMT, one of eight companies that had submitted rifles for trials between March and June 2015. Like the Steyr AUG, the submitted LMT design was also chambered in 5.56×45mm NATO. A contract of NZD $59 million was awarded to LMT for 9,040 rifles, designated the MARS-L (Modular Ambidextrous Rifle System-Light).


title: Lewis Machine and Tool Company

text: The rifles were delivered in May 2017, and soldiers began training with them at Waiouru Military Camp on 15 June 2017.


title: Lewis Machine and Tool Company

text: In September 2018, it was reported that some of the rifles had experienced breakages, including 130 with cracks around the bolt, and that all 9,040 rifles had had their firing pins replaced under warranty. LMT later claimed that the number of worn or broken firing pins was actually much smaller, in the range of "less than one tenth of one percent". The issue reportedly stemmed from improper tempering. While replacing the firing pins, a similar quantity of selector switches and bolt carriers had also been found to display premature wear and were replaced.


title: Lewis Machine and Tool Company

text: In May 2019, the Estonian Defence Forces selected the MARS-L after two years of testing to replace their IMI Galil and Ak 4 rifles. 16,000 MARS-L rifles were ordered under the designation R20 Rahe ("Hail" in Estonian).


title: Lewis Machine and Tool Company

text: The upper receiver has a Picatinny rail on the top and M-LOK compatible attachment points on its sides and uses a short-stroke gas piston system. The standard barrel length of the R20 is 14.3", but a 12.5" variant designated the R20 S is also produced. A modified trigger design allows the trigger safety to be engaged without the hammer being cocked, which is not possible on a standard AR-15 pattern rifle.


title: Lewis Machine and Tool Company

text: In June 2020, the first batch of 1,500 R20 Rahe rifles was delivered. The R20 is planned to fully replace the Galil and Ak 4 by 2022.


title: Lewis Machine and Tool Company

text: Estonia also acquired a designated marksman rifle variant of the MARS chambered in 7.62×51mm NATO with a 16" barrel. The official Estonian designation for the marksman rifle is the R20 L.


title: Meson

text: In particle physics, a meson ( or ) is a type of hadronic subatomic particle composed of an equal number of quarks and antiquarks, usually one of each, bound together by the strong interaction. Because mesons are composed of quark subparticles, they have a meaningful physical size, a diameter of roughly one femtometre (10 m), which is about 0.6 times the size of a proton or neutron. All mesons are unstable, with the longest-lived lasting for only a few hundredths of a microsecond. Heavier mesons decay to lighter mesons and ultimately to stable electrons, neutrinos and photons.


title: Meson

text: Outside the nucleus, mesons appear in nature only as short-lived products of very high-energy collisions between particles made of quarks, such as cosmic rays (high-energy protons and neutrons) and baryonic matter. Mesons are routinely produced artificially in cyclotrons or other particle accelerators in the collisions of protons, antiprotons, or other particles.


title: Meson

text: Higher-energy (more massive) mesons were created momentarily in the Big Bang, but are not thought to play a role in nature today. However, such heavy mesons are regularly created in particle accelerator experiments that explore the nature of the heavier quarks that compose the heavier mesons.


title: Meson

text: Mesons are part of the hadron particle family, which are defined simply as particles composed of two or more quarks. The other members of the hadron family are the baryons: subatomic particles composed of odd numbers of valence quarks (at least 3), and some experiments show evidence of exotic mesons, which do not have the conventional valence quark content of two quarks (one quark and one antiquark), but 4 or more.


title: Meson

text: Because quarks have a spin , the difference in quark number between mesons and baryons results in conventional two-quark mesons being bosons, whereas baryons are fermions.


title: Meson

text: Each type of meson has a corresponding antiparticle (antimeson) in which quarks are replaced by their corresponding antiquarks and vice versa. For example, a positive pion () is made of one up quark and one down antiquark; and its corresponding antiparticle, the negative pion (), is made of one up antiquark and one down quark.


title: Meson

text: Because mesons are composed of quarks, they participate in both the weak interaction and strong interaction. Mesons with net electric charge also participate in the electromagnetic interaction. Mesons are classified according to their quark content, total angular momentum, parity and various other properties, such as C-parity and G-parity. Although no meson is stable, those of lower mass are nonetheless more stable than the more massive, and hence are easier to observe and study in particle accelerators or in cosmic ray experiments. The lightest group of mesons is less massive than the lightest group of baryons, meaning that they are more easily produced in experiments, and thus exhibit certain higher-energy phenomena more readily than do baryons. But mesons can be quite massive: for example, the J/Psi meson () containing the charm quark, first seen 1974, is about three times as massive as a proton, and the upsilon meson () containing the bottom quark, first seen in 1977, is about ten times as massive.


title: Meson

text: From theoretical considerations, in 1934 Hideki Yukawa predicted the existence and the approximate mass of the "meson" as the carrier of the nuclear force that holds atomic nuclei together. If there were no nuclear force, all nuclei with two or more protons would fly apart due to electromagnetic repulsion. Yukawa called his carrier particle the meson, from μέσος "mesos", the Greek word for "intermediate", because its predicted mass was between that of the electron and that of the proton, which has about 1,836 times the mass of the electron. Yukawa or Carl David Anderson, who discovered the muon, had originally named the particle the "mesotron", but he was corrected by the physicist Werner Heisenberg (whose father was a professor of Greek at the University of Munich). Heisenberg pointed out that there is no "tr" in the Greek word "mesos".


title: Meson

text: The first candidate for Yukawa's meson, in modern terminology known as the muon, was discovered in 1936 by Carl David Anderson and others in the decay products of cosmic ray interactions. The "mu meson" had about the right mass to be Yukawa's carrier of the strong nuclear force, but over the course of the next decade, it became evident that it was not the right particle. It was eventually found that the "mu meson" did not participate in the strong nuclear interaction at all, but rather behaved like a heavy version of the electron, and was eventually classed as a lepton like the electron, rather than a meson. Physicists in making this choice decided that properties other than particle mass should control their classification.


title: Meson

text: There were years of delays in the subatomic particle research during World War II (1939–1945), with most physicists working in applied projects for wartime necessities. When the war ended in August 1945, many physicists gradually returned to peacetime research. The first true meson to be discovered was what would later be called the "pi meson" (or pion). This discovery was made in 1947, by Cecil Powell, Hugh Muirhead, César Lattes, and Giuseppe Occhialini, who were investigating cosmic ray products at the University of Bristol in England, based on photographic films placed in the Andes mountains. Some of those mesons had about the same mass as the already-known mu "meson", yet seemed to decay into it, leading physicist Robert Marshak to hypothesize in 1947 that it was actually a new and different meson. Over the next few years, more experiments showed that the pion was indeed involved in strong interactions. The pion (as a virtual particle) is also believed to be the primary force carrier for the nuclear force in atomic nuclei. Other mesons, such as the virtual rho mesons are involved in mediating this force as well, but to a lesser extent. Following the discovery of the pion, Yukawa was awarded the 1949 Nobel Prize in Physics for his predictions.


title: Meson

text: For a while in the past, the word "meson" was sometimes used to mean "any" force carrier, such as "the Z meson", which is involved in mediating the weak interaction. However, this use has fallen out of favor, and mesons are now defined as particles composed of pairs of quarks and antiquarks.


title: Meson

text: Spin (quantum number ) is a vector quantity that represents the "intrinsic" angular momentum of a particle. It comes in increments of  .


title: Meson

text: Quarks are fermions—specifically in this case, particles having spin Because spin projections vary in increments of 1 (that is 1 ), a single quark has a spin vector of length , and has two spin projections, either or Two quarks can have their spins aligned, in which case the two spin vectors add to make a vector of length with three possible spin projections and and their combination is called a "vector meson" or spin-1 triplet. If two quarks have oppositely aligned spins, the spin vectors add up to make a vector of length and only one spin projection called a "scalar meson" or spin-0 singlet. Because mesons are made of one quark and one antiquark, they are found in triplet and singlet spin states. The latter are called scalar mesons or pseudoscalar mesons, depending on their parity (see below).


title: Meson

text: There is another quantity of quantized angular momentum, called the orbital angular momentum (quantum number ), that is the angular momentum due to quarks orbiting each other, and also comes in increments of 1 . The total angular momentum (quantum number ) of a particle is the combination of the two intrinsic angular momentums (spin) and the orbital angular momentum. It can take any value from up to in increments of 1.


title: Meson

text: Particle physicists are most interested in mesons with no orbital angular momentum ( = 0), therefore the two groups of mesons most studied are the  = 1;  = 0 and  = 0;  = 0, which corresponds to  = 1 and  = 0, although they are not the only ones. It is also possible to obtain  = 1 particles from  = 0 and  = 1. How to distinguish between the  = 1,  = 0 and  = 0,  = 1 mesons is an active area of research in meson spectroscopy.


title: Meson

text: -parity is left-right parity, or spatial parity, and was the first of several "parities" discovered, and so is often called just “parity”. If the universe were reflected in a mirror, most laws of physics would be identical—things would behave the same way regardless of what we call "left" and what we call "right". This concept of mirror reflection is called parity (). Gravity, the electromagnetic force, and the strong interaction all behave in the same way regardless of whether or not the universe is reflected in a mirror, and thus are said to conserve parity (-symmetry). However, the weak interaction does" "distinguish "left" from "right", a phenomenon called parity violation (-violation).


title: Meson

text: Based on this, one might think that, if the wavefunction for each particle (more precisely, the quantum field for each particle type) were simultaneously mirror-reversed, then the new set of wavefunctions would perfectly satisfy the laws of physics (apart from the weak interaction). It turns out that this is not quite true: In order for the equations to be satisfied, the wavefunctions of certain types of particles have to be multiplied by −1, in addition to being mirror-reversed. Such particle types are said to have "negative" or "odd" parity ( = −1, or alternatively  = −), whereas the other particles are said to have "positive" or "even" parity ( = +1, or alternatively  = +).


title: Meson

text: where the is a result of the parity of the corresponding spherical harmonic of the wavefunction. The "+1" comes from the fact that, according to the Dirac equation, a quark and an antiquark have opposite intrinsic parities. Therefore, the intrinsic parity of a meson is the product of the intrinsic parities of the quark (+1) and antiquark (−1). As these are different, their product is −1, and so it contributes the "+1" that appears in the exponent.


title: Meson

text: -parity is only defined for mesons that are their own antiparticle (i.e. neutral mesons). It represents whether or not the wavefunction of the meson remains the same under the interchange of their quark with their antiquark. If


title: Meson

text: -parity rarely is studied on its own, but more commonly in combination with P-parity into CP-parity. -parity was originally thought to be conserved, but was later found to be violated on rare occasions in weak interactions.


title: Meson

text: -parity is a generalization of the -parity. Instead of simply comparing the wavefunction after exchanging quarks and antiquarks, it compares the wavefunction after exchanging the meson for the corresponding antimeson, regardless of quark content.


title: Meson

text: The concept of isospin was first proposed by Werner Heisenberg in 1932 to explain the similarities between protons and neutrons under the strong interaction. Although they had different electric charges, their masses were so similar that physicists believed that they were actually the same particle. The different electric charges were explained as being the result of some unknown excitation similar to spin. This unknown excitation was later dubbed "isospin" by Eugene Wigner in 1937.


title: Meson

text: When the first mesons were discovered, they too were seen through the eyes of isospin and so the three pions were believed to be the same particle, but in different isospin states.


title: Meson

text: The mathematics of isospin was modeled after the mathematics of spin. Isospin projections varied in increments of 1 just like those of spin, and to each projection was associated a "charged state". Because the "pion particle" had three "charged states", it was said to be of isospin Its "charged states" , , and , corresponded to the isospin projections and respectively. Another example is the "rho particle", also with three charged states. Its "charged states" , , and , corresponded to the isospin projections and respectively.


title: Meson

text: This belief lasted until Murray Gell-Mann proposed the quark model in 1964 (containing originally only the , , and quarks). The success of the isospin model is now understood to be an artifact of the similar masses of the and quarks. Because the and quarks have similar masses, particles made of the same number of them also have similar masses.


title: Meson

text: The exact and quark composition determines the charge, because quarks carry charge whereas quarks carry charge . For example, the three pions all have different charges


title: Meson

text: but they all have similar masses ( ) as they are each composed of a same total number of up and down quarks and antiquarks. Under the isospin model, they were considered a single particle in different charged states.


title: Meson

text: After the quark model was adopted, physicists noted that the isospin projections were related to the up and down quark content of particles by the relation


title: Meson

text: In the "isospin picture", the three pions and three rhos were thought to be the different states of two particles. However, in the quark model, the rhos are excited states of pions. Isospin, although conveying an inaccurate picture of things, is still used to classify hadrons, leading to unnatural and often confusing nomenclature.


title: Meson

text: Because mesons are hadrons, the isospin classification is also used for them all, with the quantum number calculated by adding for each positively charged up-or-down quark-or-antiquark (up quarks and down antiquarks), and for each negatively charged up-or-down quark-or-antiquark (up antiquarks and down quarks).


title: Meson

text: The strangeness quantum number "S" (not to be confused with spin) was noticed to go up and down along with particle mass. The higher the mass, the lower (more negative) the strangeness (the more s quarks). Particles could be described with isospin projections (related to charge) and strangeness (mass) (see the uds nonet figures). As other quarks were discovered, new quantum numbers were made to have similar description of udc and udb nonets. Because only the u and d mass are similar, this description of particle mass and charge in terms of isospin and flavour quantum numbers only works well for the nonets made of one u, one d and one other quark and breaks down for the other nonets (for example ucb nonet). If the quarks all had the same mass, their behaviour would be called "symmetric", because they would all behave in exactly the same way with respect to the strong interaction. However, as quarks do not have the same mass, they do not interact in the same way (exactly like an electron placed in an electric field will accelerate more than a proton placed in the same field because of its lighter mass), and the symmetry is said to be broken.


title: Meson

text: It was noted that charge ("Q") was related to the isospin projection ("I"), the baryon number ("B") and flavour quantum numbers ("S", "C", "B"′, "T") by the Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula:


title: Meson

text: where "S", "C", "B"′, and "T" represent the strangeness, charm, bottomness and topness flavour quantum numbers respectively. They are related to the number of strange, charm, bottom, and top quarks and antiquark according to the relations:


title: Meson

text: meaning that the Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula is equivalent to the expression of charge in terms of quark content:


title: Meson

text: Mesons are classified into groups according to their isospin ("I"), total angular momentum ("J"), parity ("P"), G-parity ("G") or C-parity ("C") when applicable, and quark (q) content. The rules for classification are defined by the Particle Data Group, and are rather convoluted. The rules are presented below, in table form for simplicity.


title: Meson

text: Mesons are classified into types according to their spin configurations. Some specific configurations are given special names based on the mathematical properties of their spin configuration.


title: Meson

text: Flavourless mesons are mesons made of pair of quark and antiquarks of the same flavour (all their flavour quantum numbers are zero: = 0, = 0, = 0, = 0). The rules for flavourless mesons are:


title: Meson

text: Flavoured mesons are mesons made of pair of quark and antiquarks of different flavours. The rules are simpler in this case: The main symbol depends on the heavier quark, the superscript depends on the charge, and the subscript (if any) depends on the lighter quark. In table form, they are:


title: Meson

text: There is experimental evidence for particles that are hadrons (i.e., are composed of quarks) and are color-neutral with zero baryon number, and thus by conventional definition are mesons. Yet, these particles do not consist of a single quark/antiquark pair, as all the other conventional mesons discussed above do. A tentative category for these particles is exotic mesons.


title: Meson

text: There are at least five exotic meson resonances that have been experimentally confirmed to exist by two or more independent experiments. The most statistically significant of these is the Z(4430), discovered by the Belle experiment in 2007 and confirmed by LHCb in 2014. It is a candidate for being a tetraquark: a particle composed of two quarks and two antiquarks. See the main article above for other particle resonances that are candidates for being exotic mesons.


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: 13 is the nineteenth and final studio album by English heavy metal band Black Sabbath. It was released on 7 June 2013 through Vertigo Records, acting as their first studio album in 18 years (the longest gap between albums during their run) following "Forbidden" (1995). It was the band's first studio recording with original singer Ozzy Osbourne and bassist Geezer Butler since the live album "Reunion" (1998), which contained two new studio tracks. It was also the first studio album with Osbourne since "Never Say Die!" (1978), and with Butler since "Cross Purposes" (1994).


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: Black Sabbath's original line-up first began work on a new studio album in 2001 with producer Rick Rubin. The album's development was delayed over a 10-year period, as Osbourne resumed his solo career while the rest of the band members went on to pursue other projects, including GZR and Heaven & Hell. When Black Sabbath announced the end of its hiatus on 11 November 2011, the band announced that they would restart work on a new album with Rubin. In addition to original members Osbourne, Butler and guitarist Tony Iommi, the band was joined at the recording sessions by drummer Brad Wilk, of Rage Against the Machine and Audioslave, following original drummer Bill Ward's decision to not participate in the reunion, due to a "contractual dispute."


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: The singles "God Is Dead?", "End of the Beginning", and "Loner" were released in promotion of the album. "13" received positive reviews from critics; praise was directed at the band's songwriting and performance abilities several decades after their formation, though the album has been cited as a product of the loudness war, having a compromised sound quality as a result of an overly compressed dynamic range. At the 56th Annual Grammy Awards in 2014, the band won the Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance for "God Is Dead?". Commercially, "13" was a number-one album in several countries, including the United Kingdom and United States. It was later certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for selling 100,000 copies in the United Kingdom. The album was also certified platinum in four countries.


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: Black Sabbath released its 18th studio album, "Forbidden", in 1995, to negative reviews. It had been 15 years since the last studio track. The following months left the group at a crossroads. After a series of reunion tours from 1997 to 1999 – mostly with Ozzfest – the original line-up began work on a new album with producer Rick Rubin in the spring of 2001. These sessions were halted when Ozzy Osbourne was called away to finish tracks for his album "Down to Earth", released in October that year. Tony Iommi recalled: "It just came to an end... It's a shame because [the songs] were really good." "It's quite different recording now..." he added. "In [the early] days there was no mobile phone ringing every five seconds. When we first started, we had nothing. We all worked for the same thing. Now everybody has done so many other things. It's great fun and we all have a good chat, but it's just different, trying to put an album together."


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: "We got very scratchy stuff," Osbourne explained in late 2001. "It never really materialised into much. It may be great, but I haven't heard it since, apart from the one song we were doing live "['Scary Dreams', played on Ozzfest 2001]". We produced our own stuff and then we handed the tapes over to Rick Rubin and that was the last I heard of it. I must confess... it wasn't the same way, anyhow. Geezer wasn't writing the lyrics anymore, I was having real big problems coming up with melody lines and topics to sing about... Tony was still firing off these amazing heavy metal riffs. He just goes, 'Here you go,' and comes out with one better than you've ever heard in your life. You'd think he'd run out of things to play. But, for all that, the chemistry just wasn't there."


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: After one more reunion tour in mid-2001, where they again headlined Ozzfest, Sabbath went back on hiatus. In March 2002, Osbourne's Emmy-winning reality TV show "The Osbournes" debuted on MTV, and quickly became a worldwide hit. It introduced Osbourne to a broader audience; and, to capitalise, Sanctuary Records (who own Sabbath's back catalogue) released the live album "Past Lives", featuring material recorded in the 1970s, including the "Live at Last" album. The band remained on hiatus until mid-2004, when they returned to headline Ozzfest 2004 and 2005. In November 2005, Black Sabbath were inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame, and in March 2006, after eleven years of eligibility, the band were inducted into the US Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: While Osbourne was working on his new solo album in 2006, Rhino Records released "", a compilation culled from the four Sabbath releases featuring Ronnie James Dio. For the release, Iommi, Geezer Butler, Dio and Vinny Appice reunited to write and record three new songs as Black Sabbath. "The Dio Years" was released on 3 April 2007, reaching No.54 on the "Billboard" 200, while the single "The Devil Cried" reached No. 37 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. Pleased with the results, Iommi and Dio decided to reunite the "Heaven and Hell" era line-up for a world tour. Because the line-up of Osbourne, Butler, Iommi and Bill Ward were still officially called Black Sabbath, the new line-up dubbed themselves Heaven & Hell, after the album of the same name. Ward was to participate, but dropped out before the tour began due to musical differences with "a couple of the band members" as well as a "contractual dispute". He was replaced by former drummer Vinny Appice, reuniting the line-up that had featured on "Mob Rules" and "Dehumanizer". After their only studio album "The Devil You Know" in 2009, Dio died after a battle against stomach cancer on 16 May 2010. Following a tribute concert with former Sabbath vocalist Glenn Hughes, Heaven & Hell disbanded.


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: On 11 November 2011, Sabbath hosted a private announcement ceremony at the Whisky a Go Go in Hollywood, California. Hosted by former Black Flag vocalist Henry Rollins, the event featured all four original Sabbath band members. At the event, Sabbath announced they would be officially reuniting, following months of rumours. The reunion was said to feature an appearance at the 2012 Download Festival, and a newly recorded studio album by Rubin expected to be released in late 2012. When Rollins asked the band why they chose to reunite, Iommi responded, "It's now or never. We get along great. Everything's really good." Butler commented that the new material was the "old Sabbath style and sound." Osbourne said he was "blown away", and, "I don't understand why it's happening. I mean, 45 years down the road and we've got a really great album to put out." On 18 November 2011, Black Sabbath announced that they would be touring Europe in May and June 2012.


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: On 9 January 2012, it was announced Iommi had been diagnosed with the early stages of lymphoma, which was not expected to impede the group's activity. Because of his cancer diagnosis, work sessions for "13", which were supposed to take place in Los Angeles, California, were moved to Iommi's home in England. On 2 February 2012, Ward publicly announced that he would not participate in the Black Sabbath reunion unless he was given a "signable contract." The following day, the other group members announced they had "no choice but to continue recording without him," but also said "our door is always open" for Ward to return to the band. In February 2012, the band announced that they would not continue the world tour but would play the Download festival in June 2012. Instead of Black Sabbath, the tour would feature Osbourne and a revolving line-up of guest musicians, billed as "Ozzy and Friends". On 11 April, Lollapalooza founder Perry Farrell announced that Black Sabbath would perform at Lollapalooza 2012. Farrell said this would be Black Sabbath's only American concert in 2012.


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: On 15 May 2012, Ward posted on his website that "after a final effort to participate in the upcoming Sabbath shows a failure to agree has continued" and that he would not be participating in the reunion shows, but would "remain with an open mind and a position of willingness to negotiate 'signable' terms with Sabbath's representatives in the future." On 18 May 2012, Ward was cropped out of photos on blacksabbath.com. On 19 May 2012, Butler released a statement expressing sadness at Ward's decision. He further unveiled that drummer Tommy Clufetos was rehearsing with them in England.


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: On 2 June 2012, Osbourne told "NME" that Black Sabbath had written "about 15 songs so far." He also said that "2013" was a good clue as to what the album would be called. The band returned to the studio to continue work on the album on 23 August 2012. An interview that October confirmed the title of one of the new songs, "God Is Dead?". On 12 January 2013, Black Sabbath announced that the album would be called "13" and was expected to be released in June. It was also announced that drummer Brad Wilk of Rage Against the Machine and Audioslave joined in during the recording sessions to complete the drum tracks for the album.


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: In a January 2013 interview at NAMM, which took place at the Anaheim Convention Center in Anaheim, California, Butler stated that "13" was not the final title of the album and it would possibly be changed; however, this turned out not to be the case. The band released a brief documentary on their time in the studio via YouTube in February 2013. In it, the group stated that they felt excited to work with producer Rubin and emphasized their desire for a "raw" sound.


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: On 4 April 2013, Black Sabbath unveiled the cover artwork for "13". The artwork was created by Nick Dart and Neil Bowen of Zip Design in London. Zip commissioned sculptor Spencer Jenkins to create an 8-foot-tall "13" from wicker, which was then set on fire in the Buckinghamshire countryside. The flames were visible for miles. The image was shot by photographer Jonathan Knowles. A behind-the-scenes video, also shot by Jonathan Knowles's team, was released by Zip Design, showing the numbers' construction. According to bassist Geezer Butler, the title "13" comes from the record company pressuring the band to write thirteen songs but they wanted to stop at ten; however, only eight tracks made the final cut.


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: Prior to the album's release, Black Sabbath embarked on their first tour of Australia (initially kicking off in New Zealand) since 1974 in April and May 2013. They also headlined Ozzfest Japan on 12 May 2013. These dates had been arranged to allow Iommi to return to the UK for lymphoma treatment once every six weeks. From late July to early September 2013, Black Sabbath embarked on their first North American tour in eight years. After that, they toured Latin America in October, followed by Europe in November and December.


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: The first single, "God Is Dead?", was released to radio on 18 April 2013, and as a digital download and on YouTube on 19 April. Black Sabbath appeared on the season 13 finale of , in which they performed another new song, "End of the Beginning". The song also plays during the end credits of the 2013 comedy film "This Is the End", although it is not listed on the film's official soundtrack. The album became available for streaming on iTunes on 3 June 2013.


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: "13" was first released on 7 June 2013 in parts of Europe and Australasia. It was then released in the UK on 10 June and in North America the day after. It reached No. 1 on the UK Albums Chart after its first week of sales. It is the band's first album to top the UK chart since "Paranoid" (1970). With a gap of nearly 43 years, it beat the previous record held by Bob Dylan, who released his first chart topping album, "Together Through Life" (2009), since "New Morning" (1970). Osbourne was said to be "in shock" at the album's success, remarking that the band has "never had a record climb the charts so fast" before. In another first for the band, the album also reached No. 1 on the US "Billboard" 200 charts, selling 155,000 copies in the first week. Osbourne said, "There have been so many amazing highlights in our long career. To finally have our first #1 album in the U.S. is another incredible milestone for Black Sabbath."


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: In its second week of release, the album fell to No. 5 in the US, selling 46,000, totalling 201,000 copies, and in its third week, "13" sold over 26,000 bringing its total sales to 227,000 copies in the US. As of April 2014, "13" has sold over 360,000 copies in the United States. The album also debuted at No. 1 on the Canadian Albums Chart with 25,000 units sold. As of July 2014, the album has surpassed over 1 million copies sold worldwide.


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: Aforementioned lead single "God Is Dead?" received a great deal of airplay both in Canada and in the United States. For example, the track hit the #26 spot on the "Billboard" top rock songs chart. The band additionally released a related music video for the single.


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: "13" has received mostly positive reviews. On Metacritic, it has a score of 72 out of 100, based on 32 reviews. Fred Thomas of AllMusic praised "13", calling it "unexpectedly brilliant, apocalyptic, and essential for any die-hard metal fan". Geoff Barton of "Metal Hammer" observed how the heavy metal genre had developed ever since the band originally started it, and concluded that the classic line-up of the band has proven their relevance in modern-day music.


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: However, "13" has been criticised for having compromised sound quality, due to an overly compressed dynamic range, during a process called peak limiting, which leads to audible distortion.


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: Jon Hadusek of "Consequence of Sound" said of the production, "Rubin...deserves disparagement for the way he mixed the audio levels, which are crushed by distortion and compression. Otherwise well-recorded songs are blemished, an affliction all too pervasive in the modern music industry". Ben Ratliff of "The New York Times" also disliked the album's mastering, saying, "The new Black Sabbath album was produced by Rick Rubin, who some believe to be a prime offender in the recent history of highly compressed and loudly mastered music — a major cause of ear fatigue..."13" is mastered loudly, too; Mr. Iommi's guitar tone planes outward, leaving very little space, and the drums stay high and present in the mix. Your ears aren't given room to breathe".


title: 13 (Black Sabbath album)

text: The album's lead single "God Is Dead?" won Black Sabbath their first Grammy Award in 14 years for Best Metal Performance in 2014. In 2013, the album won a Metal Hammer Golden God Award for Best Album and a Classic Rock Roll of Honours Award for Album of the Year. It also won the 2014 Revolver Golden Gods Award for Album of the Year.


title: Emmental cheese

text: Emmental, Emmentaler, or Emmenthal is a yellow, medium-hard cheese that originated in the area around Emmental, in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. It is classified as a Swiss-type or Alpine cheese.


title: Emmental cheese

text: Emmental was first mentioned in written records in 1293, but first called by its present name in 1542. It has a savory but mild taste. While "Emmentaler" is registered as a geographical indication in Switzerland, a limited number of countries recognize the term as a geographical indication: similar cheeses of other origins, especially from France (as Emmental), the Netherlands, Bavaria, and Finland, are widely available and sold by that name. In some parts of the world, the names "Emmentaler" and "Swiss cheese" are used interchangeably for Emmental-style cheese.


title: Emmental cheese

text: Three types of bacteria are needed to prepare Emmental: "Streptococcus thermophilus", "Lactobacillus helveticus", and "Propionibacterium freudenreichii". Historically, the holes were a sign of imperfection, and until modern times, cheese makers would try to avoid them. Nowadays, however, eye formation is valued as a sign of maturation and quality and acoustic analysis has been developed for this purpose. Emmental cheese is usually consumed cold, as chunks or slices, and is also used in a variety of dishes, particularly in gratins, and fondue, in which it is mixed with Gruyère.


title: Emmental cheese

text: As a geographical indication, Emmentaler is recognized in Czech Republic, France, Georgia, Germany, Hungary, Jamaica, Portugal, Russia, Slovakia and Spain.


title: Emmental cheese

text: In many parts of the English-speaking world the terms "Emmentaler" and "Swiss cheese" are both used to refer to any cheese of the Emmental type, whether produced in Switzerland or elsewhere. The United States Department of Agriculture, for example, uses the terms 'Swiss cheese' and 'Emmentaler cheese' interchangeably.


title: Emmental cheese

text: Emmental cheese is very widely imitated around the world, often just called "Swiss cheese". Specific European types include:


title: Royal Netherlands Army

text: The Royal Netherlands Army () is the land branch of the Netherlands Armed Forces. Though the Royal Netherlands Army was raised on 9 January 1814, its origins date back to 1572, when the was raised – making the Dutch standing army one of the oldest in the world. It fought in the Napoleonic Wars, World War II, the Indonesian War of Independence, and the Korean War and served with NATO on the Cold War frontiers in West-Germany from the 1950s to the 1990s.


title: Royal Netherlands Army

text: Since 1990, the army has been sent into the Iraq War (from 2003) and into the War in Afghanistan, as well as deployed in several United Nations' peacekeeping missions (notably with UNIFIL in Lebanon, UNPROFOR in Bosnia-Herzegovina and MINUSMA in Mali).


title: Royal Netherlands Army

text: The tasks of the Royal Netherlands Army are laid out in the Constitution of the Netherlands: defend the territory of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (including the Dutch Caribbean) and of its allies, protect and advance the international legal order and to support the (local) government in law enforcement, disaster relief and humanitarian aid, both nationally and internationally. The supreme authority over the armed forces of the Netherlands is exercised by the government (consisting of the King and the cabinet ministers); there is thus no constitutional supreme commander. However, army personnel does swear allegiance to the Dutch monarch.


title: Royal Netherlands Army

text: Dutch army doctrine strongly emphasises international co-operation. The Netherlands are a founding member of, and strong contributor to NATO, while closely co-operating with fellow member states during European Union-led missions as well. Moreover, the successful Dutch-German military co-operation is seen as a harbinger of European defence integration, facing fewer linguistic and cultural issues than the comparable Franco-German Brigade. In 2014, the 11 Airmobile Brigade was integrated into the Rapid Forces Division; in 2016, the Dutch-German 414 Tank Battalion was integrated into the 43rd Mechanised Brigade, which was in turn integrated 1st Panzer Division. Additionally, the German Air Defence Missile Group 61 () was integrated into the Dutch Joint Ground-based Air Defence Command in 2018.


title: Royal Netherlands Army

text: The Royal Netherlands Army was raised on 9 January 1814, but its origins date back to the founding of the (the Army of the Dutch States) in 1572: the creation of one of the first modern standing armies. Under the command of famous commanders such as Maurice of Orange and William Louis of Nassau-Dillenburg, the army developed into one of the best-organised and best-trained armies of the 17th and early 18th centuries. The innovative army underwent a thorough process of professionalisation under their command including revolutionary foot drill and siege tactics, proven effective during sieges such as the Battle of Nieuwpoort.


title: Royal Netherlands Army

text: The Dutch States Army of the Dutch Republic saw action in the Eighty Years' War, the Dano-Swedish War, the Franco-Dutch War, the Nine Years' War, the War of Spanish Succession, the War of Austrian Succession, and the French Revolutionary Wars.


title: Royal Netherlands Army

text: With the French conquest of the Netherlands, the was replaced by the army of the Batavian Republic in 1795, which in turn was replaced by the army of the Kingdom of Holland in 1806. This army fought beside the French, to repel the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland in 1799 and to wage several campaigns in Germany, Austria, and Spain between 1800 and 1810; particularly notable were the engagements of the Horse Artillery (Korps Rijdende Artillerie) at the Battle of Friedland in 1807, the capture of the city of Stralsund in 1807 and 1809, and the participation of the Dutch brigade in the Peninsular War between 1808 and 1810. The independent army was disbanded in 1810, when Napoleon decided to integrate the Netherlands into France (""): Dutch military units became part of the (the present-day French 126th Infantry Regiment has Dutch origins). Dutch military elements participated in the disastrous French invasion of Russia in 1812, and the actions of the Pontonniers company under Captain Benthien at the Berezina River (Battle of Berezina) are especially noteworthy. New research points out that, contrary to long-held belief, around half of the Dutch contingent of the Grande Armée survived the Russian Campaign.