title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: It is customary for Vulcan children to undertake an initiation ordeal known as the "Kahs-wan" (sometimes spelled Kaswahn), in which they are left to fend for themselves in the desert for a specific period of time. Not all children survive this rite of passage. T'Pol underwent the ritual, while Tuvok experienced a variation known as the "tal'oth". The Kahs-wan was first introduced in the "Star Trek: The Animated Series" episode "", in which Spock's experience as a child was detailed.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: Contrary to the Vulcan image of expressing no emotion, family bonds can be strong and affectionate just as they are for humans. Tuvok expressed his love for his wife on a few occasions (without actually using the term), Sarek openly expressed affection for both his human wives, and a clear bond of love existed between T'Pol and her mother, T'Les. The bond between Spock and his adopted sister, Michael Burnham, is a central theme of the "" second season.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: In the "TOS" episode, "The Savage Curtain", Surak explains to Kirk Vulcan's history of violence and the turn to peace that saved their civilization. He tells Kirk that he will not fight. Spock says that he has fought, and will fight again, but that he, too, is a "Vulcan, bred to peace."


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: Vulcans are capable of a technique known as the "Vulcan nerve pinch" or "neck pinch", which targets a location on the neck between the head and the shoulder that renders the victim unconscious. The pinch was first seen in the "TOS" episode, "The Naked Time". The mechanics of the pinch have never been explained. While practiced mainly by Vulcans, it is apparently not exclusive to their race. Jonathan Archer and Jean-Luc Picard both use the technique after becoming involved in Vulcan telepathic rituals (Archer holding the katra of Surak, Picard having undergone a mind-meld with Sarek). Seven of Nine is depicted as capable of using this ability in the episode of "Voyager", "". The android Data also displayed this ability in the "TNG" episode, "". In Star Trek: Discovery, Michael Burnham does the nerve pinch on Captain Philippa Georgiou and commits mutiny.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: The neck pinch itself (referred to in scripts as "FSNP", or "Famous Spock Neck Pinch") was created by Leonard Nimoy, who objected to a scene in "", in which a transporter malfunction had divided Kirk between his good and evil selves, that required Spock to render the "evil" Kirk unconscious and subduing him by hitting him over the head with the butt of a phaser. Nimoy was convinced that such overt violence, in addition to being too similar to that found in many crime dramas of the time, was uncharacteristic of the strictly-logical Spock, and suggested the neck pinch as a less-emotional alternative.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: In "Star Trek", the IDIC (Infinite Diversity in Infinite Combinations) has become a symbol of Vulcan equality philosophy. It is symbolized by the "Kol-Ut-Shan", a pendant of yellow and white gold with a circle and triangle resting upon each other, and adorned with a white jewel in the center.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: The Vulcan IDIC pendant was designed by Gene Roddenberry as a marketing premium to be sold through mail order to "Star Trek" fans. As early as the end of the first season, fans of the show had begun writing the studio asking for copies of the scripts, film clip frames, etc., and these were soon sold through Roddenberry's mail order company, Lincoln Enterprises. As evidenced in some of his letters and memos, Roddenberry was fond of circle-and-triangle designs and had wanted to use them as early as the first season's "The Return of the Archons". As reported by "Inside Star Trek" editor Ruth Berman, "ardent rock hound and amateur lapidary" Roddenberry came up with the Vulcan philosophy after he presented Leonard Nimoy with a unique hand-crafted piece of jewelry, a pendant of a polished yellow gold circle and a florentined white gold triangle with a stone of brilliant white fabulite — an artificial gem "developed by the laser industry and used in space mechanisms for its optical qualities", and thus well-suited as a gift for an actor in a science fiction show. Readers were encouraged to submit their interest in such a product to Lincoln Enterprises mail order firm. It was noted that less expensive materials would keep costs down.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: According to William Shatner in "Star Trek Memories", IDIC was only worked into the episode "Is There in Truth No Beauty?" as an afterthought. The actors all knew it was a mere advertising toy. Reportedly, Leonard Nimoy was asked to wear it and refused, so it was passed on to Shatner; when he also refused, Nimoy reluctantly agreed to wear it. At the last minute, Roddenberry sent down several pages of new script for the dinner scene, in which Spock was to give a long-winded explanation of the philosophy. The actors refused to film it until Roddenberry cut it down.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: In an issue of "The Humanist", Majel Barrett claimed that the philosophy of "Infinite Diversity in Infinite Combinations" was based on the teachings of Rabbi Maimonides.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: Although its origins are rooted in marketing and sales, the IDIC became a theme writers and set designers have used in most of the "Star Trek" franchise. Spock wore the symbol during important gatherings and ceremonies as part of his dress uniform. After appearing for the first time in the "TOS" episode, "Is There in Truth No Beauty?", it appeared in Spock's quarters in "Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan", "", and "". In the series "", T'Pol is given an IDIC pendant from her mother T'Les, she holds an IDIC pendant in "Terra Prime" while she is in mourning for her dying child, and in the episode "The Andorian Incident" the IDIC symbol appears on small playing pieces that are being used to construct a map of the P'Jem catacombs. In the "DS9" episode "The Jem'Hadar", Quark mentions selling Vulcan IDIC pins, and in the "DS9" episode "Take Me Out to the Holosuite", Captain Solok and his Vulcan team, the Logicians, wear ball caps featuring the IDIC symbol.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: The fictional Vulcan homeworld, also named "Vulcan," was visited several times in the "Star Trek" series and feature films. The inhabitants are known as "Vulcans" or "Vulcanians". First seen in the "TOS" episode, "Amok Time", Vulcan, a Class M planet, is an arid world with a thinner atmosphere than Earth. McCoy states upon beaming down, "Hot as Vulcan, now I understand what that phrase means." In the "TOS" episode, "The Man Trap", while Uhura is attempting to make conversation with Spock, he informs her that Vulcan has no moon.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: According to Star Trek canon, the planet orbits 40 Eridani A. The authorized "Star Trek" book "Star Trek: Star Charts" and Roddenberry himself give this location. In addition, Commander Tucker's statement in the "" episode "", that Vulcan is "a little over" 16 light years from Earth supports this location, as 40 Eridani A is 16.39 light-years from our own Solar System. The planet's location is confirmed by a map shown in the "" episode "Magic to Make the Sanest Man Go Mad".


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: In several non-canon works, Vulcan is also claimed to be located in the triple star system 40 Eridani, less than 17 light-years from Earth.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: The "" episode "Unification III" reveals that after the Vulcans reunified with their ancient cousins, the Romulans, the Vulcan homeworld was renamed Ni'Var. Ni'Var had seceded from the Federation (due to the apocalyptic event known as The Burn); in the later episode "All Is Possible", Ni'Var rejoins the Federation.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: In the 2009 film "Star Trek", an alternate timeline is created in which Vulcan is destroyed by a Romulan ship. By the time of "Star Trek Into Darkness" a Vulcan colony had been established named "New Vulcan".


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: Vulcans once practiced a form of polytheism; this can be seen in gods of war, peace, and death depicted on the Stone of Gol relic in the "TNG" episode, "". The DVD commentary for "Amok Time" says that "TOS" writer D. C. Fontana named the Vulcan god of death "Shariel", a bust of whom is seen in Spock's quarters.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: Vulcan civilization is ancient. In "Amok Time", Spock says that the place of "Koon-ut-kal-if-fee" has been held by his family for 2,000 years. In the "TOS" episode, "The Savage Curtain" the image of Surak speaks of a time when Vulcan war nearly destroyed them, before logic was embraced as a way of life.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: In 1957, the launch of "Sputnik I", Earth's first artificial satellite, was observed by a Vulcan vessel that subsequently crashed on the planet, marooning several crew members for a number of months in , Pennsylvania; the humans were unaware of the alien nature of their guests.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: On April 5, 2063, Vulcans and humans made official first contact near the town of Bozeman, Montana, following the successful test of Earth scientist Zefram Cochrane's first warp-capable starship.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: In 2105, the Vulcans and the Andorians agreed to a compromise over Weytahn/Pan Mokar. Still, tensions continued due to the threat of mutual annihilation.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: By the 22nd century, the "Vulcan High Command" is a form of military government that controls both the Vulcan space fleet and most of the planet itself. Most Vulcans, including T'Pol, from "Star Trek: Enterprise" obey the High Command. It is dissolved in the early fourth season of "Star Trek: Enterprise".


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: In 2151, Sub-Commander T'Pol joined the crew of the Earth Starfleet vessel "Enterprise" (NX-01), within a couple of weeks setting a Vulcan endurance record for serving aboard a human vessel. In 2154, T'Pol became a commissioned officer with Starfleet.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: Throughout the period of "Star Trek: Enterprise", the High Command's actions were the themes of several episodes. Vulcan starships were sent to spy on the "Enterprise" and report on the ship's activities. They appeared to participate in open acts of persecution towards other Vulcans, such as isolating and quarantining victims of Pa'nar Syndrome rather than treating them; prejudicial acts against any Vulcan proven to have committed a mind meld; and hunting down and capturing, sometimes killing, members of the underground dissident group, the Syrranites.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: In 2154, V'Las, the head of the High Command and undercover agent for the Romulans, bombed the United Earth embassy on Vulcan in an attempt to frame and eliminate all Syrranites while simultaneously attempting an invasion of Andoria. He was foiled by the crew of the "Enterprise". During these events, the Kir'Shara, a device containing the original writings of Surak, was discovered by Jonathan Archer. This led to the prompt dissolution of the High Command and a reevaluation of Vulcan traditional values. It also resulted in Vulcan agreeing to stop "looking over Earth's shoulder" in space exploration matters.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: It was revealed to viewers that the High Command's illogical and often emotionally based actions were, in reality, the result of covert Romulan influence. The Romulans had secretly made contact with V'Las and attempted to reunify their long-lost peoples. After the invasion of Andoria was foiled, the High Command was disbanded and V'Las was dismissed from his post. Subsequently, the altered political climate on Vulcan caused the undercover Romulan operative Talok to leave Vulcan, apparently ending the infiltration.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: In the time of "Star Trek: Enterprise", Vulcans are seen to be arrogant and cold in their behavior towards humans. Soval, Vulcan's ambassador to Earth, appeared particularly distrustful of humans, and was often at odds with Archer and his crew. Soval later justified this behavior in the fourth season episode "":


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: 'We don't know what to do about humans. Of all the species we've made contact with, yours is the only one we can't define. You have the arrogance of Andorians, the stubborn pride of Tellarites. One moment you're as driven by your emotions as Klingons, and the next, you confound us by suddenly embracing logic"


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: Soval also explained that, since Earth recovered from World War III far more quickly than Vulcan did from its equivalent (in "" and its sequel episodes, it is said that Vulcans took almost a thousand years to fully rebuild their society after their last catastrophic war), it alarmed many Vulcans, who were confused as to how to deal with a rapidly growing and emotional society such as Earth's.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: After the overthrow of the corrupt Vulcan High Command and the death of Admiral Maxwell Forrest, who sacrificed his life to save Soval from a terrorist attack, the attitudes of Soval, and Vulcan society in general, became more cordial and accepting towards humanity.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: By the 32nd century, Ambassador Spock's dream of Vulcan/Romulan reunification has been achieved. Following the destruction of Romulus, the surviving Romulans have returned to their ancestral homeworld, now called Ni'Var.


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

text: In the alternate timeline of the 2009 film, the planet Vulcan is destroyed in 2258 by the Romulan known as Nero, who had time traveled from the future. Using his space mining vessel, "Narada", Nero created a singularity in Vulcan's planetary core as part of his quest to avenge the destruction of Romulus that Spock failed to save. The resulting implosion destroyed Vulcan, killing most of its six billion inhabitants. Only around 10,000 managed to escape. At the end of the film, Spock Prime tells the younger Spock a suitable planet has been located to establish a colony for the surviving Vulcans; this world is named "New Vulcan".


title: Bornholm

text: Bornholm () is a Danish island in the Baltic Sea, to the east of the rest of Denmark, south of Sweden, northeast of Germany and north of Poland.


title: Bornholm

text: Strategically located, Bornholm has been fought over for centuries. It has usually been ruled by Denmark, but also by Sweden and by Lübeck. The ruin of Hammershus, at the northwestern tip of the island, is the largest medieval fortress in northern Europe, testament to the importance of its location. Bornholm and Ertholmene comprise the last remaining Danish territory in Skåneland east of Øresund, having been surrendered to Sweden in 1658, but regained by Denmark in 1660 after a local revolt.


title: Bornholm

text: The island is known as ("sunshine island") because of its weather and ("rock island") because of its geology, which consists of granite, except along the southern coast. The heat from the summer is stored in the rock formations and the weather is quite warm until October. As a result of the climate, a local variety of the common fig, known as Bornholm's Diamond, can grow locally on the island. The island's topography consists of dramatic rock formations in the north (unlike the rest of Denmark, which is mostly gentle rolling hills) sloping down towards pine and deciduous forests (greatly affected by storms in the 1950s), farmland in the middle and sandy beaches in the south.


title: Bornholm

text: The island is home to many of Denmark's round churches. Occupying an area of , the island had a total population of 39,535 .


title: Bornholm

text: In Old Norse the island was known as "Burgundaholmr", and in ancient Danish especially the island's name was "Borghand" or "Borghund"; these names were related to Old Norse "borg" 'height' and "bjarg/berg" 'mountain, rock' because it is an island that rises high from the sea. Other names known for the island include "Burgendaland" (9th century), "Hulmo" / "Holmus" ("Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum"), "Burgundehulm" (1145), and "Borghandæholm" (14th century). The Old English translation of Orosius uses the form "Burgenda land". Some scholars believe that the Burgundians are named after Bornholm. The Burgundians were Germanic peoples who moved west when the Western Roman Empire collapsed and occupied and named Burgundy in France.


title: Bornholm

text: Bornholm formed part of the historical Lands of Denmark when the nation united out of a series of petty chiefdoms. It was originally administratively part of the province of Scania and was administered by the Scanian Law after this was codified in the 13th century. Control over the island evolved into a long-raging dispute between the See of Lund and the Danish crown, culminating in several battles. The first fortress on the island was Gamleborg, which was replaced by Lilleborg built by the king in 1150. In 1149 the king accepted the transfer of three of the island's four herreder (districts) to the archbishop. In 1250, the archbishop constructed his own fortress, Hammershus. A campaign launched from it in 1259 conquered the remaining part of the island including Lilleborg. The island's status remained a matter of dispute for an additional 200 years.


title: Bornholm

text: Bornholm was pawned to Lübeck for 50 years starting in 1525. Its first militia, Bornholms Milits, was formed in 1624. Swedish forces conquered the island in 1645, but returned the island to Denmark in the following peace settlement. After the war in 1658, Denmark ceded the island to Sweden under the Treaty of Roskilde along with the rest of the Skåneland, Bohuslän and Trøndelag, and it was occupied by Swedish forces.


title: Bornholm

text: A revolt broke out the same year, culminating in Villum Clausen's shooting of the Swedish commander Johan Printzensköld on 8 December 1658. Following the revolt, a deputation of islanders presented the island as a gift to King Frederick III of Denmark on the condition that the island would never be ceded again. This status was confirmed in the Treaty of Copenhagen in 1660.


title: Bornholm

text: Swedes, notably from Småland and Scania, emigrated to the island during the 19th century, seeking work and better conditions. Most of the migrants did not remain.


title: Bornholm

text: Bornholm also attracted many famous artists at the beginning of the 20th century, forming a group now known as the Bornholm school of painters. In addition to Oluf Høst, they include Karl Isaksson (1878–1922) from Sweden, and the Danes Edvard Weie (1879–1943), Olaf Rude (1886–1957), Niels Lergaard (1893–1982), and Kræsten Iversen (1886–1955).


title: Bornholm

text: Bornholm, as a part of Denmark, was captured by Nazi Germany on 10 April 1940, and served as a lookout post and listening station during the war, as it was a part of the Eastern Front. The island's perfect central position in the Baltic Sea meant that it was an important "natural fortress" between Germany and Sweden, effectively keeping submarines and destroyers away from Nazi-occupied waters. Several concrete coastal installations were built during the war, as well as several coastal batteries, which had tremendous range. However, none of them were ever used, and only a single test shot was fired during the occupation. These remnants of Nazi rule have since fallen into disrepair and are mostly regarded today as historical curiosities. Many tourists visit the ruins each year, however, providing supplemental income to the tourist industry.


title: Bornholm

text: On 22 August 1942 a V-1 flying bomb (numbered V83, probably launched from a Heinkel He 111) crashed on Bornholm during a test – the warhead was a dummy made of concrete. The wreckage was photographed and sketched by the Danish Naval Officer-in-Charge on Bornholm, Lieutenant Commander Hasager Christiansen. This was one of the first signs British Intelligence saw of Germany's aspirations to develop flying bombs and rockets which were to become known as V-1. The Bornholm rocket turned out to be from Peenemünde.


title: Bornholm

text: Bornholm was heavily bombarded by the Soviet Air Forces in May 1945, as it was a part of the Eastern Front. The German garrison commander, German Navy Captain Gerhard von Kamptz (1902–1998), refused to surrender to the Soviets, as his orders were to surrender only to the Western Allies. The Germans sent several telegrams to Copenhagen requesting that at least one British soldier should be transferred to Bornholm, so that the Germans could surrender to the Western Allied forces instead of the Soviets. When von Kamptz failed to provide a written capitulation as demanded by the Soviet commanders, Soviet aircraft relentlessly bombed and destroyed more than 800 civilian houses in Rønne and in Nexø, and seriously damaged roughly 3,000 more on 7–8 May 1945. The population had been forewarned of the bombardments, and the towns were evacuated, but 10 local people were killed. Soldiers were also killed and wounded. Some of them were conscripts from occupied Latvia fighting in German ranks against the Soviets.


title: Bornholm

text: During the Soviet bombing of the two main towns on 7-8 May, Danish radio was not allowed to broadcast the news because it was thought it would spoil the liberation festivities in Denmark. On 9 May Soviet troops landed on the island, and after a short fight, the German garrison (about 12,000 strong) surrendered. Soviet forces left the island on 5 April 1946 as part of the post-war division of interests of the Soviet Union and the Western Allies. Denmark was to be Western aligned, and in return Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania were to be kept under Soviet occupation.


title: Bornholm

text: After the evacuation of their forces from Bornholm, the Soviets took the position that the stationing of foreign troops on Bornholm would be considered a declaration of war against the Soviet Union, and that Denmark should keep troops on it at all times to protect it from such foreign aggression. This policy remained in force after NATO was formed, with Denmark as a founding member. The Soviets accepted the stationing there of Danish troops, which were part of NATO but viewed as militarily inferior elements of the alliance, but they strongly objected to the presence of other NATO troops on Bornholm, US troops in particular.


title: Bornholm

text: On 5 March 1953, the day of Stalin's death, Polish pilot Franciszek Jarecki defected from the Eastern Bloc and landed a MiG-15 fighter on the island. He was later granted asylum and rewarded for providing Western intelligence with the then-newest Soviet jet fighter.


title: Bornholm

text: In 2017, Denmark's Defence Intelligence Service decided to build a listening tower near Østermarie, almost 90 meters high, to intercept radio communications across the Baltic Sea and in parts of Russia.


title: Bornholm

text: Bornholm Regional Municipality is the local authority (Danish, "kommune") covering the entire island. It is the of the five former (1 April 1970 until 2002) municipalities on the island (Allinge-Gudhjem, Hasle, Nexø, Rønne and Aakirkeby) and the former Bornholm County. Bornholm Regional Municipality was also a county in its own right during its first four years from 1 January 2003 until 31 December 2006. From 1 January 2007 all counties were abolished, and Bornholm became part of the Capital Region of Denmark whose main responsibility is the health service. The municipality still retains its name Bornholm "Regional" Municipality. The island had 21 municipalities until March 1970, of which 6 were market towns and 15 parishes. In addition to supervising parish municipalities, which was the responsibility of the counties in "all" of Denmark, the market town municipalities of Bornholm were supervised by Bornholm County as well and not by the Interior Ministry as was the case in the rest of Denmark. The seat of the municipal council is the island's main town, Rønne. The voters decided to merge the county with the municipalities in a referendum 29 May 2001, effective from 1 January 2003. The question on the ballot was, "Do you want the six municipal entities of Bornholm to be joined to form one municipal entity as of 1 January 2003?" 73.9% voted in favour. The lowest percentage for the merger was in Nexø municipality (966 more people voting "Yes" than "No"), whose mayor, Annelise Molin, a Social Democrat, spoke out against the merger. It was required that each municipality had more "Yes" votes than "No" votes. Otherwise the merger would have to be abandoned altogether. The six municipal entities had up to 122 councillors (of which county clls were 18, from 1998 15), reduced to 89 in the municipalities from the 1990s, in the 1970s and the new regional municipality would have 27 councillors from the start. They were reduced to 23 from 1 January 2018 (election November 2017). The merger was approved in a law by the Folketing 19 (and signature by the Queen 25) March 2002, transferring the tasks of the abolished county and old municipalities to the new Bornholm Regional Municipality. The first regional mayor in the first three years from 2003 until 2005 was Thomas Thors (born 28 July 1949), a physician and member of the Social Democrats and previously the last mayor of Rønne Municipality for five years from 1998 until 2002. He became a mayor again in 2021. Bjarne Kristiansen, who was the last mayor of Hasle years from the summer of 2000 until 2002, representing the local Borgerlisten political party, served as mayor for four years from 1 January 2006 until 2009. From 1 January 2007, Bornholm became a part of the Capital Region of Denmark. From 1 January 2010 until 31 December 2020 the mayor was Winni Grosbøll, a high school teacher and a member of the Social Democrats ("Socialdemokratiet") political party. The deputy mayor Morten Riis was mayor for a short interlude from 1 January until 4 January 2021. He is from the Red-Green Alliance. Thomas Thors, who was elected again in 2017, became mayor again from 4 January 2021. After the 2021 Danish local elections Jacob Trøst became mayor from January 2022. He is from the Conservative party. This was after an agreement ("aftale om konstituering") between the Red-Green Alliance, amongst whom Morten Riis will be deputy mayor, and the Danish People's Party with the Conservatives.


title: Bornholm

text: Bornholm's municipal council today consists of 23 members, elected every four years. In the first four local elections in the newly created municipality there were 27 members elected to the municipal council. The 2002 local election only took place on Bornholm. From the election in 2017 the number of councillors elected was reduced to 23 members, serving their term of office from 1 January 2018 until 31 December 2021.


title: Bornholm

text: Below are the election results to the new merged municipal council beginning with the first election 29 May 2002.


title: Bornholm

text: Ferry services connect Rønne to Świnoujście (Poland), Sassnitz (Germany), Køge, by road ( as the crow flies) south of Copenhagen, Denmark; the destination to Køge replaced the nighttime route directly to and from Copenhagen (for both cargo and passengers) from 1 October 2004; and catamaran services to Ystad (Sweden). Simrishamn (Sweden) has a ferry connection during the summer. There are also regular catamaran services between Nexø and the Polish ports of Kołobrzeg, Łeba and Ustka. There are direct bus connections Ystad-Copenhagen, coordinated with the catamaran. There are also flights from Bornholm Airport to Copenhagen and other locations.


title: Bornholm

text: Because of its remote location Bornholm Regional Municipality has its own traffic company, BAT, and is its own employment region, and also performs other tasks normally carried out by the regions in the rest of Denmark. In some respects the municipality forms a region of its own.


title: Bornholm

text: Bornholm Regional Municipality was not merged with other municipalities on 1 January 2007 in the nationwide Municipal Reform of 2007.


title: Bornholm

text: The larger towns on the island are located on the coast and have harbours. There is however one exception, centrally placed Aakirkeby, which was also the name of the municipality from 1970 until 2002, but it included the harbour of Boderne, to the south. The largest town is Rønne; it is the seat, in the southwest on the westernmost point of the island. The other main towns (clockwise around the island) are Hasle, Sandvig, Allinge, Gudhjem, Svaneke and Nexø. Monday morning 22 September 2014 it was documented by "Folkeregistret" in the municipality that the number of people living in the municipality that day were 39,922, the lowest number in over 100 years.


title: Bornholm

text: The town of Rønne after the merger of the island's administrative entities 1 January 2003 reached a low point of 13,568 inhabitants 1 January 2014. 15,957 people in 1965 (date unknown;number not registerbased) lived in the two parishes that would become Rønne municipality from 1 April 1970. In the table, numbers for Rønne are for the parish of Rønne, Rønne Sogn, alone. The year is unknown but sometime between 2000 and 2005. It does not include Knudsker Sogn, which was also part of Rønne Municipality. Other localities (with approximate populations, not updated) include Aarsballe (86), Arnager (151), Olsker (67), Rutsker (64), Rø (181), Stenseby (?) and Vang (92). In 2010 and 2018 10,297 and 9,111 respectively lived in rural districts, and 88 and 71 had no fixed address. A rural district is defined by Statistics Denmark as a settlement with less than 200 inhabitants.


title: Bornholm

text: Population numbers are from 1 January. Christiansø Parish (which encompasses Ertholmene) is not a part of Bornholm Regional Municipality. It is included because Danmarks Statistik includes it as parish number 7568. Bornholm has 21 parishes (2018) that before 1 April 1970 were parish (15) or market city (6) municipalities themselves. There are 2,158 parishes (2021) in the Church of Denmark.


title: Bornholm

text: Source:Statistikbanken.dk/Befolkning og valg/(table)FODIE (births);FOD207 (deaths);BEV107 (births;deaths;birth surplus);KM1 (parishes).


title: Bornholm

text: On 22 September 2014 population numbers showed fewer than 40,000 inhabitants on the island for the first time in over 100 years. The "Folkeregister" in the municipality could document 39,922 inhabitants in the municipality on that date.


title: Bornholm

text: Many inhabitants speak the Bornholmsk dialect, which is officially a dialect of Danish. Bornholmsk retains three grammatical genders, like Faroese, Icelandic and most dialects of Norwegian, but unlike standard Danish. Its phonology includes archaisms (unstressed and internal , where other dialects have and ) and innovations ( for before and after front-tongue vowels). This makes the dialect difficult to understand for some Danish speakers. However, Swedish speakers often consider Bornholmian to be easier to understand than standard Danish. The intonation resembles the dialects spoken in nearby Scania, Blekinge and Halland the southernmost provinces of Sweden.


title: Bornholm

text: Most inhabitants are members of the Lutheran Church of Denmark ("Folkekirken"). Various Christian denominations have become established on the island, most during the 19th century.


title: Bornholm

text: On the surface of Bornholm older geological formations can be seen better than in the rest of Denmark. "Stubbeløkken" – which is still operating (Danish "i drift") – and "Klippeløkken" granite quarries in Knudsker parish just east of central Rønne – and statistically a part of the town – are among the few remaining quarries of what was once many active quarries on the island. The island's varied geography and seascapes attract visitors to its many beauty spots from the Hammeren promontory in the northwest to the Almindingen forest in the centre and the Dueodde beaches in the southeast. Of special interest are the rocky sea cliffs at Jons Kapel and Helligdomsklipperne, the varied topography of Paradisbakkerne and rift valleys such as Ekkodalen and Døndalen. Bornholm's numerous windmills include the post mill of Egeby and the well-kept Dutch mill at Aarsdale. The lighthouse at Dueodde is Denmark's tallest, while Hammeren Lighthouse stands at a height of above sea level and Rønne Lighthouse rises over the waterfront.


title: Bornholm

text: Examples of roads that have (very) steep climbs and descents are: (inland) Simblegårdsvej in Klemensker, which begins by the village inn Klemens Kro, and Slamrebjergvej just outside Nexø extending northward from the main road from Rønne. Along the coast there are several steep roads, which is also the case in some parts of Denmark as a whole, for instance in and around Vejle.


title: Bornholm

text: The island hosts examples of 19th- and early-20th-century architecture, and about 300 wooden houses in Rønne and Nexø, donated by Sweden after World War II, when the island was repairing damage caused by the war.


title: Bornholm

text: The island is home to 15 medieval churches, four of which are round churches with unique artwork and architecture. The ancient site of Rispebjerg has remains of sun temples from the Neolithic and earthworks from the Iron Age.


title: Bornholm

text: Because of the dilapidated state of their buildings, all secondary educational facilities in Rønne, including adult evening classes, are being transferred to new facilities at Campus Bornholm in 2018. Campus Bornholm is a merger formed in June 2010 consisting of Bornholms Erhvervsskole (youth and adults), Bornholm High School (youth) and VUC Bornholm (adults), then occupying separate addresses. Learning institutions not part of this formalised collaboration will also be housed at Minervavej in Rønne. The building costs were over 300 million DKK (US$46.9 million (29 June 2018)). The A.P. Møller Foundation contributed a sum of 56 million DKK (US$8.76 million (29 June 2018)) to the project.


title: Bornholm

text: Among Bornholm's chief industrial activities are dairy farming and arts and crafts industries such as glass production and pottery using locally worked clay.


title: Bornholm

text: Jensen-Group, an industrial washing and folding machine company, was founded on the island and has a factory in Rønne. It is headquartered in Belgium.


title: Bornholm

text: Bornholm is connected to the Swedish electricity grid by a submarine 60 kV AC cable, which is among the longest AC cables in Europe. This cable is capable of delivering all the electrical energy consumed on Bornholm. However Bornholm also generates its own electricity at small thermal power plants and especially wind turbines.


title: Bornholm

text: Bornholm is also home to a large internationally funded demonstration project to test the viability of novel energy market mechanisms to regulate energy networks with a high prevalence of renewables (such as wind turbines and photovoltaics). 50% of the EcoGrid project is EU-funded, with the remainder coming mainly from large corporations.


title: Bornholm

text: Bornholm hosts a Marines like squadron (4th Basic Training Squadron), of the Guard Hussar Regiment at Almegårds Kaserne.


title: Bornholm

text: Bornholm has an oceanic climate relatively similar to southern Sweden and mainland Denmark, whose summer highs and winter lows are heavily moderated by its maritime and isolated position. Though intense heat is rare, the climate is sunny during summer and rainfall is generally sparse for a climate of this type. The winter of 2010 – 2011 was exceptionally extreme with snow depth reaching at least 146 cm (58 inches) and snowdrifts of six meters (20 feet), the highest in Northern Europe. Military assistance was needed to clear roadways. The DMI estimated the weight of snow to be 100 million tons.


title: Bornholm

text: Bornholm's geography as an island and moderate climate makes Bornholm an ideal location for sailing and other water-based sports. Bornholm has also become an internationally recognised venue for 'match racing', a sailing sport where two identical yachts are raced in one-on-one events on the water. The Danish Open event was held in Bornholm in September 2010 at the port town of Rønne on the western coast of Bornholm. The five-day Danish Open is a key event in the World Match Racing Tour calendar which is one of only 3 events awarded 'special event' status by the International Sailing Federation. The Tour is the world's leading professional 'match racing' series and features a nine-event calendar which crosses three continents during the series. Points accrued during the Danish Open contribute directly to the World Match Racing Tour championship with the winner of the season finale at the Monsoon Cup in Malaysia claiming the ultimate match racing title ISAF World Match Racing Champion.


title: Bornholm

text: There are two small stadiums: Nexø Stadion, in Nexø, where NB Bornholm association football club play; and the slightly larger multi-use stadium Rønne Stadion Nord in Rønne, which serves the Bornholm national football team, multi-section club most well known for athletics IK Viking, and several local football clubs. The DBU Bornholm is the local branch governing football on the island.


title: Abstract data type

text: In computer science, an abstract data type (ADT) is a mathematical model for data types. An abstract data type is defined by its behavior (semantics) from the point of view of a "user", of the data, specifically in terms of possible values, possible operations on data of this type, and the behavior of these operations. This mathematical model contrasts with data structures, which are concrete representations of data, and are the point of view of an implementer, not a user.


title: Abstract data type

text: Formally, an ADT may be defined as a "class of objects whose logical behavior is defined by a set of values and a set of operations"; this is analogous to an algebraic structure in mathematics. What is meant by "behaviour" varies by author, with the two main types of formal specifications for behavior being "axiomatic (algebraic) specification" and an "abstract model;" these correspond to axiomatic semantics and operational semantics of an abstract machine, respectively. Some authors also include the computational complexity ("cost"), both in terms of time (for computing operations) and space (for representing values). In practice, many common data types are not ADTs, as the abstraction is not perfect, and users must be aware of issues like arithmetic overflow that are due to the representation. For example, integers are often stored as fixed-width values (32-bit or 64-bit binary numbers), and thus experience integer overflow if the maximum value is exceeded.


title: Abstract data type

text: ADTs are a theoretical concept, in computer science, used in the design and analysis of algorithms, data structures, and software systems, and do not correspond to specific features of computer languages—mainstream computer languages do not directly support formally specified ADTs. However, various language features correspond to certain aspects of ADTs, and are easily confused with ADTs proper; these include abstract types, opaque data types, protocols, and design by contract. ADTs were first proposed by Barbara Liskov and Stephen N. Zilles in 1974, as part of the development of the CLU language.


title: Abstract data type

text: For example, integers are an ADT, defined as the values ..., −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, ..., and by the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, together with greater than, less than, etc., which behave according to familiar mathematics (with care for integer division), independently of how the integers are represented by the computer. Explicitly, "behavior" includes obeying various axioms (associativity and commutativity of addition, etc.), and preconditions on operations (cannot divide by zero). Typically integers are represented in a data structure as binary numbers, most often as two's complement, but might be binary-coded decimal or in ones' complement, but for most purposes the user can work with the abstraction rather than the concrete choice of representation, and can simply use the data as if the type were truly abstract.


title: Abstract data type

text: An ADT consists not only of operations but also of a domain of values, and of constraints on the defined operations. An "interface" typically refers only to the operations, and perhaps some of the constraints on the operations, such as pre-conditions and post-conditions; but not to other constraints such as relations between the operations.


title: Abstract data type

text: For example, an abstract stack, which is a last-in-first-out structure, could be defined by three operations: push, that inserts a data item onto the stack; pop, that removes a data item from it; and peek or top, that accesses a data item on top of the stack without removal. An abstract queue, which is a first-in-first-out structure, would also have three operations: enqueue, that inserts a data item into the queue; dequeue, that removes the first data item from it; and front, that accesses and serves the first data item in the queue. If these were the entire definitions, there would be no way of differentiating these two data types and their very different expected ordering behavior. Thus, a constraint is introduced that for a stack specifies that each pop always returns (and removes) the most recently pushed item that has not been popped yet, and for a queue (in contrast) specifies that pop operates on the least recently pushed item.


title: Abstract data type

text: When analyzing the efficiency of algorithms, one may also specify that all operations take the same time no matter how many data items have been pushed into the stack, and that the stack uses a constant amount of storage for each element. However, time bounds are not always considered part of the definition of an ADT.


title: Abstract data type

text: Abstract data types are purely theoretical entities, used (among other things) to simplify the description of abstract algorithms, to classify and evaluate data structures, and to formally describe the type systems of programming languages. However, an ADT may be implemented by specific data types or data structures, in many ways and in many programming languages; or described in a formal specification language. ADTs are often implemented as modules: the module's interface declares procedures that correspond to the ADT operations, sometimes with comments that describe the constraints. This information hiding strategy allows the implementation of the module to be changed without disturbing the client programs.


title: Abstract data type

text: The term abstract data type can also be regarded as a generalized approach of a number of algebraic structures, such as lattices, groups, and rings. The notion of abstract data types is related to the concept of data abstraction, important in object-oriented programming and design by contract methodologies for software development.


title: Abstract data type

text: An abstract data type is defined as a mathematical model of the data objects that make up a data type as well as the functions that operate on these objects.


title: Abstract data type

text: There are no standard conventions for defining them. A broad division may be drawn between "imperative" (or "operational") and "functional" (or "axiomatic") definition styles.


title: Abstract data type

text: In the theory of imperative programming languages, an abstract data structure is conceived as an entity that is "mutable"—meaning that it may be in different "states" at different times. Some operations may change the state of the ADT; therefore, the order in which operations are evaluated is important, and the same operation on the same entities may have different effects if executed at different times. This is analogous to the instructions of a computer, or the commands and procedures of an imperative language. To underscore this view it is customary to say that the operations are "executed" or "applied", rather than "evaluated", similar to the imperative style often used when describing abstract algorithms. (See The Art of Computer Programming by Donald Knuth for more details).


title: Abstract data type

text: Imperative-style definitions of ADT often depend on the concept of an "abstract variable", which may be regarded as the simplest non-trivial ADT. An abstract variable "V" is a mutable entity that admits two operations:


title: Abstract data type

text: Fetching before storing can be disallowed, defined to have a certain result, or (less desirably), leave the behavior unspecified.


title: Abstract data type

text: As in many programming languages, the operation store("V", "x") is often written "V" ← "x" (or some similar notation), and fetch("V") is implied whenever a variable "V" is used in a context where a value is required. Thus, for example, "V" ← "V" + 1 is commonly understood to be a shorthand for store("V",fetch("V") + 1).


title: Abstract data type

text: In this definition, it is implicitly assumed that names are always distinct: storing a value into a variable "U" has no effect on the state of a distinct variable "V". To make this assumption explicit, one could add the constraint that


title: Abstract data type

text: More generally, ADT definitions often assume that any operation that changes the state of one ADT instance has no effect on the state of any other instance of the same ADT, unless the ADT axioms define certain instances as connected (see aliased) in a specific way. The most common such connections include:


title: Abstract data type

text: For example, when extending the definition of an abstract variable to include abstract records, operations upon a field "F" of a record variable "R", clearly involve "F", which is distinct from, but also a part of, "R".


title: Abstract data type

text: The definition of an ADT may restrict the stored value(s) for its instances, to members of a specific set "X" called the "range" of those variables. For example, an ADT for an aggregate such as a Stack or Queue, may constrain all items in the queue to be integers, or at least to all be of a single type (see homogeneity). As in programming languages, such restrictions may simplify the description and analysis of algorithms, and improve its readability.


title: Abstract data type

text: Note that this definition does not imply anything about the result of evaluating fetch("V") when "V" is "un-initialized", that is, before performing any store operation on "V". An algorithm that does so may be considered invalid, either (a) because the ADT prohibits such an operation, or (b) simply because its effect is not defined by the ADT. However, there are some important algorithms whose efficiency strongly depends on the assumption that such a fetch is legal, and returns some arbitrary value in the variable's range.)


title: Abstract data type

text: Some algorithms need to create new instances of some ADT (such as new variables, or new stacks). To describe such algorithms, one usually includes in the ADT definition a create() operation that yields an instance of the ADT, usually with axioms equivalent to


title: Abstract data type

text: This axiom may be strengthened to exclude also partial aliasing with other instances. For practical use, such as axiom may still allow implementations of create() to yield a previously created instance that has become inaccessible to the program; however, defining that such an instance even is "the same" is difficult, especially in the abstract (though even a re-used block of memory is only "the same object" in certain senses).


title: Abstract data type

text: As another example, an imperative-style definition of an abstract stack could specify that the state of a stack "S" can be modified only by the operations


title: Abstract data type

text: Since the assignment "V" ← "x", by definition, cannot change the state of "S", this condition implies that "V" ← pop("S") restores "S" to the state it had before the push("S", "x"). From this condition and from the properties of abstract variables, it follows, for example, that the sequence


title: Abstract data type

text: where "x", "y", and "z" are any values, and "U", "V", "W" are pairwise distinct variables, is equivalent to


title: Abstract data type

text: Here it is implicitly assumed that operations on a stack instance do not modify the state of any other ADT instance, including other stacks; that is,


title: Abstract data type

text: An abstract stack definition usually includes also a Boolean-valued function empty("S") and a create() operation that returns a stack instance, with axioms equivalent to


title: Abstract data type

text: Sometimes an ADT is defined as if only one instance of it existed during the execution of the algorithm, and all operations were applied to that instance, which is not explicitly notated. For example, the abstract stack above could have been defined with operations push("x") and pop(), that operate on "the" only existing stack. ADT definitions in this style can be easily rewritten to admit multiple coexisting instances of the ADT, by adding an explicit instance parameter (like "S" in the previous example) to every operation that uses or modifies the implicit instance.


title: Abstract data type

text: On the other hand, some ADTs cannot be meaningfully defined without assuming multiple instances. This is the case when a single operation takes two distinct instances of the ADT as parameters. For an example, consider augmenting the definition of the abstract stack with an operation compare("S", "T") that checks whether the stacks "S" and "T" contain the same items in the same order.


title: Abstract data type

text: Another way to define an ADT, closer to the spirit of functional programming, is to consider each state of the structure as a separate entity. In this view, any operation that modifies the ADT is modelled as a mathematical function that takes the old state as an argument and returns the new state as part of the result. Unlike the imperative operations, these functions have no side effects. Therefore, the order in which they are evaluated is immaterial, and the same operation applied to the same arguments (including the same input states) will always return the same results (and output states).


title: Abstract data type

text: In the functional view, in particular, there is no way (or need) to define an "abstract variable" with the semantics of imperative variables (namely, with fetch and store operations). Instead of storing values into variables, one passes them as arguments to functions.


title: Abstract data type

text: For example, a complete functional-style definition of an abstract stack could use the three operations:


title: Abstract data type

text: In a functional-style definition there is no need for a create operation. Indeed, there is no notion of "stack instance". The stack states can be thought of as being potential states of a single stack structure, and two-stack states that contain the same values in the same order are considered to be identical states. This view actually mirrors the behavior of some concrete implementations, such as linked lists with hash cons.


title: Abstract data type

text: Instead of create(), a functional-style definition of an abstract stack may assume the existence of a special stack state, the "empty stack", designated by a special symbol like Λ or "()"; or define a bottom() operation that takes no arguments and returns this special stack state. Note that the axioms imply that


title: Abstract data type

text: In a functional-style definition of a stack one does not need an empty predicate: instead, one can test whether a stack is empty by testing whether it is equal to Λ.


title: Abstract data type

text: Note that these axioms do not define the effect of top("s") or pop("s"), unless "s" is a stack state returned by a push. Since push leaves the stack non-empty, those two operations are undefined (hence invalid) when "s" = Λ. On the other hand, the axioms (and the lack of side effects) imply that push("s", "x") = push("t", "y") if and only if "x" = "y" and "s" = "t".


title: Abstract data type

text: As in some other branches of mathematics, it is customary to assume also that the stack states are only those whose existence can be proved from the axioms in a finite number of steps. In the abstract stack example above, this rule means that every stack is a "finite" sequence of values, that becomes the empty stack (Λ) after a finite number of pops. By themselves, the axioms above do not exclude the existence of infinite stacks (that can be popped forever, each time yielding a different state) or circular stacks (that return to the same state after a finite number of pops). In particular, they do not exclude states "s" such that pop("s") = "s" or push("s", "x") = "s" for some "x". However, since one cannot obtain such stack states with the given operations, they are assumed "not to exist".


title: Abstract data type

text: Aside from the behavior in terms of axioms, it is also possible to include, in the definition of an ADT operation, their algorithmic complexity. Alexander Stepanov, designer of the C++ Standard Template Library, included complexity guarantees in the STL specification, arguing:


title: Abstract data type

text: Abstraction provides a promise that any implementation of the ADT has certain properties and abilities; knowing these is all that is required to make use of an ADT object.it make to used with Data type in programming language


title: Abstract data type

text: Code that uses an ADT object will not need to be edited if the implementation of the ADT is changed. Since any changes to the implementation must still comply with the interface, and since code using an ADT object may only refer to properties and abilities specified in the interface, changes may be made to the implementation without requiring any changes in code where the ADT is used.


title: Abstract data type

text: Different implementations of the ADT, having all the same properties and abilities, are equivalent and may be used somewhat interchangeably in code that uses the ADT. This gives a great deal of flexibility when using ADT objects in different situations. For example, different implementations of the ADT may be more efficient in different situations; it is possible to use each in the situation where they are preferable, thus increasing overall efficiency.


title: Abstract data type

text: The free operation is not normally relevant or meaningful, since ADTs are theoretical entities that do not "use memory". However, it may be necessary when one needs to analyze the storage used by an algorithm that uses the ADT. In that case, one needs additional axioms that specify how much memory each ADT instance uses, as a function of its state, and how much of it is returned to the pool by free.


title: Abstract data type

text: Each of these ADTs may be defined in many ways and variants, not necessarily equivalent. For example, an abstract stack may or may not have a count operation that tells how many items have been pushed and not yet popped. This choice makes a difference not only for its clients but also for the implementation.


title: Abstract data type

text: An extension of ADT for computer graphics was proposed in 1979: an abstract graphical data type (AGDT). It was introduced by Nadia Magnenat Thalmann, and Daniel Thalmann. AGDTs provide the advantages of ADTs with facilities to build graphical objects in a structured way.


title: Abstract data type

text: Implementing an ADT means providing one procedure or function for each abstract operation. The ADT instances are represented by some concrete data structure that is manipulated by those procedures, according to the ADT's specifications.


title: Abstract data type

text: Usually, there are many ways to implement the same ADT, using several different concrete data structures. Thus, for example, an abstract stack can be implemented by a linked list or by an array.


title: Abstract data type

text: In order to prevent clients from depending on the implementation, an ADT is often packaged as an "opaque data type" in one or more modules, whose interface contains only the signature (number and types of the parameters and results) of the operations. The implementation of the module—namely, the bodies of the procedures and the concrete data structure used—can then be hidden from most clients of the module. This makes it possible to change the implementation without affecting the clients. If the implementation is exposed, it is known instead as a "transparent data type."


title: Abstract data type

text: When implementing an ADT, each instance (in imperative-style definitions) or each state (in functional-style definitions) is usually represented by a handle of some sort.


title: Abstract data type

text: Modern object-oriented languages, such as C++ and Java, support a form of abstract data types. When a class is used as a type, it is an abstract type that refers to a hidden representation. In this model, an ADT is typically implemented as a class, and each instance of the ADT is usually an object of that class. The module's interface typically declares the constructors as ordinary procedures, and most of the other ADT operations as methods of that class. However, such an approach does not easily encapsulate multiple representational variants found in an ADT. It also can undermine the extensibility of object-oriented programs. In a pure object-oriented program that uses interfaces as types, types refer to behaviours, not representations.


title: Abstract data type

text: This interface can be implemented in many ways. The implementation may be arbitrarily inefficient, since the formal definition of the ADT, above, does not specify how much space the stack may use, nor how long each operation should take. It also does not specify whether the stack state "s" continues to exist after a call "x" ← pop("s").


title: Abstract data type

text: In practice the formal definition should specify that the space is proportional to the number of items pushed and not yet popped; and that every one of the operations above must finish in a constant amount of time, independently of that number. To comply with these additional specifications, the implementation could use a linked list, or an array (with dynamic resizing) together with two integers (an item count and the array size).


title: Abstract data type

text: Functional-style ADT definitions are more appropriate for functional programming languages, and vice versa. However, one can provide a functional-style interface even in an imperative language like C. For example:


title: Abstract data type

text: stack_T stack_push(stack_T s, stack_Item x); // adds an item at the top of the stack state and returns the resulting stack state


title: Abstract data type

text: stack_T stack_pop(stack_T s); // removes the top item from the stack state and returns the resulting stack state


title: Abstract data type

text: Many modern programming languages, such as C++ and Java, come with standard libraries that implement several common ADTs, such as those listed above.


title: Abstract data type

text: The specification of some programming languages is intentionally vague about the representation of certain built-in data types, defining only the operations that can be done on them. Therefore, those types can be viewed as "built-in ADTs". Examples are the arrays in many scripting languages, such as Awk, Lua, and Perl, which can be regarded as an implementation of the abstract list.


title: Thrombus

text: A thrombus (plural thrombi), colloquially called a blood clot, is the final product of the blood coagulation step in hemostasis. There are two components to a thrombus: aggregated platelets and red blood cells that form a plug, and a mesh of cross-linked fibrin protein. The substance making up a thrombus is sometimes called cruor. A thrombus is a healthy response to injury intended to stop and prevent further bleeding, but can be harmful in thrombosis, when a clot obstructs blood flow through healthy blood vessels in the circulatory system.


title: Thrombus

text: In the microcirculation consisting of the very small and smallest blood vessels the capillaries, tiny thrombi known as microclots can obstruct the flow of blood in the capillaries. This can cause a number of problems particularly affecting the alveoli in the lungs of the respiratory system resulting from reduced oxygen supply. Microclots have been found to be a characteristic feature in severe cases of COVID-19, and in long COVID.


title: Thrombus

text: Mural thrombi are thrombi that adhere to the wall of a large blood vessel or heart chamber. They are most commonly found in the aorta, the largest artery in the body, more often in the descending aorta, and less often in the aortic arch or abdominal aorta. They can restrict blood flow but usually do not block it entirely. They appear grey-red with alternating light and dark lines (known as lines of Zahn) which represent bands of white blood cells and red blood cells (darker) entrapped in layers of fibrin.


title: Thrombus

text: Thrombi are classified into two major groups depending on their location and the relative amount of platelets and red blood cells (RBCs). The two major groups are:


title: Thrombus

text: Mural thrombi are thrombi that adhere to the wall of a large blood vessel or heart chamber. They are most commonly found in the aorta, the largest artery in the body, more often in the descending aorta, and less often in the aortic arch or abdominal aorta. They can restrict blood flow but usually do not block it entirely. Mural thrombi are not usually found in vessels already damaged by atherosclerosis.


title: Thrombus

text: A mural thrombus can affect any heart chamber. When found in the left ventricle it is often a result of a heart attack complication. The thrombus in this case can separate from the chamber, be carried through arteries and block a blood vessel. They appear grey-red with alternating light and dark lines (known as lines of Zahn) which represent bands of white blood cells and red blood cells (darker) entrapped in layers of fibrin.


title: Thrombus

text: Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) involves widespread microthrombi formation throughout the majority of the blood vessels. This is due to excessive consumption of coagulation factors and subsequent activation of fibrinolysis using all of the body's available platelets and clotting factors. The result is hemorrhaging and ischemic necrosis of tissue/organs. Causes are septicaemia, acute leukaemia, shock, snake bites, fat emboli from broken bones, or other severe traumas. DIC may also be seen in pregnant females. Treatment involves the use of fresh frozen plasma to restore the level of clotting factors in the blood, as well as platelets and heparin to prevent further thrombi formation.


title: Thrombus

text: A thrombus occurs when the hemostatic process, which normally occurs in response to injury, becomes activated in an uninjured or slightly injured vessel. A thrombus in a large blood vessel will decrease blood flow through that vessel (termed a mural thrombus). In a small blood vessel, blood flow may be completely cut off (termed an occlusive thrombus), resulting in death of tissue supplied by that vessel. If a thrombus dislodges and becomes free-floating, it is considered an embolus. If an embolus becomes trapped within a blood vessel, it blocks blood flow and is termed as an embolism. Embolisms, depending on their specific location, can cause more significant effects like strokes, heart attacks, or even death.


title: Thrombus

text: Some of the conditions which increase the risk of blood clots developing include atrial fibrillation (a form of cardiac arrhythmia), heart valve replacement, a recent heart attack (also known as a myocardial infarction), extended periods of inactivity (see deep venous thrombosis), and genetic or disease-related deficiencies in the blood's clotting abilities.


title: Thrombus

text: Platelet activation occurs through injuries that damage the endothelium of the blood vessels, exposing the enzyme called factor VII, a protein normally circulating within the vessels, to the tissue factor, which is a protein encoded by the F3 gene.


title: Thrombus

text: The platelet activation can potentially cause a cascade, eventually leading to the formation of the thrombus. This process is regulated through thromboregulation.


title: Thrombus

text: Anticoagulants are drugs used to prevent the formation of blood clots, reducing the risk of stroke, heart attack and pulmonary embolism. Heparin and warfarin are used to inhibit the formation and growth of existing thrombi, with the former used for acute anticoagulation while the latter is used for long-term anticoagulation. The mechanism of action of heparin and warfarin are different as they work on different pathways of the coagulation cascade. Heparin works by binding to and activating the enzyme inhibitor antithrombin III, an enzyme that acts by inactivating thrombin and factor Xa. In contrast, warfarin works by inhibiting vitamin K epoxide reductase, an enzyme needed to synthesize vitamin K dependent clotting factors II, VII, IX, and X. Bleeding time with heparin and warfarin therapy can be measured with the partial thromboplastin time (PTT) and prothrombin time (PT), respectively.


title: Thrombus

text: Once clots have formed, other drugs can be used to promote thrombolysis or clot breakdown. Streptokinase, an enzyme produced by streptococcal bacteria, is one of the oldest thrombolytic drugs. This drug can be administered intravenously to dissolve blood clots in coronary vessels. However, streptokinase causes systemic fibrinolytic state and can lead to bleeding problems. Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) is a different enzyme that promotes the degradation of fibrin in clots but not free fibrinogen. This drug is made by transgenic bacteria and converts plasminogen into the clot-dissolving enzyme, plasmin. Recent research indicates that tPA could have toxic effects in the central nervous system. In cases of severe stroke, tPA can cross the blood–brain barrier and enter interstitial fluid, where it then increases excitotoxicity, potentially affecting permeability of the blood–brain barrier, and causing cerebral hemorrhage.


title: Thrombus

text: There are also some anticoagulants that come from animals that work by dissolving fibrin. For example, "Haementeria ghilianii", an Amazon leech, produces an enzyme called hementin from its salivary glands.


title: Thrombus

text: Thrombus formation can have one of four outcomes: propagation, embolization, dissolution, and organization and recanalization.


title: Chanterelle

text: Chanterelle is the common name of several species of fungi in the genera "Cantharellus", "Craterellus", "Gomphus", and "Polyozellus". They are among the most popular of wild edible mushrooms. They are orange, yellow or white, meaty and funnel-shaped. On the lower surface, underneath the smooth cap, most species have rounded, forked folds that run almost all the way down the stipe, which tapers down seamlessly from the cap. Many species emit a fruity aroma, reminiscent of apricots, and often have a mildly peppery taste (hence its German name, "Pfifferling"). The name chanterelle originates from the Greek "kantharos" meaning "tankard" or "cup", a reference to their general shape.


title: Chanterelle

text: At one time, all yellow or golden chanterelles in western North America had been classified as "Cantharellus cibarius". Using DNA analysis, they have since been shown to be a group of related species. In 1997, the Pacific golden chanterelle ("C. formosus") and "C. cibarius" var. "roseocanus" were identified, followed by "C. cascadensis" in 2003, "C. californicus" in 2008, and C. enelensis in 2017. "C. cibarius" var. "roseocanus" occurs in the Pacific Northwest in Sitka spruce forests, as well as Eastern Canada in association with "Pinus banksiana".


title: Chanterelle

text: The false chanterelle ("Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca") has a similar appearance and can be confused with the chanterelle. Distinguishing factors are that false chanterelles have true gills, while chanterelles have folds. Additionally, color can help distinguish the two; the true chanterelle is uniform egg-yellow, while the false chanterelle is more orange in hue and graded, with darker center. The true chanterelle's folds are typically more wrinkled or rounded, and randomly forked. Though once thought to be hazardous, it is now known that the false chanterelle is edible but not especially tasty, and ingesting it may result in mild gastrointestinal distress. The poisonous species in the genus "Omphalotus" (the jack-o'-lantern mushrooms) have been misidentified as chanterelles, but can usually be distinguished by their well-developed, unforked true gills. Species of "Omphalotus" are not closely related to chanterelles. Other species in the closely related genera "Cantharellus" and "Craterellus" may appear similar to the golden chanterelle.


title: Chanterelle

text: "Cantharellus pallens" has sometimes been defined as a species in its own right, but it is normally considered to be just a variety ("C. cibarius var. pallens"). Unlike "true" "C. cibarius" it yellows and then reddens when touched and has a weaker smell. Eyssartier and Roux classify it as a separate species but say that 90% of the chanterelles sold in French markets are this, not "C. cibarius".


title: Chanterelle

text: Similarly "Cantharellus alborufescens", which is very pale, reddens easily, and is found in mediterranean areas and Northern of Iran is sometimes distinguished as a separate variety or a separate species.


title: Chanterelle

text: Chanterelles are common in Eurasia, North and Central America and Africa. They tend to grow in clusters in mossy coniferous forests, but are also often found in mountainous birch forests and among grasses and low-growing herbs. In central Europe, the golden chanterelle is often found in beech forests among similar species and forms. In the UK, they may be found from July through December.


title: Chanterelle

text: Raw chanterelle mushrooms are 90% water, 7% carbohydrates, including 4% dietary fiber, 1.5% protein, and have negligible fat. A 100 gram reference amount of raw chanterelles supplies 38 kilocalories of food energy and the B vitamins, niacin and pantothenic acid, in rich content (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV), 27% DV of iron, with moderate contents (10-1 of riboflavin, manganese, and potassium (table).


title: Chanterelle

text: When exposed to sunlight, raw chanterelles produce a rich amount of vitamin D2 (35% DV) – also known as ergocalciferol.


title: Chanterelle

text: Though records of chanterelles being eaten date back to the 16th century, they first gained widespread recognition as a culinary delicacy with the spreading influence of French cuisine in the 18th century, when they began appearing in palace kitchens. For many years, they remained notable for being served at the tables of nobility. Nowadays, the usage of chanterelles in the kitchen is common throughout Europe and North America. In 1836, the Swedish mycologist Elias Fries considered the chanterelle "as one of the most important and best edible mushrooms."


title: Chanterelle

text: Chanterelles as a group are generally described as being rich in flavor, with a distinctive taste and aroma difficult to characterize. Some species have a fruity odor, others a more woody, earthy fragrance, and still others can even be considered spicy. The golden chanterelle is perhaps the most sought-after and flavorful chanterelle, and many chefs consider it on the same short list of gourmet fungi as truffles and morels. It therefore tends to command a high price in both restaurants and specialty stores.


title: Chanterelle

text: There are many ways to cook chanterelles. Most of the flavorful compounds in chanterelles are fat-soluble, making them good mushrooms to sauté in butter, oil or cream. They also contain smaller amounts of water- and alcohol-soluble flavorings, which lend the mushrooms well to recipes involving wine or other cooking alcohols. Many popular methods of cooking chanterelles include them in sautés, soufflés, cream sauces, and soups. They are not typically eaten raw, as their rich and complex flavor is best released when cooked.


title: Chanterelle

text: Chanterelles are also well-suited for drying, and tend to maintain their aroma and consistency quite well. Some chefs profess that reconstituted chanterelles are actually superior in flavor to fresh ones, though they lose in texture whatever they gain in flavor by becoming more chewy after being preserved by drying. Dried chanterelles can also be crushed into flour and used in seasoning in soups or sauces. Chanterelles are also suitable for freezing, though older frozen chanterelles can often develop a slightly bitter taste after thawing.


title: Amicus curiae

text: An amicus curiae (; ) is an individual or organization who is not a party to a legal case, but who is permitted to assist a court by offering information, expertise, or insight that has a bearing on the issues in the case. The decision on whether to consider an "amicus" brief lies within the discretion of the court. The phrase is legal Latin and the origin of the term has been dated to 1605–1615. The scope of "amici curiae" is generally found in the cases where broad public interests are involved and concerns regarding civil rights are in question.


title: Amicus curiae

text: In American law, an "amicus curiae" typically refers to what in some other jurisdictions is known as an intervenor: a person or organization who requests to provide legal submissions so as to offer a relevant alternative or additional perspective regarding the matters in dispute. In the American courts, the amicus may be referred to as an "amicus" brief. In other jurisdictions, such as Canada, an "amicus curiae" is a lawyer who is asked by the court to provide legal submissions regarding issues that would otherwise not be aired properly, often because one or both of the parties is not represented by counsel.


title: Amicus curiae

text: Direct or indirect connections between the "amicus curiae" figure and the Roman juridical experience are still debated. Some scholars simply explain the Latin expression with the fact that the cultural elites' (including the jurists one) language of the Anglo-Saxon world of the past was the Latin, so many Latin legal terms spread in the English law before and so in the Law of the United States then also. The Italian academic Giovanni Criscuoli, while admitting the theoretical possibility of eventually compare it with the Roman figure of the ""consiliarius"", concludes that: "it is a figure of exclusive Anglo-Saxon blood".


title: Amicus curiae

text: Starting in the 9th century, it was incorporated into English law, and it was later extended to most common law systems. Later, it was introduced in international law, in particular concerning human rights. From there, it was integrated in some civil law systems (it has been, as at 2013, integrated into Argentina's law system and Honduras's 2010 civil procedures code). Today, it is used by the European Court of Human Rights, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, the Court of Justice of the European Union and the Special Tribunal for Lebanon.


title: Amicus curiae

text: The role of an "amicus" is, as stated by Salmon LJ (as Lord Salmon then was) in "Allen v Sir Alfred McAlpine & Sons Ltd" [1968] 2 QB 229 at p. 266 F-G:


title: Amicus curiae

text: The situation most often noted in the press is when an advocacy group files a brief in a case before an appellate court in which it is not a litigant. Appellate cases are normally limited to the factual record and arguments coming from the lower court case under appeal; attorneys focus on the facts and arguments most favorable to their clients. Where a case may have broader implications, "amicus curiae" briefs are a way to articulate those concerns, so that the possibly broad legal or public policy implications of the court's anticipated decisions will not depend solely on the positions and arguments advanced by the parties directly involved in the case.


title: Amicus curiae

text: In prominent cases, "amici curiae" are generally organizations with sizable legal budgets. In the United States, for example, non-profit legal advocacy organizations, such as the American Civil Liberties Union, the Landmark Legal Foundation, the Pacific Legal Foundation, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, the American Center for Law and Justice or the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML), frequently submit such briefs to advocate for or against a particular legal change or interpretation. If a decision could affect an entire industry, companies other than the litigants may wish to have their concerns heard. In the United States, federal courts often hear cases involving the constitutionality of state laws. Hence states may file briefs as "amici curiae" when their laws or interests are likely to be affected, as in the Supreme Court case "McDonald v. Chicago," when thirty-two states under the aegis of Texas (and California independently) filed such briefs.


title: Amicus curiae

text: "Amici curiae" who do "not" file briefs often present an academic perspective on the case. For example, if the law gives deference to a history of legislation of a certain topic, a historian may choose to evaluate the claim from their specialized expertise. An economist, statistician, or sociologist may choose to do the same. Newspaper editorials, blogs, and other opinion pieces arguably have the capability to influence Supreme Court decisions as "de facto amici curiae". They are not, however, technically considered "amici curiae," as they do not submit materials to the Court, do not need to ask for leave, and have no guarantee that they will be read.


title: Amicus curiae

text: The Supreme Court of the United States has special rules for "amicus curiae" briefs sought to be filed in cases pending before it. Supreme Court Rule 37 states, in part, such a brief should cover "relevant matter" not dealt with by the parties which "may be of considerable help". The cover of an "amicus" brief must identify which party the brief is supporting, or if the brief supports only affirmance or reversal. The Court also requires that all non-governmental amici identify those providing a monetary contribution to the preparation or submission of the brief. Briefs must be prepared in booklet format, and 40 copies must be served with the Court.


title: Amicus curiae

text: In the United States Supreme Court, unless the "amicus" brief is being filed by the federal government (or one of its officers or agents) or a U.S. state, permission of the court (by means of motion for leave) or mutual consent of the parties is generally required. Allowing an "amicus curiae" to present oral argument is considered "extraordinary". The court can also appoint its own "amicus curiae" if neither party supports the decision of the lower court, which it has done at least 44 times.


title: Amicus curiae

text: The role of "amicus curiae" briefs in the World Trade Organization (WTO) dispute settlement system is controversial. The controversy arises due to the governmental nature of WTO disputes. As only WTO members have access to the system, any non-members such as non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are excluded and have no right to be heard. Thus the only way for them to contribute to a WTO decision is through "amicus curiae" briefs. To date there is a divergence in approaches in the WTO as to the admissibility of such briefs.


title: Amicus curiae

text: The first WTO case to comprehensively examine the admissibility of "amicus curiae" briefs was US – Shrimp. The case concerned a ban by the US on imports of all shrimp and shrimp products not caught with turtle excluder devices. The panel at first instance rejected the two "amicus curiae" briefs that were submitted by environmental groups, on the basis they were not expressly solicited by the panel under Article 13 of the Dispute Settlement Understanding of the WTO. This was overturned by the Appellate Body who held a panel had authority to accept, consider or reject briefs under Articles 12 and 13 of the Dispute Settlement Understanding regardless of whether they were expressly solicited.


title: Amicus curiae

text: The issue was re-examined in US – Lead and Bismuth II which concerned the imposition of duties by the US on certain imported hot rolled lead and bismuth carbon steel from the UK. The Panel at first instance affirmed the position in the US – Shrimp case and accepted two "amicus curiae" briefs that were submitted. On appeal, the Appellate Body relied on Article 17.9 of the Dispute Settlement Understanding and Rule 16(1) of the Working Procedures for Appellate Review to create rules to accept "amicus curiae" briefs. This was deemed as the source of legal authority to accept such briefs by an Appellate Body.


title: Amicus curiae

text: The next significant case to deal with "amicus curiae" briefs was EC – Asbestos, where the French government banned domestically produced and imported asbestos products. Of the five "amicus curiae" briefs received by the Panel, only two that were submitted by the European Community, were accepted. The panel did not provide any explanation as to why they were accepted or rejected. On appeal, the Appellate Body relied on Rule 16(1) of the "Working Procedures for Appellate Review" to create additional procedures to deal with the "amicus curiae" briefs. Of the 11 briefs submitted, the Appellate Body accepted none on the basis they failed to comply with these additional procedures.


title: Amicus curiae

text: In Canadian law, an "amicus curiae" is a lawyer, rather than an outside entity, who is asked by the Court to provide submissions in such a way as to make sure the legal issues affecting the interests of all parties are properly canvassed. Where one of the parties (e.g. the accused in a criminal case) is unrepresented (and is ineligible for or refuses to apply for legal aid), and the judge is concerned that this will leave that party at a significant disadvantage and risk a miscarriage of justice, the judge may appoint a lawyer as "amicus curiae". The lawyer is not retained by and does not represent the unrepresented party as such, but he or she has a responsibility to ensure that points of law of importance to the party's case are brought to the attention of the court. For example, in the case of a criminal trial, the "amicus" will have the responsibility to ensure that the accused's right to make full answer and defence is upheld. Examples of situations that could call for the appointment of "amicus" could include a highly complex or technical trial, an unsophisticated accused or one with cognitive or psychiatric challenges, or an unruly and disruptive accused. In some cases, when an accused has retained counsel for part of the trial but then fires that counsel, and if the judge finds that "amicus" is needed, the former counsel may be asked to remain as "amicus", given his or her familiarity with the case.


title: Amicus curiae

text: Another situation in which "amicus" may be appointed is when an accused is self-represented in a trial for offences such as sexual assault or assault in a domestic violence context. An unrepresented accused has the right to cross-examine Crown witnesses, but it may be undesirable to permit him or her to personally cross-examine, for example, the complainant. As a result, the "Criminal Code" permits the judge to order that the accused will not personally cross-examine the witness, and to name an uninvolved lawyer to conduct the cross-examination in place of the accused.


title: Amicus curiae

text: In Italian law, "amici curiae" are "nonprofit organizations and the institutional subjects, bearers of collective or diffuse interests related to the issue of constitutionality" who "may submit a written opinion to the constitutional Court".


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: Christopher Duan Johnson (born September 23, 1985) is a former American football running back. Born in Orlando, Florida, Johnson emerged as a senior for East Carolina University where he broke out for 2,960 all-purpose yards and 24 touchdowns. He was drafted by the Tennessee Titans in the first round of the 2008 NFL Draft, after running a then-record breaking 4.24 seconds in the 40-yard dash at the NFL Combine.


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: He was a Pro Bowl selection in each of his first three years in the league. In 2009, he won the NFL rushing title with 2,006 yards, becoming the sixth of only eight players ever to rush for over 2,000 yards in a season, and breaking Marshall Faulk's record of total yards from scrimmage with 2,509. This earned him the nickname CJ2K and won him the 2009 Offensive Player of the Year Award. He ran for more than a thousand yards in each of his six seasons with the Titans. Johnson later played one season for the New York Jets followed by another three with the Arizona Cardinals, with whom he enjoyed a brief, injury-shortened resurgence in 2015.


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: Johnson was born in Orlando, Florida, on September 23, 1985. He played football at Olympia High School in Orlando. Considered only a two-star recruit by Rivals.com, Johnson was not ranked among the nation's top running back prospects in 2004. He selected East Carolina over Eastern Kentucky, USF and UConn.


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: Johnson was also a standout track star at Olympia High School. In his senior year, he finished second in the 100 metres at the 2004 Florida 4A state championships behind Walter Dix. In addition, Johnson also finished his senior season posting personal bests of 10.38 and 21.28 (the nation's 24th fastest in 2004) in the 100 metres and 200 metres respectively.


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: In his junior year, he qualified for the finals of the Florida State meet with a preliminary time of 10.83 seconds. Walter Dix won the event with a 10.46 in the finals, Johnson placed 4th with a time of 10.66. He anchored the 4 × 100 meters relay team that won Golden South and Golden West National Championships.


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: Johnson accepted a scholarship to East Carolina University, majoring in Communications, where he played for the East Carolina Pirates. After retiring, he returned to school and graduated in 2020.


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: During his freshman year, he made an immediate impact in all 11 games, as he eventually started seven games on the season. He finished the season on the Conference USA All-Freshman squad as a running back. He recorded a reception in 10 straight games which was a team-best. He finished the season with 561 yards rushing and 765 yards on kick returns for 1,562 all-purpose yards, all team-highs. He finished the season by being ranked 24th nationally for all-purpose yardage, and also rushed for five touchdowns. He finished the season with eight school game or season records for a freshman and finished the year with 32 catches for 236 yards and two touchdowns, second on the team. In his collegiate debut against West Virginia, Johnson returned five kickoffs for a total of 100 yards. Against Louisville, Johnson returned seven kickoffs for 102 yards. In a victory over Tulane, he set season-highs with 31 carries for 158 yards and two scores. Against South Florida, Johnson totaled 212 all-purpose yards and scored ECU's only offensive touchdown on an 18-yard reception. In the season finale against NC State, Johnson totaled a season-high 144 kickoff return yards.


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: After his memorable freshman season, Johnson started all 11 games at tailback in his sophomore season. He led the team with 684 yards on 176 carries and six touchdowns, while also recording 35 receptions for 356 yards and two scores and 459 kickoff return yards. He was also the team leader with 1,499 all-purpose yards and set a school record with 67 career receptions as a running back. Against the West Virginia Mountaineers, Johnson rushed for 92 yards on 22 carries, both team highs. In the Southern Mississippi game, Johnson returned four kickoffs for 100 yards. In the Rice victory, Johnson totaled 129 receiving yards, including an 81-yard touchdown reception. His 100-yard receiving game teamed-up with Aundrae Allison's 109 yards marked the first dual 100-yard receiving game since 1999 for the Pirates. In the Tulsa game, Johnson did not record a reception which ended his consecutive streak at 18 games. However, in the following game against Marshall, Johnson carried the ball 18 times for 106 yards and a career-high three touchdowns.


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: After missing spring practice due to neck surgery, Johnson returned in his junior season with 972 all-purpose yards. In the down season, Johnson totaled 314 rushing yards, 176 receiving yards, and 482 kickoff return yards. He played in 12 games on the season but only started five. He was selected to the All-Conference USA first-team as a return specialist after the season. He also broke the school career record for receiving yards as a running back with 768 yards, but only had one 100-yard rushing game on the year and only had four rushing scores. In the season opener, against Navy, Johnson only recorded 54 all-purpose yards with one rushing touchdown. In the UAB game, Johnson had 112 all-purpose yards. In the Memphis game, Johnson recorded his only 100-yard rushing game with 106 yards on 22 carries for two touchdowns. He finished the game with 180 all-purpose yards. Johnson had a foot injury that limited his action in the West Virginia game, and caused him to miss the Virginia game. In the SMU game, Johnson returned a kickoff for a career-long 51 yards. Then, in the Southern Miss game, Johnson recorded 136 all-purpose yards that included a 96-yard kickoff return for a touchdown, his second career return touchdown. The return also made national recognition on ESPN's top plays. Against Rice, Johnson carried the ball 12 times for 83 yards.


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: After an average junior season, Johnson entered his senior season as a preseason All-Conference USA first-team as a return specialist. However, he finished the season as a first-team selection as returner and second-team selection as a running back. Johnson began the season with a rushing score in the 17–7 loss to Virginia Tech. He followed that performance up with a career-high 136 yards on 5 receptions for two touchdowns, including a 78-yard touchdown reception, and also a rushing touchdown against North Carolina. In the 48–7 loss to West Virginia, Johnson rushed for 76 yards on 14 carries and also scored ECU's only touchdown of the game. After a slow start rushing on the season, Johnson rushed for 147 yards on 24 carries with two touchdowns against Houston in the 37–35 victory. In the Central Florida victory, Johnson rushed for 89 yards with two scores, caught five receptions for 89 yards and a touchdown, and returned four kickoffs for 194 yards with a 96-yard touchdown return. He finished the game with a then career-high 272 all-purpose yards and four touchdowns. The next game, against UTEP, Johnson rushed for 126 yards on 23 carries. Then, in the 56–40 victory over Memphis, Johnson rushed for a career-high 301 yards and four touchdowns. He also had four kick returns for 95 yards for a then career-high 396 all-purpose yards and four touchdowns in the game. In the following loss to Marshall, Johnson rushed for 72 yards and a score and 45 receiving yards for a total of 117 all-purpose yards. Then, in the 35–12 victory over Tulane, Johnson rushed for 155 yards on 27 carries for two scores and caught four passes for 85 yards and another score for 240 all-purpose yards and three scores.


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: In Johnson's final collegiate game, the 2007 Hawai'i Bowl against Boise State, Johnson rushed for 223 yards on 28 carries and a touchdown as the Pirates won, 41–38. Johnson also had three receptions for 32 yards and a score and had six kick returns for 153 yards for a career-high and NCAA FBS record of 408 all-purpose yards and two scores.


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: Prior to the NFL Scouting Combine, Johnson was projected as a second- to third-round draft pick in the 2008 NFL Draft. However, at the combine he registered a time of 4.24 seconds and tied the all-time mark set by Rondel Menendez, a wide receiver from Eastern Kentucky, in 1999—the first year the combine used electronic timers (his record was later broken by John Ross in 2017 with a time of 4.22). Johnson was also fifth highest among running backs in the vertical jump with a 35-inch jump. His 10-foot, 10-inch broad jump was third best among the running backs.


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: Johnson was drafted by the Tennessee Titans in the first round (24th overall) of the 2008 NFL Draft. He was the highest East Carolina player selected in the NFL Draft since linebacker Robert Jones went 24th overall in the 1992 NFL Draft.


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: Johnson had his professional debut with the Titans on September 7, 2008, where he played in the season opener against the Jacksonville Jaguars, which the Titans won 17–10. Johnson rushed for 93 yards on 15 carries and had three receptions for 34 yards and a touchdown. In only his second career game, Johnson ran for 109 yards on 19 carries, including a 51-yard run, and two receptions for 12 yards against the Cincinnati Bengals.


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: On September 28, Johnson rushed for the first touchdown of his career against the Minnesota Vikings. Johnson finished the game with 75 all-purpose yards (61 rushing, 14 receiving) and two touchdowns. In only his sixth professional game, he rushed for 168 yards and a touchdown on only 18 carries against the Kansas City Chiefs on October 19, 2008. Johnson finished the season with 1,228 yards on 251 carries for a 4.9 ypc and 43 receptions for 260 yards and 10 total touchdowns in 15 games. He led all rookies in rushing yards per game with 81.9 ypg.


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: Johnson finished second in AP Rookie of the Year voting to Matt Ryan and was elected to the 2009 Pro Bowl.


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: Johnson split carries with running back LenDale White for the duration of the 2008 season. White finished the 2008 season with 773 yards on 200 carries for a 3.9 ypc and 15 rushing touchdowns. They nicknamed this RB tandem "Smash and Dash." Smash referred to White due to his power, and Dash referred to Johnson due to his unusual quickness and speed. Entering into the 2009 season, however, Johnson dismissed the nickname of "Smash and Dash" and named himself "Every Coach's Dream."


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: Some consider Johnson's 2009 season to be one of the best ever in NFL history for a running back. He started the season off with 57 rushing yards in a 13–10 loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers. In the next game, a 34–31 loss to the Houston Texans, he had 16 carries for 197 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns to go along with nine receptions for 87 yards and a receiving touchdown. Over the next three games, he combined for 214 rushing yards. In the next game, a 59–0 loss to the New England Patriots, he had 128 rushing yards. In the next game, a 30–13 victory over the Jacksonville Jaguars, he had 24 carries for 228 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns. He followed that up with 135 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns against the San Francisco 49ers. The next week, against the Buffalo Bills, he had 132 rushing yards and his third consecutive game with two rushing touchdowns to go along with nine receptions for 100 yards. In the next game, against the Houston Texans, he was held out of the endzone but had 151 rushing yards on 29 carries. He followed that up with 154 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown in the 20–17 victory over the Arizona Cardinals. On December 13, against the St. Louis Rams, he had 117 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns to go along with three receptions for 69 yards and a receiving touchdown in the 47–7 victory. In Week 16, on Christmas Day, he had 142 rushing yards and a touchdown in a loss to the San Diego Chargers. In the regular season finale against the Seattle Seahawks, he had 36 carries for 134 yards and two touchdowns in the 17–13 victory. Overall, he rushed for 2,006 yards and finished the year with 11 consecutive games with at least 100 rushing yards. to become one of only eight players in NFL history to be in the 2,000 rushing yards club. He averaged 5.6 yards per carry and 125.4 yards per game to lead the league. He had 2,509 total yards from scrimmage, breaking Marshall Faulk's single-season record. He was named the NFL's Offensive Player of the Year in 2009. After his 2009 season, he was named to his second Pro Bowl and the media referred to him as "CJ2K".


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: To start the 2010 NFL season, the Titans took on the Oakland Raiders at LP Field. Johnson scored on a 76-yard touchdown run in the second quarter and again on a 4-yard run in the third. Johnson had a slow start to the game but finished with 142 yards on 27 carries with a yard per carry average of 5.3 yards to bring his streak of 100-yard rushing games to 12.


title: Chris Johnson (running back)

text: The next week, the Titans took on the Pittsburgh Steelers. The Steelers ended Johnson's streak of 100 yard games and limited him to only 34 yards. He did have an 85-yard touchdown run but it was called back on a holding penalty.