title: Jill Haworth

text: Haworth lived on New York City's Upper East Side for many years with her mother. She died of natural causes at the age of 65 on 3 January 2011 in Manhattan. She is buried at Kensico Cemetery.


title: Bill Nunn

text: William Goldwyn Nunn III (October 20, 1953 – September 24, 2016) was an American actor known for his roles as Radio Raheem in Spike Lee's film "Do the Right Thing", Robbie Robertson in the Sam Raimi "Spider-Man" film trilogy and as Terrence "Pip" Phillips on "The Job" (2001–02).


title: Bill Nunn

text: Bill Nunn III was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the son of Frances Nunn and William G. Nunn, Jr., a journalist and editor at the "Pittsburgh Courier" and a National Football League scout. His paternal grandfather was the first African American football player at George Westinghouse High School. While ball boys for the Pittsburgh Steelers, Bill Nunn and current Steelers president Art Rooney II stole "Mean" Joe Greene's car during training camp at Saint Vincent College in Latrobe, Pennsylvania. "Joe Greene showed up in a beautiful green Lincoln Continental, and me and Bill Nunn, Jr. were ball boys. Somehow Bill got the keys one night and we decided to take it for a ride. We only told Joe that story about 10 years ago. We figured that enough time had passed that we could disclose our little joy ride."


title: Bill Nunn

text: Nunn was a 1970 graduate of Schenley High School and a 1976 graduate of Morehouse College. He attended college with Spike Lee and appeared in several of Lee's early feature films.


title: Bill Nunn

text: Nunn made his credited film debut in the 1988 Spike Lee film "School Daze", and is best known for his roles as Radio Raheem in Lee's "Do the Right Thing", and as Nino Brown's bodyguard Duh Duh Duh Man in "New Jack City". Some of his other film credits include Lee's "Mo' Better Blues" and "He Got Game", as well as "Regarding Henry", "Sister Act", "Canadian Bacon", "The Last Seduction", "Things To Do In Denver When You're Dead", "Runaway Jury", "Spider-Man trilogy" (as Joseph "Robbie" Robertson), "Firehouse Dog", the television series "The Job", "Randy and The Mob", and the 2016 televised adaptation of "A Raisin in the Sun".


title: Bill Nunn

text: Nunn also performed on stage, including August Wilson's "Fences", a Pittsburgh-based play in which Nunn performed with Anthony Mackie, who played Nunn's character's son. He was also very involved in community outreach, and he formed his own Pittsburgh-area outreach project in 2008.


title: Bill Nunn

text: Nunn died on September 24, 2016, at his home in Pittsburgh's Hill District; he was 62 years old. His widow, Donna, confirmed that he had leukemia.


title: Chi-Raq

text: Chi-Raq () is a 2015 American musical crime comedy drama film, directed and produced by Spike Lee and co-written by Lee and Kevin Willmott. Set in Chicago, the film focuses on the gang violence prevalent in neighborhoods on the city's south side, particularly the Englewood neighborhood.


title: Chi-Raq

text: The story is based on Aristophanes' "Lysistrata", a classical Greek comedy play in which women withhold sex from their husbands to put an end to the Peloponnesian War. It stars Nick Cannon, Wesley Snipes, Teyonah Parris, Jennifer Hudson, Angela Bassett, John Cusack, and Samuel L. Jackson.


title: Chi-Raq

text: It was the first film to be produced by Amazon Studios, released in select theaters on December 4, 2015 and on their video on demand service Amazon Instant Video on December 29.


title: Chi-Raq

text: In Chicago's Southside, as the events are narrated by Dolemedes, a war rages between two rival gangs: the Spartans, led by rapper/gang leader Demetrius Dupree, nicknamed "Chi-Raq" and the Trojans, led by gang lord Cyclops. Demetrius's lover, Lysistrata, grows disillusioned after several outbursts of violence near her, including a shootout at Demetrius's concert, an arson attack at their home while the two are having sex and a young girl, Patti, being accidentally killed in a gang shooting, revealed as the daughter of Irene.


title: Chi-Raq

text: After the fire, Lysistrata moves in with Miss Helen Worthy, a well-read non-violence advocate who suggests she research about Leymah Gbowee, who led a peace movement to stop the Second Liberian Civil War and threatened a sex strike. Inspired by Worthy and Gbowee, Lysistrata organizes a meeting between herself, the Spartans' lovers and the Trojans' lovers, where they agree to withhold sex until the men agree to lay down arms, hence their plea, "No Peace, No Pussy."


title: Chi-Raq

text: The strike rapidly spreads across the city, with women of many neighborhoods and occupations joining the boycott. Despite the strike's enormous membership, the Spartans and the Trojans refuse to cease their war. Following a funeral for Irene's young daughter Patti, Lysistrata speaks with the local preacher Fr. Mike Corridan, who argues passionately against the American institutions that profit from the South Side's wars. Deciding that the problem is bigger than the gangs' resentment, Lysistrata and her women seduce their way into a military armory and capture it from its soldiers and their general, General King Kong.


title: Chi-Raq

text: The takeover of the armory sparks a national crisis, with the military and the police surrounding the site. The forces are barred from storming the armory as it was taken by merely 75 unarmed women who are not holding any hostages. The women's actions also cause their boycott to become famous worldwide, with women from countries all over the world organizing their own sex strikes. Planned by Mayor McCloud and Commissioner Blades, the military tries to lure the women in the armory out by playing seductive music but it fails after the women find the military's earplugs and the men themselves become unbearably sex-starved from the music.


title: Chi-Raq

text: After three months, Cyclops's and Demetrius's gangs begin to grow disillusioned, from the absence of sex and from having plenty of time to think over their fate in a gang. Demetrius remains too stubborn to give up the Spartans but agrees to organize a meeting with Lysistrata after the boycott spreads to Mayor McCloud's wife and to the First Lady of the United States. The city arranges a deal: Demetrius and Lysistrata will meet each other in bed and whoever climaxes first loses and must agree to the other's terms. The deal is cut short by Cyclops arriving to declare he and the Trojans are laying down their guns.


title: Chi-Raq

text: A truce is organized the following day, with Lysistrata, Mayor McCloud, and Cyclops signing a deal to end gun violence and build new hospitals and trauma centers. Demetrius refuses to sign and walks away but is ultimately moved by Miss Worthy's testimony of the death of her daughter, as confessed to by Demetrius's father, Jamel Dupree. He admits that he was the one who killed Irene's daughter and gives himself up for arrest.


title: Chi-Raq

text: Rapper Kanye West was supposed to star in the film but dropped out, possibly due to scheduling conflicts. On July 21, 2015, it was announced that La La Anthony, Nick Cannon, Wesley Snipes, Jennifer Hudson, Angela Bassett, John Cusack, and Samuel L. Jackson had joined the cast. Dave Chappelle appeared in the film as the owner of a strip club. This film saw Lee reuniting with Bassett, Jackson, and Snipes, having worked with all three actors on earlier films such as "Mo' Better Blues", "Jungle Fever" and "Malcolm X".


title: Chi-Raq

text: Principal photography began in June 2015 and continued production through July. The project hired many local actors and had an open casting call in Chicago on May 9, 2015.


title: Chi-Raq

text: Chi-Raq: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack, featuring music from the film, was released via digital download and physical formats on December 4, 2015 through RCA Records.


title: Chi-Raq

text: "Chi-Raq" was the first original film to be distributed by Amazon Studios In addition, Roadside Attractions and Lionsgate partnered with the company for a limited release in theaters on December 4, 2015, with the film premiering on Amazon Instant Video.


title: Chi-Raq

text: The film had a limited release into North American theaters on December 4, 2015. It grossed $1,250,224 from 305 theaters in its opening weekend, including a $15,000+ per screen average on 22 screens in Chicago.


title: Chi-Raq

text: "Chi-Raq" received generally positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has rating of 82%, based on 146 reviews, an average rating of 7.35/10. The site's critical consensus states, ""Chi-Raq" is as urgently topical and satisfyingly ambitious as it is wildly uneven – and it contains some of Spike Lee's smartest, sharpest, and all-around entertaining late-period work." Metacritic reports a score of 77 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Chi-Raq

text: Metacritic also found "Chi-Raq" to be tied with "Steve Jobs" as the 27th most acclaimed film of 2015, with five critics having named it the year's greatest and 18 others having ranked it in third place or below.


title: Chi-Raq

text: The November film trailer was controversial. Criticism included an op-ed in the "Chicago Tribune" by emergency physician Amy Ho, who argued (before the film's release) that Chicago deaths occurring nightly in local hospitals were used for the purpose of entertainment. Critiques of a similar vein were published on Twitter and other social media sites.


title: Chi-Raq

text: The term "Chi-Raq" is a portmanteau of Chicago and Iraq, as well as an endonym used by some Chicago non-residents to liken the area to a war zone due to its high crime rates. City residents and city council members requested that Lee change the name of the film, and threatened to withhold tax credits that the filmmaker would receive from the city. Lee later called Chicago Mayor Rahm Emanuel a "bully" and several Chicago aldermen "bootlickers" for their criticisms.


title: Chi-Raq

text: The film's production received more negative press when it was discovered that its music supervisor Thomas "DJ Slugo" Kendricks was charging artists a submission fee in order to have their music considered for the soundtrack. These measures were taken to the film's production team, and Kendricks was fired.


title: Pappardelle

text: Pappardelle (; singular: "pappardella"; from the verb , "to gobble up") are large, very broad, flat pasta, similar to wide fettuccine, originating from the region of Tuscany. The fresh types are two to three centimetres (–1 inches) wide and may have fluted edges, while dried egg pappardelle have straight sides.


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: The Sierpiński triangle (sometimes spelled "Sierpinski"), also called the Sierpiński gasket or Sierpiński sieve, is a fractal attractive fixed set with the overall shape of an equilateral triangle, subdivided recursively into smaller equilateral triangles. Originally constructed as a curve, this is one of the basic examples of self-similar sets—that is, it is a mathematically generated pattern that is reproducible at any magnification or reduction. It is named after the Polish mathematician Wacław Sierpiński, but appeared as a decorative pattern many centuries before the work of Sierpiński.


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: The Sierpinski triangle may be constructed from an equilateral triangle by repeated removal of triangular subsets:


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: The same sequence of shapes, converging to the Sierpiński triangle, can alternatively be generated by the following steps:


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: Note that this infinite process is not dependent upon the starting shape being a triangle—it is just clearer that way. The first few steps starting, for example, from a square also tend towards a Sierpinski triangle. Michael Barnsley used an image of a fish to illustrate this in his paper "V-variable fractals and superfractals."


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: The actual fractal is what would be obtained after an infinite number of iterations. More formally, one describes it in terms of functions on closed sets of points. If we let "d" denote the dilation by a factor of about a point A, then the Sierpiński triangle with corners A, B, and C is the fixed set of the transformation "d" ∪ "d" ∪ "d".


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: This is an attractive fixed set, so that when the operation is applied to any other set repeatedly, the images converge on the Sierpiński triangle. This is what is happening with the triangle above, but any other set would suffice.


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: If one takes a point and applies each of the transformations "d", "d", and "d" to it randomly, the resulting points will be dense in the Sierpiński triangle, so the following algorithm will again generate arbitrarily close approximations to it:


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: Start by labeling p, p and p as the corners of the Sierpinski triangle, and a random point v. Set , where "r" is a random number 1, 2 or 3. Draw the points v to v. If the first point v was a point on the Sierpiński triangle, then all the points v lie on the Sierpiński triangle. If the first point v to lie within the perimeter of the triangle is not a point on the Sierpiński triangle, none of the points v will lie on the Sierpiński triangle, however they will converge on the triangle. If v is outside the triangle, the only way v will land on the actual triangle, is if v is on what would be part of the triangle, if the triangle was infinitely large.


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: This method is also called the chaos game, and is an example of an iterated function system. You can start from any point outside or inside the triangle, and it would eventually form the Sierpiński Gasket with a few leftover points (if the starting point lies on the outline of the triangle, there are no leftover points). With pencil and paper, a brief outline is formed after placing approximately one hundred points, and detail begins to appear after a few hundred.


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: Another construction for the Sierpinski gasket shows that it can be constructed as a curve in the plane. It is formed by a process of repeated modification of simpler curves, analogous to the construction of the Koch snowflake:


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: At every iteration, this construction gives a continuous curve. In the limit, these approach a curve that traces out the Sierpinski triangle by a single continuous directed (infinitely wiggly) path, which is called the Sierpinski arrowhead. In fact, the aim of the original article by Sierpinski of 1915, was to show an example of a curve (a Cantorian curve), as the title of the article itself declares.


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: The Sierpinski triangle also appears in certain cellular automata (such as Rule 90), including those relating to Conway's Game of Life. For instance, the Life-like cellular automaton B1/S12 when applied to a single cell will generate four approximations of the Sierpinski triangle. A very long one cell thick line in standard life will create two mirrored Sierpiński triangles. The time-space diagram of a replicator pattern in a cellular automaton also often resembles a Sierpiński triangle, such as that of the common replicator in HighLife. The Sierpinski triangle can also be found in the Ulam-Warburton automaton and the Hex-Ulam-Warburton automaton.


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: If one takes Pascal's triangle with formula_1 rows and colors the even numbers white, and the odd numbers black, the result is an approximation to the Sierpiński triangle. More precisely, the limit as formula_2 approaches infinity of this parity-colored formula_1-row Pascal triangle is the Sierpinski triangle.


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: The Towers of Hanoi puzzle involves moving disks of different sizes between three pegs, maintaining the property that no disk is ever placed on top of a smaller disk. The states of an formula_2-disk puzzle, and the allowable moves from one state to another, form an undirected graph, the Hanoi graph, that can be represented geometrically as the intersection graph of the set of triangles remaining after the formula_2th step in the construction of the Sierpinski triangle. Thus, in the limit as formula_2 goes to infinity, this sequence of graphs can be interpreted as a discrete analogue of the Sierpinski triangle.


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: For integer number of dimensions formula_7, when doubling a side of an object, formula_8 copies of it are created, i.e. 2 copies for 1-dimensional object, 4 copies for 2-dimensional object and 8 copies for 3-dimensional object. For the Sierpiński triangle, doubling its side creates 3 copies of itself. Thus the Sierpiński triangle has Hausdorff dimension formula_9, which follows from solving formula_10 for formula_7.


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: The area of a Sierpiński triangle is zero (in Lebesgue measure). The area remaining after each iteration is formula_12 of the area from the previous iteration, and an infinite number of iterations results in an area approaching zero.


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: The points of a Sierpinski triangle have a simple characterization in barycentric coordinates. If a point has barycentric coordinates formula_13, expressed as binary numerals, then the point is in Sierpiński's triangle if and only if formula_14 for


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: A generalization of the Sierpiński triangle can also be generated using Pascal's triangle if a different modulus formula_15 is used. Iteration formula_2 can be generated by taking a Pascal's triangle with formula_17 rows and coloring numbers by their value modulo formula_15. As formula_2 approaches infinity, a fractal is generated.


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: The same fractal can be achieved by dividing a triangle into a tessellation of formula_20 similar triangles and removing the triangles that are upside-down from the original, then iterating this step with each smaller triangle.


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: Conversely, the fractal can also be generated by beginning with a triangle and duplicating it and arranging formula_21 of the new figures in the same orientation into a larger similar triangle with the vertices of the previous figures touching, then iterating that step.


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: The Sierpinski tetrahedron or tetrix is the three-dimensional analogue of the Sierpiński triangle, formed by repeatedly shrinking a regular tetrahedron to one half its original height, putting together four copies of this tetrahedron with corners touching, and then repeating the process.


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: A tetrix constructed from an initial tetrahedron of side-length formula_22 has the property that the total surface area remains constant with each iteration. The initial surface area of the (iteration-0) tetrahedron of side-length formula_22 is formula_24. The next iteration consists of four copies with side length formula_25, so the total area is formula_26 again. Subsequent iterations again quadruple the number of copies and halve the side length, preserving the overall area. Meanwhile, the volume of the construction is halved at every step and therefore approaches zero. The limit of this process has neither volume nor surface but, like the Sierpinski gasket, is an intricately connected curve. Its Hausdorff dimension is formula_27; here "log" denotes the natural logarithm, the numerator is the logarithm of the number of copies of the shape formed from each copy of the previous iteration, and the denominator is the logarithm of the factor by which these copies are scaled down from the previous iteration. If all points are projected onto a plane that is parallel to two of the outer edges, they exactly fill a square of side length formula_28 without overlap.


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: Wacław Sierpiński described the Sierpiński triangle in 1915. However, similar patterns appear already as a common motif of 13th-century Cosmatesque inlay stonework.


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: The Apollonian gasket was first described by Apollonius of Perga (3rd century BC) and further analyzed by Gottfried Leibniz (17th century), and is a curved precursor of the 20th-century Sierpiński triangle.


title: Sierpiński triangle

text: The usage of the word "gasket" to refer to the Sierpiński triangle refers to gaskets such as are found in motors, and which sometimes feature a series of holes of decreasing size, similar to the fractal; this usage was coined by Benoit Mandelbrot, who thought the fractal looked similar to "the part that prevents leaks in motors".


title: Tom Howard (photographer)

text: Thomas James Howard Jr. (September 11, 1894 – 8 October 1961) was an American photographer who worked at the Washington bureau of P. & A. Photographs during the 1920s. His photograph of the execution of Ruth Snyder in the electric chair at Sing Sing Prison, on January 12, 1928, has been called "the most famous tabloid photo of the decade".


title: Tom Howard (photographer)

text: Photographers are not permitted into executions in the United States, so the "New York Daily News", determined to secure a photograph, resorted to subterfuge. They brought in Howard, who was not known to the prison warders or journalists in the New York area. He arrived early and, passing himself in by posing as a writer, he took up a vantage position so as to be able to take pictures with the help of a miniature camera that he had strapped to his right ankle. The camera had a single photographic plate that was linked by cable to the shutter release concealed within his jacket. When Snyder's body shook from the jolt, Howard pressed the shutter release, exposing the plate. The image appeared to have caught the subject in motion from the execution, which added to the already dramatic scene.


title: Tom Howard (photographer)

text: The photograph was published the next day on the front page of the paper under the banner headline "DEAD!"; Howard gained overnight popularity, and was paid very well for the image. Thereafter he worked in newspaper photography in Washington and Chicago, retiring as chief photographer for the "Chicago Sun-Times" in 1961, the year of his death. He had been in semi-retirement since 1951 following a heart attack.


title: Tom Howard (photographer)

text: The camera Howard used to snap the shot is part of the collection of the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History.


title: Tom Howard (photographer)

text: The state attempted to prosecute Howard and the newspaper, but nothing ever came of it. For many years afterwards witnesses to executions were searched and asked to hold up their hands so they could not operate hidden cameras.


title: Tom Howard (photographer)

text: Howard's grandson is actor George Wendt, and his great-grandson is actor and comedian Jason Sudeikis. His wife, Helen, died in 1958.


title: Rhino (character)

text: The Rhino (Aleksei Sytsevich; English: Ah-lek-say sit-seh-vich; Russian: Алексей Сицевич) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He was created by writer Stan Lee and artist John Romita Sr., and first appeared in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #41 (Oct. 1966). The character is a Russian thug who underwent an experimental procedure that gave him an artificial skin covering and superhuman strength. Rebelling against the scientists responsible for his transformation, Rhino used his newfound powers to become a successful criminal, and soon clashed with superheroes like Spider-Man and the Hulk. The character is typically portrayed as a dimwitted brute, capable of great destruction, but ultimately easily deceived.


title: Rhino (character)

text: One of Spider-Man's most prominent adversaries, the Rhino has been adapted into various forms of media since his original debut during the Silver Age of Comic Books, including animated television series and video games. He has also featured in Marvel merchandise such as action figures and trading cards.


title: Rhino (character)

text: Paul Giamatti played a version of Aleksei Sytsevich who uses a rhinoceros-themed battle armor, similar to the character's Ultimate Marvel incarnation, in the 2014 film "The Amazing Spider-Man 2".


title: Rhino (character)

text: Described by writer Mike Conroy as "famously one of Spider-Man's dimmest villains", the Rhino debuted in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #41–43 (Oct.–Dec. 1966) as a thug for hire working for an Eastern Bloc country. He volunteers to participate in an experiment that bonds a super-strong polymer to his skin, as well as augmenting his strength and speed. The character returned in "The Incredible Hulk" (vol. 2) #104 (June 1968), and although he apparently died at the end of the story, he was revived in "The Incredible Hulk" (vol. 2) #124 (Feb. 1970), becoming a perennial opponent of both Spider-Man and the Hulk.


title: Rhino (character)

text: The character achieved significant exposure in the 1980s and 1990s, appearing in both a solo capacity and as a villain for hire in over 12 titles. Significant appearances included starring in the limited series "Deadly Foes of Spider-Man" #1–4 (May–Aug. 1991); the "Flowers for Rhino" storyline in "Spider-Man's Tangled Web" #5–6 (Oct.–Nov. 2001), which is told from the character's perspective; and "Punisher War Journal" (vol. 2) #13–15 (Jan.–March 2008), in which Rhino begins to rethink his lifestyle. He has also been a member of multiple supervillain teams, including the Emissaries of Evil, the Sinister Syndicate, and the Sinister Six.


title: Rhino (character)

text: Aleksei Sytsevich was a member of the Russian mafia who willingly underwent a series of chemical and radiation treatments meant to give him an artificial skin covering that would grant superhuman strength. After successfully completing the treatment, Sytsevich rebelled against the Eastern Bloc agents who gave him these powers, destroying their laboratory. He was subsequently hired to kidnap Colonel John Jameson and obtain the extraterrestrial spores to which Jameson was exposed during a space mission, but Sytsevich was defeated by the superhero Spider-Man and taken to prison.


title: Rhino (character)

text: After serving his sentence, the Rhino was approached by the same scientists for more augmentation. This time, they used the same gamma radiation that granted the Hulk his abilities to further increase the Rhino's strength. They also equipped him with a more durable, acid-proof suit that would further increase his abilities. The Rhino agreed to find and kidnap Bruce Banner, the Hulk's human alter ego, for his knowledge of gamma radiation. Despite the Rhino's training and equipment, he was easily defeated by the Hulk, who placed him in a coma.


title: Rhino (character)

text: Months later, the Rhino was revived by the Leader, who planned to interrupt Banner's wedding to Betty Ross. The Leader intended to transform Banner into the Hulk, and wanted the Rhino to protect him from the ensuing rampage. At the wedding, the Rhino betrays the Leader and attacks Banner the moment he transforms. In the resulting chaos, the Rhino is once again comatose, and the Leader briefly takes mental control of Sytsevich's body to combat the Hulk. The Leader abandons the Rhino and the Hulk on an alien world, and return home in a rocket, which crashes on arrival.


title: Rhino (character)

text: The Rhino's first collaboration with other villains occurs when he and the Abomination activated a gamma bomb at the Hulkbuster base in an attempt to destroy the Hulk. Although this attempt failed, Egghead recruited the Rhino for his supervillain team, the Emissaries of Evil, where he was paired with Solarr in search of a rare jewel. Rhino and Solarr are defeated by the Defenders, Doctor Strange, and Doc Samson.


title: Rhino (character)

text: Samson took the Rhino to Project P.E.G.A.S.U.S., where he was part of a failed prison break involving Moonstone, Blackout, and Electro. While being transferred to another facility, the Miracle Man attempted to free the Rhino, who wanted to stay in P.E.G.A.S.U.S. for medical treatment. The rocket crash had permanently affixed the Rhino's costume to his body, and he wanted it separated. He and the Thing successfully stopped Miracle Man, and took the Rhino to a medical facility within P.E.G.A.S.U.S.


title: Rhino (character)

text: When the treatments fail to return the Rhino to normal, he escapes P.E.G.A.S.U.S. and joins the Sinister Syndicate, fighting Spider-Man on multiple occasions. After the team falls apart, the Rhino is hired by the Kingpin under the belief that he can raise the money for more surgery. When he hears the Kingpin tell a group of scientists not to remove the Rhino suit, Sytsevich kidnaps one of their children until they complete the procedure. Sytsevich then requests a removable suit from Justin Hammer, allowing him to continue his life of crime.


title: Rhino (character)

text: When the Rhino accidentally kills a security guard during a bank robbery, he is humiliated by the Punisher, and captured by Alyosha Kravinoff, the son of Kraven the Hunter. The Punisher rescues the Rhino from Kravinoff's superhuman zoo, and he is convinced to make amends. The Rhino sends a letter and money to the security guard's widow, and aids the Punisher on a case. Later, the Rhino persuades the Punisher not to kill Michael Watts, the third Stilt-Man.


title: Rhino (character)

text: During "The Gauntlet" storyline, the Rhino gives up his life of crime, surrendering himself to the police. S.H.I.E.L.D. removes his Rhino suit and sentences him to 25 years on Ryker's Island. He is released early on good behavior, and upon release, he meets Doctor Tramma, who wants to reinvent the Rhino. Sytsevich declines, and Tramma creates a new Rhino. At Spider-Man's persuasion, Sytsevich refuses to fight the new Rhino. That promise is broken when Sytsevich's wife Oksana is killed, and a grief-stricken Sytsevich kills the new Rhino.


title: Rhino (character)

text: Doctor Octopus recruits the Rhino for his iteration of the Sinister Six. During the "Ends of the Earth" storyline, the Rhino tells Spider-Man that the loss of his wife has changed him, and he is prepared to die. When Doctor Octopus self-destructs his own lair, the Rhino pins Silver Sable to the floor of a flooding corridor, knowing that Spider-Man will blame himself for his fellow hero's death. He is presumed drowned, and while in Doctor Octopus' dying body, Spider-Man meets Oksana and the Rhino in the afterlife.


title: Rhino (character)

text: As part of the lead-up to the "" storyline, the Rhino resurfaces, having survived his apparent demise. The Jackal finds Sytsevich in hiding in Tahuexco, Guatemala, where he persuades the Rhino to do his bidding with the promise of a revived Oksana. When Doctor Octopus activates a virus in all of the Jackal's clones that causes them to rapidly decay, Oksana turns to dust, and the Rhino goes on a grief-stricken rampage. Spider-Man calms him by convincing him to move forward for his wife's sake, and the two agree to see each other once in a while to help the other with their pain.


title: Rhino (character)

text: In a prelude to the "Hunted" storyline, the Rhino is among the animal-themed characters captured by the Taskmaster and the Black Ant on behalf of Kraven the Hunter. He is among those who Arcade publicly reveals as the Savage Six.


title: Rhino (character)

text: During the "King in Black" storyline, Rhino is among the villains recruited by Mayor Wilson Fisk to be part of his Thunderbolts at the time of Knull's invasion. Following the deaths of Ampere and Snakehead, Taskmaster couldn't bring himself to prevent Rhino from walking away.


title: Rhino (character)

text: During the "Sinister War" storyline, Rhino accompanied the Savage Six into attacking the premiere of the movie which Mysterio was involved in. This led up to the Savage Six also fighting the Sinister Six.


title: Rhino (character)

text: During the "Devil's Reign" storyline, Rhino appears as a member of Mayor Wilson Fisk's latest incarnation of the Thunderbolts when Mayor Fisk passes a law that forbids superhero activities. He assisted Agony, Electro II, and U.S. Agent in taking down Moon Knight. In truth, Rhino did not signing up to dispose underage superheroes after learning the Kamala's Law incidents in "Outlawed" and its conclusion in "Killer App", so he secretly helps the Champions by giving them the Thunderbolts badge due to Fisk's patrol system becoming even tighter with Doctor Octopus' Octobots and many innocent people being unsaved. It was because of Rhino declaring himself out of the Thunderbolts because of this reason that caused Mayor Fisk to bring in Abomination as a replacement.


title: Rhino (character)

text: A series of mutagenic chemical and radiation treatments provide the Rhino with unnatural strength, speed, stamina, and durability, all which were further augmented by even more gamma rays. His incredible speed allows him to run at high velocities, especially over short distances. Sytsevich frequently "charges" his opponents in this manner, enabling him to cause great harm to most enemies in the surrounding area. He is, however, notorious for his lack of agility and slow reaction time, which makes it difficult for him to change direction when running at high speeds. As such, his fighting style is focused more on melee attacks.


title: Rhino (character)

text: Sytsevich possesses a thick polymer suit that resembles the physique of a rhinoceros, including two horns, and covers everything but his face. The suit is resistant to damage and extreme temperatures and these horns are capable of penetrating two-inch plate steel. His first, cruder suit was originally bonded to his skin in the aftermath of a rocket crash and he went through several attempts to have the suit removed.


title: Rhino (character)

text: After the first suit's destruction, Justin Hammer created a second, removable iteration. The second suit allows Sytsevich to withstand high caliber bullets, thermal attacks, and most impact forces. It also further increases his strength and durability.


title: Rhino (character)

text: When Aleksei Sytsevich declines Doctor Tramma's offer to return to the Rhino role, Tramma finds another subject and equips him with a high-tech suit that was supposed to be given to Sytsevich. The second Rhino comes after Sytsevich, feeling that he had to destroy the original Rhino if he was going to ascend. Spider-Man defeats the second Rhino, who then escapes.


title: Rhino (character)

text: While lifting a makeshift dumbbell made out of a pole and two trucks, the second Rhino is called up by a mysterious person telling him where he can find Sytsevich. Rhino attacks Aleksei at one of J. Jonah Jameson's press meetings. Aleksei lies to the second Rhino, agreeing to fight him in his Rhino suit, but instead goes into hiding with his wife Oksana. Before they arrive at their safehouse, however, the second Rhino attacks again, and Oksana dies as a result. Aleksei dons his old Rhino suit, which is strong enough to destroy the new Rhino's, and kills the unnamed wearer.


title: Rhino (character)

text: The Ultimate Marvel version of the Rhino is Alex O'Hirn, a scientist who uses a suit of armor known as R.H.I.N.O. (Robotism Heuristic Intelligence Navigable Operative), stolen from the United States military. Using the armor's strength, O'Hirn robs a Manhattan bank by charging the vault-head first. He then rampages through a busy city street. The original Spider-Man tries to escape school in order to confront O'Hirn, but cannot get there in time, and the R.H.I.N.O. is defeated by Iron Man. In the "Divided We Fall" arc, Miles Morales uses his venom blasts to create a shortcut into the R.H.I.N.O. armor.


title: Rhino (character)

text: In the alternate reality depicted in the 1995 "Age of Apocalypse" storyline, the Rhino was one of those superhumans captured by the horseman Death. He was brought to the Ship, Apocalypse's recovery base, and was transformed into a powerful monster by the Terrigen Mist. While on the Ship, the Rhino joined Death and his other henchmen in fighting Magneto and the X-Men, where he was incapacitated by Rogue.


title: Rhino (character)

text: The Rhino was seen as a member of the Avengers of Earth-9939, who travelled through time to stop the entity known as Charnel. After being partnered with She-Hulk for 20 years, both were killed in action.


title: Rhino (character)

text: In the third issue of the 2003 "JLA/Avengers" crossover miniseries, the Rhino was among the villains enthralled by Krona to defend his stronghold. He is briefly seen defeating Triathlon in battle.


title: Rhino (character)

text: In the alternate reality seen in the 2005 "House of M" storyline, the Rhino serves as the bodyguard of Peter Parker. Parker sends the Rhino to question Crusher Hogan, a wrestler performing under the name "the Green Goblin," and Sytsevich hospitalizes Hogan. Now in hiding from the authorities, the Rhino is approached by the Green Goblin, who is looking for allies in defeating Parker. The Rhino performs a double-cross and enlists his friends Electro, the Ox and the Vulture to attack the Green Goblin, unmasking him to reveal Peter Parker.


title: Rhino (character)

text: The Rhino, a member of the undead Sinister Six, was among the zombified villains that attempted to devour Galactus. When the other zombies finished eating Galactus, zombified versions of the Hulk and Spider-Man dismembered and ate the Rhino, both stating that he tasted poor.


title: Rhino (character)

text: In "Mr. and Mrs. Spider-Man", within the Marvel Comics 2 universe, the Rhino briefly loses his temper while visiting the hospital with his sick aunt. After calming down, the Rhino waits in line and comes face to face with Peter Parker, who is with his own family. They discuss their superhero pasts and call a truce, with Sytsevich assuring Peter that what he did was simply business. They spend the remainder of Peter's visit exchanging stories, and part with a better understanding of one another.


title: Rhino (character)

text: In the "Spider-Verse" storyline, the Earth-001 version of the Rhino appears as a member of Verna's Hounds. He accompanies Verna and the Earth-001 version of the Scorpion to Earth-21205 to hunt that world's Peter Parker, masquerading as the Hobgoblin, where they were stopped by the Spider-Woman of Earth-65. He later helps Verna and the Earth-001 versions of Hammerhead and the Ox attack the Spider-Totems on Earth-8847. The Earth-001 Rhino is killed by the Superior Spider-Man, the Assassin Spider-Man, and Spider Punk.


title: Rhino (character)

text: A member of the Kishi Kuri clan, the Rhino was present when Venom usurped the Kingpin, and was later seen battling the Shadow Clan.


title: Rhino (character)

text: On Earth-65, Aleksei Sytsevich is a mercenary hired by the Kingpin and Matt Murdock to kill Captain George Stacy. Although he does not appear as the Rhino, Aleksei is depicted as a large man with gray skin and blue hair. After being stopped by the Spider-Woman, Officer Frank Castle interrogates Sytsevich about who ordered the hit on Stacy. Castle beats the information out of Sytsevich that the Kingpin was the one responsible.


title: Rhino (character)

text: In the Old Man Logan universe, where villains rose to power, the Rhino left Manhattan to form the Rhino Gang. The Gang successfully conquered Arizona and New Mexico, killing anyone that stood in their way. When they reached a Cheyenne reservation in South Dakota, the Gang met resistance in the form of Forge and his high-tech defenses. Forge annihilated the Rhino Gang before beating the Rhino to death.


title: Rhino (character)

text: During the "Secret Wars" storyline in the pages of "", the Rhino works as an enforcer of the Regent. He is first seen alongside Boomerang and the Shocker, assaulting Demolition Man for protesting against the Regent's rules. Following the deaths of Doctor Octopus and the Hobgoblin, and the incapacitation of the Vulture, the Regent recruits the Rhino, Boomerang, and the Beetle for the Sinister Six. As part of the Sinister Six, the Rhino attacks S.H.I.E.L.D.'s secret base after the Regent probes the Sandman's mind.


title: Rhino (character)

text: The Aleksei Sytsevich incarnation of the Rhino appears in "The Amazing Spider-Man 2", portrayed by Paul Giamatti. In an interview with visual-effects supervisor Jerome Chen, he states that the armor was "put together out of surplus Soviet-era military gear that Oscorp had sold back in the '80s", with Sytsevich modifying the armor further. This version of Sytsevich is a dim-witted and boastful member of the Russian Mafia. After being foiled by Spider-Man while attempting to steal Oscorp plutonium and being incarcerated, Gustav Fiers grants Sytsevich a rhinoceros-themed mech suit armed with heavy machine guns and missile launchers. Following a shootout with the police, he is confronted by Spider-Man and engages him in a fight.


title: Rhino (character)

text: The Aleksei Sytsevich incarnation of the Rhino appears in Insomniac's "Marvel's Spider-Man" series, voiced once again by Fred Tatasciore. This version is a former enforcer for the Russian Mafia clad in an experimental and irremovable rhinoceros-themed combat suit that increases his strength. Within the games' continuity, Spider-Man has been a superhero for eight years and is well-familiar with the Rhino, having fought him several times in the past.


title: Teke Teke

text: , also spelled Teke-Teke, Teketeke, or Teke teke, is a Japanese urban legend about the ghost of a schoolgirl who is said to have fallen onto a railway line, where her body was cut in half by a train. She is an "onryō", or a vengeful spirit, who lurks in urban areas and around train stations at night. Since she no longer has a lower body, she travels on either her hands or elbows, dragging her upper torso and making a scratching or ""teke teke""-like sound. If she encounters an individual, she will chase them and slice them in half at the torso, killing them in such a way that mimics her own disfigurement; in certain variations, "Teke Teke" will ask the individual to tell her the location of her missing legs.


title: Teke Teke

text: Common elements of the legend include that "Teke Teke" is the vengeful ghost or spirit (also known as an "onryō") of a young woman or schoolgirl who fell on a railway line, which resulted in her being sliced in half by a train. Missing her lower extremities, she is said to walk on her hands or her elbows, making a scratching or ""teke teke""-like sound as she moves. If an individual encounters "Teke Teke" at night, she will chase them and cut their body in half (often with a scythe), mimicking her own death and disfigurement.


title: Teke Teke

text: One version of the story concerns a young woman known as Kashima Reiko. As with the original iteration of the legend, Kashima died when her legs were severed from her body by a train after she fell on the tracks. According to some sources, some versions of the legend state that, when an individual learns of Kashima's story, she will appear to them within one month. The "Kashima Reiko" story predates that of "Teke Teke". The legless spirit of Kashima Reiko is said to haunt bathroom stalls, asking occupants if they know where her legs are. If a questioned individual replies with an answer that Kashima does not find acceptable, she will rip or cut their legs off. Individuals may survive the encounter by replying that her legs are on the Meishin Expressway, or by responding with the phrase ""kamen shinin ma"", or "mask death demon" (which may be the phonetic root of Kashima's name). The legend of Kashima Reiko has been described as a "bathroom-centric variation" of "Teke Teke."


title: Leo (constellation)

text: Leo is one of the constellations of the zodiac, between Cancer the crab to the west and Virgo the maiden to the east. It is located in the Northern celestial hemisphere. Its name is Latin for lion, and to the ancient Greeks represented the Nemean Lion killed by the mythical Greek hero Heracles meaning 'Glory of Hera' (known to the ancient Romans as Hercules) as one of his twelve labors. Its old astronomical symbol is (♌). One of the 48 constellations described by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, Leo remains one of the 88 modern constellations today, and one of the most easily recognizable due to its many bright stars and a distinctive shape that is reminiscent of the crouching lion it depicts. The lion's mane and shoulders also form an asterism known as "The Sickle," which to modern observers may resemble a backwards "question mark."


title: Leo (constellation)

text: Leo contains many bright stars, many of which were individually identified by the ancients. There are four stars of the first or second magnitude, which render this constellation especially prominent:


title: Leo (constellation)

text: Other named stars in Leo include Mu Leonis, Rasalas (an abbreviation of "Al Ras al Asad al Shamaliyy", meaning "The Lion's Head Toward the South"); and Theta Leonis, Chertan or Coxa ("hip").


title: Leo (constellation)

text: Leo is also home to a bright variable star, the red giant R Leonis. It is a Mira variable with a minimum magnitude of 10 and normal maximum magnitude of 6; it periodically brightens to magnitude 4.4. R Leonis, 330 light-years from Earth, has a period of 310 days and a diameter of 450 solar diameters.


title: Leo (constellation)

text: The star Wolf 359 (CN Leonis), one of the nearest stars to Earth at 7.8 light-years away, is in Leo. Wolf 359 is a red dwarf of magnitude 13.5; it periodically brightens by one magnitude or less because it is a flare star. Gliese 436, a faint star in Leo about 33 light-years away from the Sun, is orbited by a transiting Neptune-mass extrasolar planet.


title: Leo (constellation)

text: The carbon star CW Leo (IRC +10216) is the brightest star in the night sky at the infrared N-band (10 μm wavelength).


title: Leo (constellation)

text: The star SDSS J102915+172927 (Caffau's star) is a population II star in the galactic halo seen in Leo. It is about 13 billion years old, making it one of the oldest stars in the Galaxy. It has the lowest metallicity of any known star.


title: Leo (constellation)

text: Modern astronomers, including Tycho Brahe in 1602, excised a group of stars that once made up the "tuft" of the lion's tail and used them to form the new constellation Coma Berenices (Berenice's hair), although there was precedent for that designation among the ancient Greeks and Romans.


title: Leo (constellation)

text: Leo contains many bright galaxies; Messier 65, Messier 66, Messier 95, Messier 96, Messier 105, and NGC 3628 are the most famous, the first two being part of the Leo Triplet.


title: Leo (constellation)

text: The Leo Ring, a cloud of hydrogen, helium gas, is found in the orbit of two galaxies found within this constellation.M66 is a spiral galaxy that is part of the Leo Triplet, whose other two members are M65 and NGC 3628. It is at a distance of 37 million light-years and has a somewhat distorted shape due to gravitational interactions with the other members of the Triplet, which are pulling stars away from M66. Eventually, the outermost stars may form a dwarf galaxy orbiting M66. Both M65 and M66 are visible in large binoculars or small telescopes, but their concentrated nuclei and elongation are only visible in large amateur instruments.


title: Leo (constellation)

text: M95 and M96 are both spiral galaxies 20 million light-years from Earth. Though they are visible as fuzzy objects in small telescopes, their structure is only visible in larger instruments. M95 is a barred spiral galaxy. M105 is about a degree away from the M95/M96 pair; it is an elliptical galaxy of the 9th magnitude, also about 20 million light-years from Earth.


title: Leo (constellation)

text: NGC 2903 is a barred spiral galaxy discovered by William Herschel in 1784. It is very similar in size and shape to the Milky Way and is located 25 million light-years from Earth. In its core, NGC 2903 has many "hotspots", which have been found to be near regions of star formation. The star formation in this region is thought to be due to the presence of the dusty bar, which sends shock waves through its rotation to an area with a diameter of 2,000 light-years. The outskirts of the galaxy have many young open clusters.


title: Leo (constellation)

text: Leo is also home to some of the largest structures in the observable universe. Some of the structures found in the constellation are the Clowes–Campusano LQG, U1.11, U1.54, and the Huge-LQG, which are all large quasar groups; the latter being the second largest structure known (see also NQ2-NQ4 GRB overdensity).


title: Leo (constellation)

text: The Leonids occur in November, peaking on November 14–15, and have a radiant close to Gamma Leonis. Its parent body is Comet Tempel-Tuttle, which causes significant outbursts every 35 years. The normal peak rate is approximately 10 meteors per hour.


title: Leo (constellation)

text: Leo was one of the earliest recognized constellations, with archaeological evidence that the Mesopotamians had a similar constellation as early as 4000 BCE. The Persians called Leo "Ser" or "Shir"; the Turks, "Artan"; the Syrians, "Aryo"; the Jews, "Arye"; the Indians, "Simha", all meaning "lion".


title: Leo (constellation)

text: Some mythologists believe that in Sumeria, Leo represented the monster Humbaba, who was killed by Gilgamesh.


title: Leo (constellation)

text: In Babylonian astronomy, the constellation was called UR.GU.LA, the "Great Lion"; the bright star Regulus was known as "the star that stands at the Lion's breast." Regulus also had distinctly regal associations, as it was known as the King Star.


title: Leo (constellation)

text: In Greek mythology, Leo was identified as the Nemean Lion which was killed by Heracles (Hercules to the Romans) during the first of his twelve labours. The Nemean Lion would take women as hostages to its lair in a cave, luring warriors from nearby towns to save the damsel in distress, to their misfortune. The Lion was impervious to any weaponry; thus, the warriors' clubs, swords, and spears were rendered useless against it. Realizing that he must defeat the Lion with his bare hands, Hercules slipped into the Lion's cave and engaged it at close quarters. When the Lion pounced, Hercules caught it in midair, one hand grasping the Lion's forelegs and the other its hind legs, and bent it backwards, breaking its back and freeing the trapped maidens. Zeus commemorated this labor by placing the Lion in the sky.


title: Leo (constellation)

text: The Roman poet Ovid called it "Herculeus Leo" and "Violentus Leo". "Bacchi Sidus" (star of Bacchus) was another of its titles, the god Bacchus always being identified with this animal. However, Manilius called it "Jovis et Junonis Sidus" (Star of Jupiter and Juno).


title: Leo (constellation)

text: Leo is commonly represented as if the sickle-shaped asterism of stars is the back of the Lion's head. The sickle is marked by six stars: Epsilon Leonis, Mu Leonis, Zeta Leonis, Gamma Leonis, Eta Leonis, and Alpha Leonis. The lion's tail is marked by Beta Leonis (Denebola) and the rest of his body is delineated by Delta Leonis and Theta Leonis.


title: Leo (constellation)

text: , the Sun appears in the constellation Leo from August 10 to September 16. In tropical astrology, the Sun is considered to be in the sign Leo from July 23 to August 22, and in sidereal astrology, from August 16 to September 17.


title: Tarana Burke

text: Tarana Burke (born September 12, 1973) is an American activist from The Bronx, New York, who started the Me Too movement. In 2006, Burke began using Me Too to help other women with similar experiences to stand up for themselves. Over a decade later, in 2017, #MeToo became a viral hashtag when Alyssa Milano and other women began using it to tweet about the Harvey Weinstein sexual abuse cases. The phrase and hashtag quickly developed into a broad-based, and eventually international movement.


title: Tarana Burke

text: "Time" named Burke, among a group of other prominent activists dubbed "the silence breakers", as the "Time" Person of the Year for 2017. Burke presents at public speaking events across the country and is currently Senior Director at Girls for Gender Equity in Brooklyn.


title: Tarana Burke

text: Harvard University published a case study on Burke, called "Leading with Empathy: Tarana Burke and the Making of the Me Too Movement".


title: Tarana Burke

text: Burke was born in The Bronx, New York, and raised in the area. She grew up in a low-income, working-class family in a housing project and was raped and sexually assaulted both as a child and a teenager. Her mother supported her recovery from these violent acts and encouraged her to be involved in the community. In her biography Burke states that these experiences inspired her to work to improve the lives of girls who undergo extreme hardships. As a teenager, she began improving the lives of young girls living in marginalized communities. Burke attended Alabama State University then transferred and graduated from Auburn University at Montgomery. During her time in college, she organized press conferences and protests regarding economic and racial justice.


title: Tarana Burke

text: After working with survivors of sexual violence, Burke developed the nonprofit "Just Be" in 2003, which was an all-girls program for Black girls aged 12 to 18. In 2006, Burke founded the Me Too movement and began using the phrase "Me Too" to raise awareness of the pervasiveness of sexual abuse and assault in society.


title: Tarana Burke

text: In 2008, she moved to Philadelphia and worked at Art Sanctuary Philadelphia and other non-profits. She was a consultant for the 2014 Hollywood movie "Selma", based on the 1965 Selma to Montgomery voting rights marches led by James Bevel, Hosea Williams, Martin Luther King Jr. and John Lewis.


title: Tarana Burke

text: The phrase "Me Too" developed into a broader movement following the 2017 use of #MeToo as a hashtag after the Harvey Weinstein sexual abuse allegations. On October 15, 2017, Burke was notified by her friends that the MeToo hashtag was being used online. Burke decided to be in service and shape the movement to make it about "empowermental empathy". "Time" named Burke, among a group of other prominent female activists dubbed "the silence breakers", as the "Time" Person of the Year for 2017.


title: Tarana Burke

text: In 2018, she attended the 75th Golden Globe Awards as a guest of American actor Michelle Williams. Burke received the 2018 Prize for Courage from The Ridenhour Prizes, which is awarded to individuals who demonstrate courageous defense of the public interest and passionate commitment to social justice, for popularizing the phrase “me too” as a way to empathize with sexual assault survivors.


title: Tarana Burke

text: Burke is currently Senior Director at Girls for Gender Equity. Burke organizes workshops to help improve policies at schools, workplaces, and places of worship, and focuses on helping victims not blame themselves for sexual violence. Burke attends public speaking events across the country. More recently, Burke and Mervyn Marcano, of Field/House Productions, inked a CBS Studios overall deal. Burke had two books published in 2021: "You Are Your Best Thing: Vulnerability, Shame Resilience, and the Black Experience" (co-authored with Brené Brown for Random House, April 2021) and "Unbound: My Story of Liberation and the Birth of the Me Too Movement" (Flatiron Books, September 2021).


title: Tarana Burke

text: Burke is the Senior Director of Girls for Gender Equity in Brooklyn, which strives to help young women of color increase their overall development through various programs and classes.


title: Tarana Burke

text: In 1997, Burke met a girl named Heaven in Alabama who told her about being sexually abused by her mother's boyfriend. She says she didn't know what to say, and never saw the girl again. She says she wished she had said "me too." Burke has said she came to believe girls needed "different attention" than their male peers. This and other incidents led Burke to found Just Be Inc., an organization that promotes the wellness of young female minorities aged 12–18. In 2006, she made a Myspace page. Just Be Inc. received its first grant in 2007.


title: Tarana Burke

text: In 2006, Burke founded the Me Too movement and began using the phrase "Me Too" to raise awareness of the pervasiveness of sexual abuse and assault in society.


title: Tarana Burke

text: The phrase "Me Too" developed into a broader movement following the 2017 use of #MeToo as a hashtag following the Harvey Weinstein sexual abuse allegations. In October 2017, actress Alyssa Milano encouraged women to say "Me Too" if they've experienced sexual harassment or assault, and the hashtag became popular. Milano quickly acknowledged Burke's earlier use of the phrase on Twitter, writing "I was just made aware of an earlier #MeToo movement, and the origin story is equal parts heartbreaking and inspiring". Burke has been supportive of the #MeToo hashtag.


title: Tarana Burke

text: "Time" named Burke, among a group of other prominent activist women dubbed "the silence breakers", as the "Time" Person of the Year for 2017. Her speaking engagements have included Brown University in February 2018 and at Calvary Episcopal Church (Pittsburgh) about the roots of the movement.


title: Tarana Burke

text: In 2021 Burke published a memoir describing the relationship of her activism to experience with leaders of the civil rights movement titled: "Unbound: My Story of Liberation and the Birth of the Me Too Movement".


title: Logan Miller

text: Logan Miller (born ) is an American actor. He is known for starring in the Disney XD sitcom "I'm in the Band" and he has also voiced Nova / Sam Alexander in the animated series "Ultimate Spider-Man". In films, he has starred in "A Dog's Purpose", "Love, Simon", and "Escape Room".


title: Logan Miller

text: Miller was born in Englewood, Colorado, and was raised in New Mexico, Minnesota, and Dallas, Texas. In 2009, he began starring as Tripp Campbell in the Disney XD sitcom "I'm in the Band". He also played teenage Connor Mead, the younger version of Matthew McConaughey's character, in the 2009 film "Ghosts of Girlfriends Past".


title: Steam

text: Steam is a substance containing water in the gas phase, and sometimes also an aerosol of liquid water droplets, or air. This may occur due to evaporation or due to boiling, where heat is applied until water reaches the enthalpy of vaporization. Steam that is saturated or superheated is invisible; however, "steam" often refers to wet steam, the visible mist or aerosol of water droplets formed as water vapor condenses.


title: Steam

text: Water increases in volume by 1,700 times at standard temperature and pressure; this change in volume can be converted into mechanical work by steam engines such as reciprocating piston type engines and steam turbines, which are a sub-group of steam engines. Piston type steam engines played a central role in the Industrial Revolution and modern steam turbines are used to generate more than 80% of the world's electricity. If liquid water comes in contact with a very hot surface or depressurizes quickly below its vapor pressure, it can create a steam explosion.


title: Steam

text: Steam is traditionally created by heating a boiler via burning coal and other fuels, but it is also possible to create steam with solar energy. Water vapor that includes water droplets is described as wet steam. As wet steam is heated further, the droplets evaporate, and at a high enough temperature (which depends on the pressure) all of the water evaporates and the system is in vapor–liquid equilibrium. When steam has reached this equilibrium point, it is referred to as saturated steam.


title: Steam

text: Superheated steam is steam at a temperature higher than its boiling point for the pressure, which only occurs when all liquid water has evaporated or has been removed from the system.


title: Steam

text: Steam tables contain thermodynamic data for water/saturated steam and are often used by engineers and scientists in design and operation of equipment where thermodynamic cycles involving steam are used. Additionally, thermodynamic phase diagrams for water/steam, such as a temperature-entropy diagram or a Mollier diagram shown in this article, may be useful. Steam charts are also used for analysing thermodynamic cycles.


title: Steam

text: In agriculture, steam is used for soil sterilization to avoid the use of harmful chemical agents and increase soil health.


title: Steam

text: Steam's capacity to transfer heat is also used in the home: for cooking vegetables, steam cleaning of fabric, carpets and flooring, and for heating buildings. In each case, water is heated in a boiler, and the steam carries the energy to a target object. Steam is also used in ironing clothes to add enough humidity with the heat to take wrinkles out and put intentional creases into the clothing.


title: Steam

text: As of 2000 around 90% of all electricity was generated using steam as the working fluid, nearly all by steam turbines.


title: Steam

text: In electric generation, steam is typically condensed at the end of its expansion cycle, and returned to the boiler for re-use. However, in cogeneration, steam is piped into buildings through a district heating system to provide heat energy after its use in the electric generation cycle. The world's biggest steam generation system is the New York City steam system, which pumps steam into 100,000 buildings in Manhattan from seven cogeneration plants.


title: Steam

text: In other industrial applications steam is used for energy storage, which is introduced and extracted by heat transfer, usually through pipes. Steam is a capacious reservoir for thermal energy because of water's high heat of vaporization.


title: Steam

text: Fireless steam locomotives were steam locomotives that operated from a supply of steam stored on board in a large tank resembling a conventional locomotive's boiler. This tank was filled by process steam, as is available in many sorts of large factory, such as paper mills. The locomotive's propulsion used pistons and connecting rods, as for a typical steam locomotive. These locomotives were mostly used in places where there was a risk of fire from a boiler's firebox, but were also used in factories that simply had a plentiful supply of steam to spare.


title: Steam

text: Steam engines and steam turbines use the expansion of steam to drive a piston or turbine to perform mechanical work. The ability to return condensed steam as water-liquid to the boiler at high pressure with relatively little expenditure of pumping power is important. Condensation of steam to water often occurs at the low-pressure end of a steam turbine, since this maximizes the energy efficiency, but such wet-steam conditions must be limited to avoid excessive turbine blade erosion. Engineers use an idealised thermodynamic cycle, the Rankine cycle, to model the behavior of steam engines. Steam turbines are often used in the production of electricity.


title: Steam

text: An autoclave, which uses steam under pressure, is used in microbiology laboratories and similar environments for sterilization.


title: Steam

text: Steam, especially dry (highly superheated) steam, may be used for antimicrobial cleaning even to the levels of sterilization. Steam is a non-toxic antimicrobial agent.


title: Steam

text: Steam is used in piping for utility lines. It is also used in jacketing and tracing of piping to maintain the uniform temperature in pipelines and vessels.


title: Steam

text: Steam is used across multiple industries for its ability to transfer heat to drive chemical reactions, sterilize or disinfect objects and to maintain constant temperatures. In the lumber industry, steam is used in the process of wood bending, killing insects, and increasing plasticity. Steam is used to accentuate drying of concrete especially in prefabricates.


title: Steam

text: Care should be taken since concrete produces heat during hydration and additional heat from the steam could be detrimental to hardening reaction processes of the concrete. In chemical and petrochemical industries, steam is used in various chemical processes as a reactant. Steam cracking of long chain hydrocarbons produces lower molecular weight hydrocarbons for fuel or other chemical applications. Steam reforming produces syngas or hydrogen.


title: Steam

text: Used in cleaning of fibers and other materials, sometimes in preparation for painting. Steam is also useful in melting hardened grease and oil residues, so it is useful in cleaning kitchen floors and equipment and internal combustion engines and parts. Among the advantages of using steam versus a hot water spray are the facts that steam can operate at higher temperatures and it uses substantially less water per minute.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: The GeForce 900 series is a family of graphics processing units developed by Nvidia, succeeding the GeForce 700 series and serving as the high-end introduction to the Maxwell microarchitecture, named after James Clerk Maxwell. They are produced with TSMC's 28 nm process.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: With Maxwell, the successor to Kepler, Nvidia expected three major outcomes: improved graphics capabilities, simplified programming, and better energy efficiency compared to the GeForce 700 series and GeForce 600 series.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: Maxwell was announced in September 2010, with the first Maxwell-based GeForce consumer-class products released in early 2014.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: First generation Maxwell GM107/GM108 were released as GeForce GTX 745, GTX 750/750 Ti and GTX 850M/860M (GM107) and GT 830M/840M (GM108). These new chips provide few consumer-facing additional features; Nvidia instead focused on power efficiency. Nvidia increased the amount of L2 cache from 256 KiB on GK107 to 2 MiB on GM107, reducing the memory bandwidth needed. Accordingly, Nvidia cut the memory bus from 192 bit on GK106 to 128 bit on GM107, further saving power. Nvidia also changed the streaming multiprocessor design from that of Kepler (SMX), naming it SMM. The structure of the warp scheduler is inherited from Kepler, which allows each scheduler to issue up to two instructions that are independent from each other and are in order from the same warp. The layout of SMM units is partitioned so that each of the 4 warp schedulers in an SMM controls 1 set of 32 FP32 CUDA cores, 1 set of 8 load/store units, and 1 set of 8 special function units. This is in contrast to Kepler, where each SMX has 4 schedulers that schedule to a shared pool of 6 sets of 32 FP32 CUDA cores, 2 sets of 16 load/store units, and 2 sets of 16 special function units. These units are connected by a crossbar that uses power to allow the resources to be shared. This crossbar is removed in Maxwell. Texture units and FP64 CUDA cores are still shared. SMM allows for a finer-grain allocation of resources than SMX, saving power when the workload isn't optimal for shared resources. Nvidia claims a 128 CUDA core SMM has 86% of the performance of a 192 CUDA core SMX. Also, each Graphics Processing Cluster, or GPC, contains up to 4 SMX units in Kepler, and up to 5 SMM units in first generation Maxwell.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: GM107 supports CUDA Compute Capability 5.0 compared to 3.5 on GK110/GK208 GPUs and 3.0 on GK10x GPUs. Dynamic Parallelism and HyperQ, two features in GK110/GK208 GPUs, are also supported across the entire Maxwell product line.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: Maxwell provides native shared memory atomic operations for 32-bit integers and native shared memory 32-bit and 64-bit compare-and-swap (CAS), which can be used to implement other atomic functions.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: While it was once thought that Maxwell used tile-based immediate mode rasterization, Nvidia corrected this at GDC 2017 saying Maxwell instead uses Tile Caching.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: Maxwell-based GPUs also contain the NVENC SIP block introduced with Kepler. Nvidia's video encoder, NVENC, is 1.5 to 2 times faster than on Kepler-based GPUs meaning it can encode video at 6 to 8 times playback speed.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: Nvidia also claims an 8 to 10 times performance increase in PureVideo Feature Set E video decoding due to the video decoder cache paired with increases in memory efficiency. However, H.265 is not supported for full hardware decoding, relying on a mix of hardware and software decoding. When decoding video, a new low power state "GC5" is used on Maxwell GPUs to conserve power.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: Second generation Maxwell introduced several new technologies: Dynamic Super Resolution, Third Generation Delta Color Compression, Multi-Pixel Programming Sampling, Nvidia VXGI (Real-Time-Voxel-Global Illumination), VR Direct, Multi-Projection Acceleration, and Multi-Frame Sampled Anti-Aliasing (MFAA) (however support for Coverage-Sampling Anti-Aliasing (CSAA) was removed). HDMI 2.0 support was also added.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: Second generation Maxwell also changed the ROP to memory controller ratio from 8:1 to 16:1. However, some of the ROPs are generally idle in the GTX 970 because there are not enough enabled SMMs to give them work to do and therefore reduces its maximum fill rate.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: GM204 supports CUDA Compute Capability 5.2 compared to 5.0 on GM107/GM108 GPUs, 3.5 on GK110/GK208 GPUs and 3.0 on GK10x GPUs.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: Maxwell second generation GM20x GPUs have an upgraded NVENC which supports HEVC encoding and adds support for H.264 encoding resolutions at 1440p/60FPS & 4K/60FPS compared to NVENC on Maxwell first generation GM10x GPUs which only supported H.264 1080p/60FPS encoding.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: Issues with the GeForce GTX 970's specifications were first brought up by users when they found out that the cards, while featuring 4 GB of memory, rarely accessed memory over the 3.5 GB boundary. Further testing and investigation eventually led to Nvidia issuing a statement that the card's initially announced specifications had been altered without notice before the card was made commercially available, and that the card took a performance hit once memory over the 3.5 GB limit were put into use.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: The card's back-end hardware specifications, initially announced as being identical to those of the GeForce GTX 980, differed in the amount of L2 cache (1.75 MB versus 2 MB in the GeForce GTX 980) and the number of ROPs (56 versus 64 in the 980). Additionally, it was revealed that the card was designed to access its memory as a 3.5 GB section, plus a 0.5 GB one, access to the latter being 7 times slower than the first one. The company then went on to promise a specific driver modification in order to alleviate the performance issues produced by the cutbacks suffered by the card. However, Nvidia later clarified that the promise had been a miscommunication and there would be no specific driver update for the GTX 970. Nvidia claimed that it would assist customers who wanted refunds in obtaining them. On February 26, 2015, Nvidia CEO Jen-Hsun Huang went on record in Nvidia's official blog to apologize for the incident. In February 2015 a class-action lawsuit alleging false advertising was filed against Nvidia and Gigabyte Technology in the U.S. District Court for Northern California.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: Nvidia revealed that it is able to disable individual units, each containing 256KB of L2 cache and 8 ROPs, without disabling whole memory controllers. This comes at the cost of dividing the memory bus into high speed and low speed segments that cannot be accessed at the same time unless one segment is reading while the other segment is writing because the L2/ROP unit managing both of the GDDR5 controllers shares the read return channel and the write data bus between the two GDDR5 controllers and itself. This is used in the GeForce GTX 970, which therefore can be described as having 3.5 GB in its high speed segment on a 224-bit bus and 0.5 GB in a low speed segment on a 32-bit bus.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: On July 27, 2016, Nvidia agreed to a preliminary settlement of the U.S. class action lawsuit, offering a $30 refund on GTX 970 purchases. The agreed upon refund represents the portion of the cost of the storage and performance capabilities the consumers assumed they were obtaining when they purchased the card.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: While the Maxwell series was marketed as fully DirectX 12 compliant, Oxide Games, developer of "Ashes of the Singularity", uncovered that Maxwell-based cards do not perform well when async compute is utilized.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: It appears that while this core feature is in fact exposed by the driver, Nvidia partially implemented it through a driver-based shim, coming at a high performance cost. Unlike AMD's competing GCN-based graphics cards which include a full implementation of hardware-based asynchronous compute, Nvidia planned to rely on the driver to implement a software queue and a software distributor to forward asynchronous tasks to the hardware schedulers, capable of distributing the workload to the correct units. Asynchronous compute on Maxwell therefore requires that both a game and the GPU driver be specifically coded for asynchronous compute on Maxwell in order to enable this capability. The 3DMark Time Spy benchmark shows no noticeable performance difference between asynchronous compute being enabled or disabled. Asynchronous compute is disabled by the driver for Maxwell.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: Oxide claims that this led to Nvidia pressuring them not to include the asynchronous compute feature in their benchmark at all, so that the 900 series would not be at a disadvantage against AMD's products which implement asynchronous compute in hardware.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: Maxwell requires that the GPU be statically partitioned for asynchronous compute to allow tasks to run concurrently. Each partition is assigned to a hardware queue. If any of the queues that are assigned to a partition empty out or are unable to submit work for any reason (e.g. a task in the queue must be delayed until a hazard is resolved), the partition and all of the resources in that partition reserved for that queue will idle. Asynchronous compute therefore could easily hurt performance on Maxwell if it is not coded to work with Maxwell's static scheduler. Furthermore, graphics tasks saturate Nvidia GPUs much more easily than they do to AMD's GCN-based GPUs which are much more heavily weighted towards compute, so Nvidia GPUs have fewer scheduling holes that could be filled by asynchronous compute than AMD's. For these reasons, the driver forces a Maxwell GPU to place all tasks into one queue and execute each task in serial, and give each task the undivided resources of the GPU no matter whether or not each task can saturate the GPU or not.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: Nvidia announced that after release of the 390 drivers, it will no longer release 32-bit drivers for 32-bit operating systems.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: Notebook GPUs based on the Kepler architecture moved to legacy support in April 2019 and stopped receiving critical security updates after April 2020. The Nvidia GeForce 910M and 920M from the 9xxM GPU family are affected by this change.


title: GeForce 900 series

text: Nvidia announced that after release of the 470 drivers, it would transition driver support for the Windows 7 and Windows 8.1 operating systems to legacy status and continue to provide critical security updates for these operating systems through September 2024.


title: Zilog Z80

text: The Z80 is an 8-bit microprocessor introduced by Zilog as the startup company's first product. The Z80 was conceived by Federico Faggin in late 1974 and developed by him and his 11 employees starting in early 1975. The first working samples were delivered in March 1976, and it was officially introduced on the market in July 1976. With the revenue from the Z80, the company built its own chip factories and grew to over a thousand employees over the following two years.


title: Zilog Z80

text: The Zilog Z80 is a software-compatible extension and enhancement of the Intel 8080 and, like it, was mainly aimed at embedded systems. Although used in that role, the Z80 also became one of the most widely used CPUs in desktop computers and home computers from the 1970s to the mid-1980s. It was also common in military applications, musical equipment such as synthesizers (like the Roland Jupiter-8), and coin-operated arcade games of the late 1970s and early 1980s, including "Pac-Man".


title: Zilog Z80

text: Zilog licensed the Z80 to the US-based Synertek and Mostek, which had helped them with initial production, as well as to a European second-source manufacturer SGS. The design was also copied by several Japanese, East European and Soviet manufacturers. This won the Z80 acceptance in the world market since large companies like NEC, Toshiba, Sharp, and Hitachi started to manufacture the device (or their own Z80-compatible clones or designs).


title: Zilog Z80

text: In recent decades Zilog has refocused on the ever-growing market for embedded systems, and the most recent Z80-compatible microcontroller family, the fully pipelined 24-bit eZ80 with a linear 16 MB address range, has been successfully introduced alongside the simpler Z80 and Z180 products.


title: Zilog Z80

text: Physicist and engineer Federico Faggin worked at Intel on microprocessor design. At Fairchild Semiconductor, and later at Intel, Faggin had been working on fundamental transistor and semiconductor manufacturing technology. He also developed the basic design methodology used for memories and microprocessors at Intel and led the work on the Intel 4004, the Intel 8080 and several other ICs. Masatoshi Shima was the principal logic and transistor-level designer of the 4004 and the 8080 under Faggin's supervision, while Ralph Ungermann was in charge of custom integrated circuit design.


title: Zilog Z80

text: In early 1974, Intel viewed their microprocessors not so much as products to be sold on their own but as a way to sell more of their main products, static RAM and ROM. A reorganization placed many of the formerly independent sections under the direction of Les Vadasz, and a new group was set up to directly market the microprocessors. That year, the 1973–1975 recession reached a peak and Intel laid off a number of employees. All of this led to Faggin becoming restless, and he invited Ungermann out for drinks and asked if he would be interested in starting their own company. Ungermann immediately agreed, and as he had less to do at Intel, left in August or September, followed by Faggin, whose last day at Intel was Halloween 1974. When Shima heard, he asked to come to the new company as well, but having no actual product design or money, they told him to wait.


title: Zilog Z80

text: The newly-formed and unnamed company initially began designing a single-chip microcontroller called the 2001. They met with Synertek to discuss fabrication on their lines, and when Faggin began to understand the costs involved it became clear that a low-cost product like this would not be able to compete with a design from a company with its own production lines, like Intel. They then began considering a more complex microprocessor instead, initially known as the Super 80, with the main feature being its use of a +5 V bus instead of the more common -5, +5 and 12 V used by designs like the 8080. The new design was intended to be compatible with the 8080, but add many of the nice features of the Motorola 6800, including index registers and improved interrupts.


title: Zilog Z80

text: While still being set up, the industry newsletter "Electronic News" heard of them and published a story on the newly formed company. This attracted the attention of Exxon Enterprises, Exxon's high-tech investment arm. At the time, in the midst of the recession, there was very little venture capital available, with a total of $10 million for the entire industry being spent in all of 1975. Someone from Exxon contacted the still-unnamed company, and arranged a meeting that eventually led to them providing an initial $500,000 funding in June 1975.


title: Zilog Z80

text: With funding being discussed, and a design to be built, Shima joined in February 1975. Shima immediately set about producing a high-level design, adding several concepts of his own. In particular, he used his experience on NEC minicomputers to add the concept of two sets of processor registers so they could quickly respond to interrupts. Ungerman began the development of a series of related controllers and peripheral chips that would complement the design.


title: Zilog Z80

text: Through this period, Shima developed a legendary reputation for being able to convert logic concepts into physical design in realtime; while discussing a proposed feature, he would often interrupt and state how much room that would take on the chip and veto its addition if it was too large. The first pass at the design was complete by April 1975. Shima had completed a logic layout by the beginning of May. A second version of the logic design was issued on 7 August and the bus details by 16 September. Tape-out was completed in November and converting the tape into a production mask required two more months.


title: Zilog Z80

text: Faggin had already started looking for a production partner. By this time, Synertek and Mostek had both set up the depletion-mode production lines that could be used to produce the design. Having talked to Synertek previously, Faggin approached them first. However, the president of Synertek demanded that the company be given a second source license, allowing them to sell the design directly. Faggin thought this would mean they could never compete even if they set up their own lines, and the agreement fell through. He then turned to Mostek, who agreed to a term of exclusivity while Zilog got their lines set up, and were eventually given the second source agreement.


title: Zilog Z80

text: After considering many names for the new company, and finding them so unmemorable they couldn't recall them even a day later, Faggin and Ungermann were kicking around ideas based on "integrated logic" when Ungermann said "how about Zilog?" Faggin immediately agreed, stating they could say it was the "last word in integrated logic". When they met the next day and both immediately recalled it, the company had its name.


title: Zilog Z80

text: The first samples were returned from Mostek on 9 March 1976. By the end of the month, they had also completed a assembler-based development system. Some of the Z80 support and peripheral ICs were under development at this point, and many of them were launched during the following year. Among them were the Z80 CTC (counter/timer), Z80 DMA (direct memory access), Z80 DART (dual asynchronous receiver–transmitter), Z80 SIO (synchronous communication controller), and Z80 PIO (parallel input/output).


title: Zilog Z80

text: The Z80 was officially launched in July 1976. One of the very first customers was a buyer who, unknown to Zilog, worked for NEC. At the time, the Japanese electronics companies were well known for taking US chip designs and producing them without a license. The Zilog team had worried about this, and Faggin had come up with the idea of adding transistors that would be subtlely modified to operate differently than a visual inspection would suggest. Shima added six of these "traps" around the design. Sometime later, Shima was told by an engineer within NEC that the traps had delayed their copying efforts by six months.


title: Zilog Z80

text: The successful launch allowed Faggin and Ungermann to approach Exxon looking for funding to build their own fab. The company agreed, and Zilog built a production line very rapidly. This allowed them to capture about 60 to 70% of the total market for Z80 sales. With their own line running, Mostek was given the go-ahead to start sales of their own versions, the MK3880, which provided a second-source for customers which Intel lacked. At the time, a second-source was considered extremely important as a start-up like Zilog might go out of business and leave potential customers stranded.


title: Zilog Z80

text: Faggin designed the instruction set to be binary compatible with the 8080 so that most 8080 code, notably the CP/M operating system and Intel's PL/M compiler for 8080 (as well as its generated code), would run unmodified on the new Z80 CPU. Masatoshi Shima designed most of the microarchitecture as well as the gate and transistor levels of the Z80 CPU, assisted by a small number of engineers and layout people. CEO Federico Faggin was actually heavily involved in the chip layout work, together with two dedicated layout people. According to Faggin, he worked 80 hours a week in order to meet the tight schedule given by the financial investors.


title: Zilog Z80

text: The Z80 took over from the 8080 and its offspring, the 8085, in the processor market and became one of the most popular and widely used 8-bit CPUs. Some organizations such as British Telecom remained loyal to the 8085 for embedded applications, owing to their familiarity with it and to its on-chip serial interface and interrupt architecture. Likewise, Zenith Data Systems paired the 8085 with the 16-bit Intel 8088 in its first MS-DOS computer, the Zenith Z-100, despite having previous experience with its pioneering Z80-based Heathkit H89 and Zenith Z-89 products. However, other computers were made integrating the Z80 with other CPUs: the Radio Shack TRS-80 Model 16 with a Motorola 68000, the DEC Rainbow with an 8088, and the Commodore 128 with a MOS 8502.


title: Zilog Z80

text: Zilog was later producing a low-power Z80 suitable for the growing laptop computer market of the early 1980s. Intel produced a CMOS 8085 (80C85) used in battery-powered portable computers, such as the Kyocera-designed laptop from April 1983, also sold by Tandy (as TRS-80 Model 100), Olivetti, and NEC. In following years, however, CMOS versions of the Z80 (from both Zilog and Japanese manufacturers) would dominate this market as well, in products such as the Amstrad NC100, Cambridge Z88 and Tandy's own WP-2.


title: Zilog Z80

text: Perhaps a key to the initial success of the Z80 was the built-in DRAM refresh, at least in markets such as CP/M and other office and home computers. (Most Z80 embedded systems use static RAM that do not need refresh.) It may also have been its minimalistic two-level interrupt system, or conversely, its general multi-level daisy-chain interrupt system useful in servicing multiple Z80 IO chips. These features allowed systems to be built with less support hardware and simpler circuit board layouts.


title: Zilog Z80

text: However, others claim that its popularity was due to the duplicated registers that allowed fast context switches or more efficient processing of things like floating-point math compared to 8-bit CPUs with fewer registers. (The Z80 can keep several such numbers internally, using HL'HL, DE'DE and BC'BC as 32-bits registers, avoiding having to access them from slower RAM during computation.)


title: Zilog Z80

text: For the original NMOS design, the specified upper clock-frequency limit increased successively from the introductory 2.5 MHz, via the well known 4 MHz (Z80A), up to 6 (Z80B) and 8 MHz (Z80H). The NMOS version has been produced as a 10 MHz part since the late 1980s. CMOS versions were developed with specified upper frequency limits ranging from 4 MHz up to 20 MHz for the version sold today. The CMOS versions allowed low-power standby with internal state retained, having no "lower" frequency limit. The fully compatible derivatives HD64180/Z180 and eZ80 are currently specified for up to 33 and 50 MHz respectively.


title: Zilog Z80

text: The programming model and register set of the Z80 are fairly conventional, ultimately based on the register structure of the Datapoint 2200. The Z80 was designed as an extension of the Intel 8080, created by the same engineers, which in turn was an extension of the 8008. The 8008 was basically a PMOS implementation of the TTL-based CPU of the Datapoint 2200.


title: Zilog Z80

text: The 2200 design allowed 8-bit registers H and L (High and Low) to be paired into a 16-bit address register HL. In the 8080, this pairing was added to the BC and DE pairs as well, while HL was generalized to allow use as a 16-bit accumulator, not just an address register. The 8080 also introduced the important 8-bit immediate data mode for accumulator operations, and immediate 16-bit data for HL, BC and DE loads. Furthermore, direct 16-bit copying between HL and memory was now possible, using a direct address.


title: Zilog Z80

text: The Z80 orthogonalized this further by making all 16-bit register pairs, including IX and IY, more general purpose, as well as allowing 16-bit copying directly to and from memory for all of these pairs. The 16-bit IX and IY registers in the Z80 are primarily intended as base address-registers, where a particular instruction supplies a constant offset that is added to the previous values, but they are also usable as 16-bit accumulators, among other things. A limitation is that all operand references involving IX or IY require an extra instruction prefix byte, adding at least four clock cycles over the timing of an instruction using HL instead; this sometimes makes using IX or IY less efficient than a method using only the 8080-model registers. The Z80 also introduced a new signed overflow flag and complemented the fairly simple 16-bit arithmetics of the 8080 with dedicated instructions for "signed" 16-bit arithmetics.


title: Zilog Z80

text: The 8080-compatible registers AF, BC, DE, HL are duplicated as a separate register file in the Z80, where the processor can quickly (four t-states, the least possible execution time for any Z80 instruction) switch from one bank to the other; a feature useful for speeding up responses to single-level, high-priority interrupts. A similar feature was present in the 2200, but was never implemented at Intel. The dual register-set is very useful in the embedded role, as it improves interrupt handling performance, but found widespread use in the personal computer role as an additional set of general registers for complex code like floating-point arithmetic or home computer games.


title: Zilog Z80

text: The duplicate register file is often referred to as the "alternate register set" (by some, the "primed" register file since the apostrophe character is used to denote them in assembler source code and the Zilog documentation). This emphasizes that only one set is addressable at any time. However, the 8-bit accumulator A with its flag register F is bifurcated from the "general purpose" register pairs HL, DE and BC. This is accomplished with two separate instructions used to swap their accessibilities: codice_1 exchanges only register pair AF with AF', while the codice_2 instruction exchanges the three general purpose register pairs HL, DE and BC with their alternates HL', DE' and BC'. Thus the accumulator A can interact independently with any of the general purpose 8-bit registers in the alternate (or primed) register file, or, if HL' contains a pointer to memory, some byte there (DE' and BC' can also transfer 8-bit data between memory and accumulator A).


title: Zilog Z80

text: This can become confusing for programmers because after executing codice_1 or codice_2 what were previously the alternate (primed) registers are now the main registers, and vice versa. The only way for the programmer to tell which set(s) are in context (while "playing computer" while scrutinizing the assembler source text, or worse, poring over code with a debugger) is to trace where each register swap is made at each point in the program. Obviously if many jump and calls are made within these code segments it can quickly become difficult to tell which register file is in context unless carefully commented. Thus it is advisable that exchange instructions be used directly and in short discrete code segments. The Zilog Z280 instruction set includes codice_5 and codice_6 instructions which jump to a destination address if the alternate registers are in context (thus officially recognizing this programming complication).


title: Zilog Z80

text: As on the 8080, 8-bit registers are typically paired to provide 16-bit versions. The 8080 compatible registers are:


title: Zilog Z80

text: The "refresh register", codice_16, increments each time the CPU fetches an opcode (or an opcode prefix, which internally executes like a 1-byte instruction) and has no simple relationship with program execution. This has sometimes been used to generate pseudorandom numbers in games, and also in software protection schemes. It has also been employed as a "hardware" counter in some designs; an example of this is the ZX81, which lets it keep track of character positions on the TV screen by triggering an interrupt at wrap around (by connecting INT to A6).


title: Zilog Z80

text: The "interrupt vector register", codice_15, is used for the Z80 specific mode 2 interrupts (selected by the codice_23 instruction). It supplies the high byte of the base address for a 128-entry table of service routine addresses which are selected via an index sent to the CPU during an interrupt acknowledge cycle; this index is simply the low byte part of the pointer to the tabulated indirect address pointing to the service routine. The pointer identifies a particular peripheral chip or peripheral function or event, where the chips are normally connected in a so-called daisy chain for priority resolution. Like the refresh register, this register has also sometimes been used creatively; in interrupt modes 0 and 1 (or in a system not using interrupts) it can be used as simply another 8-bit data register.


title: Zilog Z80

text: The instructions codice_24 and codice_25 affect the Z80 flags register, unlike all the other codice_26 (load) instructions. The Sign (bit 7) and Zero (bit 6) flags are set according to the data loaded from the Refresh or Interrupt source registers. For both instructions, the Parity/Overflow flag (bit 2) is set according to the current state of the IFF2 flip-flop.


title: Zilog Z80

text: Although the Z80 is generally considered an eight-bit CPU, it has a four-bit ALU, so calculations were done in two cycles.


title: Zilog Z80

text: The first Intel 8008 assembly language was based on a very simple (but systematic) syntax inherited from the Datapoint 2200 design. This original syntax was later transformed into a new, somewhat more traditional, assembly language form for this same original 8008 chip. At about the same time, the new assembly language was also extended to accommodate the additional addressing modes in the more advanced Intel 8080 chip (the 8008 and 8080 shared a language subset without being binary compatible; however, the 8008 was binary compatible with the Datapoint 2200).


title: Zilog Z80

text: In this process, the mnemonic codice_27, for "LOAD", was replaced by various abbreviations of the words "LOAD", "STORE" and "MOVE", intermixed with other symbolic letters. The mnemonic letter codice_28, for "memory" (referenced by HL), was lifted out from within the instruction mnemonic to become a syntactically freestanding "operand", while registers and combinations of registers became very inconsistently denoted; either by abbreviated operands (MVI D, LXI H and so on), within the instruction mnemonic itself (LDA, LHLD and so on), or both at the same time (LDAX B, STAX D and so on).


title: Zilog Z80

text: "Illustration of four syntaxes, using samples of equivalent, or (for 8086) very similar, load and store instructions. The Z80 syntax uses parentheses around an expression to indicate that the value should be used as a memory address (as mentioned below), while the 8086 syntax uses brackets instead of ordinary parentheses for this purpose. Both Z80 and 8086 use the + sign to indicate that a constant is added to a base register to form an address. Note that the 8086 is not a complete superset of the Z80. BX is the only 8086 register pair that can be used as a pointer."


title: Zilog Z80

text: Because Intel claimed a copyright on their assembly mnemonics, a new assembly syntax had to be developed for the Z80. This time a more systematic approach was used:


title: Zilog Z80

text: These principles made it straightforward to find names and forms for all new Z80 instructions, as well as orthogonalizations of old ones, such as codice_29.


title: Zilog Z80

text: Apart from naming differences, and despite a certain discrepancy in basic register structure, the Z80 and 8086 syntax are virtually isomorphic for a large portion of instructions. Only quite superficial similarities (such as the word MOV, or the letter X, for extended register) exist between the 8080 and 8086 assembly languages, although 8080 programs can be translated to 8086 assembly language by translator programs.


title: Zilog Z80

text: The Z80 uses 252 out of the available 256 codes as single byte opcodes ("root instruction" which are all inherited from the 8080); the four remaining codes are used extensively as opcode prefixes: CB and ED enable extra instructions, and DD or FD select IX+d or IY+d respectively (in some cases without displacement d) in place of HL. This scheme gives the Z80 a large number of permutations of instructions and registers; Zilog categorizes these into 158 different "instruction types", 78 of which are the same as those of the Intel 8080 (allowing operation of all 8080 programs on a Z80). The Zilog documentation further groups instructions into the following categories (most from the 8080, others entirely new like the block and bit instructions, and others 8080 instructions with more versatile addressing modes, like the 16-bit loads, I/O, rotates/shifts and relative jumps):


title: Zilog Z80

text: No explicit multiply instructions are available in the original Z80, though registers A and HL can be multiplied by powers of two with ADD A,A and ADD HL,HL instructions (similarly IX and IY also). Shift instructions can also multiply or divide by powers of two.