title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: In December 2007, Honda America's CEO, Tetsuo Iwamura, confirmed to the automotive press that a new sports car powered by a V10 engine would make its debut to the market by 2010. The new sports car would be based on the Acura ASCC (Advanced Sports Car Concept) introduced at the 2007 North American International Auto Show. With Honda's CEO Takeo Fukui challenging the developers to make the car faster than the Nissan GT-R around the Nürburgring. Prototypes of the vehicle were seen testing on the Nürburgring in June 2008. On December 17, 2008, Fukui announced during a speech about Honda's revised financial forecasts that, due to poor economic conditions, all plans for a next-generation of the NSX had been cancelled. In March 2010, the name of the Acura NSX project was changed to the Honda HSV-010 GT, and the car was entered in the Japanese Super GT Championship. The HSV-010 GT was powered by a 3.4-liter V8 rated at a power output of more than and was equipped with a sequential manual transmission from Ricardo. The HSV-010 GT never made it into production stage.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: In April 2011, "Automobile magazine" reported that Honda was developing a new sports car to be a successor to the original NSX. The magazine reported that the car would be exhilarating to drive but also environmentally friendly. It was expected that the vehicle will incorporate an electric drivetrain to give the petrol engine a boost of power. In late 2010, "Motor Trend" reported that Honda was developing a mid-engine hybrid electric sports car to be an NSX successor.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: In December 2011, Acura announced that they would unveil the next generation of the NSX in concept form at the 2012 North American International Auto Show. On January 9, 2012, Acura unveiled the 2012 Acura NSX Concept to the general public.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: The new concept retained a two-door coupe, mid-engine layout but with all-wheel drive. The use of a high-tech platform made from lightweight materials permitted the weight to be low. Power came from a 3.5-litre V6 engine mounted behind the cockpit, sending its power to the rear wheels. Acura's SH-AWD incorporates one electric motor in a dual-clutch transmission to augment the combustion engine thus forming a hybrid setup. Additionally, two more electric motors able to instantly send negative or positive torque to the front wheels during cornering also formed part of the powertrain.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: Acura claimed the resulting all-wheel drive system would provide better handling and matching acceleration while offering greater efficiency relative to the naturally aspirated 4.5-litre V8 engine in the Ferrari 458, the NSX's main competitor at the time.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: In September 2011, during filming of "The Avengers", Robert Downey, Jr. (playing the role of Iron Man) was spotted in an exotic sports car similar to the new NSX, made specifically for the film, rather than the Audi R8 he previously drove in "Iron Man" and "Iron Man 2". The car itself was built by Trans FX using an existing 1992 NSX. Its design was an altered form of the new NSX's final design in order to avoid leaks and speculations about the new sports car by the media. Also, it is currently owned by Robert Downey Jr.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: A Super Bowl advertisement for the vehicle began airing in early February 2012, featuring Jerry Seinfeld and Jay Leno.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: In 2013, Acura launched an online configuration tool for the new NSX on Facebook. Later that year, the car was featured in the video game "Gran Turismo 6".


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: Although the original name was retained—which stood for "New Sportscar eXperimental"—the second generation model's name has been defined as "New Sports eXperience".


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: On December 27, 2014, Honda announced that the second-generation of the NSX flagship sports car would debut at the 2015 North American International Auto Show on January 12, 2015.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: The Honda NSX unveiled at the 2015 North American International Auto Show. Honda to begin orders for the NSX on summer 2015, and deliveries on late 2015. In December 2015, the North American pricing was announced with a starting price of .


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: At the same time, Honda announced the European debut for the NSX at the 85th Geneva Motor Show, alongside the FK2 Civic Type R.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: The first production vehicle with VIN #001 was auctioned off by Barrett Jackson on January 29, 2016. NASCAR team owner Rick Hendrick won the auction with a bid for million. The entire proceeds from the auction were donated to the charities Pediatric Brain Tumor Foundation and Camp Southern Ground. The first NSX rolled off the production line in Ohio on May 24, 2016.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: Production of the second generation NSX commenced in 2015 at the Performance Manufacturing Center (PMC). The facility is specifically built for the assembly of the NSX, and it cost US$70 million to build the assembly plant for Honda. It is located in Marysville, Ohio, which is housed inside Honda's former North American Logistics facility and located in the midst of Honda's existing R&D and production engineering operations. The powertrain is separately assembled by Honda associates at its engine plant in Anna, Ohio. In February, 2017, Honda offered a factory tour exclusively for the 2017 through 2022 model year, U.S. market NSX buyers, called ""NSX Insider Experience"". The tour features the NSX assembly at the Performance Manufacturing Center (PMC), museum visit at Honda Heritage Center and racetrack driving at Honda's test track. Also, owners of the non-delivered NSX can track their own NSX being assembled, tested and to place the Acura badge on the just assembled NSX. This factory tour offered with packages starting at US$2,000 through up to $6,000 and each participant will be guided by an Acura host in an Acura MDX.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: In 2020, Honda stopped producing the NSX for Japan, Australia and Europe including the United Kingdom due to its poor sales, and announced that it is no longer available in the respective areas for sale. In 2019 and 2020, the NSX had sold only 3 units, and none in Australia. Also, in Japan, only 9 units were sold in January 2020. At the end of 2021, Honda stopped producing the NSX for all other markets and stated that only a limited run Type S variant will be produced in 2022. Honda has sold 2,908 units worldwide (including Type S models).


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: The table below indicates the change in dimensions, relative to the original second generation concept car presented in 2012:


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: In August 2018, Honda announced improvements for the 2019 model year. The improvements included larger front and rear stabilizer bars, which increased front stiffness by 26 percent and rear stiffness by 19 percent, as well as 21 percent stiffer rear toe link bushings. New specially developed Continental tires and optional Pirelli P Zero Trofeo R tires were also included. These led to software optimizations to the Sport Hybrid SH-AWD system, active magnetorheological dampers, electric power steering and VSA settings. According to Honda, the car is 1.9 seconds faster than the pre-2019 model around the Suzuka Circuit. Visually, the car's previously silver front grille garnish is now painted in the same color as the body. Additionally, a new Thermal Orange Pearl body color became available for 2019, followed by Indy Yellow Pearl for 2020 and Long Beach Blue Pearl for 2021.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: On August 3, 2021, Honda teased the NSX Type S via its YouTube channel. Claimed it will be an improved, high-performance version of the NSX and it will be only produced in 2022 to mark the car's final year of production. The NSX Type S will be limited to 350 units worldwide, with 300 of these units available for the United States, 30 for Japan and 15 for Canada, will not be available for Europe and the United Kingdom. The Type S moniker was last used in the NSX on the 1997 NSX Type S and Type S-Zero models that were exclusive for the Japanese domestic market, meaning that the 2022 version will be the first NSX Type S to be sold out of Japan. The car was unveiled to the public on August 12, 2021, at the Monterey Car Week in the United States, and on August 30 in Japan.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: The NSX Type S features several enhancements to the NSX's powertrain, providing a combined maximum power output of and of torque. Enhancements to the internal combustion engine include new turbochargers from the NSX GT3 Evo race car that increase peak boost pressure by 5.6 percent from to , new fuel injectors which increase flow rate by 25 percent, and new intercoolers that can dissipate an additional 15 percent more heat than previously. As a result of these upgrades, the internal combustion engine now generates a maximum power output of at 6,500–6,850 rpm and of torque at 2,300–6,000 rpm. The gear ratio of the Twin Motor Unit powering the front wheels was lowered by 20 percent to improve torque off the line and give the car a quicker launch, while the car's usable battery capacity and battery output have been increased by 20 and 10 percent, respectively, as a result of more efficient usage of the car's Intelligent Power Unit. Because of the improvements in battery capacity and output, the car's electric motors have been retuned to offer better performance and a higher electric-only range. The car's 9-speed dual-clutch transmission (DCT) also features improvements. New programming for Sport and Sport+ modes resulted in 50 percent faster upshifts, while the allowable downshift speed in Track mode was raised by 1,500 rpm to allow earlier downshifts. A new "Rapid Downshift Mode" was introduced, allowing the driver to shift to the lowest possible gear according to the car's speed by holding the downshift paddle for 0.6 seconds in Sport, Sport+ and Track modes. In fully automatic mode, the transmission downshifts earlier in Sport+ and Track modes.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: The Type S features several new design elements to improve downforce and cooling through enhanced aerodynamics. These include a new nose design and a large carbon-fiber rear diffuser based on the one used on the NSX GT3 Evo. The car also has new forged split-5 spoke wheels, increasing front track by and rear track by , and new semi-slick Pirelli P-Zero tires developed exclusively for the NSX Type S, which have contributed to the car's lateral grip increasing by six percent. Honda also optimized the car's chassis, suspension and response, re-tuned its four drive modes, and refined its engine note. Also, black Honda and Acura badging offered exclusively for the NSX Type S just like other Type S models. As an optional feature, a "Lightweight Package" was introduced, reducing 26 kg (58 lb) from the car's curb weight with carbon ceramic brakes, carbon fiber engine cover and carbon fiber interior parts. Also, a new exclusive body paint color, named "Gotham Gray Matte" on North American models and "Carbon Matte Gray Metallic" on Japanese models, was offered, which is limited for 70 vehicles.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: With all of these upgrades, Honda states that the NSX Type S can accelerate 0 to 60 mph in under 3 seconds, electronically limited top speed remains at 307 km/h (191 mph) and two seconds faster at the Suzuka Circuit than the 2019–2021 NSX, meaning that the Type S is four seconds faster than the original 2016–2018 model at Suzuka. In May 2022, "Car and Driver" conducted a performance test for the NSX Type S, the car was 0.2 seconds quicker than the standard NSX, as it accelerated from 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) in 2.9 seconds, and completed the quarter-mile run in 11.0 seconds at 126 mph (203 km/h).


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: On August 14, 2021, the first NSX Type S – VIN #001 out of 350 – was auctioned to Rick Hendrick (same buyer of the first production NSX, which was auctioned back in 2016) for US$1.1 million at Mecum's Daytime Auction, which was held during the Monterey Car Week. All proceeds were donated to charitable organizations, including the Center of Science and Industry (COSI). All 300 Type S models in the United States were reserved with deposits within 24 hours of the car's launch, with a waiting list that includes more than 100 people. Applications for purchase in Japan began on 2 September 2021, with Japanese deliveries beginning in July 2022. Production of the NSX Type S began in January 2022. North American deliveries began in February 2022. Also, Acura Canada and Make-A-Wish Foundation held an online private auction for the first Type S out of 15 reserved Canadian Type S vehicles. The car led to a bid of US$306,364.90, won by Luc Girard and Geneviève Hardy. This was the largest, one-time, single donation the Make-A-Wish ever received. All of the proceeds were led to help children with critical illnesses.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: Mechanically, the second generation of the NSX represents a significant departure from the first generation since it features a hybrid electric powertrain. The "JNC" is a twin-turbocharged 75-degree DOHC 4 valves per cylinder 3.5-litre V6 engine generating a maximum power output of at 6,500–7,500 rpm and of torque at 2,000–6,000 rpm. The engine also includes a dry sump oil system and the turbochargers can produce boost up to 15.2 PSI, mated to a three electric motor Sport Hybrid SH-AWD system, a 1.3 kWh lithium-ion battery, and a 9-speed dual-clutch transmission (DCT). The combined maximum output is and of torque.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: The car has first generation NSX inspired LED headlights, turn signals and taillights, optional dry carbon-fiber rear spoiler, front splitter, rear defuser, side skirts, carbon-fiber roof, over 10 radiators and various amount of vents all over the exterior to improve downforce and cooling. Structurally, the body utilizes a space frame design, which is made from aluminium, ultra-high strength steel, and other rigid and lightweight materials, some of which are the world's first applications.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: The NSX offered with all-aluminum suspension bits, double-wishbone suspension setup for front and multi-link suspension setup for rear.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: Brakes are made up of 6-piston on front and 4-piston on rear with monoblock calipers on steel brake rotors and optional carbon-ceramic brake rotors.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: The NSX also offered with 19x8.5 inch front and 20x11 inch rear aluminum wheels, with Continental ContiSportContact tires and optional Pirelli P Zero Trofeo R tires with sizes of 245/35Z R19 on front and 295/30Z R20 on rear.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: The car has a 0 to acceleration time of 2.9 seconds and an electronically limited top speed of . In a test conducted by "Car and Driver", the NSX accelerated from 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) in 3.1 seconds and completed the quarter-mile run in 11.2 seconds at 126 mph (203 km/h).


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: In September 2021, Acura conducted a test for the NSX Type S around the Grand Prix of Long Beach street circuit with IMSA SportsCar champion Ricky Taylor driving. He set a lap time of 1:32.784 minutes, which was nearly three seconds faster than the 2019 NSX's 1:35.663 minute lap time set by Peter Cunningham and the lap record for a road-legal production vehicles.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: "Road & Track" named the NSX as its 2017 Performance Car of the Year. The magazine lauded the NSX for its use of hybrid technology in the service of an emotional driving experience. The NSX also won the AutoGuide.com Readers' Choice Car of the Year Award for achieving high performance with a natural driving feel. The NSX was the "Business Insider" 2016 Car of the Year on the strength of its striking styling and its unique drivetrain for a car in its price range. The "Green Car Journal" 2017 Luxury Green Car of the Year award went to the NSX for its combination of performance and efficiency. "Automobile" staff voted the NSX to its list of 2017 All-Stars; the car won the honor "by consistently putting a grin on drivers' faces" during testing. "Motor Trend" awarded the NSX first place in its 2020 hybrid performance car comparison, praising the improvements made to the car by the 2019 update. "Autocar" listed the Honda NSX as one of the best super sports cars for the year 2022.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: The NSX Concept-GT, a race car based on the NSX concept, was unveiled in 2013 to race in the GT500 category of the Super GT Series from 2014. During the 2014 season, the NSX Concept-GT received its first pole and victory at Fuji Speedway in August, with the best-placed Honda driver fourth in the championship. In 2015, the car won at Sportsland Sugo and finished third in the championship. The car featured a hybrid system in 2014 and 2015, but it was abandoned for the 2016 season, with hybrid systems banned from GT500 in 2017. The 2016 season saw the car score a pole position in Suzuka and three podiums.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: In 2017, Honda launched the NSX-GT based on the production version, replacing the NSX Concept-GT. The car won the final running of the Suzuka 1000km in 2017, and in 2018, it won the championship with Jenson Button and Naoki Yamamoto of Team Kunimitsu crowned champions. In an incident-filled 2019, the car won the Okayama round and the second Super GT × DTM Dream Race, which was the mid-engine NSX's final race. Due to regulation changes in accordance with Class One Touring Cars regulations, Honda debuted new NSX-GT with a front-engine layout for the 2020 season. Team Kunimitsu's NSX would narrowly won the GT500 title in an upset after the rival KeePer Toyota GR Supra ran out of fuel at the end of the final lap of the championship race at Fuji Speedway.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: At Mobility Resort Motegi during the pre-season testing for the 2022 season, Honda was spied testing new NSX-GT race cars which were based on the NSX Type S. In February 2022, the NSX-GT Type S made its public debut at the Honda Racing "Thanks Day" racing festival at Suzuka Circuit.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: On the opening round at Okayama International Circuit, Team Kunimitsu's NSX-GT Type S qualified 3rd on the grid. On the race day the car finished 2nd overall, driven by Naoki Yamamoto and Tadasuke Makino. On the second round at Fuji Speedway, the car scored its first win with team Autobacs Racing Team Aguri (ARTA). Nirei Fukuzumi and Tomoki Nojiri were the drivers who won the round. On the third round at Suzuka International Racing Course, team Astemo Real Racing's #17 car scored another podium by finishing the race in 2nd, driven by Nobuharu Matsushita and Koudai Tsukakoshi, the team also in fight with two other Nissan Z GT500 drivers for the championship with only one race to go.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: At the 2016 New York International Auto Show, Honda announced the GT3 version of the NSX, to begin competition in 2017. During its first season of racing in 2017, the NSX GT3 scored its first race victory in the IMSA SportsCar Championship GTD class at Belle Isle, followed by another win at the following round of the championship, the 6 Hours of Watkins Glen. It also won the Utah round of the Pirelli World Challenge. For the following year in 2018, the car finished second in the IMSA GTD championship with two wins. It made its debut in the Japanese Super GT Series, scoring a podium in Autopolis. The car also made its debut at the 24 Hours of Spa, finishing the 24-hour race seventh in the Pro-Am class.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: Honda introduced an upgraded version of the car, the NSX GT3 Evo, for 2019. Its upgrades include improved aerodynamics and cooling, as well as new turbochargers. The car had a successful debut year, winning the 2019 IMSA SportsCar Championship GTD drivers' and teams' titles, as well as the 2019 Super GT drivers' and teams' titles in the GT300 class. The NSX GT3 Evo successfully defended its IMSA titles in 2020, winning back-to-back drivers' and teams' titles, as well as the manufacturers' championship. The car has also won several championships in SRO's GT World Challenge America, having won pro-am drivers' and teams' titles in 2019, and overall manufacturers', drivers' and teams' titles in 2020. In the Intercontinental GT Challenge, the car scored two pole positions, a podium at the 2020 Indianapolis 8 Hours, an overall top-six finish at the 2019 24 Hours of Spa, and dominated the 2020 Kyalami 9 Hours until heavy rain shuffled the order with an hour remaining. Other successes for the car include winning the 2019 Blancpain GT Sports Club title and race wins in the Italian GT Championship and International GT Open. the NSX GT3 and NSX GT3 Evo have won 25 class wins in both IMSA SportsCar Championship and SRO's GT World Challenge America.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: After an unsuccessful year in 2021 IMSA SportsCar Championship, Honda Performance Development introduced another upgraded version of the car for 2022, the NSX GT3 Evo22. The upgrades include improved intercoolers, re-tuned suspension, new wheel system revisions, optional headlight variants along with FIA-mandated rain lights and air conditioning system. Production of the NSX GT3 Evo22 is handled by JAS Motorsport using chassis resources from Marysville, Ohio plant. The car is expected to compete in racing globally until 2024. The upgraded NSX GT3 Evo22 made its debut at 2022 Super GT season's Okayama round. Team UpGarage's #18 car, driven by Kakunoshin Ohta qualified 4th on the grid. On the race day, the car been able to finish 2nd behind Kondo Racing's Nissan GT-R Nismo GT3. The season wasn't been that successful, as the car only managed another podium finish at the fourth round at Fuji Speedway, 11th in standings. But in 2022 GT World Challenge America, the car was proved to be successful as the team Racers Edge Motorsports currently standing second in standings, just 3 points behind the leaders.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: From a total of 350 Type S units, VIN#001—#300 were destinated for deliveries in the United States with 50 of them were painted in Gotham Grey body color, VIN#301—#330 were scheduled for deliveries in Japan with 15 of them in Gotham Grey, VIN#331—#345 delivered to Canada with 5 Gotham Grey vehicles and VIN#346—350 deliveries were currently unknown.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: European sales statistics are from the following countries: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland.


title: Honda NSX (second generation)

text: On August 23, 2021, at the Monterey Car Week, Acura's Vice President and Brand Officer Jon Ikeda said in an interview with "The Drive" that the second generation NSX will be succeeded by a next-generation model, stating, "If you notice, we make an NSX when there's something we want to say. The first-gen was gas. Second-gen was a hybrid. There's gonna be another one." Ikeda hinted that the successor will be powered by an all-electric powertrain.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Atomic force microscopy (AFM) or scanning force microscopy (SFM) is a very-high-resolution type of scanning probe microscopy (SPM), with demonstrated resolution on the order of fractions of a nanometer, more than 1000 times better than the optical diffraction limit.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a type of scanning probe microscopy (SPM), with demonstrated resolution on the order of fractions of a nanometer, more than 1000 times better than the optical diffraction limit. The information is gathered by "feeling" or "touching" the surface with a mechanical probe. Piezoelectric elements that facilitate tiny but accurate and precise movements on (electronic) command enable precise scanning. Despite the name, the Atomic Force Microscope does not use the Nuclear force.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: In force measurement, AFMs can be used to measure the forces between the probe and the sample as a function of their mutual separation. This can be applied to perform force spectroscopy, to measure the mechanical properties of the sample, such as the sample's Young's modulus, a measure of stiffness.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: For imaging, the reaction of the probe to the forces that the sample imposes on it can be used to form an image of the three-dimensional shape (topography) of a sample surface at a high resolution. This is achieved by raster scanning the position of the sample with respect to the tip and recording the height of the probe that corresponds to a constant probe-sample interaction (see for more). The surface topography is commonly displayed as a pseudocolor plot.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Although the initial publication about atomic force microscopy by Binnig, Quate and Gerber in 1986 speculated about the possibility of achieving atomic resolution, profound experimental challenges needed to be overcome before atomic resolution of defects and step edges in ambient (liquid) conditions was demonstrated in 1993 by Ohnesorge and Binnig. True atomic resolution of the silicon 7x7 surface—the atomic images of this surface obtained by STM had convinced the scientific community of the spectacular spatial resolution of scanning tunneling microscopy—had to wait a little longer before it was shown by Giessibl.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: In manipulation, the forces between tip and sample can also be used to change the properties of the sample in a controlled way. Examples of this include atomic manipulation, scanning probe lithography and local stimulation of cells.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Simultaneous with the acquisition of topographical images, other properties of the sample can be measured locally and displayed as an image, often with similarly high resolution. Examples of such properties are mechanical properties like stiffness or adhesion strength and electrical properties such as conductivity or surface potential. In fact, the majority of SPM techniques are extensions of AFM that use this modality.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: The major difference between atomic force microscopy and competing technologies such as optical microscopy and electron microscopy is that AFM does not use lenses or beam irradiation. Therefore, it does not suffer from a limitation in spatial resolution due to diffraction and aberration, and preparing a space for guiding the beam (by creating a vacuum) and staining the sample are not necessary.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: There are several types of scanning microscopy including scanning probe microscopy (which includes AFM, scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and near-field scanning optical microscope (SNOM/NSOM), STED microscopy (STED), and scanning electron microscopy and electrochemical AFM, EC-AFM). Although SNOM and STED use visible, infrared or even terahertz light to illuminate the sample, their resolution is not constrained by the diffraction limit.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Fig. 3 shows an AFM, which typically consists of the following features. Numbers in parentheses correspond to numbered features in Fig. 3. Coordinate directions are defined by the coordinate system (0).


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: The small spring-like cantilever (1) is carried by the support (2). Optionally, a piezoelectric element (typically made of a ceramic material) (3) oscillates the cantilever (1). The sharp tip (4) is fixed to the free end of the cantilever (1). The detector (5) records the deflection and motion of the cantilever (1). The sample (6) is mounted on the sample stage (8). An xyz drive (7) permits to displace the sample (6) and the sample stage (8) in x, y, and z directions with respect to the tip apex (4). Although Fig. 3 shows the drive attached to the sample, the drive can also be attached to the tip, or independent drives can be attached to both, since it is the relative displacement of the sample and tip that needs to be controlled. Controllers and plotter are not shown in Fig. 3.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: According to the configuration described above, the interaction between tip and sample, which can be an atomic-scale phenomenon, is transduced into changes of the motion of cantilever, which is a macro-scale phenomenon. Several different aspects of the cantilever motion can be used to quantify the interaction between the tip and sample, most commonly the value of the deflection, the amplitude of an imposed oscillation of the cantilever, or the shift in resonance frequency of the cantilever (see section Imaging Modes).


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: The detector (5) of AFM measures the deflection (displacement with respect to the equilibrium position) of the cantilever and converts it into an electrical signal. The intensity of this signal will be proportional to the displacement of the cantilever.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Various methods of detection can be used, e.g. interferometry, optical levers, the piezoelectric method, and STM-based detectors (see section "AFM cantilever deflection measurement").


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: "This section applies specifically to imaging in . For other imaging modes, the process is similar, except that "deflection" should be replaced by the appropriate feedback variable."


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: When using the AFM to image a sample, the tip is brought into contact with the sample, and the sample is raster scanned along an x–y grid (fig 4). Most commonly, an electronic feedback loop is employed to keep the probe-sample force constant during scanning. This feedback loop has the cantilever deflection as input, and its output controls the distance along the z axis between the probe support (2 in fig. 3) and the sample support (8 in fig 3). As long as the tip remains in contact with the sample, and the sample is scanned in the x–y plane, height variations in the sample will change the deflection of the cantilever. The feedback then adjusts the height of the probe support so that the deflection is restored to a user-defined value (the setpoint). A properly adjusted feedback loop adjusts the support-sample separation continuously during the scanning motion, such that the deflection remains approximately constant. In this situation, the feedback output equals the sample surface topography to within a small error.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Historically, a different operation method has been used, in which the sample-probe support distance is kept constant and not controlled by a feedback (servo mechanism). In this mode, usually referred to as "constant-height mode," the deflection of the cantilever is recorded as a function of the sample x–y position. As long as the tip is in contact with the sample, the deflection then corresponds to surface topography. This method is now less commonly used because the forces between tip and sample are not controlled, which can lead to forces high enough to damage the tip or the sample. It is, however, common practice to record the deflection even when scanning in "constant force mode," with feedback. This reveals the small tracking error of the feedback, and can sometimes reveal features that the feedback was not able to adjust for.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: The AFM signals, such as sample height or cantilever deflection, are recorded on a computer during the x–y scan. They are plotted in a pseudocolor image, in which each pixel represents an x–y position on the sample, and the color represents the recorded signal.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: The AFM was invented by IBM scientists in 1985. The precursor to the AFM, the scanning tunneling microscope (STM), was developed by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer in the early 1980s at IBM Research – Zurich, a development that earned them the 1986 Nobel Prize for Physics. Binnig invented the atomic force microscope and the first experimental implementation was made by Binnig, Quate and Gerber in 1986.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: The first commercially available atomic force microscope was introduced in 1989. The AFM is one of the foremost tools for imaging, measuring, and manipulating matter at the nanoscale.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: The AFM has been applied to problems in a wide range of disciplines of the natural sciences, including solid-state physics, semiconductor science and technology, molecular engineering, polymer chemistry and physics, surface chemistry, molecular biology, cell biology, and medicine.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Applications in the field of solid state physics include (a) the identification of atoms at a surface, (b) the evaluation of interactions between a specific atom and its neighboring atoms, and (c) the study of changes in physical properties arising from changes in an atomic arrangement through atomic manipulation.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: In molecular biology, AFM can be used to study the structure and mechanical properties of protein complexes and assemblies. For example, AFM has been used to image microtubules and measure their stiffness.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: In cellular biology, AFM can be used to attempt to distinguish cancer cells and normal cells based on a hardness of cells, and to evaluate interactions between a specific cell and its neighboring cells in a competitive culture system. AFM can also be used to indent cells, to study how they regulate the stiffness or shape of the cell membrane or wall.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: In some variations, electric potentials can also be scanned using conducting cantilevers. In more advanced versions, currents can be passed through the tip to probe the electrical conductivity or transport of the underlying surface, but this is a challenging task with few research groups reporting consistent data (as of 2004).


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: The AFM consists of a cantilever with a sharp tip (probe) at its end that is used to scan the specimen surface. The cantilever is typically silicon or silicon nitride with a tip radius of curvature on the order of nanometers. When the tip is brought into proximity of a sample surface, forces between the tip and the sample lead to a deflection of the cantilever according to Hooke's law. Depending on the situation, forces that are measured in AFM include mechanical contact force, van der Waals forces, capillary forces, chemical bonding, electrostatic forces, magnetic forces (see magnetic force microscope, MFM), Casimir forces, solvation forces, etc. Along with force, additional quantities may simultaneously be measured through the use of specialized types of probes (see scanning thermal microscopy, scanning joule expansion microscopy, photothermal microspectroscopy, etc.).


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: The AFM can be operated in a number of modes, depending on the application. In general, possible imaging modes are divided into static (also called "contact") modes and a variety of dynamic (non-contact or "tapping") modes where the cantilever is vibrated or oscillated at a given frequency.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: AFM operation is usually described as one of three modes, according to the nature of the tip motion: contact mode, also called static mode (as opposed to the other two modes, which are called dynamic modes); tapping mode, also called intermittent contact, AC mode, or vibrating mode, or, after the detection mechanism, amplitude modulation AFM; and non-contact mode, or, again after the detection mechanism, frequency modulation AFM.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Despite the nomenclature, repulsive contact can occur or be avoided both in amplitude modulation AFM and frequency modulation AFM, depending on the settings.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: In contact mode, the tip is "dragged" across the surface of the sample and the contours of the surface are measured either using the deflection of the cantilever directly or, more commonly, using the feedback signal required to keep the cantilever at a constant position. Because the measurement of a static signal is prone to noise and drift, low stiffness cantilevers (i.e. cantilevers with a low spring constant, k) are used to achieve a large enough deflection signal while keeping the interaction force low. Close to the surface of the sample, attractive forces can be quite strong, causing the tip to "snap-in" to the surface. Thus, contact mode AFM is almost always done at a depth where the overall force is repulsive, that is, in firm "contact" with the solid surface.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: In ambient conditions, most samples develop a liquid meniscus layer. Because of this, keeping the probe tip close enough to the sample for short-range forces to become detectable while preventing the tip from sticking to the surface presents a major problem for contact mode in ambient conditions. Dynamic contact mode (also called intermittent contact, AC mode or tapping mode) was developed to bypass this problem. Nowadays, tapping mode is the most frequently used AFM mode when operating in ambient conditions or in liquids.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: In "tapping mode", the cantilever is driven to oscillate up and down at or near its resonance frequency. This oscillation is commonly achieved with a small piezo element in the cantilever holder, but other possibilities include an AC magnetic field (with magnetic cantilevers), piezoelectric cantilevers, or periodic heating with a modulated laser beam. The amplitude of this oscillation usually varies from several nm to 200 nm. In tapping mode, the frequency and amplitude of the driving signal are kept constant, leading to a constant amplitude of the cantilever oscillation as long as there is no drift or interaction with the surface. The interaction of forces acting on the cantilever when the tip comes close to the surface, van der Waals forces, dipole-dipole interactions, electrostatic forces, etc. cause the amplitude of the cantilever's oscillation to change (usually decrease) as the tip gets closer to the sample. This amplitude is used as the parameter that goes into the electronic servo that controls the height of the cantilever above the sample. The servo adjusts the height to maintain a set cantilever oscillation amplitude as the cantilever is scanned over the sample. A "tapping AFM" image is therefore produced by imaging the force of the intermittent contacts of the tip with the sample surface.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Although the peak forces applied during the contacting part of the oscillation can be much higher than typically used in contact mode, tapping mode generally lessens the damage done to the surface and the tip compared to the amount done in contact mode. This can be explained by the short duration of the applied force, and because the lateral forces between tip and sample are significantly lower in tapping mode over contact mode.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Tapping mode imaging is gentle enough even for the visualization of supported lipid bilayers or adsorbed single polymer molecules (for instance, 0.4 nm thick chains of synthetic polyelectrolytes) under liquid medium. With proper scanning parameters, the conformation of single molecules can remain unchanged for hours, and even single molecular motors can be imaged while moving.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: When operating in tapping mode, the phase of the cantilever's oscillation with respect to the driving signal can be recorded as well. This signal channel contains information about the energy dissipated by the cantilever in each oscillation cycle. Samples that contain regions of varying stiffness or with different adhesion properties can give a contrast in this channel that is not visible in the topographic image. Extracting the sample's material properties in a quantitative manner from phase images, however, is often not feasible.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: In non-contact atomic force microscopy mode, the tip of the cantilever does not contact the sample surface. The cantilever is instead oscillated at either its resonant frequency (frequency modulation) or just above (amplitude modulation) where the amplitude of oscillation is typically a few nanometers (<10 nm) down to a few picometers. The van der Waals forces, which are strongest from 1 nm to 10 nm above the surface, or any other long-range force that extends above the surface acts to decrease the resonance frequency of the cantilever. This decrease in resonant frequency combined with the feedback loop system maintains a constant oscillation amplitude or frequency by adjusting the average tip-to-sample distance. Measuring the tip-to-sample distance at each (x,y) data point allows the scanning software to construct a topographic image of the sample surface.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Non-contact mode AFM does not suffer from tip or sample degradation effects that are sometimes observed after taking numerous scans with contact AFM. This makes non-contact AFM preferable to contact AFM for measuring soft samples, e.g. biological samples and organic thin film. In the case of rigid samples, contact and non-contact images may look the same. However, if a few monolayers of adsorbed fluid are lying on the surface of a rigid sample, the images may look quite different. An AFM operating in contact mode will penetrate the liquid layer to image the underlying surface, whereas in non-contact mode an AFM will oscillate above the adsorbed fluid layer to image both the liquid and surface.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Schemes for dynamic mode operation include frequency modulation where a phase-locked loop is used to track the cantilever's resonance frequency and the more common amplitude modulation with a servo loop in place to keep the cantilever excitation to a defined amplitude. In frequency modulation, changes in the oscillation frequency provide information about tip-sample interactions. Frequency can be measured with very high sensitivity and thus the frequency modulation mode allows for the use of very stiff cantilevers. Stiff cantilevers provide stability very close to the surface and, as a result, this technique was the first AFM technique to provide true atomic resolution in ultra-high vacuum conditions.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: In amplitude modulation, changes in the oscillation amplitude or phase provide the feedback signal for imaging. In amplitude modulation, changes in the phase of oscillation can be used to discriminate between different types of materials on the surface. Amplitude modulation can be operated either in the non-contact or in the intermittent contact regime. In dynamic contact mode, the cantilever is oscillated such that the separation distance between the cantilever tip and the sample surface is modulated.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Amplitude modulation has also been used in the non-contact regime to image with atomic resolution by using very stiff cantilevers and small amplitudes in an ultra-high vacuum environment.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Image formation is a plotting method that produces a color mapping through changing the x–y position of the tip while scanning and recording the measured variable, i.e. the intensity of control signal, to each x–y coordinate. The color mapping shows the measured value corresponding to each coordinate. The image expresses the intensity of a value as a hue. Usually, the correspondence between the intensity of a value and a hue is shown as a color scale in the explanatory notes accompanying the image.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Operation mode of image forming of the AFM are generally classified into two groups from the viewpoint whether it uses z-Feedback loop (not shown) to maintain the tip-sample distance to keep signal intensity exported by the detector. The first one (using z-Feedback loop), said to be "constant XX mode" (XX is something which kept by z-Feedback loop).


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Topographic image formation mode is based on abovementioned "constant XX mode", z-Feedback loop controls the relative distance between the probe and the sample through outputting control signals to keep constant one of frequency, vibration and phase which typically corresponds to the motion of cantilever (for instance, voltage is applied to the Z-piezoelectric element and it moves the sample up and down towards the Z direction.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Details will be explained in the case that especially "constant df mode"(FM-AFM) among AFM as an instance in next section.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: When the distance between the probe and the sample is brought to the range where atomic force may be detected, while a cantilever is excited in its natural eigenfrequency ("f"), the resonance frequency "f" of the cantilever may shift from its original resonance frequency. In other words, in the range where atomic force may be detected, a frequency shift ("df" ="f"–"f") will also be observed. When the distance between the probe and the sample is in the non-contact region, the frequency shift increases in negative direction as the distance between the probe and the sample gets smaller.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: When the sample has concavity and convexity, the distance between the tip-apex and the sample varies in accordance with the concavity and convexity accompanied with a scan of the sample along x–y direction (without height regulation in z-direction). As a result, the frequency shift arises. The image in which the values of the frequency obtained by a raster scan along the x–y direction of the sample surface are plotted against the x–y coordination of each measurement point is called a constant-height image.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: On the other hand, the df may be kept constant by moving the probe upward and downward (See (3) of FIG.5) in z-direction using a negative feedback (by using z-feedback loop) while the raster scan of the sample surface along the x–y direction. The image in which the amounts of the negative feedback (the moving distance of the probe upward and downward in z-direction) are plotted against the x–y coordination of each measurement point is a topographic image. In other words, the topographic image is a trace of the tip of the probe regulated so that the df is constant and it may also be considered to be a plot of a constant-height surface of the df.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Therefore, the topographic image of the AFM is not the exact surface morphology itself, but actually the image influenced by the bond-order between the probe and the sample, however, the topographic image of the AFM is considered to reflect the geographical shape of the surface more than the topographic image of a scanning tunnel microscope.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Besides imaging, AFM can be used for force spectroscopy, the direct measurement of tip-sample interaction forces as a function of the gap between the tip and sample. The result of this measurement is called a force-distance curve. For this method, the AFM tip is extended towards and retracted from the surface as the deflection of the cantilever is monitored as a function of piezoelectric displacement. These measurements have been used to measure nanoscale contacts, atomic bonding, Van der Waals forces, and Casimir forces, dissolution forces in liquids and single molecule stretching and rupture forces. AFM has also been used to measure, in an aqueous environment, the dispersion force due to polymer adsorbed on the substrate. Forces of the order of a few piconewtons can now be routinely measured with a vertical distance resolution of better than 0.1 nanometers. Force spectroscopy can be performed with either static or dynamic modes. In dynamic modes, information about the cantilever vibration is monitored in addition to the static deflection.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Problems with the technique include no direct measurement of the tip-sample separation and the common need for low-stiffness cantilevers, which tend to "snap" to the surface. These problems are not insurmountable. An AFM that directly measures the tip-sample separation has been developed. The snap-in can be reduced by measuring in liquids or by using stiffer cantilevers, but in the latter case a more sensitive deflection sensor is needed. By applying a small dither to the tip, the stiffness (force gradient) of the bond can be measured as well.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Force spectroscopy is used in biophysics to measure the mechanical properties of living material (such as tissue or cells) or detect structures of different stiffness buried into the bulk of the sample using the stiffness tomography. Another application was to measure the interaction forces between from one hand a material stuck on the tip of the cantilever, and from another hand the surface of particles either free or occupied by the same material. From the adhesion force distribution curve, a mean value of the forces has been derived. It allowed to make a cartography of the surface of the particles, covered or not by the material. AFM has also been used for mechanically unfolding proteins. In such experiments, the analyzes of the mean unfolding forces with the appropriate model leads to the obtainment of the information about the unfolding rate and free energy profile parameters of the protein.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: The AFM can be used to image and manipulate atoms and structures on a variety of surfaces. The atom at the apex of the tip "senses" individual atoms on the underlying surface when it forms incipient chemical bonds with each atom. Because these chemical interactions subtly alter the tip's vibration frequency, they can be detected and mapped. This principle was used to distinguish between atoms of silicon, tin and lead on an alloy surface, by comparing these "atomic fingerprints'" with values obtained from density functional theory (DFT) simulations.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: The trick is to first measure these forces precisely for each type of atom expected in the sample, and then to compare with forces given by DFT simulations. The team found that the tip interacted most strongly with silicon atoms, and interacted 24% and 41% less strongly with tin and lead atoms, respectively. Thus, each different type of atom can be identified in the matrix as the tip is moved across the surface.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: An AFM probe has a sharp tip on the free-swinging end of a cantilever that protrudes from a holder. The dimensions of the cantilever are in the scale of micrometers. The radius of the tip is usually on the scale of a few nanometers to a few tens of nanometers. (Specialized probes exist with much larger end radii, for example probes for indentation of soft materials.) The cantilever holder, also called the holder chip—often 1.6 mm by 3.4 mm in size—allows the operator to hold the AFM cantilever/probe assembly with tweezers and fit it into the corresponding holder clips on the scanning head of the atomic force microscope.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: This device is most commonly called an "AFM probe", but other names include "AFM tip" and "cantilever" (employing the name of a single part as the name of the whole device). An AFM probe is a particular type of SPM (scanning probe microscopy) probe.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: AFM probes are manufactured with MEMS technology. Most AFM probes used are made from silicon (Si), but borosilicate glass and silicon nitride are also in use. AFM probes are considered consumables as they are often replaced when the tip apex becomes dull or contaminated or when the cantilever is broken. They can cost from a couple of tens of dollars up to hundreds of dollars per cantilever for the most specialized cantilever/probe combinations.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Just the tip is brought very close to the surface of the object under investigation, the cantilever is deflected by the interaction between the tip and the surface, which is what the AFM is designed to measure. A spatial map of the interaction can be made by measuring the deflection at many points on a 2D surface.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Several types of interaction can be detected. Depending on the interaction under investigation, the surface of the tip of the AFM probe needs to be modified with a coating. Among the coatings used are gold – for covalent bonding of biological molecules and the detection of their interaction with a surface, diamond for increased wear resistance and magnetic coatings for detecting the magnetic properties of the investigated surface. Another solution exists to achieve high resolution magnetic imaging : having the probe equip with a microSQUID. The AFM tips is fabricated using silicon micro machining and the precise positioning of the microSQUID loop is done by electron beam lithography. The additional attachment of a quantum dot to the tip apex of a conductive probe enables surface potential imaging with high lateral resolution, scanning quantum dot microscopy.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: The surface of the cantilevers can also be modified. These coatings are mostly applied in order to increase the reflectance of the cantilever and to improve the deflection signal.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: The forces between the tip and the sample strongly depend on the geometry of the tip. Various studies were exploited in the past years to write the forces as a function of the tip parameters.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Among the different forces between the tip and the sample, the water meniscus forces are highly interesting, both in air and liquid environment. Other forces must be considered, like the Coulomb force, van der Waals forces, double layer interactions, solvation forces, hydration and hydrophobic forces.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Water meniscus forces are highly interesting for AFM measurements in air. Due to the ambient humidity, a thin layer of water is formed between the tip and the sample during air measurements. The resulting capillary force gives rise to a strong attractive force that pulls the tip onto the surface. In fact, the adhesion force measured between tip and sample in ambient air of finite humidity is usually dominated by capillary forces. As a consequence, it is difficult to pull the tip away from the surface. For soft samples including many polymers and in particular biological materials, the strong adhesive capillary force gives rise to sample degradation and destruction upon imaging in contact mode. Historically, these problems were an important motivation for the development of dynamic imaging in air (e.g. "tapping mode"). During tapping mode imaging in air, capillary bridges still form. Yet, for suitable imaging conditions, the capillary bridges are formed and broken in every oscillation cycle of the cantilever normal to the surface, as can be inferred from an analysis of cantilever amplitude and phase vs. distance curves. As a consequence, destructive shear forces are largely reduced and soft samples can be investigated.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: In order to quantify the equilibrium capillary force, it is necessary to start from the Laplace equation for pressure:


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Gao calculated formulas for different tip geometries. As an example, the force decreases by 20% for a conical tip with respect to a spherical tip.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: When these forces are calculated, a difference must be made between the wet on dry situation and the wet on wet situation.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: where "θ" is the contact angle of the dry sphere and "φ" is the immersed angle, as shown in the figure


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: The most common method for cantilever-deflection measurements is the beam-deflection method. In this method, laser light from a solid-state diode is reflected off the back of the cantilever and collected by a position-sensitive detector (PSD) consisting of two closely spaced photodiodes, whose output signal is collected by a differential amplifier.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Angular displacement of the cantilever results in one photodiode collecting more light than the other photodiode, producing an output signal (the difference between the photodiode signals normalized by their sum), which is proportional to the deflection of the cantilever. The sensitivity of the beam-deflection method is very high, and a noise floor on the order of 10 fm Hz can be obtained routinely in a well-designed system. Although this method is sometimes called the "optical lever" method, the signal is not amplified if the beam path is made longer. A longer beam path increases the motion of the reflected spot on the photodiodes, but also widens the spot by the same amount due to diffraction, so that the same amount of optical power is moved from one photodiode to the other. The "optical leverage" (output signal of the detector divided by deflection of the cantilever) is inversely proportional to the numerical aperture of the beam focusing optics, as long as the focused laser spot is small enough to fall completely on the cantilever. It is also inversely proportional to the length of the cantilever.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: The relative popularity of the beam-deflection method can be explained by its high sensitivity and simple operation, and by the fact that cantilevers do not require electrical contacts or other special treatments, and can therefore be fabricated relatively cheaply with sharp integrated tips.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: AFM scanners are made from piezoelectric material, which expands and contracts proportionally to an applied voltage. Whether they elongate or contract depends upon the polarity of the voltage applied. Traditionally the tip or sample is mounted on a "tripod" of three piezo crystals, with each responsible for scanning in the "x","y" and "z" directions. In 1986, the same year as the AFM was invented, a new piezoelectric scanner, the tube scanner, was developed for use in STM. Later tube scanners were incorporated into AFMs. The tube scanner can move the sample in the "x", "y", and "z" directions using a single tube piezo with a single interior contact and four external contacts. An advantage of the tube scanner compared to the original tripod design, is better vibrational isolation, resulting from the higher resonant frequency of the single element construction, in combination with a low resonant frequency isolation stage. A disadvantage is that the "x"-"y" motion can cause unwanted "z" motion resulting in distortion. Another popular design for AFM scanners is the flexure stage, which uses separate piezos for each axis, and couples them through a flexure mechanism.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Scanners are characterized by their sensitivity, which is the ratio of piezo movement to piezo voltage, i.e., by how much the piezo material extends or contracts per applied volt. Due to the differences in material or size, the sensitivity varies from scanner to scanner. Sensitivity varies non-linearly with respect to scan size. Piezo scanners exhibit more sensitivity at the end than at the beginning of a scan. This causes the forward and reverse scans to behave differently and display hysteresis between the two scan directions. This can be corrected by applying a non-linear voltage to the piezo electrodes to cause linear scanner movement and calibrating the scanner accordingly. One disadvantage of this approach is that it requires re-calibration because the precise non-linear voltage needed to correct non-linear movement will change as the piezo ages (see below). This problem can be circumvented by adding a linear sensor to the sample stage or piezo stage to detect the true movement of the piezo. Deviations from ideal movement can be detected by the sensor and corrections applied to the piezo drive signal to correct for non-linear piezo movement. This design is known as a "closed loop" AFM. Non-sensored piezo AFMs are referred to as "open loop" AFMs.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: The sensitivity of piezoelectric materials decreases exponentially with time. This causes most of the change in sensitivity to occur in the initial stages of the scanner's life. Piezoelectric scanners are run for approximately 48 hours before they are shipped from the factory so that they are past the point where they may have large changes in sensitivity. As the scanner ages, the sensitivity will change less with time and the scanner would seldom require recalibration, though various manufacturer manuals recommend monthly to semi-monthly calibration of open loop AFMs.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: AFM has several advantages over the scanning electron microscope (SEM). Unlike the electron microscope, which provides a two-dimensional projection or a two-dimensional image of a sample, the AFM provides a three-dimensional surface profile. In addition, samples viewed by AFM do not require any special treatments (such as metal/carbon coatings) that would irreversibly change or damage the sample, and does not typically suffer from charging artifacts in the final image. While an electron microscope needs an expensive vacuum environment for proper operation, most AFM modes can work perfectly well in ambient air or even a liquid environment. This makes it possible to study biological macromolecules and even living organisms. In principle, AFM can provide higher resolution than SEM. It has been shown to give true atomic resolution in ultra-high vacuum (UHV) and, more recently, in liquid environments. High resolution AFM is comparable in resolution to scanning tunneling microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. AFM can also be combined with a variety of optical microscopy and spectroscopy techniques such as fluorescent microscopy of infrared spectroscopy, giving rise to scanning near-field optical microscopy, nano-FTIR and further expanding its applicability. Combined AFM-optical instruments have been applied primarily in the biological sciences but have recently attracted strong interest in photovoltaics and energy-storage research, polymer sciences, nanotechnology and even medical research.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: A disadvantage of AFM compared with the scanning electron microscope (SEM) is the single scan image size. In one pass, the SEM can image an area on the order of square millimeters with a depth of field on the order of millimeters, whereas the AFM can only image a maximum scanning area of about 150×150 micrometers and a maximum height on the order of 10–20 micrometers. One method of improving the scanned area size for AFM is by using parallel probes in a fashion similar to that of millipede data storage.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: The scanning speed of an AFM is also a limitation. Traditionally, an AFM cannot scan images as fast as an SEM, requiring several minutes for a typical scan, while an SEM is capable of scanning at near real-time, although at relatively low quality. The relatively slow rate of scanning during AFM imaging often leads to thermal drift in the image making the AFM less suited for measuring accurate distances between topographical features on the image. However, several fast-acting designs were suggested to increase microscope scanning productivity including what is being termed videoAFM (reasonable quality images are being obtained with videoAFM at video rate: faster than the average SEM). To eliminate image distortions induced by thermal drift, several methods have been introduced.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: AFM images can also be affected by nonlinearity, hysteresis, and creep of the piezoelectric material and cross-talk between the "x", "y", "z" axes that may require software enhancement and filtering. Such filtering could "flatten" out real topographical features. However, newer AFMs utilize real-time correction software (for example, feature-oriented scanning) or closed-loop scanners, which practically eliminate these problems. Some AFMs also use separated orthogonal scanners (as opposed to a single tube), which also serve to eliminate part of the cross-talk problems.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: As with any other imaging technique, there is the possibility of image artifacts, which could be induced by an unsuitable tip, a poor operating environment, or even by the sample itself, as depicted on the right. These image artifacts are unavoidable; however, their occurrence and effect on results can be reduced through various methods.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Artifacts resulting from a too-coarse tip can be caused for example by inappropriate handling or de facto collisions with the sample by either scanning too fast or having an unreasonably rough surface, causing actual wearing of the tip.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Due to the nature of AFM probes, they cannot normally measure steep walls or overhangs. Specially made cantilevers and AFMs can be used to modulate the probe sideways as well as up and down (as with dynamic contact and non-contact modes) to measure sidewalls, at the cost of more expensive cantilevers, lower lateral resolution and additional artifacts.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: The latest efforts in integrating nanotechnology and biological research have been successful and show much promise for the future, including in fields such as nanobiomechanics. Since nanoparticles are a potential vehicle of drug delivery, the biological responses of cells to these nanoparticles are continuously being explored to optimize their efficacy and how their design could be improved. Pyrgiotakis et al. were able to study the interaction between CeO and FeO engineered nanoparticles and cells by attaching the engineered nanoparticles to the AFM tip. Studies have taken advantage of AFM to obtain further information on the behavior of live cells in biological media. Real-time atomic force spectroscopy (or nanoscopy) and dynamic atomic force spectroscopy have been used to study live cells and membrane proteins and their dynamic behavior at high resolution, on the nanoscale. Imaging and obtaining information on the topography and the properties of the cells has also given insight into chemical processes and mechanisms that occur through cell-cell interaction and interactions with other signaling molecules (ex. ligands). Evans and Calderwood used single cell force microscopy to study cell adhesion forces, bond kinetics/dynamic bond strength and its role in chemical processes such as cell signaling.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Scheuring, Lévy, and Rigaud reviewed studies in which AFM to explore the crystal structure of membrane proteins of photosynthetic bacteria.


title: Atomic force microscopy

text: Alsteen et al. have used AFM-based nanoscopy to perform a real-time analysis of the interaction between live mycobacteria and antimycobacterial drugs (specifically isoniazid, ethionamide, ethambutol, and streptomycine), which serves as an example of the more in-depth analysis of pathogen-drug interactions that can be done through AFM.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: Yo La Tengo (YLT; Spanish for "I have her") is an American indie rock band formed in Hoboken, New Jersey, in 1984. Since 1992, the lineup has consisted of Ira Kaplan (guitars, piano, vocals), Georgia Hubley (drums, piano, vocals), and James McNew (bass, vocals). In 2015, original guitarist Dave Schramm rejoined the band and appears on their fourteenth album, "Stuff Like That There".


title: Yo La Tengo

text: Despite achieving limited mainstream success, Yo La Tengo has been called "the quintessential critics' band" and maintains a strong cult following. Though they mostly play original material, the band performs a wide repertoire of cover songs both in live performance and on record.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: Ira Kaplan and Georgia Hubley formed the band as a couple in 1984. They chose the name Yo La Tengo, Spanish for "I have it". The name came from a baseball anecdote that occurred during the 1962 season, when New York Mets center fielder Richie Ashburn and shortstop Elio Chacón found themselves colliding in the outfield. When Ashburn went for a catch, he would scream, "I got it! I got it!" only to run into Chacón, a Venezuelan who spoke only Spanish. Ashburn learned to yell, "Yo la tengo! Yo la tengo!" instead. In a later game, Ashburn happily saw Chacón backing off. He relaxed, positioned himself to catch the ball, and was instead run over by left fielder Frank Thomas, who understood no Spanish and had missed a team meeting that proposed using the words "Yo la tengo!" as a way to avoid outfield collisions. After getting up, Thomas asked Ashburn, "What the hell is a yellow tango?"


title: Yo La Tengo

text: Kaplan and Hubley placed an advertisement to recruit other musicians who shared their love for bands such as the Soft Boys, Mission of Burma, and Arthur Lee's Love. The group's debut recording was a 7" single entitled "The River of Water" backed with a cover of Lee's "A House Is Not a Motel", released in late 1985 with Dave Schramm on lead guitar and Dave Rick on bass. After recording "Private Doberman" for inclusion on a Coyote Records compilation entitled "Luxury Condos Coming to Your Neighborhood Soon", Rick left the band and was replaced by Mike Lewis, the founding bass player of Boston garage-punk bands DMZ and Lyres, who was also a member of Brooklyn garage rock band the A-Bones throughout his tenure in YLT.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: In 1986, Yo La Tengo released their first LP, "Ride the Tiger" on Coyote Records. Produced by former Mission of Burma bassist Clint Conley who also took over bass duties on three songs, the album "marked Yo La Tengo as a band with real potential" according to reviewer Mark Deming. Kaplan was credited as "naive guitar" on the sleeve, and in the liner notes for the 1993 reissue of the album on City Slang Records, went so far as to say "Dave's guitar playing is inarguably the best thing about the record."


title: Yo La Tengo

text: Schramm and Lewis left the band after the album's release, with Kaplan subsequently taking on the role of lead guitar and Stephan Wichnewski joining to play bass. The group's next album "New Wave Hot Dogs" (1987) sold poorly, but, in the words of Mark Deming, "was a quantum leap over the sound of their debut."


title: Yo La Tengo

text: The release of "President Yo La Tengo" in 1989 did much to establish the band's reputation among rock critics including Robert Christgau who praised the "mysterioso guitar hook" in the first song titled "Barnaby, Hardly Working". Produced by Gene Holder of The dB's, the album was the band's last release on Coyote. Despite the positive reception of the album, sales were still poor and Wichnewski left the band not long after. Hubley and Kaplan carried on as a duo and began playing two-electric-guitar shows. Kaplan, though typically a pragmatist, started carrying a bug trapped in amber in his pocket for luck.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: Yo La Tengo reunited with Dave Schramm in 1990 to record "Fakebook", an album of mostly acoustic tunes, including covers of Cat Stevens, Gene Clark, the Kinks, Daniel Johnston, among others, with five original songs by the band themselves, including an acoustic version of "Barnaby Hardly Working". Again produced by Gene Holder, the album's folk sound was a change of pace for the band. Years later, Kaplan recalled that the album was "just me and Georgia looking for an excuse to record with Dave Schramm and Al Greller" who played guitar and double bass on the album, respectively.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: In 1991, with Dave Schramm in tow, Yo La Tengo collaborated with Daniel Johnston on the song "Speeding Motorcycle" which was released as a single. The band also released a 7" single on Bar/None Records with the song "Walking Away from You" backed with a cover of Beat Happening's "Cast a Shadow." Gene Holder produced the single and played the bass. The "That Is Yo La Tengo" EP released later that year included some tracks that would end up on the group's next LP.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: After the release of "That Is Yo La Tengo", James McNew (who also records under the solo moniker Dump) began playing bass with the band, forming the trio that continues to make up the band today. According to McNew,


title: Yo La Tengo

text: The band recorded "May I Sing with Me" in Boston with Holder producing and Lou Giordano engineering. The album was released on Alias Records in 1992. Three of the album's eleven songs ("Swing for Life", "Out the Window" and "Five-Cornered Drone") were carried over from the "That Is Yo La Tengo" EP and feature Holder on bass. The "Upside-Down" EP was released on CD in support of the album, rounding out the band's releases on Alias.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: In 1993, Yo La Tengo began their partnership with Matador Records, releasing a 7" and CD5 of the song "Shaker" which the band recorded with John Siket in New Jersey. The following LP, 1993's "Painful", was also the beginning of the band's fruitful creative partnership with producer Roger Moutenot, who has produced all of their subsequent albums up until 2013's "Fade", which was produced by John McEntire. "Painful" is the first Yo La Tengo album to feature James McNew on every song. Ira Kaplan explains:


title: Yo La Tengo

text: Rob Sheffield, writing in "The New Rolling Stone Album Guide" remarked that McNew "became an essential part of the sound on "Painful", the 1993 album that kept every promise Yo La Tengo ever made and blew their previous highlights away." Critical reaction was quite positive, with reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine calling it "a subtly addicting album." Robert Christgau also praised the group once again, writing in his review that Yo La Tengo is "always friendly. This is not the forbidding experimentation of an aspiring vanguard. This is the fooling around of folks who like to go out on Saturday night and make some noise—and then go home humming it." The band released "Electr-O-Pura" in 1995 to similar acclaim. For the first time, all songs were credited to the band as a whole rather than individual members; this became the norm for all future releases.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: The band's 1997 LP "I Can Hear the Heart Beating as One" synthesized the group's eclectic combination of folk, punk rock, shoegazing, long instrumental noise-jams, and electronic music into a sprawling, multi-faceted style. Critical reaction was extremely positive; Pitchfork awarded the album a 9.7 out of 10, and AllMusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that it was "arguably Yo La Tengo's finest and most coherent album to date." Kaplan recalled a turning point in the band's musical progression:


title: Yo La Tengo

text: With their critical reputation higher than ever before, the band toured extensively and their fan base continued to grow. In 1998, they collaborated with Jad Fair and released the album "Strange but True" to mixed reviews. Yo La Tengo had a cameo role as a Salvation Army band in the 1998 Hal Hartley film "The Book of Life", and feature on its 1999 soundtrack release. The band entered the studio again in late 1999 to record their ninth LP. "And Then Nothing Turned Itself Inside-Out" was released in February 2000 to a warm reception. The album features some intimate songs with hushed, varied instrumentation and includes the 17-minute meditation "Night Falls On Hoboken".


title: Yo La Tengo

text: In 2001, Yo La Tengo recorded an instrumental score for eight short undersea documentaries by Jean Painlevé, entitled "The Sounds of the Sounds of Science". The program debuted at the San Francisco Film Festival and has been performed live approximately twelve times. The band also released an EP with covers of Sun Ra's "Nuclear War" in late 2002.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: The band's tenth LP, "Summer Sun", was released in 2003. Although the album received generally favorable reviews, some critics found the album's quiet atmosphere "underwhelming." Others criticized the band for a perceived lack of invention. When asked about the album's quiet nature, Kaplan stated,


title: Yo La Tengo

text: Yo La Tengo collaborated with Yoko Ono on the 2003 charity album "Wig in a Box: Songs from and Inspired by Hedwig and the Angry Inch" in support of the Harvey Milk High School. The band put together their first "best of" compilation entitled "" which was released in 2005. They composed scores for four more films, 2005's "Junebug" and "Game 6", and 2006's "Shortbus" and "Old Joy". Their scores for these four films were collected on the 2008 compilation "They Shoot, We Score".


title: Yo La Tengo

text: Their eleventh LP, "I Am Not Afraid of You and I Will Beat Your Ass", was released in 2006 to universal acclaim. Informed by their soundtrack work, the arrangements included more strings and horns than any of the band's previous albums. Kaplan told an interviewer: "I think we gained an element of comfort with using that kind of instrumentation, and it became something we could draw on for our other songs." In addition, the album was book-ended with two guitar jams lasting over ten minutes each.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: In 2006, the band released "Yo La Tengo Is Murdering the Classics", a compilation of their live impromptu cover-song performances on the New Jersey freeform radio station, WFMU. As part of the station's annual fundraising marathon, listeners who call in to pledge money to the station may request a favorite which the band will then perform on the spot. In late 2007, the band began performing acoustically for "The Freewheelin' Yo La Tengo" tour. Audiences were encouraged to request songs and ask questions which, Kaplan stated, the band tried to answer "in a strategic manner so that the answers to the questions will lead to the next song."


title: Yo La Tengo

text: In March 2008, Yo La Tengo performed under the alias "Condo Fucks" at Brooklyn's Magnetic Field. As Condo Fucks, the band released an album of cover songs, "Fuckbook", on Matador in March 2009.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: "Popular Songs", the band's 12th album, was released on September 8, 2009. The album was recorded in the band's rehearsal space in New Jersey and features two songs with elaborate string sections (composed by jazz composer Richard Evans). It entered the Billboard chart at No. 58, the highest entry of the band's career thus far.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: In 2009, Yo La Tengo contributed to "", a tribute album for New Zealand rock and roll musician Chris Knox who suffered a stroke in June 2009. Yo La Tengo covered Knox's song "Coloured". All proceeds from the album go towards Knox's recovery. Also in 2009, Yo La Tengo contributed a cover of the song "Gentle Hour" to the AIDS benefit album, Dark Was the Night, produced by the Red Hot Organization.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: Preceding their album Popular Songs, Yo La Tengo released an EP entitled Here to Fall Remixes in the summer of 2010. Remixes of their single Here to Fall were done by De La Soul, RJD2, and Pete Rock. This was Yo La Tengo's third out-of-the-box remix EP in 14 years, following the Autumn Sweater and Danelectro Remix EPs.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: In 2012 Yo La Tengo recorded a cover of Todd Rundgren's "I Saw the Light" for a fund raising cd titled "Super Hits Of The Seventies" for radio station WFMU. In August 2012, they announced the release of an EP in September 2012 to be followed by a full-length album in January 2013. The EP includes three versions of the song "Stupid Things": the single version, a remix by EYƎ, and the original 12-minute instrumental version.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: In 2014 they toured and performed live onstage as film maker Sam Green live narrated an evolving version of his new film The Love Song of R. Buckminster Fuller in Austin, Burlington, Detroit, Ithaca, Portland, New Orleans and Vancouver.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: In 2014, they played an Indiana-based Night Ranger cover band "Bobby Night Ranger" in the final episode of season 6 of the television series Parks and Recreation.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: On August 28, 2015, Yo La Tengo released "Stuff Like That There", an album (and "a sequel of sorts to Fakebook") of re-recorded versions of some of their old songs as well as covers, including songs by The Cure, Hank Williams, and Sun Ra.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: In 2016, the band released "Murder in the Second Degree", a second compilation of their live impromptu cover-song performances on the New Jersey freeform radio station, WFMU.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: In 2017, the band played two dates in New York City with Robyn Hitchcock. The performances included the Hitchcock album "Black Snake Diamond Role" in its entirety, as well as collections of classic Hitchcock songs and covers of other artists.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: In 2018, Yo La Tengo released their 15th studio album, "There's a Riot Going On", which Pitchfork decided 'reflects the group's greatest and most instantly recognizable strengths'.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: In 2020, Yo La Tengo released "We Have Amnesia Sometimes" which was recorded over a 10-day period from late April to early May amid the COVID-19 pandemic. The album consists of five instrumental, ambient compositions which were recorded with one microphone in the room and the band spread out adhering to social distance protocols laid out by Governor Murphy of New Jersey.


title: Yo La Tengo

text: Yo La Tengo have always had the core members Ira Kaplan and Georgia Hubley. They have had 14 bass players. James McNew has been the bass player since 1992's "May I Sing With Me".


title: DJ Screw

text: Robert Earl Davis Jr. (July 20, 1971 – November 16, 2000), better known by his stage name DJ Screw, was an American hip hop DJ based in Houston, Texas, and best known as the creator of the now-famous chopped and screwed DJ technique. He was a central and influential figure in the Houston hip hop community and was the leader of Houston's Screwed Up Click.


title: DJ Screw

text: Davis released over 350 mixtapes and was recognized as an innovator mostly on a regional level until his death of codeine overdose in 2000. His legacy was discovered by a wider audience around 2005, and has gone on to influence a wide variety of artists.


title: DJ Screw

text: Robert Earl Davis, Jr. was born in Smithville, Texas. His father, Robert Earl Davis Sr., was a long-haul truck driver based in Houston. His mother Ida May Deary (who had a young daughter from a previous marriage), came to the area to be with her mother when her son was born in 1971. She returned to Houston, but the marriage was floundering; soon it would be over, and she and her kids moved to Los Angeles for a couple of years, then back to Houston, and returned to Smithville in 1980 when Davis was age nine.


title: DJ Screw

text: When young, DJ Screw had aspirations of being a truck driver like his father, but seeing the 1984 hit break dancing movie "Breakin'" and discovering his mother's turntable attracted him to music. His admiration of classical music drove him to resume piano lessons. After seven years of practice, he was able to play works like Chopin's Etude in C major by ear. His musical interest shifted as he took his mother's B.B. King and Johnnie Taylor records and scratched them on the turntable the way DJs did, slowing the spinning disc and then allowing it to speed back up, playing with sound.


title: DJ Screw

text: Davis began buying records of his own and would spin with his friend Trey Adkins, who would rhyme. "Screw had a jam box and he hooked up two turntables to it and made a fader out of the radio tuner so he could deejay." Adkins said if Robert Earl didn't like a record, he would deface it with a screw. One day Adkins asked him, "Who do you think you are, DJ Screw?" Robert Earl liked the sound of that and, in turn, gave his long-time friend a new name: Shorty Mac.


title: DJ Screw

text: Davis began DJing at age 12 in 1983, and started his trademark slowed-down mixes in 1990, the style became his main focus in late 1991 – early 1992. The mixes began as special compilations requested by friends and those in the know. He soon made them available for sale when his close friend Toe offered to buy a mix from him for ten dollars. At that point, customers had increasingly begun requesting his more well-known mixes instead of personalized lists. During the early 1990s, he invited some of the Houston MCs from the city's south side to rhyme on those mixes. This coalition of emcees eventually became the fathers of the Screwed Up Click. Many members of the Screwed Up Click, or S.U.C., are considered key figures in the canon of Houston hip hop. The original lineup included Big Hawk, Big Moe, E.S.G., and Fat Pat, among others. The crew later gained then upcoming artists such as, Z-Ro, Trae tha Truth as well as Lil Flip. His career began to advance once he met Russell Washington of BigTyme Recordz and signed to the label.


title: DJ Screw

text: Davis later moved to a house in the 7600 block of Greenstone Street near Gulfgate Mall. Fans, some driving from far away areas such as Dallas and Waco, lined up at his door to obtain his recordings. He started his own business and opened a shop up on 7717 Cullen Blvd in Houston, TX, called Screwed Up Records and Tapes. It has been shown in numerous music videos and documentaries as well as independent films. In the early 2010s, this location closed. It has since been relocated to 3538 West Fuqua, Houston, TX. Fans may also purchase merchandise, including mixtapes, on the S.U.C. website. There are now several Screwed Up Records and Tapes spread out through Texas, including one in Beaumont and in Austin.


title: DJ Screw

text: On November 16, 2000, Davis was found dead inside of his Houston recording studio in the 8100 block of Commerce Park Drive. Fans speculated about the true cause of his death. When the coroner reports were released, they confirmed that he died of a codeine overdose in addition to mixed drug intoxication. The codeine came from a prescription-strength cough syrup that he would mix with soda to make lean ("purple drank"). In addition to codeine, Valium and PCP were found in his blood. His funeral took place at Mount Pilgrim Baptist Church in his hometown of Smithville, Texas.


title: DJ Screw

text: DJ Screw has been a considerable influence in the Houston scene and beyond, "helping to cement his legacy as an underappreciated avant-gardist, creator of a "sui generis" sound that’s still growing and mutating." Texas governor Rick Perry honored him by making him an official "Texas Music Pioneer". The Houston Press named the 1995 album "3 'n the Mornin' (Part Two)" as no. 13 on its list of the 25 best Houston rap albums of all time, crediting the release for the way it helped shape Houston's hip-hop culture. When the Houston hip-hop scene became nationally prominent in 2004, many of the biggest acts could be traced to DJ Screw's crew, the Screwed Up Click. Many artists outside of Houston rap have been influenced by Screw's work, including experimental electronic artists such as Oneohtrix Point Never, Balam Acab, How to Dress Well, and Rabit.


title: DJ Screw

text: The genre shown by DJ Screw has since evolved into a Houston-based subculture that is associated with the recreational consumption of codeine, opulent jewelry and elaborate vintage vehicles. Screw has also left behind a cult following of listeners who self-identify as "screwheads". A music festival and car show in honor of DJ Screw was set up in 2006. The inaugural DJ Screwfest featured 200 vehicles and a set list featuring notable Houston hip-hop acts like Trae and Chingo Bling. The first festival took place at the Pasadena County Fairgrounds. The 2007 documentary film "Screwed In Houston", produced by "VBS/Vice Magazine", details the history of the Houston hip hop scene and the influence of the chopped and screwed sub-culture on Houston hip hop. The 5-part series devotes one full episode to DJ Screw and includes video footage of him days before his death. The University of Houston Libraries "Houston Hip Hop Research Collection" includes the "DJ Screw Papers" including approximately 1500 vinyl records owned by DJ Screw, original DJ Screw recordings, photographs, handwritten track lists, and more. Some of these materials have been digitized. In July 2019, University of Texas Press announced that "Houston Rap Tapes" author Lance Scott Walker was writing a book about DJ Screw to be published in spring 2022. In January 2020, the biopic "All Screwed Up" was revealed, detailing the life and events that DJ Screw went through. In December 2020, Sony announced that the film is in development, with Isaac Yowman directing. No date for release has been announced.


title: DJ Screw

text: The "Screwtapes" were mixtapes that DJ Screw made himself and mainly sold from his house or when traveling to do shows.


title: DJ Screw

text: The mixtapes were re-released after his death in 2000 and given ""Diary of the Originator: Chapter"" titles.


title: José Carreras

text: Josep Maria Carreras Coll (; born 5 December 1946), better known as José Carreras (, ), is a Spanish operatic tenor who is particularly known for his performances in the operas of Donizetti, Verdi and Puccini.


title: José Carreras

text: Born in Barcelona, he made his debut on the operatic stage at 11 as Trujamán in Manuel de Falla's "El retablo de Maese Pedro", and went on to a career that encompassed over 60 roles, performing in the world's leading opera houses and on numerous recordings. He gained fame with a wider audience as one of the Three Tenors, with Plácido Domingo and Luciano Pavarotti, in a series of large concerts from 1990 to 2003. He is also known for his humanitarian work as president of the José Carreras International Leukaemia Foundation ("La Fundació Internacional Josep Carreras per a la Lluita contra la Leucèmia"), which he established following his own recovery from the disease in 1988.


title: José Carreras

text: Carreras was born in Sants, a working-class district in Barcelona. He was the youngest of Antònia Coll i Saigi and Josep Carreras i Soler's three children. In 1951, his family emigrated to Argentina in search of a better life. However, this move abroad proved unsuccessful, and within a year they had returned to Sants where Carreras was to spend the rest of his childhood and teenage years.


title: José Carreras

text: He showed an early talent for music and particularly singing, which intensified at the age of six when he saw Mario Lanza in "The Great Caruso". The story recounted in his autobiography and numerous interviews is that after seeing the film, Carreras sang the arias incessantly to his family, especially "La donna è mobile", often locking himself in the family's bathroom when they became exasperated with his impromptu concerts. At that point, his parents, with the encouragement of his grandfather Salvador Coll, an amateur baritone, found the money for music lessons for him. At first he studied piano and voice with Magda Prunera, the mother of one of his childhood friends, and at the age of eight, he also started taking music lessons at Barcelona's Municipal Conservatory.


title: José Carreras

text: At just eight years old, he also gave his first public performance, singing "La donna è mobile", accompanied by Magda Prunera on the piano, on Spanish National Radio. A recording of this still exists and can be heard on the video biography, "José Carreras – A Life Story". On 3 January 1958, at the age of eleven, he made his debut in Barcelona's great opera house, the Gran Teatre del Liceu, singing the boy soprano role of Trujamán in Manuel de Falla's "El retablo de Maese Pedro". A few months later, he sang for the last time as a boy soprano at the Liceu in the second act of "La Bohème".


title: José Carreras

text: Throughout his teenage years, he continued to study music, moving on to the Conservatori Superior de Música del Liceu and taking private voice lessons, first with Francisco Puig and later with Juan Ruax, whom Carreras has described as his "artistic father". Following the advice of his father and brother, who felt that he needed a "backup" career, he also entered the University of Barcelona to study chemistry, but after two years he left the university to concentrate on singing.


title: José Carreras

text: Juan Ruax encouraged Carreras to audition for what was to become his first tenor role at the Liceu, Flavio in "Norma", which opened on 8 January 1970. Although only a minor role, the few phrases he sang caught the attention of the production's leading lady, the eminent soprano and fellow Catalan, Montserrat Caballé. She asked him to sing Gennaro with her in Donizetti's "Lucrezia Borgia", which opened on 19 December 1970. It was his first principal adult role, and the one which he considers to be his true debut as a tenor. In 1971, he made his international debut in a concert performance of "Maria Stuarda" in London's Royal Festival Hall, again with Caballé singing the title role. Caballé was instrumental in promoting and encouraging his career for many years, appearing in over fifteen different operas with him, while her brother and manager, Carlos Caballé, was also Carreras's manager until the mid-1990s.


title: José Carreras

text: During the 1970s Carreras's career progressed rapidly. In late-1971, he won first prize in Parma's prestigious Voci Verdiane competition which led to his Italian debut as Rodolfo in "La bohème" at the Teatro Regio di Parma on 12 January 1972. Later that year he made his American debut as Pinkerton in "Madama Butterfly" with the New York City Opera. Other major house debuts followed – the San Francisco Opera in 1973, as Rodolfo; the Philadelphia Lyric Opera Company in 1973, as Alfredo in "La traviata"; the Vienna Staatsoper in 1974, as the Duke of Mantua in "Rigoletto"; London's Royal Opera House in 1974, as Alfredo; the New York Metropolitan Opera in 1974, as Cavaradossi in "Tosca"; and La Scala, Milan in 1975, as Riccardo in "Un ballo in maschera". By the age of 28, he had already sung the tenor lead in 24 different operas in both Europe and North America, and had an exclusive recording contract with Philips, which resulted in valuable recordings of several less often performed Verdi operas, notably "Il Corsaro", "I due Foscari", "La battaglia di Legnano", "Un giorno di regno" and "Stiffelio".


title: José Carreras

text: Carreras's leading ladies during the 1970s and 1980s included some of the most famous sopranos and mezzo-sopranos of the day: Montserrat Caballé, Birgit Nilsson, Viorica Cortez, Renata Scotto, Ileana Cotrubaş, Sylvia Sass, Teresa Stratas, Dame Kiri Te Kanawa, Frederica von Stade, Agnes Baltsa, Teresa Berganza, and Katia Ricciarelli. His artistic partnership with Ricciarelli began when they both sang in the 1972 "La bohème" at Parma and lasted for thirteen years, both in the recording studio and on stage. They later made a studio recording of "La bohème" for Philips Classics and can be heard together on over 12 other commercial recordings of both operas and recitals, predominantly on the Philips and Deutsche Grammophon labels.


title: José Carreras

text: Of the many conductors he worked with during this period, the one with whom Carreras had the closest artistic relationship and who had the most profound influence on his career was Herbert von Karajan. He first sang under Karajan in the Verdi Requiem at Salzburg on 10 April 1976, with their final collaboration in a 1986 production of "Carmen", again at Salzburg. With Karajan's encouragement, he increasingly moved towards singing heavier lirico-spinto roles, including "Aida", "Don Carlos", and "Carmen", which some critics have said were too heavy for his natural voice and may have shortened his vocal prime. (See the section on Carreras's voice.)


title: José Carreras

text: The 1980s saw Carreras occasionally moving outside the strictly operatic repertoire, at least in the recording studio, with recitals of songs from zarzuela, musicals and operettas. He also made full-length recordings of two musicals – "West Side Story" (1985) and "South Pacific" (1986) – both with Kiri Te Kanawa as his co-star. The recording of "West Side Story" was unusual in two respects: Carreras was chosen and conducted by Leonard Bernstein. Bernstein was conducting for the first time nearly 30 years after he composed the music, and a full-length documentary was made about the recording sessions. His 1987 Philips recording of the Argentine folk mass, "Misa Criolla", conducted by its composer, Ariel Ramírez, brought the work to a worldwide audience. Although many of Carreras's stage performances are available on video, he also ventured into film. In 1986, he portrayed the 19th century Spanish tenor Julián Gayarre in "Romanza Final" (The Final Romance) and in 1987, he started working on a film version of "La bohème" directed by Luigi Comencini.


title: José Carreras

text: It was during the filming of "La bohème" in Paris that he was found to be suffering from acute lymphoblastic leukemia and given a 1 in 10 chance of survival. However, he recovered from the disease after undergoing a gruelling treatment involving chemotherapy, radiation therapy and an autologous bone marrow transplant at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle. Following his recovery, he gradually returned to both the operatic and the concert stage, embarking on a tour of come-back recitals in 1988 and 1989 and singing with Montserrat Caballé in "Medea" (Mérida, Spain 1989) and in the world premiere of Balada's "Cristóbal Colón" (Barcelona, 1989).