title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: After McClain was restrained, more officers arrived and audio of the conversation records them saying that McClain was "acting crazy", that he was "definitely on something", and that he had attacked them with "incredible, crazy strength" when they tried to restrain him. They also said that, at one point, three officers were on top of McClain, who was tall and weighed . Without speaking with or touching him, paramedics injected him with 500 mg of ketamine, a dose that would have been too much for a 200-lb. individual, as a sedative for so-called "excited delirium". McClain was then transferred to the ambulance. The medic who had administered ketamine noticed McClain's chest "was not rising on its own, and he did not have a pulse." He was pronounced brain dead on August 27 and died three days later, on August 30, 2019.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: The body cameras came detached from the police officer's uniforms during the encounter, but the audio can still be heard. During the recording, when one of the body cameras was still attached to an officer, another officer can be heard telling him to move his camera. The attorney representing McClain's family accused the officers of deliberately removing their body cameras to support a false allegation that McClain reached for a gun, though evidence for this wasn't found during the subsequent investigation.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: According to body cam audio, these were McClain's last words as he was restrained by police officers:I can't breathe. I have my ID right here. My name is Elijah McClain. That's my house. I was just going home. I'm an introvert. I'm just different. That's all. I'm so sorry. I have no gun. I don't do that stuff. I don't do any fighting. Why are you attacking me? I don't even kill flies! I don't eat meat! But I don't judge people, I don't judge people who do eat meat. Forgive me. All I was trying to do was become better. I will do it. I will do anything. Sacrifice my identity, I'll do it. You all are phenomenal. You are beautiful and I love you. Try to forgive me. I'm a mood Gemini. I'm sorry. I'm so sorry. Ow, that really hurt! You are all very strong. Teamwork makes the dream work. [after vomiting] Oh, I'm sorry, I wasn't trying to do that. I just can't breathe correctly."


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: According to the original autopsy report from Adams County Coroner's Office, released in November 2019, McClain's exact cause of death could not be determined and was therefore was listed as undetermined. The county coroner Dr. Stephen Cina stated that it may have been an accident resulting from an idiosyncratic drug reaction, could have been homicide if the officers' use of the carotid hold contributed to his death, or could have been natural “if (McClain) had an undiagnosed mental illness that led to excited delirium, if his intense physical exertion combined with a narrow coronary artery led to an arrhythmia, if he had an asthma attack, or if he aspirated vomit while restrained.”


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: The coroner stated that McClain's "physical exertion" likely contributed to his death, ” but it is unclear if the officer's actions contributed as well" and described McClain as being given a “therapeutic level” of ketamine.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: Aurora Police Department officers met with the coroner before his final decision that the cause of death could not be determined was announced and Aurora police investigators were also present during the autopsy even while the actions of several of the department's officers were under review. According to a national coroners group, best practice would have been to seek a second opinion in order to avoid an undetermined ruling.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: On September 2, 2022, chief coroner of Adams County Monica Broncucia-Jordan announced the autopsy report of McClain had been changed in response to new evidence from a grand jury investigation. Following a request by the Colorado Public Radio it was confirmed that the autopsy had been updated to list the cause of death as "complications of ketamine administration following forcible restraint", but the manner of death was still listed as "undetermined" rather than "homicide". "The investigation suggests that [McClain] received an intramuscular dose of ketamine that was higher than recommended for his weight," Adams County chief coroner Monica Broncucia-Jordan autopsy report read. "Further, my review of all the body camera footage shows that Mr. McClain was extremely sedated within minutes of receiving a shot of ketamine. When he was placed on a stretcher, I believe he was displaying agonal breathing and respiratory arrest was imminent. Simply put, this dosage of ketamine was too much for this individual and it resulted in an overdose, even though his blood ketamine level was consistent with a 'therapeutic' blood concentration. I believe that Mr. McClain would most likely be alive but for the administration of ketamine."


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: The amended report also states that there was “no evidence that injuries inflicted by the police contributed to death. The original report stated that McClain went unresponsive “during a police involved interaction.” The report was amended to say that McClain became unresponsive “immediately following a police involved interaction.”


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: On August 28, 2019, all three Aurora Police officers involved at the scene were put on paid administrative leave. Adams County District Attorney Dave Young later determined that none of the three officers—Nathan Woodyard, Jason Rosenblatt and Randy Roedema—committed any criminal acts, and no charges were filed against them. The police body camera footage and audio of the initial 9-1-1 call were released publicly by the Aurora Police Department on November 22, 2019.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: In February 2020, Aurora City Manager Jim Twombly announced that he would begin a Critical Incident Review on the case to investigate how police and fire departments reacted during the incident. He also announced an audit on the body cameras of the Aurora Police Department to further investigate how well Aurora police officers comply with body-camera policies. At that time he said that a review of the incident determined that the force applied during the encounter was consistent with training as determined by the Force Review Board.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: On June 6, an online petition called for a reopening of the investigation into the death of McClain, and a request that the officers involved be removed from duty had been signed by more than 820,000 people. Members of the Aurora City Council's safety committee also requested an independent, third-party investigation into the death. County District Attorney Dave Young said he was aware of the petition and commented, "I don't open up investigations based on petitions."


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: On June 10, three members of the city public safety policy committee sent City Manager Jim Twombly a letter asking for a new "neutral, third-party" look at McClain's death. Twombly responded saying that the city had already initiated an independent review of his death under the direction of Eric Daigle, a former Connecticut state police officer and attorney who now consults on the use of force and related policies. Council members replied saying they were not satisfied with the city's choice of a former police officer: "[We] don't consider Eric Daigle to be independent and neutral due to his long career in law enforcement. We need a truly independent review."


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: On June 26, a spokesperson for the city of Aurora announced that all three officers involved in the incident had been reassigned to working in a non-enforcement capacity in an attempt to protect their safety. Woodyard and Rosenblatt were moved on June 13, while Roedema was moved on June 20.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: By June 25, more than three million people had signed the petition demanding an independent investigation into McClain's death, and on that date, Governor Jared Polis appointed a special prosecutor to investigate McClain's death. He also signed an executive order directing the Attorney General, Phil Weiser, to investigate and possibly prosecute the officers involved. Polis said in a statement, "Elijah McClain should be alive today, and we owe it to his family to take this step and elevate the pursuit of justice in his name to a statewide concern." Mari Newman, the family's attorney, commented, "Finally a responsible adult has stepped in and thank goodness that the governor has shown some leadership."


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: On June 29, the interim police chief announced that multiple officers had been placed on administrative leave and were under investigation after photos of them surfaced that had been taken near the site where McClain died. The photos, taken in October 2019, show police officers posing inappropriately and reenacting the carotid restraint used on McClain before his death. In July, three officers were fired from the department in relation to the photos, while one officer resigned.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: At a news conference, acting police chief Vanessa Wilson said, "While the allegations of this internal affairs case are not criminal, they are a crime against humanity and decency. To even think about doing such a thing is beyond comprehension and it is reprehensible." In response to a question from the floor, she addressed aspects of future officer training, and noted:


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: In Colorado, EMS providers are allowed to use ketamine to treat a syndrome known as excited delirium. When the EMS arrived on the scene of the encounter, McClain was already cuffed and restrained on the ground. One of the officers can be heard telling the EMS that McClain was "acting crazy", that he was "definitely on something", and that he had attacked them with "incredible, crazy strength" when they tried to restrain him. The paramedics administered an injection of 500 mg (one full 5ml syringe) of ketamine, later reporting to have estimated his weight at 220lbs (100kg), a weight for which 500mg is an appropriate dose. According to information provided to NBC by Aurora Fire Rescue, the standard dose of ketamine is 5 milligrams per each kilogram of a person's weight. The coroner's report states that McClain was tall and weighed . That would mean that the correct dosage for a person of McClain's size would have been 320 milligrams.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: The attorney for McClain's family, Mari Newman, said that medics had no right or reason to inject Elijah with ketamine and has asked for an investigation. Neuroscientist Carl Hart, chair of Columbia University's psychology department, commented, "Why anyone would be giving ketamine in that circumstance is beyond me." The American Medical Association, the American Psychiatric Association, and the World Health Organization do not recognize the condition. Paul Appelbaum, who oversees changes to psychiatry's main diagnostic manual, has commented, "excited delirium is bad science, based on faulty studies that grew out of the 1980s cocaine epidemic." Carl Takei, a senior staff attorney for the American Civil Liberties Union who focuses on police practices, said "ascribing a person's actions to excited delirium can create a shield for officers who use excessive force".


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: In December 2020, John Dickerson, working for the television program "60 Minutes", investigated the use of ketamine in McClain's death. Dickerson said that the medical community is highly skeptical about whether "excited delirium" is a real medical condition and voiced concerns about the use of excited delirium as "a shield to protect police from charges of misconduct." Dickerson spoke with County District Attorney Dave Young, whose jurisdiction covers Aurora. Young justified the use of ketamine. He also felt that because the diagnosis of excited delirium was not ruled out as a cause of death, he was convinced that he could not win a homicide case against the officers because "you can't file a homicide charge without cause of death."


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: Findings from an independent investigation commissioned by the City Council were released on February 22, 2021. The report concluded that "Aurora police and paramedics made substantial errors at nearly every stage of their interaction with Elijah McClain and the detectives tasked with investigating the incident that led to the 23-year-old's death stretched the truth to exonerate the officers involved." The report said that the police had no legal basis to make McClain stop walking, to frisk him, or to use a chokehold and the paramedics failed to properly evaluate him or even to attempt to speak with him before injecting him with ketamine. The report also said that the detectives assigned to investigate the incident failed to do a meaningful investigation after his death. According to the report:


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: The body worn camera audio, limited video, and Major Crimes’ interviews with the officers tell two contrasting stories. The officers’ statements on the scene and in subsequent recorded interviews suggest a violent and relentless struggle. The limited video, and the audio from the body worn cameras, reveal Mr. McClain surrounded by officers, all larger than he, crying out in pain, apologizing, explaining himself, and pleading with the officers."


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: In 2020, McClain's family filed a lawsuit naming the city, several police officers and paramedics, and a fire department medical director for allegedly violating McClain's civil rights. Family attorney Mari Newman said the report supports the plaintiff allegations. "This is a broadside on the city of Aurora from top to bottom, beginning with the illegal stop that set the wheels in motion and the illegal conduct every step of the way." McClain's mother said she was happy that the report showed that her son was no longer labeled a suspect but rather seen as a victim of a crime. She has called for the paramedics and the officers to be fired and criminally prosecuted. In a statement his father said, "This report confirms what we have been saying from the start."


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: In September 2021, a Colorado grand jury indicted Aurora officers Roedema, Rosenblatt and Woodyard and also Aurora Fire Rescue paramedics Cooper and Cichuniec on 32 total counts of manslaughter and criminally negligent homicide. In addition, Roedema and Rosenblatt were each indicted on one count of assault and one count of crime of violence, Cooper and Cichuniec were each indicted on three counts of assault and six counts of crime of violence. In April 2022 all five of them were still free on bond.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: In September 2022, CPR News (Colorado Public Radio) filed a lawsuit, in which they were joined by the Associated Press (AP News), KCNC-TV, KDVR-TV, KMGH-TV, KUSA-TV, and Denver7 arguing the amended autopsy report should be released to the public without redactions. The report, without redactions, was released on September 24. The cause of death, which was previously listed as "undetermined," now states as "complications of ketamine administration following forcible restraint". The manner of death remains listed as "undetermined" as it was in the initial report.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: A very small protest was held in November 2019 in response to the District Attorney's decision not to file charges. McClain's mother Sheneen was scheduled to take part but was in too much grief to appear and speak.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: A second event for McClain was held on June 6, 2020, after the murder of George Floyd led to the formation of a nationwide protest movement in the United States. One of the event organizers remarked that the McClain family must have felt that the death of their loved one had been in vain when they saw the streets of Denver filled with protesters showing support for George Floyd while their loved one seemed to have been all but forgotten. One speaker said, "Today, I see all of your faces. And although it happened because of George Floyd, if we're not dealing with the atrocities, with the murders, with the brutality inside of Aurora, we have no business shouting another person's name."


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: In June 2020, a memorial mural was painted in honor of McClain in Denver, Colorado, alongside murals of George Floyd and Breonna Taylor.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: On June 27, 2020, thousands gathered for a day of protests, speaker presentations, and an evening violin concert at Aurora City Center Park. Before the protest began, Aurora police issued a statement in support of a peaceful protest but warned of "outsiders" whose goal, they said, is to be destructive. Government buildings were boarded up, and police sat atop City Hall and the library observing the protest.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: No arrests were reported during the day, although both directions of Interstate 225 were shut down around 3 p.m. by thousands of marching protesters. In the evening people, including families with children, began to gather in City Center Park and musicians formed a circle and began to play a violin concert in memory of McClain, who had been an accomplished violinist. At that time the police announced that the protest was now an "illegal gathering", and ordered people to leave the park or they would use pepper spray to disperse them. Shortly thereafter the police, dressed in riot gear, moved into the crowd. Several attendees reported that smoke and gas canisters were used. A police statement later reported that "pepper spray was used after a small group of people gathered rocks [and] sticks, knocked over a fence, and ignored orders to move back". Various videos showed attendees seated on the public lawn without any such actions.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: Five attendees of the protest have sued the Aurora Police Department and its interim chief, accusing them of unconstitutional treatment. Their lawsuit also demands that the Aurora Police Department stop using chemical agents, stop shooting projectiles indiscriminately into crowds, allow crowd dispersal only when there is an urgent danger to other people, and require all police to have their body cameras on at all times.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: On June 29, 2020, an event in memory of Elijah McClain was held in California. It was organized by Black Women Lead, took place at The Laugh Factory Hollywood, and was called "Violin Candlelight Vigil for Elijah". The small concert was held in the open air, the visitors formed a circle around the stage, watching performing musicians. Among the performers were violinist Lindsey Stirling, who played her arrangement of the song "Hallelujah", and violinist and vocalist Sudan Archives.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: After McClain's death, a petition was published on the public benefit corporation website, change.org asking for "Justice for Elijah McClain." The petition quickly gathered enough signatures to become one of the top three most signed petitions on the site, among others such as those petitions on behalf of George Floyd and Breonna Taylor.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: Following the summer protests, Aurora Police Department arrested organizers involved with the Party for Socialism and Liberation and local groups on charges ranging from "inciting a riot" to "kidnapping". This was in response to a protest on July 3 where the Aurora police precinct was surrounded by protesters calling for the officers responsible for McClain's death to be fired and charged. On September 17, 6 organizers, Russel Ruch, Joel Northam, Lillian House, Eliza Lucero, Trey Quinn, and Terrance Roberts, were arrested. Northam was arrested with the aid of a SWAT team and armored vehicle, while Roberts was apprehended while on a jog. Others were arrested at home or at work. The charges could have resulted in up to 48 years in prison for House, Northam, and Lucero.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: On March 12, 2021, Judge Leroy Kirby dismissed the kidnapping charges against House, Lucero, and Northam, noting that if the warrants for their arrest had been presented to him, he would not have signed them. On April 4, 2021, Arapahoe County District Attorney John Keller dismissed all felony charges and major misdemeanor charges against the protesters. On May 6, 2021, Adams County District Attorney Brian Mason dismissed all charges in Adams County against the protesters, stating that he has "an ethical obligation to only proceed on charges [his] office can prove and to dismiss charges that [they] cannot prove." On September 13, 2021, all remaining charges against House, Lucero, and Northam were dropped.


title: Death of Elijah McClain

text: McClain's family subsequently filed a civil rights lawsuit against the city of Aurora, Colorado. A preliminary settlement agreement was announced on October 18, 2021. The agreement was finalized following a mediation hearing in U.S. District Court on November 19, 2021, with the city of Aurora agreeing to pay $15 million to McClain's family.


title: Lois Lowry

text: Lois Ann Lowry (; née Hammersberg; March 20, 1937) is an American writer. She is the author of several books for children and young adults, including "The Giver Quartet," "Number the Stars", and "Rabble Starkey." She is known for writing about difficult subject matters, dystopias, and complex themes in works for young audiences.


title: Lois Lowry

text: Lowry has won two Newbery Medals: for "Number the Stars" in 1990 and "The Giver" in 1994. Her book "Gooney Bird Greene" won the 2002 Rhode Island Children's Book Award.


title: Lois Lowry

text: Many of her books have been challenged or even banned in some schools and libraries. "The Giver", which is common in the curriculum in some schools, has been prohibited in others.


title: Lois Lowry

text: Lowry was born on March 20, 1937 in Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii, to Katherine Gordon Landis and Robert E. Hammersberg. Her maternal grandfather, Merkel Landis, a banker, created the Christmas Club savings program in 1910. Initially, Lowry's parents named her "Cena" for her Norwegian grandmother, but upon hearing the news, her grandmother telegraphed and instructed Lowry's parents that the child should have an American name.


title: Lois Lowry

text: Lowry was the middle child. She has an older sister named Helen, and a younger brother called Jon. Helen died of cancer in 1962, but Lowry and her brother still share a close relationship.


title: Lois Lowry

text: Lowry's father was an army dentist, whose work moved the family all over the United States and to many parts of the world. Lowry and her family moved from Hawaii to Brooklyn, New York, in 1939, when Lowry was two years old. They relocated in 1942 to her mother's hometown in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, when Lowry's father was deployed to the Pacific during World War II. Lowry began reading at three years old, which allowed her to skip the first grade when she started school at age six in Carlisle at the Franklin School.


title: Lois Lowry

text: After World War II, Lowry moved with her family to Tokyo, Japan, where her father was stationed from 1948 to 1950. Lowry attended seventh and eighth grades at The American School in Japan, a school for dependents of those involved in the military. She returned to the United States to attend high school. Lowry and her family lived in Carlisle again in 1950, where she attended freshman high school before moving to Governors Island, New York, where Lowry attended Curtis High School, on Staten Island. She finished high school at Packer Collegiate Institute in Brooklyn Heights, New York, attending from 1952 to 1954. She then attended Pembroke College, which became fully merged with Brown University in 1971. There she met her future husband, Donald Grey Lowry.


title: Lois Lowry

text: Lowry left the university in 1956 after her marriage to Donald Grey Lowry, a U.S. Navy officer. The couple moved several times from San Diego to New London, Connecticut, to Key West to Charleston to Cambridge to Portland, Maine. They had two daughters, Alix and Kristin, and two sons, Donald Grey and Benjamin.


title: Lois Lowry

text: While raising her children, Lowry completed her degree in English literature at the University of Southern Maine in Portland, Maine, in 1972. After earning her B.A., she continued at the university to pursue graduate studies.


title: Lois Lowry

text: In 1977, at 40 years old, Lowry's first book, "A Summer to Die", was published. During that same year, she and Donald Lowry divorced. Not long after, she met Martin Small and was in a relationship with him for over thirty years, until his death in 2011. As of 2021, she is in a relationship with Howard Corwin, a retired physician.


title: Lois Lowry

text: Lowry's son Grey, a USAF major and flight instructor, was killed in the crash of his fighter plane in 1995. Lowry acknowledged that it was the most difficult day of her life, and she said, "His death in the cockpit of a warplane tore away a piece of my world. But it left me, too, with a wish to honor him by joining the many others trying to find a way to end conflict on this very fragile earth."


title: Lois Lowry

text: As of 2021, Lowry has properties in Massachusetts and Maine and she still remains an active writer and speaker.


title: Lois Lowry

text: Lowry first began her career as a freelance journalist. In the 1970s, she submitted a short story to "Redbook" magazine, which was intended for adult audiences but written from a child's perspective. An editor working at Houghton Mifflin then suggested to Lowry that she should write a children's book. Lowry agreed and wrote her first book "A Summer to Die," which was later published by Houghton Mifflin in 1977 when she was 40 years old. The book featured the theme of terminal illness, which is based on Lowry's own experiences with her sister Helen.


title: Lois Lowry

text: Lowry continued to write about difficult topics in her next publication, "Autumn Street" (1979), which explores themes of coping with racism, grief, and fear at a young age. The novel is told from the perspective of a young girl who is sent to live with her grandfather during World War II, which is also based on her own experiences of having her father deployed during World War II. Of all the books she has published, "Autumn Street" is considered to be her most autobiographical.


title: Lois Lowry

text: In the same year of publishing "Autumn Street", Lowry also published her novel "Anastasia Krupnik", the first installment in the Anastasia series. The series, which touches on serious themes with a humorous approach, continued through to 1995.


title: Lois Lowry

text: Lowry published "Number the Stars" in 1989, which book received multiple awards, including the 1990 Newbery medal. Lowry received another Newbery medal in 1994, for "The Giver" (1993). After publishing "The Giver", she went on to publish another three companion novels which take place in the same universe: "Gathering Blue" (2000) and "Messenger" (2004) and finally "Son" (2012), which tied all three of the previous books together. Collectively, they are referred to as "The Giver Quartet". The "New York Times" described the quartet as "less a speculative fiction than a kind of guide for teaching children (and their parents, if they're listening carefully) how to be a good person."


title: Lois Lowry

text: In early 2020, she released a book of poetry, called "On the Horizon", charting her childhood memories of life in Hawaii and Tokyo, and the lives lost during the attack on Pearl Harbor and the bombing of Hiroshima.


title: Lois Lowry

text: During the coronavirus pandemic in 2020, the American publishing company Scholastic Corporation asked Lowry to write a new introduction to "Like the Willow Tree", a story of a young girl living in Portland, Maine who was orphaned during the 1918 Spanish Flu epidemic. The book was first published in 2011, before being reissued by Scholastic in September 2020.


title: Lois Lowry

text: Throughout her works, Lowry has explored several complex issues including racism, terminal illness, murder, the Holocaust, and the questioning of authority, among other challenging topics. Her writing on such matters has accumulated both praise and criticism. The "Chicago Tribune" has said a theme running through all of her work is "the importance of human connections."


title: Lois Lowry

text: By 2000, eight of her books had been challenged in schools and libraries in the United States. In particular, "The Giver" (the first novel in The Giver Quartet) received a diversity of reactions from schools in America after its release in 1993. While some schools adopted it as a part of the mandatory curriculum, others prohibited the book's inclusion in their classroom studies. According to the "New York Times" in 2012, "The Giver" had been perennially near the top of the America Library Association's list of banned and challenged books since its publication. In a 2012 review of "Son", the "New York Times" said the 1993 publication of "The Giver" had "shocked adult and child sensibilities alike". In 2020, "Time" magazine described "The Giver" as "a staple of both middle school curricular and banned book lists."


title: Lois Lowry

text: According to biographer Joel Chaston, Lowry's most critically acclaimed works are "Rabble Starkey", "Number the Stars", and "The Giver".


title: Lois Lowry

text: Biographer Joel Chaston described her as "clearly one of the most important twentieth-century American writers for children".


title: Lois Lowry

text: Robin Wasserman, a writer for "The" "New York Times", said "In many ways, Lowry invented the contemporary young adult dystopian novel", pointing out that in 1993 it was "unusual and unsettling" for children's literature to address topics of political oppression, euthanasia, suicide, or murder.


title: Lois Lowry

text: Lowry won the Newbery Medal in 1990 for her novel "Number the Stars", and again in 1994 for "The Giver". For "Number the Stars", Lowry has also received the National Jewish Book Award in 1990, in the Children's Literature category, and the Dorothy Canfield Fisher Children's Book Award in 1991.


title: Lois Lowry

text: Lowry has been nominated three times for the biennial international Hans Christian Andersen Award, the highest recognition available to creators of children's books. She was a finalist in 2000, a U.S. nominee in 2004, and a finalist in 2016.


title: Lois Lowry

text: In 2007, she received the Margaret Edwards Award from the American Library Association for her contributions writing for teens. The ALA Margaret Edwards Award recognizes one writer and a particular body of work for "significant and lasting contribution to young adult literature". Lowry won the annual award in 2007 for "The Giver" (published 1993). The citation observed that ""The Giver" was one of the most frequently challenged books from 1990 to 2000" — that is, the object of "a formal, written attempt to remove a book from a library or classroom." According to the panel chair, "The book has held a unique position in teen literature. Lowry's exceptional use of metaphors and subtle complexity make it a book that will be discussed, debated and challenged for years to come...a perfect teen read."


title: Lois Lowry

text: She's also won a Boston Globe-Hornbook Award, an Anne V. Zarrow Award, a Golden Kite Award, and a Hope S. Dean Memorial Award.


title: Lois Lowry

text: In 2011 she gave the May Hill Arbuthnot Lecture; her lecture was titled "UNLEAVING: The Staying Power of Gold". She has been awarded honorary degrees from six universities, including a Doctorate of Letters by Brown University in 2014,St. Mary's College, University of Southern Maine, Elmhurst College, Wilson College, and Lesley University.


title: Externality

text: In economics, an externality or external cost is an indirect cost or benefit to an uninvolved third party that arises as an effect of another party's (or parties') activity. Externalities can be considered as unpriced goods involved in either consumer or producer market transactions. Air pollution from motor vehicles is one example. The cost of air pollution to society is not paid by either the producers or users of motorized transport to the rest of society. Water pollution from mills and factories is another example. All consumers are all made worse off by pollution but are not compensated by the market for this damage. A positive externality is when an individual's consumption in a market increases the well-being of others, but the individual does not charge the third party for the benefit. The third party is essentially getting a free product. An example of this might be the apartment above a bakery receiving the benefit of enjoyment from smelling fresh pastries every morning. The people who live in the apartment do not compensate the bakery for this benefit.


title: Externality

text: The concept of externality was first developed by economist Arthur Pigou in the 1920s. The prototypical example of a negative externality is environmental pollution. Pigou argued that a tax, equal to the marginal damage or marginal external cost, (later called a "Pigouvian tax") on negative externalities could be used to reduce their incidence to an efficient level. Subsequent thinkers have debated whether it is preferable to tax or to regulate negative externalities, the optimally efficient level of the Pigouvian taxation, and what factors cause or exacerbate negative externalities, such as providing investors in corporations with limited liability for harms committed by the corporation.


title: Externality

text: Externalities often occur when the production or consumption of a product or service's private price equilibrium cannot reflect the true costs or benefits of that product or service for society as a whole. This causes the externality competitive equilibrium to not adhere to the condition of Pareto optimality. Thus, since resources can be better allocated, externalities are an example of market failure.


title: Externality

text: Externalities can be either positive or negative. Governments and institutions often take actions to internalize externalities, thus market-priced transactions can incorporate all the benefits and costs associated with transactions between economic agents. The most common way this is done is by imposing taxes on the producers of this externality. This is usually done similar to a quote where there is no tax imposed and then once the externality reaches a certain point there is a very high tax imposed. However, since regulators do not always have all the information on the externality it can be difficult to impose the right tax. Once the externality is internalized through imposing a tax the competitive equilibrium is now Pareto optimal.


title: Externality

text: For example, manufacturing activities that cause air pollution impose health and clean-up costs on the whole society, whereas the neighbors of individuals who choose to fire-proof their homes may benefit from a reduced risk of a fire spreading to their own houses. If external costs exist, such as pollution, the producer may choose to produce more of the product than would be produced if the producer were required to pay all associated environmental costs. Because responsibility or consequence for self-directed action lies partly outside the self, an element of externalization is involved. If there are external benefits, such as in public safety, less of the good may be produced than would be the case if the producer were to receive payment for the external benefits to others.


title: Externality

text: Two British economists are credited with having initiated the formal study of externalities, or "spillover effects": Henry Sidgwick (1838–1900) is credited with first articulating, and Arthur C. Pigou (1877–1959) is credited with formalizing the concept of externalities.


title: Externality

text: The word externality is used because the effect produced on others, whether in the form of profits or costs, is external to the market.


title: Externality

text: A negative externality is any difference between the private cost of an action or decision to an economic agent and the social cost. In simple terms, a negative externality is anything that causes an indirect cost to individuals. An example is the toxic gases that are released from industries or mines, these gases cause harm to individuals within the surrounding area and have to bear a cost (indirect cost) to get rid of that harm. Conversely, a positive externality is any difference between the private benefit of an action or decision to an economic agent and the social benefit. A positive externality is anything that causes an indirect benefit to individuals and for which the producer of that positive externality is not compensated. For example, planting trees makes individuals' property look nicer and it also cleans the surrounding areas.


title: Externality

text: In microeconomic theory, externalities are factored into competitive equilibrium analysis as the social effect, as opposed to the private market which only factors direct economic effects. The social effect of economic activity is the sum of the indirect (the externalities) and direct factors. The Pareto optimum, therefore, is at the levels in which the social marginal benefit equals the social marginal cost.


title: Externality

text: A voluntary exchange may reduce societal welfare if external costs exist. The person who is affected by the negative externalities in the case of air pollution will see it as lowered utility: either subjective displeasure or potentially explicit costs, such as higher medical expenses. The externality may even be seen as a trespass on their health or violating their property rights (by reduced valuation). Thus, an external cost may pose an ethical or political problem. Negative externalities are Pareto inefficient, and since Pareto efficiency underpins the justification for private property, they undermine the whole idea of a market economy. For these reasons, negative externalities are more problematic than positive externalities.


title: Externality

text: Although positive externalities may appear to be beneficial, while Pareto efficient, they still represent a failure in the market as it results in the production of the good falling under what is optimal for the market. By allowing producers to recognise and attempt to control their externalities production would increase as they would have motivation to do so. With this comes the Free Rider Problem. The Free Rider Problem arises when people overuse a shared resource without doing their part to produce or pay for it. It represents a failure in the market where goods and services are not able to be distributed efficiently, allowing people to take more than what is fair. For example, if a farmer has honeybees a positive externality of owning these bees is that they will also pollinate the surrounding plants. This farmer has a next door neighbour who also benefits from this externality even though he does not have any bees himself. From the perspective of the neighbour he has no incentive to purchase bees himself as he is already benefiting from them at zero cost. But for the farmer, he is missing out on the full benefits of his own bees which he paid for, because they are also being used by his neighbour.


title: Externality

text: There are a number of theoretical means of improving overall social utility when negative externalities are involved. The market-driven approach to correcting externalities is to ""internalize"" third party costs and benefits, for example, by requiring a polluter to repair any damage caused. But in many cases, internalizing costs or benefits is not feasible, especially if the true monetary values cannot be determined.


title: Externality

text: Laissez-faire economists such as Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman sometimes refer to externalities as "neighborhood effects" or "spillovers", although externalities are not necessarily minor or localized. Similarly, Ludwig von Mises argues that externalities arise from lack of "clear personal property definition."


title: Externality

text: Externalities may arise between producers, between consumers or between consumers and producers. Externalities can be negative when the action of one party imposes costs on another, or positive when the action of one party benefits another.


title: Externality

text: A negative externality (also called "external cost" or "external diseconomy") is an economic activity that imposes a negative effect on an unrelated third party. It can arise either during the production or the consumption of a good or service. Pollution is termed an externality because it imposes costs on people who are "external" to the producer and consumer of the polluting product. Barry Commoner commented on the costs of externalities:


title: Externality

text: Clearly, we have compiled a record of serious failures in recent technological encounters with the environment. In each case, the new technology was brought into use before the ultimate hazards were known. We have been quick to reap the benefits and slow to comprehend the costs.


title: Externality

text: Many negative externalities are related to the environmental consequences of production and use. The article on environmental economics also addresses externalities and how they may be addressed in the context of environmental issues.


title: Externality

text: A positive externality (also called "external benefit" or "external economy" or "beneficial externality") is the positive effect an activity imposes on an unrelated third party. Similar to a negative externality, it can arise either on the production side, or on the consumption side.


title: Externality

text: A positive production externality occurs when a firm's production increases the well-being of others but the firm is uncompensated by those others, while a positive consumption externality occurs when an individual's consumption benefits other but the individual is uncompensated by those others.


title: Externality

text: Collective solutions or public policies are implemented to regulate activities with positive or negative externalities.


title: Externality

text: Positional externalities are also called Pecuniary externalities. Pecuniary externalities are those which affect a third party's profit but not their ability to produce or consume. These externalities "occur when new purchases alter the relevant context within which an existing positional good is evaluated." Robert H. Frank gives the following example:


title: Externality

text: Frank notes that treating positional externalities like other externalities might lead to "intrusive economic and social regulation." He argues, however, that less intrusive and more efficient means of "limiting the costs of expenditure cascades"—i.e., the hypothesized increase in spending of middle-income families beyond their means "because of indirect effects associated with increased spending by top earners"—exist; one such method is the personal income tax.


title: Externality

text: The concept of inframarginal externalities was introduced by James Buchanan and Craig Stubblebine in 1962. Inframarginal externalities differ from other externalities in that there is no benefit or loss to the marginal consumer. At the relevant margin to the market, the externality does not affect the consumer and does not cause a market inefficiency. The externality only affects at the inframarginal range outside where the market clears. These types of externalities do not cause inefficient allocation of resources and do not require policy action.


title: Externality

text: Technological externalities directly affect a firm's production and therefore, indirectly influence an individual's consumption; and the overall impact of society; for example Open-source software or free software development by corporations.


title: Externality

text: The usual economic analysis of externalities can be illustrated using a standard supply and demand diagram if the externality can be valued in terms of money. An extra supply or demand curve is added, as in the diagrams below. One of the curves is the "private cost" that consumers pay as individuals for additional quantities of the good, which in competitive markets, is the marginal private cost. The other curve is the "true" cost that society as a whole pays for production and consumption of increased production the good, or the marginal social cost. Similarly, there might be two curves for the demand or benefit of the good. The social demand curve would reflect the benefit to society as a whole, while the normal demand curve reflects the benefit to consumers as individuals and is reflected as effective demand in the market.


title: Externality

text: What curve is added depends on the type of externality that is described, but not whether it is positive or negative. Whenever an externality arises on the production side, there will be two supply curves (private and social cost). However, if the externality arises on the consumption side, there will be two demand curves instead (private and social benefit). This distinction is essential when it comes to resolving inefficiencies that are caused by externalities.


title: Externality

text: The graph shows the effects of a negative externality. For example, the steel industry is assumed to be selling in a competitive market – before pollution-control laws were imposed and enforced (e.g. under laissez-faire). The marginal private cost is less than the marginal social or public cost by the amount of the external cost, i.e., the cost of air pollution and water pollution. This is represented by the vertical distance between the two supply curves. It is assumed that there are no external benefits, so that social benefit "equals" individual benefit.


title: Externality

text: If the consumers only take into account their own private cost, they will end up at price P and quantity Q, instead of the more efficient price P and quantity Q. These latter reflect the idea that the marginal social benefit should equal the marginal social cost, that is that production should be increased "only" as long as the marginal social benefit exceeds the marginal social cost. The result is that a free market is "inefficient" since at the quantity Q, the social benefit is less than the social cost, so society as a whole would be better off if the goods between Q and Q had not been produced. The problem is that people are buying and consuming "too much" steel.


title: Externality

text: This discussion implies that negative externalities (such as pollution) are "more than" merely an ethical problem. The problem is one of the disjunctures between marginal private and social costs that are not solved by the free market. It is a problem of societal communication and coordination to balance costs and benefits. This also implies that pollution is not something solved by competitive markets. Some "collective" solution is needed, such as a court system to allow parties affected by the pollution to be compensated, government intervention banning or discouraging pollution, or economic incentives such as green taxes.


title: Externality

text: The graph shows the effects of a positive or beneficial externality. For example, the industry supplying smallpox vaccinations is assumed to be selling in a competitive market. The marginal private benefit of getting the vaccination is less than the marginal social or public benefit by the amount of the external benefit (for example, society as a whole is increasingly protected from smallpox by each vaccination, including those who refuse to participate). This marginal external benefit of getting a smallpox shot is represented by the vertical distance between the two demand curves. Assume there are no external costs, so that social cost "equals" individual cost.


title: Externality

text: If consumers only take into account their own private benefits from getting vaccinations, the market will end up at price P and quantity Q as before, instead of the more efficient price P and quantity Q. This latter again reflect the idea that the marginal social benefit should equal the marginal social cost, i.e., that production should be increased as long as the marginal social benefit exceeds the marginal social cost. The result in an unfettered market is "inefficient" since at the quantity Q, the social benefit is greater than the societal cost, so society as a whole would be better off if more goods had been produced. The problem is that people are buying "too few" vaccinations.


title: Externality

text: The issue of external benefits is related to that of public goods, which are goods where it is difficult if not impossible to exclude people from benefits. The production of a public good has beneficial externalities for all, or almost all, of the public. As with external costs, there is a problem here of societal communication and coordination to balance benefits and costs. This also implies that vaccination is not something solved by competitive markets. The government may have to step in with a collective solution, such as subsidizing or legally requiring vaccine use. If the government does this, the good is called a merit good. Examples include policies to accelerate the introduction of electric vehicles or promote cycling, both of which benefit public health.


title: Externality

text: Externalities often arise from poorly defined property rights. While property rights to some things, such as objects, land, and money can be easily defined and protected, air, water, and wild animals often flow freely across personal and political borders, making it much more difficult to assign ownership. This incentivizes agents to consume them without paying the full cost, leading to negative externalities. Positive externalities similarly accrue from poorly defined property rights. For example, a person who gets a flu vaccination cannot own part of the herd immunity this confers on society, so they may choose not to be vaccinated.


title: Externality

text: Another common cause of externalities is the presence of transaction costs. Transaction costs are the cost of making an economic trade. These costs prevent economic agents from making exchanges they should be making. The costs of the transaction outweigh the benefit to the agent. When not all mutually beneficial exchanges occur in a market, that market is inefficient. Without transaction costs, agents could freely negotiate and internalize all externalities.


title: Externality

text: There are several general types of solutions to the problem of externalities, including both public- and private-sector resolutions:


title: Externality

text: A Pigovian tax (also called Pigouvian tax, after economist Arthur C. Pigou) is a tax imposed that is equal in value to the negative externality. In order to fully correct the negative externality, the per unit tax should equal the marginal external cost. The result is that the market outcome would be reduced to the efficient amount. A side effect is that revenue is raised for the government, reducing the amount of distortionary taxes that the government must impose elsewhere. Governments justify the use of Pigovian taxes saying that these taxes help the market reach an efficient outcome because this tax bridges the gap between marginal social costs and marginal private costs.


title: Externality

text: Some arguments against Pigovian taxes say that the tax does not account for all the transfers and regulations involved with an externality. In other words, the tax only considers the amount of externality produced. Another argument against the tax is that it does not take private property into consideration. Under the Pigovian system, one firm, for example, can be taxed more than another firm, even though the other firm is actually producing greater amounts of the negative externality.


title: Externality

text: Further arguments against Pigou disagree with his assumption every externality has someone at fault or responsible for the damages. Coase argues that externalities are reciprocal in nature. Both parties must be present for an externality to exist. He uses the example of two neighbors. One neighbor possesses a fireplace, and often lights fires in his house without issue. Then one day, the other neighbor builds a wall that prevents the smoke from escaping and sends it back into the fire-building neighbor’s home. This illustrates the reciprocal nature of externalities. Without the wall, the smoke would not be a problem, but without the fire, the smoke would not exist to cause problems in the first place. Coase also takes issue with Pigou’s assumption of a “benevolent despot” government. Pigou assumes the government’s role is to see the external costs or benefits of a transaction and assign an appropriate tax or subsidy. Coase argues that the government faces costs and benefits just like any other economic agent, so other factors play into its decision-making.


title: Externality

text: However, the most common type of solution is a tacit agreement through the political process. Governments are elected to represent citizens and to strike political compromises between various interests. Normally governments pass laws and regulations to address pollution and other types of environmental harm. These laws and regulations can take the form of "command and control" regulation (such as setting standards, targets, or process requirements), or environmental pricing reform (such as ecotaxes or other Pigovian taxes, tradable pollution permits or the creation of markets for ecological services). The second type of resolution is a purely private agreement between the parties involved.


title: Externality

text: Government intervention might not always be needed. Traditional ways of life may have evolved as ways to deal with external costs and benefits. Alternatively, democratically run communities can agree to deal with these costs and benefits in an amicable way. Externalities can sometimes be resolved by agreement between the parties involved. This resolution may even come about because of the threat of government action.


title: Externality

text: Correction tax, respectively subsidy, means essentially any mechanism that increases, respectively decreases, the costs (and thus price) associated with the activities of an individual or company.


title: Externality

text: The private-sector may sometimes be able to drive society to the socially optimal resolution. Ronald Coase argued that an efficient outcome can sometimes be reached without government intervention. Some take this argument further, and make the political argument that government should restrict its role to facilitating bargaining among the affected groups or individuals and to enforcing any contracts that result.


title: Externality

text: If all of these conditions apply, the private parties can bargain to solve the problem of externalities. The second part of the Coase theorem asserts that, when these conditions hold, whoever holds the property rights, a Pareto efficient outcome will be reached through bargaining.


title: Externality

text: This theorem would not apply to the steel industry case discussed above. For example, with a steel factory that trespasses on the lungs of a large number of individuals with pollution, it is difficult if not impossible for any one person to negotiate with the producer, and there are large transaction costs. Hence the most common approach may be to regulate the firm (by imposing limits on the amount of pollution considered "acceptable") while paying for the regulation and enforcement with taxes. The case of the vaccinations would also not satisfy the requirements of the Coase theorem. Since the potential external beneficiaries of vaccination are the people themselves, the people would have to self-organize to pay each other to be vaccinated. But such an organization that involves the entire populace would be indistinguishable from government action.


title: Externality

text: In some cases, the Coase theorem is relevant. For example, if a logger is planning to clear-cut a forest in a way that has a negative impact on a nearby resort, the resort-owner and the logger could, in theory, get together to agree to a deal. For example, the resort-owner could pay the logger not to clear-cut – or could buy the forest. The most problematic situation, from Coase's perspective, occurs when the forest literally does not belong to anyone, or in any example in which there are not well-defined and enforceable property rights; the question of "who" owns the forest is not important, as any specific owner will have an interest in coming to an agreement with the resort owner (if such an agreement is mutually beneficial).


title: Externality

text: However, the Coase theorem is difficult to implement because Coase does not offer a negotiation method. Moreover, Coasian solutions are unlikely to be reached due to the possibility of running into the assignment problem, the holdout problem, the free-rider problem, or transaction costs. Additionally, firms could potentially bribe each other since there is little to no government interaction under the Coase theorem. For example, if one oil firm has a high pollution rate and its neighboring firm is bothered by the pollution, then the latter firm may move depending on incentives. Thus, if the oil firm were to bribe the second firm, the first oil firm would suffer no negative consequences because the government would not know about the bribing.


title: Externality

text: In a dynamic setup, Rosenkranz and Schmitz (2007) have shown that the impossibility to rule out Coasean bargaining tomorrow may actually justify Pigouvian intervention today. To see this, note that unrestrained bargaining in the future may lead to an underinvestment problem (the so-called hold-up problem). Specifically, when investments are relationship-specific and non-contractible, then insufficient investments will be made when it is anticipated that parts of the investments’ returns will go to the trading partner in future negotiations (see Hart and Moore, 1988). Hence, Pigouvian taxation can be welfare-improving precisely because Coasean bargaining will take place in the future. Antràs and Staiger (2012) make a related point in the context of international trade.


title: Externality

text: Kenneth Arrow suggests another private solution to the externality problem. He believes setting up a market for the externality is the answer. For example, suppose a firm produces pollution that harms another firm. A competitive market for the right to pollute may allow for an efficient outcome. Firms could bid the price they are willing to pay for the amount they want to pollute, and then have the right to pollute that amount without penalty. This would allow firms to pollute at the amount where the marginal cost of polluting equals the marginal benefit of another unit of pollution, thus leading to efficiency.


title: Externality

text: Frank Knight also argued against government intervention as the solution to externalities. He proposed that externalities could be internalized with privatization of the relevant markets. He uses the example of road congestion to make his point. Congestion could be solved through the taxation of public roads. Knight shows that government intervention is unnecessary if roads were privately owned instead. If roads were privately owned, their owners could set tolls that would reduce traffic and thus congestion to an efficient level. This argument forms the basis of the traffic equilibrium. This argument supposes that two points are connected by two different highways. One highway is in poor condition, but is wide enough to fit all traffic that desires to use it. The other is a much better road, but has limited capacity. Knight argues that, if a large number of vehicles operate between the two destinations and have freedom to choose between the routes, they will distribute themselves in proportions such that the cost per unit of transportation will be the same for every truck on both highways. This is true because as more trucks use the narrow road, congestion develops and as congestion increases it becomes equally profitable to use the poorer highway. This solves the externality issue without requiring any government tax or regulations.


title: Externality

text: The negative effect of carbon emissions and other greenhouse gases produced in production exacerbate the numerous environmental and human impacts of anthropogenic climate change. These negative effects are not reflected in the cost of producing, nor in the market price of the final goods. There are many public and private solutions proposed to combat this externality


title: Externality

text: An emissions fee, or carbon tax, is a tax levied on each unit of pollution produced in the production of a good or service. The tax incentivised producers to either lower their production levels or to undertake abatement activities that reduce emissions by switching to cleaner technology or inputs.


title: Externality

text: The cap-and-trade system enables the efficient level of pollution (determined by the government) to be achieved by setting a total quantity of emissions and issuing tradable permits to polluting firms, allowing them to pollute a certain share of the permissible level. Permits will be traded from firms that have low abatement costs to firms with higher abatement costs and therefore the system is both cost-effective and cost-efficient. The cap and trade system has some practical advantages over an emissions fee such as the fact that:


title: Externality

text: 2. If firms are profit maximizing, they will utilize cost-minimizing technology to attain the standard which is efficient for individual firms and provides incentives to the research and development market to innovate.


title: Externality

text: 3. The market price of pollution rights would keep pace with the price level while the economy experiences inflation.


title: Externality

text: The emissions fee and cap and trade systems are both incentive-based approaches to solving a negative externality problem. They provide polluters with market incentives by increasing the opportunity cost of polluting, thus forcing them to internalize the externality by making them take the marginal external damages of their production into account.


title: Externality

text: Command-and-control regulations act as an alternative to the incentive-based approach. They require a set quantity of pollution reduction and can take the form of either a technology standard or a performance standard. A technology standard requires pollution producing firms to use specified technology. While it may reduce the pollution, it is not cost-effective and stifles innovation by incentivising research and development for technology that would work better than the mandated one. Performance standards set emissions goals for each polluting firm. The free choice of the firm to determine how to reach the desired emissions level makes this option slightly more efficient than the technology standard, however, it is not as cost-effective as the cap-and-trade system since the burden of emissions reduction cannot be shifted to firms with lower abatement.


title: Externality

text: A 2020 scientific analysis of external climate costs of foods indicates that external greenhouse gas costs are typically highest for animal-based products – conventional and organic to about the same extent within that ecosystem-subdomain – followed by conventional dairy products and lowest for organic plant-based foods and concludes that contemporary monetary evaluations are "inadequate" and that policy-making that lead to reductions of these costs to be possible, appropriate and urgent.<ref name="10.1038/s41467-020-19474-6"> Available under CC BY 4.0.</ref>


title: Externality

text: Ecological economics criticizes the concept of externality because there is not enough system thinking and integration of different sciences in the concept.


title: Externality

text: Ecological economics is founded upon the view that the neoclassical economics (NCE) assumption that environmental and community costs and benefits are mutually cancelling "externalities" is not warranted. Joan Martinez Alier, for instance shows that the bulk of consumers are automatically excluded from having an impact upon the prices of commodities, as these consumers are future generations who have not been born yet. The assumptions behind future discounting, which assume that future goods will be cheaper than present goods, has been criticized by Fred Pearce and by the Stern Report (although the Stern report itself does employ discounting and has been criticized for this and other reasons by ecological economists such as Clive Spash).


title: Externality

text: Concerning these externalities, some, like the eco-businessman Paul Hawken, argue an orthodox economic line that the only reason why goods produced unsustainably are usually cheaper than goods produced sustainably is due to a hidden subsidy, paid by the non-monetized human environment, community or future generations. These arguments are developed further by Hawken, Amory and Hunter Lovins to promote their vision of an environmental capitalist utopia in "".


title: Externality

text: In contrast, ecological economists, like Joan Martinez-Alier, appeal to a different line of reasoning. Rather than assuming some (new) form of capitalism is the best way forward, an older ecological economic critique questions the very idea of internalizing externalities as providing some corrective to the current system. The work by Karl William Kapp argues that the concept of "externality" is a misnomer. In fact the modern business enterprise operates on the basis of shifting costs onto others as normal practice to make profits. Charles Eisenstein has argued that this method of privatising profits while socialising the costs through externalities, passing the costs to the community, to the natural environment or to future generations is inherently destructive. Social ecological economist Clive Spash argues that externality theory fallaciously assumes environmental and social problems are minor aberrations in an otherwise perfectly functioning efficient economic system. Internalizing the odd externality does nothing to address the structural systemic problem and fails to recognize the all pervasive nature of these supposed 'externalities'. This is precisely why heterodox economists argue for a heterodox theory of social costs to effectively prevent the problem through the precautionary principle.


title: Guardian Angels

text: The Guardian Angels is a non-profit international volunteer organization with the goal of unarmed crime prevention. The Guardian Angels organization was founded on February 13, 1979, in New York City by Curtis Sliwa. It later spread to over 130 cities and 13 countries worldwide.


title: Guardian Angels

text: Sliwa originally created the organization to combat widespread violence and crime on the New York City Subway system. The organization originally trained members to make citizen's arrests for violent crimes. The organization patrols the streets and neighborhoods without involving police or any outside authority, but also provides educational programs for schools and businesses.


title: Guardian Angels

text: In the beginning, New York City Mayor Ed Koch publicly opposed the group. Over the years, the controversy has died down and as citizen involvement and outreach has increased, there has been less public opposition to the group by administration officials. Ed Koch later reversed his stance on the organization, and former New York City Mayors Rudy Giuliani and Michael Bloomberg have publicly supported the group.


title: Guardian Angels

text: The original and main Guardian Angels activity is "safety patrol" in which members walk the streets or ride transit. Guardian Angels must be in uniform to represent the organization. They can be identified by their red berets and red jackets or white T-shirts with the red Guardian Angels logo of an eye inside a pyramid on a winged shield.


title: Guardian Angels

text: Chapters operate similar to franchise networks supporting one another regionally under standard rules, regulations, and training. The Guardian Angels states that it is an equal opportunity organization that encourages diversity.


title: Guardian Angels

text: The organization accepts volunteers who do not have a recent or serious criminal record and are not members of a gang or racial-hate group. In order to join the safety patrol program, members must be at least 16 years old; youth programs for younger applicants are offered. Safety Patrol members are prohibited from carrying weapons and are physically searched by each other before patrolling. They are trained in first aid and CPR, law, conflict resolution, communication, and basic martial arts. Members are paired up and follow the directions of a Patrol Leader. If their own or other citizens' lives or health are endangered, they are allowed to do whatever is lawful and necessary.


title: Guardian Angels

text: The Guardian Angels have also begun to include youth programs, teacher programs, disaster response, an Internet safety program called the CyberAngels, and self-defense courses, as well as community outreach addressing issues beyond crime.


title: Guardian Angels

text: The Guardian Angels do not demand or ask for money on the subway. In the 1980s when they were often seen on the subways, imitators would dress in clothing similar to the Guardian Angels' characteristic dress (including red berets), impersonate them, and solicit money.


title: Guardian Angels

text: CyberAngels was founded in 1995 by Colin "Gabriel" Hatcher as an online "neighborhood watch." Originally the group monitored chat rooms directly with the intent of apprehending sexual predators. Later the group took what it had learned and changed its focus to educating police, schools, and families about online abuse and cyber crime. In 1998, CyberAngels received a Presidential Service Award. MacSupport.com founder Tony Ricciardi was an early member of the group.


title: Guardian Angels

text: In 2009, at the Angels' 30th-anniversary celebration held in New York City, and then again in 2010 at the World Conference held in San Francisco, founder Curtis Sliwa announced the plan to develop Internet-based training for the organization.


title: Guardian Angels

text: One of the primary goals of the training is to reduce the liability potential for members and for the organization during their physical interventions of crime deterrence.


title: Guardian Angels

text: At the international conference held in Chicago Il, the Raven Method developed by member Fernan Vargas was adopted as the official defensive tactics training system for the organization. This change was signed into effect by Founder Curtis Sliwa, National Director Miguel Fuentes and International Director Keiji Oda.


title: Guardian Angels

text: Outside of New York City, the Guardian Angels first established chapters in Washington, D.C., New Orleans, Los Angeles, San Diego, San Francisco, Fresno, Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, Denver, London, Toronto, Dallas, Tokyo, Houston, Cape Town, Auckland, Savannah, Seattle, and York. Subsequently, the organization established chapters in smaller cities, such as the cities of Springfield and Brockton, Massachusetts; Sacramento and Stockton, California; and Portland, Maine. In May 2011, a chapter was organized in Indianapolis. The Los Angeles, York, Pennsylvania and Sacramento Chapters worked with official law enforcement officers and agencies.


title: Guardian Angels

text: The Tampa Bay region of Florida has always been an active area within the group's history. There have been two chapters serving the Tampa Bay area since the group was founded. The first Tampa chapter was established in 1984 and lasted until 1992. A second chapter was established in 1999. In 2017, when the Seminole Heights serial killer was active, the Tampa Bay chapter patrolled the streets of the Seminole Heights neighborhood to help relieve public fear.


title: Guardian Angels

text: The Guardian Angels have been active in Orlando, Florida, due to the increase in murder and crime rates.


title: Guardian Angels

text: In 2016, the Washington, DC chapter announced they would increase their presence on the DC Metro System following an increase in violent crime.


title: Guardian Angels

text: A Guardian Angels chapter actively patrolled in Sydney in the early nineties but disbanded after a short time.


title: Guardian Angels

text: A chapter was formed in Canberra, the capital city of Australia, in 2008, but has yet to begin patrolling. Some school and internet-safety programs have been conducted. The chapter was closed.


title: Guardian Angels

text: In 2017 a branch formed in the city of Logan in Queensland. They started patrolling local parks but have since been patrolling the streets and other public places.


title: Guardian Angels

text: A Toronto chapter was originally formed in 1982 and ran until 1984. A smaller chapter ran briefly in the Parkdale area of Toronto in 1992–1993 but disbanded. The 2005 Boxing Day shooting resulted in the death of teenager Jane Creba on a busy downtown street, and provoked renewed attention to law-and-order issues in Canada, and Curtis Sliwa stated that he had been contacted by many Torontonians interested in having a local chapter. On July 13, 2006, a new chapter of the Guardian Angels Canada formed in Toronto. However, both mayor David Miller and police chief Bill Blair stated they were not interested in trying what had not worked twice before. When Sliwa arrived with three other Angels, Miller declined to meet with them, stating that police work was best left to the police. Despite the opposition of the mayor, community groups, and the police chief, the Toronto Chapter moved ahead. 2006 mayoral candidate Jane Pitfield expressed her support for the Guardian Angels as did former television anchor Peter Kent and former professional boxer (and now radio talk show host) Spider Jones. Toronto's first group of Guardian Angels hit the streets Thursday, July 13 for their inaugural patrol in the city's downtown core. The group's official launch in Toronto came just two days after members were forced to move their graduation ceremony from a seniors residence on Dundas Street.


title: Guardian Angels

text: A Vancouver chapter was in operation as of November 2006. There was a chapter there in the early 1980s. Some of the alumni from that group are assisting with the new chapter.


title: Guardian Angels

text: An attempt to organize a chapter in Ottawa failed after the police and city refused to cooperate plus a negative reaction and lack of interest from the majority of its population.


title: Guardian Angels

text: A Halifax chapter is in operation as of May 2008. Recent outbreaks of violent crime in Halifax had prompted citizens to contact the Guardian Angels, urging them to start a chapter.


title: Guardian Angels

text: In 1993 local Guardian Angels have been founded in several German cities like Berlin and Hamburg to patrol the local S-Bahn and U-Bahn facilities. Currently the Guardian Angels are still active in Hanover and have been renamed to "Schutzengel", which is the German translation of the English denomination.


title: Guardian Angels

text: A local organization of the Guardian Angels was formed in Japan in 1996. The Guardian Angels Japan has chapters in most of the major cities and is second only to America in membership and activities. Keiji Oda, the founder and president of the Guardian Angels Japan, joined the Boston and New York City chapters in the 1980s. The Guardian Angels concept faced opposition in Japan, but Oda succeeded in convincing Japanese officials that the organization would be run by Japanese members for the Japanese people, and the principles of the organization were not just American but universal. Official acceptance culminated with a meeting with the Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi in 2005. The Guardian Angels were the first community organization in Japan to be awarded non-profit status.


title: Guardian Angels

text: In January 2006, the Guardian Angels opened its New Zealand Headquarters in Henderson, a suburb of West Auckland, New Zealand. The New Zealand National Director was Andy "Chieftain" Cawston.


title: Guardian Angels

text: New Zealand's inaugural Guardian Angels Patrol was held on January 13, 2006. The Guardian Angels were active in South Auckland for a short while.


title: Guardian Angels

text: On August 30, 2007, Curtis Sliwa graduated the Auckland CBD Chapter, led by Anna "Kimodo" Cruse. This Chapter's first official Patrol was on the following evening.


title: Guardian Angels

text: Members of the Wellington Chapter held their inaugural training and orientation Patrol on October 6, 2006, in the Auckland CBD.


title: Guardian Angels

text: Within New Zealand, The International Alliance of Guardian Angels was recognized and registered as a Charitable Trust for tax purposes. Their headquarters were in the Waitakere Community Center, Ratanui Street, Henderson. In 2016 the New Zealand chapters disbanded.


title: Guardian Angels

text: Cybertanod, Role Model Cop, and the Barangay PeaceKeeping Action Team (BPAT) program of The Philippine National Police are some of the contributions of The Guardian Angels Philippines Chapter in Police organization. Joint police programs of the Guardian Angels resulted in national awards for officers and local police stations where the Guardian Angels works. The chapter covered Southern Mindanao and recently expanded into Northern Luzon. Today, the Philippines Chapter aims to spread the program in the Southeast Asia region and is currently developing an independent Citizen Police Organization concept for the region. The local chapter presently gathers support to host the 1st Joint Police and Guardian Angels Annual International Citizen Safety Patrol as its beyond border initiatives on Guardian Angels violence prevention — Global Public Safety awareness campaign. The effort in Southeast Asia is under the watch of Mike Zarate as National Director for Philippines.


title: Guardian Angels

text: The Guardian Angels South African Chapter was started by Carl Viljoen in 2004 in Cape Town. Other chapters are in Kuilsrivier in the Western Cape and Potchefstroom, North West Province.


title: Guardian Angels

text: In London, the Guardian Angels are an independent, non-profit, non-political voluntary organization whose main purpose is to tackle violent crime, act as positive role models for young people, and serve communities in the UK, since its formation on 14 May 1989. By 2007 their main numbers had dwindled to almost non-existent due to politics and public opinion. In the United Kingdom, the law requires that people use only "reasonable force" as appropriate to the situation, which leads Guardian Angel training to focus on using the minimum possible force, and to only use force to prevent a dangerous situation from escalating. All violent crimes are reported to the police, and intervention leading to citizens' arrests (legal in Britain) or use of force is only employed in extreme cases. Guardian Angels in the UK are unarmed but all fully trained in self defence, first aid and law for personal and community protection.


title: Guardian Angels

text: The Manchester Chapter was established around 1991 and ceased operating in 1996. The Chapter was run by Ian "Mach One" McMahon and then Amanda "Lynx" Quinn. Steve "Shuriken" Smith was the fundraising coordinator and dealt with the final patrols and oversaw the closing of the headquarters.


title: Guardian Angels

text: In 1992, Guardian Angels founder Curtis Sliwa issued a public apology for faking several subway rescues in the 1980s in order to get publicity for the group.


title: Guardian Angels

text: In October 2020, various individuals running for the New York City Council expressed concerns that the presence of the Guardian Angels might bring tensions to their neighborhoods.


title: Guardian Angels

text: In February 2021, Patrick Bobilin, a candidate for the New York State Assembly, posted a video to Twitter showing members of the Guardian Angels allegedly harassing and attacking protesters, including Bobilin, as they returned from a Stonewall March. Bobilin accused the Guardian Angels of being a "police-sanctioned gang", and implored city government to "break [the gang] up". The video received nearly 140,000 views and coverage in outlets including the "New York Post", generating online criticism towards the Guardian Angels. Curtis Sliwa later announced that one of the Guardian Angels seen kicking Bobilin in the video had resigned.


title: Glucagon

text: Glucagon is a peptide hormone, produced by alpha cells of the pancreas. It raises concentration of glucose and fatty acids in the bloodstream, and is considered to be the main catabolic hormone of the body. It is also used as a medication to treat a number of health conditions. Its effect is opposite to that of insulin, which lowers extracellular glucose. It is produced from proglucagon, encoded by the "GCG" gene.


title: Glucagon

text: The pancreas releases glucagon when the amount of glucose in the bloodstream is too low. Glucagon causes the liver to engage in glycogenolysis: converting stored glycogen into glucose, which is released into the bloodstream. High blood-glucose levels, on the other hand, stimulate the release of insulin. Insulin allows glucose to be taken up and used by insulin-dependent tissues. Thus, glucagon and insulin are part of a feedback system that keeps blood glucose levels stable. Glucagon increases energy expenditure and is elevated under conditions of stress. Glucagon belongs to the secretin family of hormones.


title: Glucagon

text: Glucagon is a 29-amino acid polypeptide. Its primary structure in humans is: NH-His-Ser-Gln-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Asp-Tyr-Ser-Lys-Tyr-Leu-Asp-Ser-Arg-Arg-Ala-Gln-Asp-Phe-Val-Gln-Trp-Leu-Met-Asn-Thr-COOH (HSQGTFTSDYSKYLDSRRAQDFVQWLMNT).


title: Glucagon

text: The hormone is synthesized and secreted from alpha cells (α-cells) of the islets of Langerhans, which are located in the endocrine portion of the pancreas. Glucagon is produced from the preproglucagon gene "Gcg". Preproglucagon first has its signal peptide removed by signal peptidase, forming the 160-amino acid protein proglucagon. Proglucagon is then cleaved by proprotein convertase 2 to glucagon (amino acids 33-61) in pancreatic islet α cells. In intestinal L cells, proglucagon is cleaved to the alternate products glicentin (1–69), glicentin-related pancreatic polypeptide (1–30), oxyntomodulin (33–69), glucagon-like peptide 1 (72–107 or 108), and glucagon-like peptide 2 (126–158).


title: Glucagon

text: In rodents, the alpha cells are located in the outer rim of the islet. Human islet structure is much less segregated, and alpha cells are distributed throughout the islet in close proximity to beta cells. Glucagon is also produced by alpha cells in the stomach.


title: Glucagon

text: Recent research has demonstrated that glucagon production may also take place outside the pancreas, with the gut being the most likely site of extrapancreatic glucagon synthesis.


title: Glucagon

text: Production, which is otherwise freerunning, is suppressed/regulated by amylin, a peptide hormone co-secreted with insulin from the pancreatic β cells. As plasma glucose levels recede, the subsequent reduction in amylin secretion alleviates its suppression of the α cells, allowing for glucagon secretion.


title: Glucagon

text: Glucagon generally elevates the concentration of glucose in the blood by promoting gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis. Glucagon also decreases fatty acid synthesis in adipose tissue and the liver, as well as promoting lipolysis in these tissues, which causes them to release fatty acids into circulation where they can be catabolised to generate energy in tissues such as skeletal muscle when required.


title: Glucagon

text: Glucose is stored in the liver in the form of the polysaccharide glycogen, which is a glucan (a polymer made up of glucose molecules). Liver cells (hepatocytes) have glucagon receptors. When glucagon binds to the glucagon receptors, the liver cells convert the glycogen into individual glucose molecules and release them into the bloodstream, in a process known as glycogenolysis. As these stores become depleted, glucagon then encourages the liver and kidney to synthesize additional glucose by gluconeogenesis. Glucagon turns off glycolysis in the liver, causing glycolytic intermediates to be shuttled to gluconeogenesis.


title: Glucagon

text: Glucagon also regulates the rate of glucose production through lipolysis. Glucagon induces lipolysis in humans under conditions of insulin suppression (such as diabetes mellitus type 1).


title: Glucagon

text: Glucagon production appears to be dependent on the central nervous system through pathways yet to be defined. In invertebrate animals, eyestalk removal has been reported to affect glucagon production. Excising the eyestalk in young crayfish produces glucagon-induced hyperglycemia.


title: Glucagon

text: Glucagon binds to the glucagon receptor, a G protein-coupled receptor, located in the plasma membrane of the cell. The conformation change in the receptor activates G proteins, a heterotrimeric protein with α, β, and γ subunits. When the G protein interacts with the receptor, it undergoes a conformational change that results in the replacement of the GDP molecule that was bound to the α subunit with a GTP molecule. This substitution results in the releasing of the α subunit from the β and γ subunits. The alpha subunit specifically activates the next enzyme in the cascade, adenylate cyclase.


title: Glucagon

text: Adenylate cyclase manufactures cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP or cAMP), which activates protein kinase A (cAMP-dependent protein kinase). This enzyme, in turn, activates phosphorylase kinase, which then phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylase b (PYG b), converting it into the active form called phosphorylase a (PYG a). Phosphorylase a is the enzyme responsible for the release of glucose 1-phosphate from glycogen polymers.


title: Glucagon

text: An example of the pathway would be when glucagon binds to a transmembrane protein. The transmembrane proteins interacts with Gɑβ𝛾. Gɑ separates from Gβ𝛾 and interacts with the transmembrane protein adenylyl cyclase. Adenylyl cyclase catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cAMP. cAMP binds to protein kinase A, and the complex phosphorylates phosphorylase kinase. Phosphorylated phosphorylase kinase phosphorylates phosphorylase. Phosphorylated phosphorylase clips glucose units from glycogen as glucose 1-phosphate.


title: Glucagon

text: Additionally, the coordinated control of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver is adjusted by the phosphorylation state of the enzymes that catalyze the formation of a potent activator of glycolysis called fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. The enzyme protein kinase A (PKA) that was stimulated by the cascade initiated by glucagon will also phosphorylate a single serine residue of the bifunctional polypeptide chain containing both the enzymes fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase and phosphofructokinase-2. This covalent phosphorylation initiated by glucagon activates the former and inhibits the latter. This regulates the reaction catalyzing fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (a potent activator of phosphofructokinase-1, the enzyme that is the primary regulatory step of glycolysis) by slowing the rate of its formation, thereby inhibiting the flux of the glycolysis pathway and allowing gluconeogenesis to predominate. This process is reversible in the absence of glucagon (and thus, the presence of insulin).


title: Glucagon

text: Abnormally elevated levels of glucagon may be caused by pancreatic tumors, such as glucagonoma, symptoms of which include necrolytic migratory erythema, reduced amino acids, and hyperglycemia. It may occur alone or in the context of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1.


title: Glucagon

text: Elevated glucagon is the main contributor to hyperglycemic ketoacidosis in undiagnosed or poorly treated type 1 diabetes. As the beta cells cease to function, insulin and pancreatic GABA are no longer present to suppress the freerunning output of glucagon. As a result, glucagon is released from the alpha cells at a maximum, causing a rapid breakdown of glycogen to glucose and fast ketogenesis . It was found that a subset of adults with type 1 diabetes took 4 times longer on average to approach ketoacidosis when given somatostatin (inhibits glucagon production) with no insulin. Inhibiting glucagon has been a popular idea of diabetes treatment, however, some have warned that doing so will give rise to brittle diabetes in patients with adequately stable blood glucose.


title: Glucagon

text: The absence of alpha cells (and hence glucagon) is thought to be one of the main influences in the extreme volatility of blood glucose in the setting of a total pancreatectomy.


title: Glucagon

text: In the early 1920s, several groups noted that pancreatic extracts injected into diabetic animals would result in a brief increase in blood sugar prior to the insulin-driven decrease in blood sugar. In 1922, C. Kimball and John R. Murlin identified a component of pancreatic extracts responsible for this blood sugar increase, terming it "glucagon", a portmanteau of "glucose agonist". In the 1950s, scientists at Eli Lilly isolated pure glucagon, crystallized it, and determined its amino acid sequence. This led to the development of the first radioimmunoassay for detecting glucagon, described by Roger Unger's group in 1959.


title: Glucagon

text: A more complete understanding of its role in physiology and disease was not established until the 1970s, when a specific radioimmunoassay was developed.


title: PogChamp

text: PogChamp is an emote used on the streaming platform Twitch intended to express excitement, intrigue, joy or shock. The image used to show the streamer Ryan "Gootecks" Gutierrez with a surprised or shocked expression. The original emoticon originates from a video uploaded to YouTube on November 26, 2010, which displays behind-the-scenes footage posted on Gutierrez's YouTube channel "Cross Counter TV". The original emote was added to Twitch's pool of global emotes in 2012, and removed by Twitch on January 6, 2021, following comments from Gutierrez on his Twitter page supporting civil unrest during the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol. Twitch responded to calls to bring the emote back by adding a unique face every 24 hours, each using the same or similar expression, and eventually allowed viewers to vote on one of these faces to become the permanent replacement during what they called "The PogChampening". Users voted for an image of a komodo dragon.


title: PogChamp

text: Ryan Gutierrez was initially reluctant to allow Twitch to use his likeness for the original PogChamp emote, but soon made a deal to allow its use for between US$50,000 and US$100,000 and undisclosed additional concessions.


title: PogChamp

text: The emote, like others on Twitch, is displayed at a very small size of 56 by 56 pixels. "PC Gamer" described the PogChamp emote as "one of the most ubiquitous emotes in Twitch history [...] used to react to decisive moments", while "Kotaku" stated it "[indicated] surprise and hype". CNN describes the use of PogChamp as a gamer's expression for excitement, expanding the use of the PogChamp emote to the word PogChamp and its variants "Pog" and "Poggers" to describe "particularly awesome" moments. Emotes in general have been reported by CNN to be popularly used "ad nauseum " during moments while gamer activity is livestreamed. Given the long history of the use of the PogChamp emote and its variants, Twitch acknowledges the impact of PogChamp's role in shaping the culture of its streaming services.


title: PogChamp

text: The term "PogChamp" refers to a 2011 promotional video called "Pogs Championship" by Gutierrez, in which he wins a game of Pogs.


title: PogChamp

text: PogChamp was the third-most-used emote on the platform. It was used a total of 813,916,297 times from January 9, 2016, until it was removed from Twitch on January 6, 2021.


title: PogChamp

text: Some Twitch users in 2020 petitioned for Twitch to remove Ryan Gutierrez as the face of the PogChamp emote, following numerous claims of Gutierrez promoting far-right conspiracies, such as anti-vaccination conspiracies, and spreading misinformation and denial of COVID-19.


title: PogChamp

text: On January 6, 2021, Twitch announced that they would remove the original PogChamp emote following comments from Gutierrez on his Twitter page supporting civil unrest leading to the death of a protester during the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol. Gutierrez responded to the removal of the original PogChamp critically several weeks after the removal date, stating rhetorically at social media companies sifting through his posts to allow them to judge any negative intent about himself as a person. "They're looking for people that are trying to incite violence, but that's not what they found on my account. [...] So, why is it then, that Twitch seems to have decision making super powers? Because in less than three hours from when I uploaded the video, they made the decision to remove PogChamp as a global emote."


title: PogChamp

text: FrankerFaceZ, a popular web browser extension for Twitch featuring custom emotes, took the decision to ban all user-upload instances and variations of Gutierrez. Another similar extension named BTTV (Better Twitch TV) announced that their platform would continue hosting PogChamp-related emotes, allowing broadcasters to use their own discretion of whether they would like the emote in their chats.


title: PogChamp

text: "The Verge" describes the removal of PogChamp as part of Twitch's move towards becoming more mainstream by detaching themselves from hateful behavior in the gaming community.


title: PogChamp

text: Twitch later announced that they would upload a new version of the PogChamp face under the same title every 24 hours, with each replacing the last. Instead of using Ryan Gutierrez's face, a different streamer was used as the face of the PogChamp emote each 24 hours, starting from January 8, 2021. Twitch claimed that changing the PogChamp emote every 24 hours would prevent exclusive association with a single individual; according to "Kotaku", this would help make sure that "the Eye Of Sauron Of Harassing Dickheads at least has to glance around a lot instead of focusing its fury in one place". Although members of the Twitch community praised the diverse inclusion of various streamers, specifically those from minorities, some concern was raised by members of minority communities over Twitch doing too little to protect streamers from harassment.


title: PogChamp

text: The first two streamers featured as PogChamp emotes were UnRooolie and UmiNoKaiju, who were Twitch Ambassadors in 2019 and 2018, respectively. Other faces included Gaules, DEERE, LittleSiha, Kahlief, Myth, and Granny, and the last streamer featured was SteveInSpawn. The first instance of the PogChamp emote not using a living person reused an existing Twitch emote, "KomodoHype", a depiction of a komodo dragon with a similar facial expression to the PogChamp emote. This resulted in fewer negative reactions. KomodoHype, which was previously less popular than PogChamp, has seen a significant increase in usage since the removal of the original emote.


title: PogChamp

text: On February 11, 2021, Twitch announced a poll that would take place the following day titled "The PogChampening", in which Twitch users would be able to vote for a new permanent PogChamp emote. There were two poll options: the face of American Twitch livestreamer UmiNoKaiju, and the existing KomodoHype emote. KomodoHype won with 81% of the votes, and PogChamp was permanently replaced with it. The original KomodoHype emote was kept, which left two different emotes with different names and duplicate images.


title: PogChamp

text: The temporary addition of "Pokémon" streamer Reversal as the face of PogChamp was described as a "positive experience" overall.


title: PogChamp

text: Omega "Critical Bard" Jones described his experience of being the face for PogChamp for a day as initially positive, though he later received comments after certain viewers who were unsatisfied that he "didn't look like PogChamp". He stated that the Twitch community "[doesn't] even care about PogChamp as a person" and rather prefers to keep "what they consider to be tradition", after a response to a viewer comment about white supremacy. What Jones saw as the Twitch community's reluctance to change and embrace diversity concerned him, especially given the lack of sufficient protection against "toxic elements" of the Twitch community applied by combinations of trolling, racism, and death threats.


title: PogChamp

text: Drag queen Deere experienced similar trolling incidents due to negative reception posted on Twitter and Reddit about her depiction of the PogChamp emote, although with simultaneous support for her too.


title: PogChamp

text: Andy Chalk of "PC Gamer" described Twitch's protection against harassment as insufficient, while Nick D'Orazio of InvenGlobal claimed that the regular PogChamp face changes may have "inadvertently [opened] up a whole new problem that sounds like a PR nightmare".


title: Gastrocnemius muscle

text: The gastrocnemius muscle (plural "gastrocnemii") is a superficial two-headed muscle that is in the back part of the lower leg of humans. It runs from its two heads just above the knee to the heel, a three joint muscle (knee, ankle and subtalar joints). The muscle is named via Latin, from Greek γαστήρ ("gaster") 'belly' or 'stomach' and κνήμη ("knḗmē") 'leg', meaning 'stomach of the leg' (referring to the bulging shape of the calf).