title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: Meinhof's last appearance in court was on 4 May 1976, in a hearing the defendants had requested in order to provide evidence about the participation of West Germany in the Vietnam War. This, they claimed, was the cause of their radicalisation, and was their basis for demanding the status of prisoners of war (see above). According to Jutta Ditfurth, the last days before Meinhof's death went smoothly. The prisoners (including Meinhof) spent their meeting time (30 minutes, twice per day) discussing various philosophers and political issues. One of the guards noted that they were laughing.


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: According to Meinhof's sister, Wienke Zitzlaff, during her last visit to the prison, Meinhof had told her: "You can stand up and fight only while you are alive. If they say I committed suicide, be sure that it was a murder."


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: In early May, attorney contacted his client (Meinhof). They were hopeful about the possibilities that the new strategy seemed to offer. They also discussed whether Meinhof could testify as a witness at the International Law Conference in Geneva where a delegation of lawyers planned to denounce the measure of detention in solitary confinement. Finally, Meinhof was planning to reveal main witness Gerhard Müller's role in the trial. Federal prosecutors had indicted the four defendants for the murder of a policeman , who was shot by Müller himself.


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: During the press conference called by defense attorneys, one of Meinhof's lawyers, Michael Oberwinder, stated that it was less than a week before Meinhof's death that they had a very involved conversation. He claimed that there was not the least sign of depression or lack of interest on her part and that it was an animated discussion in the context of which Meinhof explained the group's point of view.


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: Meinhof's last visitor was Giovanni Capelli, lawyer of the Red Brigades. He conveyed the desire of the Red Brigades to contact her and described the conditions of detention in Italy where prisoners were not held in isolation (except Renato Curcio) and were politically active. They also discussed the establishment of an international committee of lawyers to defend the RAF. Capelli later said that Meinhof gave him the impression of "a vivid, lifelike woman", "open to all questions". They arranged to meet again soon. "She behaved like a woman who wanted to live".


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: At 9.20 a.m. on 9 May, the Ministry of Justice of Baden-Württemberg announced that Meinhof had committed suicide, although the initial post-mortem body examination by Professor Joachim Rauschke did not begin until at least 9:25 a.m. At 9:34 a.m. the German news agency (dpa) announced "Suicide by hanging".. Two hours later Professor Rauschke together with performed the official autopsy in the general hospital of Stuttgart from 11:45 a.m. until 12:45 p.m., whose outcome was "death by hanging beyond doubt". According to Ditfurth the hasty press releases that followed Meinhof's death, were similar to those of April 1972, when it was incorrectly broadcast that Meinhof had committed suicide.. In the following days, the newspapers reported in detail what were supposed to be Meinhof's thoughts, like: "she realised her mistake," "she had become aware of the futility," and that she "resigned to death".


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: There was a concern among Meinhof supporters about the forensic surgeons chosen by the state to perform the autopsy. Mallach (NSDAP Member No. 9154986) had been a member of the SS. He served in World War II as corporal in a Panzer division. In 1977, he made (without approval) and kept for a long time the death masks of Baader, Ensslin, and Raspe. Professor Rauschke was the one who also performed the autopsy of Siegfried Hausner one year earlier and was accused by fellows and supporters of the RAF for ignoring the injuries to Hausner's head, so as to cover up the true cause of his death.


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: On 11 May, a second autopsy was performed on demand of Wienke Zitzlaff by Dr. Werner Janssen and Dr. Jürgen Schröder, even though the brain, a lot of critical organs, and tissue parts had been previously removed from the body. Also, her nails had been cut, so the doctors could not determine clearly if there were traces of struggle. Some examinations could not take place since a critical time had passed. Janssen concluded that the most probable cause of death was "suicide by hanging", however in order to come to a definite conclusion he insisted to be given access to the report of the first autopsy, something that never happened.


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: Finally, on-demand of Meinhof's attorney Klaus Croissant and the International Committee for Political Prisoners, an international investigation commission was created in order to examine the conditions surrounding Meinhof's death. Once more the German authorities refused to give the complete (first) autopsy report to the commission, hindering their investigation. In 1978 the committee published its report, concluding that: "The formal claim that Ulrike Meinhof committed suicide by hanging is unfounded, given the fact that the investigation results reasonably converge to the conclusion that she could not hang herself. Most probably Ulrike Meinhof was already dead before she was hanged and there are warning signs indicating the involvement of a third party regarding her death."


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: The circumstances around Meinhof's death have been disputed by people close to her, including many of Meinhof's relatives, friends, lawyers, and comrades, presenting various arguments. There are inquiries regarding the procedure followed by the authorities, including the autopsy reports and the findings of the international commission. Some of them are:


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: Finally, there is a dispute over the arguments regarding Meinhof's motive. Some of the points usually mentioned are:


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: The book "" (Better angry than sad) by Alois Prinz was intended as a mainly faithful account of Meinhof's life story for adolescents.


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: Meinhof's life has been the subject, to varying degrees of fictionalisation, of several films and stage productions. Treatment in films include Reinhard Hauff's 1986 "Stammheim", an account of the Stammheim trial, Margarethe von Trotta's 1981 "Marianne and Juliane" and Uli Edel's 2008 film "The Baader Meinhof Complex". Stage treatments include the 1990 opera "Ulrike Meinhof" by Johann Kresnik, the 1993 play "Leviathan" by Dea Loher, the 2005 play "La extraordinaria muerte de Ulrike M." by Spanish playwright Carlos Be and the 2006 play "" by Austrian playwright Elfriede Jelinek. The 1981 French movie "Birgitt Haas Must Be Killed" is inspired by Meinhof's death.


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: The 2010 feature documentary "Children of the Revolution" tells Meinhof's story from the perspective of her daughter, journalist and historian Bettina Röhl.


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: "Subtopia", a novel published in 2005 by Australian author and academic A.L. McCann, is partially set in Berlin and contains a character who is obsessed with Meinhof and another who claims to have attended her funeral.


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: The 2013 book "Revolutionary Brain" by Harold Jaffe features a titular section devoted to the brain of Meinhof.


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: The 2018 film "7 Days in Entebbe" about Operation Entebbe mentions Meinhof as motivation for the participation of the Germans in the hijacking, particularly Brigette Kuhlmann. The film suggests Meinhof was a friend of Kuhlmann and Böse and that a mistake Kuhlmann made resulted in her imprisonment and subsequent death.


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: In 1975, the Italian singer-songwriter Claudio Lolli published the song Incubo Numero Zero (Nightmare #0), with the verse "turn off the light, thought Ulrike", and more.


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: The anarcho punk band Chumbawamba's 1990 album, "Slap!" featured an opening and closing track, both named after Meinhof. The first track was entitled "Ulrike" and featured lyrics that directly involve Meinhof as the protagonist and the final track was an instrumental reprise of the first track. and was entitled "Meinhof". The album's liner notes included information and an article relating to the song Ulrike.


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: Electronica act Doris Days created a track entitled "To Ulrike M.", in which there is a passage spoken in German throughout the song, presumably an archived audio file from Meinhof herself. This track has since been remixed by other electronica acts like Zero 7, Kruder & Dorfmeister, and The Amalgamation of Soundz.


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: The German duo Andreas Ammer and F.M. Einheit released an album in 1996 entitled "Deutsche Krieger", a substantial portion of which consists of audio recordings of and about Meinhof.


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: Der Plan, the electronic music group from Düsseldorf published 2004 the song "Ulrike", as part of the Die Verschwörung album.


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: London-based experimental group Cindytalk has an electronic side-project called Bambule, named after the Meinhof film .


title: Ulrike Meinhof

text: German Neue Deutsche Härte band Rammstein feature Meinhof, played by lead singer Till Lindemann, in the music video to their 2019 song Deutschland.


title: Ali (actor)

text: Ali (born 10 October 1967) is an Indian actor, comedian, and TV presenter who works predominantly in Telugu films and television. He acted in more than 1000 films in Telugu. He is a recipient of two Nandi Awards and two Filmfare Awards South.


title: Ali (actor)

text: Ali was born in Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh, India. His father was a tailor and his mother was a home maker. He has one younger brother named Khayyum, who is also an actor. Ali married Zubeda Sultana in 1994. The couple has two daughters and a son.


title: Ali (actor)

text: Ali came into the movie industry with the help of Jit Mohan Mitra, Rajahmundry's musical company. He debuted in the movie Nindu Noorellu in 1979 under the direction of K. Raghavendra Rao. He went to Chennai when director Bharathi Raja was looking for child actors for his movie ""Seethakoka Chiluka"", and was given a role (he previously played a role in "Nindu Noorellu"). As a child Ali acted in several movies. When he was too old to be a child actor he struggled to get roles and later became a comedian in Tollywood.


title: Ali (actor)

text: Director S. V. Krishna Reddy gave him comic roles in his movies, creating new roles for him. Ali developed his own style, which was popularly known as "Chaata". Ali acted in the 2010 Kannada film, "Super", which was highly acclaimed.


title: Ali (actor)

text: Ali is a brand ambassador for anti-itching medicine Manmohan Jaadoo Malaam. He became host for a talkie show called "Ali Talkies" in MAA TV. He is also host of the popular talk show "Alitho Saradaga" on ETV. He also makes his "Jabardasth" debut as an ad hoc judge of the show.


title: Ali (actor)

text: Ali joined YSRCP on 11 March 2019. He was appointed as Electronic Media Adviser to Government of Andhra Pradesh on 27th October 2022.


title: Kingfisher (beer)

text: Kingfisher is an Indian beer brewed by United Breweries Group, Bangalore. The brand was first introduced in 1857 and then relaunched in 1978 by Vijay Mallya. With a market share of over 36% in India, it is also available in 52 other countries as of 2013.


title: Kingfisher (beer)

text: In 1978, Vijay Mallya launched Kingfisher Premium beer, inspired by the defunct brand from United Breweries Group which was introduced in 1857. As the Advertising Standards Council of India banned alcohol advertisements in India, the UB Group began to promote the brand through surrogate advertisements of Kingfisher mineral water. After the group began operating Kingfisher Airlines in 2005, advertisements made their way into airplane cabins. In the United States, the company promoted the Kingfisher beer by de-ethnicizing the brand.


title: Kingfisher (beer)

text: Kingfisher Beer Europe Ltd. (KBE) is the European arm of United Breweries with a head office in Maidstone, Kent. In the UK, Kingfisher is brewed under licence by Heineken but to the same recipe as used in India. The company runs independently of Kingfisher World and has its own assets such as website, social media, POS suite & marketing objectives such as the tagline, 'The Real Taste of India' which highlights the brand's genuine heritage and sets it apart from other similar products in the UK & Europe.


title: Kingfisher (beer)

text: KBE sell only one Kingfisher variant; Kingfisher Premium, which is available in four formats; 330 mL (24 x 330 mL cases), 650 mL (12 x 650 mL case), pint or half pint draught and kegs (30 or 50 L).


title: Kingfisher (beer)

text: In November 2016, KBE launched Peacock Cider: a 'quality apple cider' created to 'elegantly complement Asian flavours, providing a burst of apple refreshment to balance aromatic spices.'


title: Kingfisher (beer)

text: In 2017, KBE added two more products to its portfolio - Bintang Beer, 'Indonesia's No.1 Beer' and Pearl River Beer, an 'Iconic Cantonese Beer'.


title: Kingfisher (beer)

text: Kingfisher is ranked 74th among India's most trusted brands according to the Brand Trust Report 2012, a study conducted by Trust Research Advisory. In the Brand Trust Report 2013, Kingfisher was ranked 102nd among India's most trusted brands and subsequently, according to the Brand Trust Report 2014, Kingfisher was ranked 198th among India's most trusted brands.


title: Otto cycle

text: An Otto cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle that describes the functioning of a typical spark ignition piston engine. It is the thermodynamic cycle most commonly found in automobile engines.


title: Otto cycle

text: The Otto cycle is a description of what happens to a gas as it is subjected to changes of pressure, temperature, volume, addition of heat, and removal of heat. The gas that is subjected to those changes is called the system. The system, in this case, is defined to be the fluid (gas) within the cylinder. By describing the changes that take place within the system, it will also describe in inverse, the system's effect on the environment. In the case of the Otto cycle, the effect will be to produce enough net work from the system so as to propel an automobile and its occupants in the environment.


title: Otto cycle

text: The isentropic process of compression or expansion implies that there will be no inefficiency (loss of mechanical energy), and there be no transfer of heat into or out of the system during that process. The cylinder and piston are assumed to be impermeable to heat during that time. Work is performed on the system during the lower isentropic compression process. Heat flows into the Otto cycle through the left pressurizing process and some of it flows back out through the right depressurizing process. The summation of the work added to the system plus the heat added minus the heat removed yields the net mechanical work generated by the system.


title: Otto cycle

text: The Otto cycle consists of isentropic compression, heat addition at constant volume, isentropic expansion, and rejection of heat at constant volume. In the case of a four-stroke Otto cycle, technically there are two additional processes: one for the exhaust of waste heat and combustion products at constant pressure (isobaric), and one for the intake of cool oxygen-rich air also at constant pressure; however, these are often omitted in a simplified analysis. Even though those two processes are critical to the functioning of a real engine, wherein the details of heat transfer and combustion chemistry are relevant, for the simplified analysis of the thermodynamic cycle, it is more convenient to assume that all of the waste-heat is removed during a single volume change.


title: Otto cycle

text: The four-stroke engine was first patented by Alphonse Beau de Rochas in 1861. Before, in about 1854–57, two Italians (Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci) invented an engine that was rumored to be very similar, but the patent was lost.


title: Otto cycle

text: The first person to build a working four-stroke engine, a stationary engine using a coal gas-air mixture for fuel (a gas engine), was German engineer Nicolaus Otto. This is why the four-stroke principle today is commonly known as the Otto cycle and four-stroke engines using spark plugs often are called Otto engines.


title: Otto cycle

text: The system is defined to be the mass of air that's drawn from the atmosphere into the cylinder, compressed by the piston, heated by the spark ignition of the added fuel, allowed to expand as it pushes on the piston, and finally exhausted back into the atmosphere. The mass of air is followed as its volume, pressure and temperature change during the various thermodynamic steps. As the piston is capable of moving along the cylinder, the volume of the air changes with its position in the cylinder. The compression and expansion processes induced on the gas by the movement of the piston are idealised as reversible, i.e., no useful work is lost through turbulence or friction and no heat is transferred to or from the gas during those two processes. Energy is added to the air by the combustion of fuel. Useful work is extracted by the expansion of the gas in the cylinder. After the expansion is completed in the cylinder, the remaining heat is extracted and finally the gas is exhausted to the environment. Useful mechanical work is produced during the expansion process and some of that used to compress the air mass of the next cycle. The useful mechanical work produced minus that used for the compression process is the net work gained and that can be used for propulsion or for driving other machines. Alternatively the useful work gained is the difference between the heat added and the heat removed.


title: Otto cycle

text: A mass of air (working fluid) is drawn into the cylinder, from 0 to 1, at atmospheric pressure (constant pressure) through the open intake valve, while the exhaust valve is closed during this process. The intake valve closes at point 1.


title: Otto cycle

text: Piston moves from crank end (BDC, bottom dead centre and maximum volume) to cylinder head end ("TDC", top dead centre and minimum volume) as the working gas with initial state 1 is compressed isentropically to state point 2, through compression ratio . Mechanically this is the isentropic compression of the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder, also known as the compression stroke. This isentropic process assumes that no mechanical energy is lost due to friction and no heat is transferred to or from the gas, hence the process is reversible. The compression process requires that mechanical work be added to the working gas. Generally the compression ratio is around 9–10:1 for a typical engine.


title: Otto cycle

text: The piston is momentarily at rest at "TDC". During this instant, which is known as the ignition phase, the air/fuel mixture remains in a small volume at the top of the compression stroke. Heat is added to the working fluid by the combustion of the injected fuel, with the volume essentially being held constant. The pressure rises and the ratio formula_1 is called the "explosion ratio".


title: Otto cycle

text: The increased high pressure exerts a force on the piston and pushes it towards the "BDC". Expansion of working fluid takes place isentropically and work is done by the system on the piston. The volume ratio formula_2 is called the "isentropic expansion ratio". (For the Otto cycle is the same as the compression ratio formula_3). Mechanically this is the expansion of the hot gaseous mixture in the cylinder known as expansion (power) stroke.


title: Otto cycle

text: The piston is momentarily at rest at "BDC". The working gas pressure drops instantaneously from point 4 to point 1 during a constant volume process as heat is removed to an idealized external sink that is brought into contact with the cylinder head. In modern internal combustion engines, the heat-sink may be surrounding air (for low powered engines), or a circulating fluid, such as coolant. The gas has returned to state 1.


title: Otto cycle

text: The exhaust valve opens at point 1. As the piston moves from "BDC" (point 1) to "TDC" (point 0) with the exhaust valve opened, the gaseous mixture is vented to the atmosphere and the process starts anew.


title: Otto cycle

text: In the process 1–2 the piston does work on the gas and in process 3–4 the gas does work on the piston during those isentropic compression and expansion processes, respectively. Processes 2–3 and 4–1 are isochoric processes; heat is transferred into the system from 2—3 and out of the system from 4—1 but no work is done on the system or extracted from the system during those processes. No work is done during an isochoric (constant volume) process because addition or removal of work from a system requires the movement of the boundaries of the system; hence, as the cylinder volume does not change, no shaft work is added to or removed from the system.


title: Otto cycle

text: Four different equations are used to describe those four processes. A simplification is made by assuming changes of the kinetic and potential energy that take place in the system (mass of gas) can be neglected and then applying the first law of thermodynamics (energy conservation) to the mass of gas as it changes state as characterized by the gas's temperature, pressure, and volume.


title: Otto cycle

text: During a complete cycle, the gas returns to its original state of temperature, pressure and volume, hence the net internal energy change of the system (gas) is zero. As a result, the energy (heat or work) added to the system must be offset by energy (heat or work) that leaves the system. In the analysis of thermodynamic systems, the convention is to account energy that enters the system as positive and energy that leaves the system is accounted as negative.


title: Otto cycle

text: The above states that the system (the mass of gas) returns to the original thermodynamic state it was in at the start of the cycle.


title: Otto cycle

text: Where formula_5is energy added to the system from 1–2–3 and formula_6 is energy removed from the system from 3–4–1. In terms of work and heat added to the system


title: Otto cycle

text: Each term of the equation can be expressed in terms of the internal energy of the gas at each point in the process:


title: Otto cycle

text: These values are arbitrarily but rationally selected. The work and heat terms can then be calculated.


title: Otto cycle

text: Note that energy added to the system is counted as positive and energy leaving the system is counted as negative and the summation is zero as expected for a complete cycle that returns the system to its original state.


title: Otto cycle

text: The net energy out of the system as work is -1, meaning the system has produced one net unit of energy that leaves the system in the form of work.


title: Otto cycle

text: As energy added to the system as heat is positive. From the above it appears as if the system gained one unit of heat. This matches the energy produced by the system as work out of the system.


title: Otto cycle

text: In the Otto cycle, there is no heat transfer during the process 1–2 and 3–4 as they are isentropic processes. Heat is supplied only during the constant volume processes 2–3 and heat is rejected only during the constant volume processes 4–1.


title: Otto cycle

text: The above values are absolute values that might, for instance , have units of joules (assuming the MKS system of units are to be used) and would be of use for a particular engine with particular dimensions. In the study of thermodynamic systems the extensive quantities such as energy, volume, or entropy (versus intensive quantities of temperature and pressure) are placed on a unit mass basis, and so too are the calculations, making those more general and therefore of more general use. Hence, each term involving an extensive quantity could be divided by the mass, giving the terms units of joules/kg (specific energy), meters/kg (specific volume), or joules/(kelvin·kg) (specific entropy, heat capacity) etc. and would be represented using lower case letters, u, v, s, etc.


title: Otto cycle

text: Equation 1 can now be related to the specific heat equation for constant volume. The specific heats are particularly useful for thermodynamic calculations involving the ideal gas model.


title: Otto cycle

text: Next, noting from the diagrams formula_32 (see isentropic relations for an ideal gas), thus both of these can be omitted. The equation then reduces to:


title: Otto cycle

text: Since the Otto cycle uses isentropic processes during the compression (process 1 to 2) and expansion (process 3 to 4) the isentropic equations of ideal gases and the constant pressure/volume relations can be used to yield Equations 3 & 4.


title: Otto cycle

text: From inverting Equation 4 and inserting it into Equation 2 the final thermal efficiency can be expressed as:


title: Otto cycle

text: From analyzing equation 6 it is evident that the Otto cycle efficiency depends directly upon the compression ratio formula_43. Since the formula_48 for air is 1.4, an increase in formula_43 will produce an increase in formula_50. However, the formula_51 for combustion products of the fuel/air mixture is often taken at approximately 1.3.


title: Otto cycle

text: The foregoing discussion implies that it is more efficient to have a high compression ratio. The standard ratio is approximately 10:1 for typical automobiles. Usually this does not increase much because of the possibility of autoignition, or "knock", which places an upper limit on the compression ratio. During the compression process 1–2 the temperature rises, therefore an increase in the compression ratio causes an increase in temperature. Autoignition occurs when the temperature of the fuel/air mixture becomes too high before it is ignited by the flame front. The compression stroke is intended to compress the products before the flame ignites the mixture. If the compression ratio is increased, the mixture may auto-ignite before the compression stroke is complete, leading to "engine knocking". This can damage engine components and will decrease the brake horsepower of the engine.


title: Otto cycle

text: The power produced by the Otto cycle is an energy developed per unit of time. The Otto engines are called four-stroke engines.


title: Otto cycle

text: The intake stroke and compression stroke require one rotation of the engine crankshaft. The power stroke and exhaust stroke require another rotation. For two rotations there is one work generating stroke..


title: Otto cycle

text: If the units used were MKS the cycle would have produced one joule of energy in the form of work. For an engine of a particular displacement, such as one liter, the mass of gas of the system can be calculated assuming the engine is operating at standard temperature (20 °C) and pressure (1 atm). Using the Universal Gas Law the mass of one liter of gas is at room temperature and sea level pressure:


title: Otto cycle

text: If the engine uses multiple cylinders with the same displacement, the result would be multiplied by the number of cylinders. These results are the product of the values of the internal energy that were assumed for the four states of the system at the end each of the four strokes (two rotations). They were selected only for the sake of illustration, and are obviously of low value. Substitution of actual values from an actual engine would produce results closer to that of the engine. Whose results would be higher than the actual engine as there are many simplifying assumptions made in the analysis that overlook inefficiencies. Such results would overestimate the power output.


title: Otto cycle

text: The difference between the exhaust and intake pressures and temperatures means that some increase in efficiency can be gained by use of a turbocharger, removing from the exhaust flow some part of the remaining energy and transferring that to the intake flow to increase the intake pressure. A gas turbine can extract useful work energy from the exhaust stream and that can then be used to pressurize the intake air. The pressure and temperature of the exhausting gases would be reduced as they expand through the gas turbine and that work is then applied to the intake gas stream, increasing its pressure and temperature. The transfer of energy amounts to an efficiency improvement and the resulting power density of the engine is also improved. The intake air is typically cooled so as to reduce its volume as the work produced per stroke is a direct function of the amount of mass taken into the cylinder; denser air will produce more work per cycle. Practically speaking the intake air mass temperature must also be reduced to prevent premature ignition in a petrol fueled engine; hence, an intercooler is used to remove some energy as heat and so reduce the intake temperature. Such a scheme both increases the engine's efficiency and power.


title: Otto cycle

text: The application of a supercharger driven by the crankshaft does increase the power output (power density) but does not increase efficiency as it uses some of the net work produced by the engine to pressurize the intake air and fails to extract otherwise wasted energy associated with the flow of exhaust at high temperature and a pressure to the ambient.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Christiaan Neethling Barnard (8 November 1922 – 2 September 2001) was a South African cardiac surgeon who performed the world's first human-to-human heart transplant operation. On 3 December 1967, Barnard transplanted the heart of accident-victim Denise Darvall into the chest of 54-year-old Louis Washkansky, with Washkansky regaining full consciousness and being able to talk easily with his wife, before dying eighteen days later of pneumonia, largely brought on by the anti-rejection drugs that suppressed his immune system. Barnard had told Mr. and Mrs. Washkansky that the operation had an 80% chance of success, an assessment which has been criticised as misleading. Barnard's second transplant patient, Philip Blaiberg, whose operation was performed at the beginning of 1968, returned home from the hospital and lived for a year and a half.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Born in Beaufort West, Cape Province, Barnard studied medicine and practised for several years in his native South Africa. As a young doctor experimenting on dogs, Barnard developed a remedy for the infant defect of intestinal atresia. His technique saved the lives of ten babies in Cape Town and was adopted by surgeons in Britain and the United States. In 1955, he travelled to the United States and was initially assigned further gastrointestinal work by Owen Harding Wangensteen at the University of Minnesota. He was introduced to the heart-lung machine, and Barnard was allowed to transfer to the service run by open heart surgery pioneer Walt Lillehei. Upon returning to South Africa in 1958, Barnard was appointed head of the Department of Experimental Surgery at the Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: He retired as head of the Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery in Cape Town in 1983 after rheumatoid arthritis in his hands ended his surgical career. He became interested in anti-aging research, and in 1986 his reputation suffered when he promoted Glycel, an expensive "anti-aging" skin cream, whose approval was withdrawn by the United States Food and Drug Administration soon thereafter. During his remaining years, he established the Christiaan Barnard Foundation, dedicated to helping underprivileged children throughout the world. He died in 2001 at the age of 78 after an asthma attack.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Barnard grew up in Beaufort West, Cape Province, Union of South Africa. His father, Adam Barnard, was a minister in the Dutch Reformed Church. One of his four brothers, Abraham, was a "blue baby" who died of a heart problem at the age of three (Barnard would later guess that it was tetralogy of Fallot). The family also experienced the loss of a daughter who was stillborn and who had been the fraternal twin of Barnard's older brother Johannes, who was twelve years older than Chris. Barnard matriculated from the Beaufort West High School in 1940, and went to study medicine at the University of Cape Town Medical School, where he obtained his MB ChB in 1945.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: His father served as a missionary to mixed-race people. His mother, the former Maria Elisabeth de Swart, instilled in the surviving brothers the belief that they could do anything they set their minds to.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Barnard did his internship and residency at the Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, after which he worked as a general practitioner in Ceres, a rural town in the Cape Province. In 1951, he returned to Cape Town where he worked at the City Hospital as a Senior Resident Medical Officer, and in the Department of Medicine at Groote Schuur as a registrar. He completed his master's degree, receiving Master of Medicine in 1953 from the University of Cape Town. In the same year he obtained a doctorate in medicine (MD) from the same university for a dissertation titled "The treatment of tuberculous meningitis".


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Soon after qualifying as a doctor, Barnard performed experiments on dogs while investigating intestinal atresia, a birth defect which allows life-threatening gaps to develop in the intestines. He followed a medical hunch that this was caused by inadequate blood flow to the fetus. After nine months and forty-three attempts, Barnard was able to reproduce this condition in a fetus puppy by tying off some of the blood supply to a puppy's intestines and then placing the animal back in the womb, after which it was born some two weeks later, with the condition of intestinal atresia. He was also able to cure the condition by removing the piece of intestine with inadequate blood supply. The mistake of previous surgeons had been attempting to reconnect ends of intestine which themselves still had inadequate blood supply. To be successful, it was typically necessary to remove between 15 and 20 centimeters of intestine (6 to 8 inches). Jannie Louw used this innovation in a clinical setting, and Barnard's method saved the lives of ten babies in Cape Town. This technique was also adapted by surgeons in Britain and the US. In addition, Barnard analyzed 259 cases of tubercular meningitis.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Owen Wangensteen at the University of Minnesota in the United States had been impressed by the work of Alan Thal, a young South African doctor working in Minnesota. Wangensteen asked Groote Schuur Head of Medicine John Brock if he might recommend any similarly talented South Africans and Brock recommended Barnard. In December 1955, Barnard travelled to Minneapolis, Minnesota to begin a two-year scholarship under Chief of Surgery Wangensteen, who assigned Barnard more work on the intestines, which Barnard accepted even though he wanted to move onto something new. Simply by luck, whenever Barnard needed a break from this work, he could wander across the hall and talk with Vince Gott who ran the lab for open-heart surgery pioneer Walt Lillehei. Gott had begun to develop a technique of running blood backwards through the veins of the heart so Lillehei could more easily operate on the aortic valve (McRae writes, "It was the type of inspired thinking that entranced Barnard"). In March 1956, Gott asked Barnard to help him run the heart-lung machine for an operation. Shortly thereafter, Wangensteen agreed to let Barnard switch to Lillehei's service. It was during this time that Barnard first became acquainted with fellow future heart transplantation surgeon Norman Shumway. Barnard also became friendly with Gil Campbell who had demonstrated that a dog's lung could be used to oxygenate blood during open-heart surgery. (The year before Barnard arrived, Lillehei and Campbell had used this procedure for twenty minutes during surgery on a 13-year-old boy with ventricular septal defect, and the boy had made a full recovery.) Barnard and Campbell met regularly for early breakfast. In 1958, Barnard received a Master of Science in Surgery for a thesis titled "The aortic valve – problems in the fabrication and testing of a prosthetic valve". The same year he was awarded a Ph.D. for his dissertation titled "The aetiology of congenital intestinal atresia". Barnard described the two years he spent in the United States as "the most fascinating time in my life."


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Upon returning to South Africa in 1958, Barnard was appointed head of the Department of Experimental Surgery at Groote Schuur hospital, as well as holding a joint post at the University of Cape Town. He was promoted to full-time lecturer and Director of Surgical Research at the University of Cape Town. In 1960, he flew to Moscow in order to meet Vladimir Demikhov, a top expert on organ transplants (later he credited Demikhov's accomplishment saying that "if there is a father of heart and lung transplantation then Demikhov certainly deserves this title.") In 1961 he was appointed Head of the Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery at the teaching hospitals of the University of Cape Town. He rose to the position of Associate Professor in the Department of Surgery at the University of Cape Town in 1962. Barnard's younger brother Marius, who also studied medicine, eventually became Barnard's right-hand man at the department of Cardiac Surgery. Over time, Barnard became known as a brilliant surgeon with many contributions to the treatment of cardiac diseases, such as the Tetralogy of Fallot and Ebstein's anomaly. He was promoted to Professor of Surgical Science in the Department of Surgery at the University of Cape Town in 1972. In 1981, Barnard became a founding member of the World Cultural Council. Among the many awards he received over the years, he was named Professor Emeritus in 1984.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Following the first successful kidney transplant in 1953, in the United States, Barnard performed the second kidney transplant in South Africa in October 1967, the first having been done in Johannesburg the previous year.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: On 23 January 1964, James Hardy at the University of Mississippi Medical Center in Jackson, Mississippi, performed the world's first heart transplant and world's first cardiac xenotransplant by transplanting the heart of a chimpanzee into a desperately ill and dying man. This heart did beat in the patient's chest for approximately 60 to 90 minutes. The patient, Boyd Rush, died without regaining consciousness.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Barnard had experimentally transplanted forty-eight hearts into dogs, which was about a fifth the number that Adrian Kantrowitz had performed at Maimonides Medical Center in New York and about a sixth the number Norman Shumway had performed at Stanford University in California. Barnard had no dogs which had survived longer than ten days, unlike Kantrowitz and Shumway who had had dogs survive for more than a year.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: With the availability of new breakthroughs introduced by several pioneers, also including Richard Lower at the Medical College of Virginia, several surgical teams were in a position to prepare for a human heart transplant. Barnard had a patient willing to undergo the procedure, but as with other surgeons, he needed a suitable donor.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: During the Apartheid era in South Africa, non-white persons and citizens were not given equal opportunities in the medical professions. At Groote Schuur Hospital, Hamilton Naki was an informally taught surgeon. He started out as a gardener and cleaner. One day he was asked to help out with an experiment on a giraffe. From this modest beginning, Naki became principal lab technician and taught hundreds of surgeons, and assisted with Barnard's organ transplant program. Barnard said, "Hamilton Naki had better technical skills than I did. He was a better craftsman than me, especially when it came to stitching, and had very good hands in the theatre". A popular myth, propagated principally by a widely discredited documentary film called "Hidden Heart" and an erroneous newspaper article, maintains incorrectly that Naki was present during the Washkansky transplant.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Barnard performed the world's first human-to-human heart transplant operation in the early morning hours of Sunday 3 December 1967. Louis Washkansky, a 54-year-old grocer who was suffering from diabetes and incurable heart disease, was the patient. Barnard was assisted by his brother Marius Barnard, as well as a team of thirty staff members. The operation lasted approximately five hours.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Barnard stated to Washkansky and his wife Ann Washkansky that the transplant had an 80% chance of success. This has been criticised by the ethicists Peter Singer and Helga Kuhse as making claims for chances of success to the patient and family which were "unfounded" and "misleading".


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Barnard later wrote, "For a dying man it is not a difficult decision because he knows he is at the end. If a lion chases you to the bank of a river filled with crocodiles, you will leap into the water, convinced you have a chance to swim to the other side." The donor heart came from a young woman, Denise Darvall, who had been rendered brain dead in an accident on 2 December 1967, while crossing a street in Cape Town. On examination at Groote Schuur hospital, Darvall had two serious fractures in her skull, with no electrical activity in her brain detected, and no sign of pain when ice water was poured into her ear. Coert Venter and Bertie Bosman requested permission from Darvall's father for Denise's heart to be used in the transplant attempt. The afternoon before his first transplant, Barnard dozed at his home while listening to music. When he awoke, he decided to modify Shumway and Lower's technique. Instead of cutting straight across the back of the atrial chambers of the donor heart, he would avoid damage to the septum and instead cut two small holes for the venae cavae and pulmonary veins. Prior to the transplant, rather than wait for Darvall's heart to stop beating, at his brother Marius Barnard's urging, Christiaan had injected potassium into her heart to paralyse it and render her technically dead by the whole-body standard. Twenty years later, Marius Barnard recounted, "Chris stood there for a few moments, watching, then stood back and said, 'It works.'"


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Washkansky survived the operation and lived for 18 days, having succumbed to pneumonia possibly due to the immunosuppressive drugs he was taking.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Worldwide, approximately 100 transplants were performed by various doctors during 1968. However, only a third of these patients lived longer than three months. Many medical centers stopped performing transplants. In fact, a U.S. National Institutes of Health publication states, "Within several years, only Shumway's team at Stanford was attempting transplants."


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Barnard's second transplant operation was conducted on 2 January 1968, and the patient, Philip Blaiberg, survived for 19 months. Blaiberg's heart was donated by Clive Haupt, a 24-year-old black man who suffered a stroke, inciting controversy (especially in the African-American press) during the time of South African apartheid. Dirk van Zyl, who received a new heart in 1971, was the longest-lived recipient, surviving over 23 years.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Between December 1967 and November 1974 at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, South Africa, ten heart transplants were performed, as well as a heart and lung transplant in 1971. Of these ten patients, four lived longer than 18 months, with two of these four becoming long-term survivors. One patient, Dorothy Fischer, lived for over thirteen years and another for over twenty-four years.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Full recovery of donor heart function often takes place over hours or days, during which time considerable damage can occur. Other deaths to patients can occur from preexisting conditions. For example, in pulmonary hypertension the patient's right ventricle has often adapted to the higher pressure over time and, although diseased and hypertrophied, is often capable of maintaining circulation to the lungs. Barnard designed the idea of the heterotopic (or "piggy back" transplant) in which the patient's diseased heart is left in place while the donor heart is added, essentially forming a "double heart". Barnard performed the first such heterotopic heart transplant in 1974.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: From November 1974 through December 1983, 49 consecutive heterotopic heart transplants on 43 patients were performed at Groote Schuur. The survival rate for patients at one year was over 60%, as compared to less than 40% with standard transplants, and the survival rate at five years was over 36% as compared to less than 20% with standard transplants.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Many surgeons gave up cardiac transplantation due to poor results, often due to rejection of the transplanted heart by the patient's immune system. Barnard persisted until the advent of cyclosporine, an effective immunosuppressive drug, which helped revive the operation throughout the world. He also attempted xenotransplantation in two human patients, utilizing a baboon heart and chimpanzee heart, respectively.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Barnard was an outspoken opponent of South Africa's laws of apartheid, and was not afraid to criticise his nation's government, although he had to temper his remarks to some extent to travel abroad. Rather than leaving his homeland, he used his fame to campaign for a change in the law. Christiaan's brother, Marius Barnard, went into politics, and was elected to the legislature from the Progressive Federal Party. Barnard later stated that the reason he never won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was probably because he was a "white South African".


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Shortly before his visit to Kenya in 1978, the following was written about his views regarding race relations in South Africa;


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: "While he believes in the participation of Africans in the political process of South Africa, he is opposed to a one-man-one-vote system in South Africa".


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: In answering a hypothetical question on how he would solve the race problem were he a "benevolent dictator in South Africa", Barnard stated the following in a long interview at the Weekly Review:


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Barnard's first marriage was to Aletta Gertruida Louw, a nurse, whom he married in 1948 while practising medicine in Ceres. The couple had two children: Deirdre (born 1950) and Andre (1951–1984). International fame took a toll on his personal life, and in 1969, Barnard and his wife divorced. In 1970, he married heiress Barbara Zoellner when she was 19, the same age as his son, and they had two children: Frederick (born 1972) and Christiaan Jr. (born 1974). He divorced Zoellner in 1982. Barnard married for a third time in 1988 to Karin Setzkorn, a young model. They also had two children, Armin (born 1989) and Lara (born 1997), but this last marriage also ended in divorce in 2000.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Barnard described in his autobiography "The Second Life" a one-night extramarital affair with Italian film star Gina Lollobrigida, that occurred in January 1968. During that visit to Rome he received an audience from Pope Paul VI.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: In October 2016, U.S. Congresswoman Ann McLane Kuster (D-NH) stated that Barnard sexually assaulted her when she was 23 years old. According to Kuster, he attempted to grope her under her skirt, while seated at a business luncheon with Rep. Pete McCloskey (R-CA), whom she worked for at the time.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Barnard retired as Head of the Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery in Cape Town in 1983 after developing rheumatoid arthritis in his hands which ended his surgical career. He had struggled with arthritis since 1956, when it was diagnosed during his postgraduate work in the United States. After retirement, he spent two years as the Scientist-In-Residence at the Oklahoma Transplantation Institute in the United States and as an acting consultant for various institutions.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: He had by this time become very interested in anti-aging research, and his reputation suffered in 1986 when he promoted "Glycel", an expensive "anti-aging" skin cream, whose approval was withdrawn by the United States Food and Drug Administration soon thereafter. He also spent time as a research advisor to the Clinique la Prairie, in Switzerland, where the controversial "rejuvenation therapy" was practised.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Barnard divided the remainder of his years between Austria, where he established the Christiaan Barnard Foundation, dedicated to helping underprivileged children throughout the world, and his game farm in Beaufort West, South Africa. In his later years he had Basal-cell carcinoma (skin cancer) on his face, for which he was treated in Parow, South Africa.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Christiaan Barnard died on 2 September 2001, while on holiday in Paphos, Cyprus. Early reports stated that he had died of a heart attack, but an autopsy showed his death was caused by a severe asthma attack.


title: Christiaan Barnard

text: Barnard wrote two autobiographies. His first book, "One Life", was published in 1969 () and sold copies worldwide. Some of the proceeds were used to set up the Chris Barnard Fund for research into heart disease and heart transplants in Cape Town. His second autobiography, "The Second Life", was published in 1993, eight years before his death ().


title: Innate immune system

text: The innate, or nonspecific, immune system is one of the two main immunity strategies (the other being the adaptive immune system) in vertebrates. The innate immune system is an older evolutionary defense strategy, relatively speaking, and is the dominant immune system response found in plants, fungi, insects, and primitive multicellular organisms (see Beyond vertebrates).


title: Innate immune system

text: Anatomical barriers include physical, chemical and biological barriers. The epithelial surfaces form a physical barrier that is impermeable to most infectious agents, acting as the first line of defense against invading organisms. Desquamation (shedding) of skin epithelium also helps remove bacteria and other infectious agents that have adhered to the epithelial surface. Lack of blood vessels, the inability of the epidermis to retain moisture, and the presence of sebaceous glands in the dermis, produces an environment unsuitable for the survival of microbes. In the gastrointestinal and respiratory tract, movement due to peristalsis or cilia, respectively, helps remove infectious agents. Also, mucus traps infectious agents. Gut flora can prevent the colonization of pathogenic bacteria by secreting toxic substances or by competing with pathogenic bacteria for nutrients or cell surface attachment sites. The flushing action of tears and saliva helps prevent infection of the eyes and mouth.


title: Innate immune system

text: Inflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection or irritation. Inflammation is stimulated by chemical factors released by injured cells. It establishes a physical barrier against the spread of infection and promotes healing of any damaged tissue following pathogen clearance.


title: Innate immune system

text: The process of acute inflammation is initiated by cells already present in all tissues, mainly resident macrophages, dendritic cells, histiocytes, Kupffer cells, and mast cells. These cells present receptors contained on the surface or within the cell, named "pattern recognition receptors" (PRRs), which recognize molecules that are broadly shared by pathogens but distinguishable from host molecules, collectively referred to as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). At the onset of an infection, burn, or other injuries, these cells undergo activation (one of their PRRs recognizes a PAMP) and release inflammatory mediators, like cytokines and chemokines, which are responsible for the clinical signs of inflammation. PRR activation and its cellular consequences have been well-characterized as methods of inflammatory cell death, which include pyroptosis, necroptosis, and PANoptosis. These cell death pathways help clear infected or aberrant cells and release cellular contents and inflammatory mediators.


title: Innate immune system

text: Chemical factors produced during inflammation (histamine, bradykinin, serotonin, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins) sensitize pain receptors, cause local vasodilation of the blood vessels, and attract phagocytes, especially neutrophils. Neutrophils then trigger other parts of the immune system by releasing factors that summon additional leukocytes and lymphocytes. Cytokines produced by macrophages and other cells of the innate immune system mediate the inflammatory response. These cytokines include TNF, HMGB1, and IL-1.


title: Innate immune system

text: The complement system is a biochemical cascade of the immune system that helps, or “complements”, the ability of antibodies to clear pathogens or mark them for destruction by other cells. The cascade is composed of many plasma proteins, synthesized in the liver, primarily by hepatocytes. The proteins work together to:


title: Innate immune system

text: Elements of the complement cascade can be found in many non-mammalian species including plants, birds, fish, and some species of invertebrates.


title: Innate immune system

text: White blood cells (WBCs) are also known as leukocytes. Most leukocytes differ from other cells of the body in that they are not tightly associated with a particular organ or tissue; thus, their function is similar to that of independent, single-cell organisms. Most leukocytes are able to move freely and interact with and capture cellular debris, foreign particles, and invading microorganisms (although macrophages, mast cells, and dendritic cells are less mobile). Unlike many other cells, most innate immune leukocytes cannot divide or reproduce on their own, but are the products of multipotent hematopoietic stem cells present in bone marrow.


title: Innate immune system

text: The innate leukocytes include: natural killer cells, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils; and the phagocytic cells include macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells, and function within the immune system by identifying and eliminating pathogens that might cause infection.


title: Innate immune system

text: Mast cells are a type of innate immune cell that resides in connective tissue and in mucous membranes. They are intimately associated with wound healing and defense against pathogens, but are also often associated with allergy and anaphylaxis. When activated, mast cells rapidly release characteristic granules, rich in histamine and heparin, along with various hormonal mediators and chemokines, or chemotactic cytokines into the environment. Histamine dilates blood vessels, causing the characteristic signs of inflammation, and recruits neutrophils and macrophages.


title: Innate immune system

text: The word 'phagocyte' literally means 'eating cell'. These are immune cells that engulf, or 'phagocytose', pathogens or particles. To engulf a particle or pathogen, a phagocyte extends portions of its plasma membrane, wrapping the membrane around the particle until it is enveloped (i.e., the particle is now inside the cell). Once inside the cell, the invading pathogen is contained inside a phagosome, which merges with a lysosome. The lysosome contains enzymes and acids that kill and digest the particle or organism. In general, phagocytes patrol the body searching for pathogens, but are also able to react to a group of highly specialized molecular signals produced by other cells, called cytokines. The phagocytic cells of the immune system include macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells.


title: Innate immune system

text: Phagocytosis of the hosts’ own cells is common as part of regular tissue development and maintenance. When host cells die, either by apoptosis or by cell injury due to an infection, phagocytic cells are responsible for their removal from the affected site. By helping to remove dead cells preceding growth and development of new healthy cells, phagocytosis is an important part of the healing process following tissue injury.


title: Innate immune system

text: Macrophages, from the Greek, meaning "large eaters", are large phagocytic leukocytes, which are able to move beyond the vascular system by migrating through the walls of capillary vessels and entering the areas between cells in pursuit of invading pathogens. In tissues, organ-specific macrophages are differentiated from phagocytic cells present in the blood called monocytes. Macrophages are the most efficient phagocytes and can phagocytose substantial numbers of bacteria or other cells or microbes. The binding of bacterial molecules to receptors on the surface of a macrophage triggers it to engulf and destroy the bacteria through the generation of a “respiratory burst”, causing the release of reactive oxygen species. Pathogens also stimulate the macrophage to produce chemokines, which summon other cells to the site of infection.


title: Innate immune system

text: Neutrophils, along with eosinophils and basophils, are known as granulocytes due to the presence of granules in their cytoplasm, or as polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs) due to their distinctive lobed nuclei. Neutrophil granules contain a variety of toxic substances that kill or inhibit growth of bacteria and fungi. Similar to macrophages, neutrophils attack pathogens by activating a respiratory burst. The main products of the neutrophil respiratory burst are strong oxidizing agents including hydrogen peroxide, free oxygen radicals and hypochlorite. Neutrophils are the most abundant type of phagocyte, normally representing 50–60% of the total circulating leukocytes, and are usually the first cells to arrive at the site of an infection. The bone marrow of a normal healthy adult produces more than 100 billion neutrophils per day, and more than 10 times that many per day during acute inflammation.


title: Innate immune system

text: Dendritic cells (DCs) are phagocytic cells present in tissues that are in contact with the external environment, mainly the skin (where they are often called Langerhans cells), and the inner mucosal lining of the nose, lungs, stomach, and intestines. They are named for their resemblance to neuronal dendrites, but dendritic cells are not connected to the nervous system. Dendritic cells are very important in the process of antigen presentation, and serve as a link between the innate and adaptive immune systems.


title: Innate immune system

text: Basophils and eosinophils are cells related to the neutrophil. When activated by a pathogen encounter, histamine-releasing basophils are important in the defense against parasites and play a role in allergic reactions, such as asthma. Upon activation, eosinophils secrete a range of highly toxic proteins and free radicals that are highly effective in killing parasites, but may also damage tissue during an allergic reaction. Activation and release of toxins by eosinophils are, therefore, tightly regulated to prevent any inappropriate tissue destruction.


title: Innate immune system

text: Natural killer cells (NK cells) do not directly attack invading microbes. Rather, NK cells destroy compromised host cells, such as tumor cells or virus-infected cells, recognizing such cells by a condition known as "missing self." This term describes cells with abnormally low levels of a cell-surface marker called MHC I (major histocompatibility complex) - a situation that can arise in viral infections of host cells. They were named "natural killer" because of the initial notion that they do not require activation in order to kill cells that are "missing self." The MHC makeup on the surface of damaged cells is altered and the NK cells become activated by recognizing this. Normal body cells are not recognized and attacked by NK cells because they express intact self MHC antigens. Those MHC antigens are recognized by killer cell immunoglobulin receptors (KIR) that slow the reaction of NK cells. The NK-92 cell line does not express KIR and is developed for tumor therapy.


title: Innate immune system

text: Like other 'unconventional' T cell subsets bearing invariant T cell receptors (TCRs), such as CD1d-restricted Natural Killer T cells, γδ T cells exhibit characteristics that place them at the border between innate and adaptive immunity. γδ T cells may be considered a component of adaptive immunity in that they rearrange TCR genes to produce junctional diversity and develop a memory phenotype. The various subsets may be considered part of the innate immune system where a restricted TCR or NK receptors may be used as a pattern recognition receptor. For example, according to this paradigm, large numbers of Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells respond within hours to common molecules produced by microbes, and highly restricted intraepithelial Vδ1 T cells will respond to stressed epithelial cells.


title: Innate immune system

text: The coagulation system overlaps with the immune system. Some products of the coagulation system can contribute to non-specific defenses via their ability to increase vascular permeability and act as chemotactic agents for phagocytic cells. In addition, some of the products of the coagulation system are directly antimicrobial. For example, beta-lysine, a protein produced by platelets during coagulation, can cause lysis of many Gram-positive bacteria by acting as a cationic detergent. Many acute-phase proteins of inflammation are involved in the coagulation system.


title: Innate immune system

text: Increased levels of lactoferrin and transferrin inhibit bacterial growth by binding iron, an essential bacterial nutrient.


title: Innate immune system

text: The innate immune response to infectious and sterile injury is modulated by neural circuits that control cytokine production period. The inflammatory reflex is a prototypical neural circuit that controls cytokine production in the spleen. Action potentials transmitted via the vagus nerve to the spleen mediate the release of acetylcholine, the neurotransmitter that inhibits cytokine release by interacting with alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (CHRNA7) expressed on cytokine-producing cells. The motor arc of the inflammatory reflex is termed the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway.


title: Innate immune system

text: Innate immune system cells prevent free growth of microorganisms within the body, but many pathogens have evolved mechanisms to evade it.


title: Innate immune system

text: One strategy is intracellular replication, as practised by "Mycobacterium tuberculosis", or wearing a protective capsule, which prevents lysis by complement and by phagocytes, as in "Salmonella". "Bacteroides" species are normally mutualistic bacteria, making up a substantial portion of the mammalian gastrointestinal flora. Species such as "B. fragilis" are opportunistic pathogens, causing infections of the peritoneal cavity. They inhibit phagocytosis by affecting the phagocytes receptors used to engulf bacteria. They may also mimic host cells so the immune system does not recognize them as foreign. "Staphylococcus aureus" inhibits the ability of the phagocyte to respond to chemokine signals. "M. tuberculosis", "Streptococcus pyogenes", and "Bacillus anthracis" utilize mechanisms that directly kill the phagocyte.


title: Innate immune system

text: Bacteria and fungi may form complex biofilms, protecting them from immune cells and proteins; biofilms are present in the chronic "Pseudomonas aeruginosa" and "Burkholderia cenocepacia" infections characteristic of cystic fibrosis.


title: Innate immune system

text: Type I interferons (IFN), secreted mainly by dendritic cells, play a central role in antiviral host defense and a cell's antiviral state. Viral components are recognized by different receptors: Toll-like receptors are located in the endosomal membrane and recognize double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), MDA5 and RIG-I receptors are located in the cytoplasm and recognize long dsRNA and phosphate-containing dsRNA respectively. When the cytoplasmic receptors MDA5 and RIG-I recognize a virus the conformation between the caspase-recruitment domain (CARD) and the CARD-containing adaptor MAVS changes. In parallel, when TLRs in the endocytic compartments recognize a virus the activation of the adaptor protein TRIF is induced. Both pathways converge in the recruitment and activation of the IKKε/TBK-1 complex, inducing dimerization of transcription factors IRF3 and IRF7, which are translocated in the nucleus, where they induce IFN production with the presence of a particular transcription factor and activate transcription factor 2. IFN is secreted through secretory vesicles, where it can activate receptors on both the cell it was released from (autocrine) or nearby cells (paracrine). This induces hundreds of interferon-stimulated genes to be expressed. This leads to antiviral protein production, such as protein kinase R, which inhibits viral protein synthesis, or the 2′,5′-oligoadenylate synthetase family, which degrades viral RNA.


title: Innate immune system

text: Some viruses evade this by producing molecules that interfere with IFN production. For example, the Influenza A virus produces NS1 protein, which can bind to host and viral RNA, interact with immune signaling proteins or block their activation by ubiquitination, thus inhibiting type I IFN production. Influenza A also blocks protein kinase R activation and establishment of the antiviral state. The dengue virus also inhibits type I IFN production by blocking IRF-3 phosophorylation using NS2B3 protease complex.


title: Innate immune system

text: Bacteria (and perhaps other prokaryotic organisms), utilize a unique defense mechanism, called the restriction modification system to protect themselves from pathogens, such as bacteriophages. In this system, bacteria produce enzymes, called restriction endonucleases, that attack and destroy specific regions of the viral DNA of invading bacteriophages. Methylation of the host's own DNA marks it as "self" and prevents it from being attacked by endonucleases. Restriction endonucleases and the restriction modification system exist exclusively in prokaryotes.


title: Innate immune system

text: Invertebrates do not possess lymphocytes or an antibody-based humoral immune system, and it is likely that a multicomponent, adaptive immune system arose with the first vertebrates. Nevertheless, invertebrates possess mechanisms that appear to be precursors of these aspects of vertebrate immunity. Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) are proteins used by nearly all organisms to identify molecules associated with microbial pathogens. TLRs are a major class of pattern recognition receptor, that exists in all coelomates (animals with a body-cavity), including humans. The complement system exists in most life forms. Some invertebrates, including various insects, crabs, and worms utilize a modified form of the complement response known as the prophenoloxidase (proPO) system.


title: Innate immune system

text: Antimicrobial peptides are an evolutionarily conserved component of the innate immune response found among all classes of life and represent the main form of invertebrate systemic immunity. Several species of insect produce antimicrobial peptides known as "defensins" and "cecropins".


title: Innate immune system

text: In invertebrates, PRRs trigger proteolytic cascades that degrade proteins and control many of the mechanisms of the innate immune system of invertebrates—including hemolymph coagulation and melanization. Proteolytic cascades are important components of the invertebrate immune system because they are turned on more rapidly than other innate immune reactions because they do not rely on gene changes. Proteolytic cascades function in both vertebrate and invertebrates, even though different proteins are used throughout the cascades.


title: Innate immune system

text: In the hemolymph, which makes up the fluid in the circulatory system of arthropods, a gel-like fluid surrounds pathogen invaders, similar to the way blood does in other animals. Various proteins and mechanisms are involved in invertebrate clotting. In crustaceans, transglutaminase from blood cells and mobile plasma proteins make up the clotting system, where the transglutaminase polymerizes 210 kDa subunits of a plasma-clotting protein. On the other hand, in the horseshoe crab clotting system, components of proteolytic cascades are stored as inactive forms in granules of hemocytes, which are released when foreign molecules, like lipopolysaccharides enter.


title: Innate immune system

text: Members of every class of pathogen that infect humans also infect plants. Although the exact pathogenic species vary with the infected species, bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes, and insects can all cause plant disease. As with animals, plants attacked by insects or other pathogens use a set of complex metabolic responses that lead to the formation of defensive chemical compounds that fight infection or make the plant less attractive to insects and other herbivores. (see: plant defense against herbivory).


title: Innate immune system

text: Like invertebrates, plants neither generate antibody or T-cell responses nor possess mobile cells that detect and attack pathogens. In addition, in case of infection, parts of some plants are treated as disposable and replaceable, in ways that few animals can. Walling off or discarding a part of a plant helps stop infection spread.


title: Innate immune system

text: Most plant immune responses involve systemic chemical signals sent throughout a plant. Plants use PRRs to recognize conserved microbial signatures. This recognition triggers an immune response. The first plant receptors of conserved microbial signatures were identified in rice (XA21, 1995) and in "Arabidopsis" (FLS2, 2000). Plants also carry immune receptors that recognize variable pathogen effectors. These include the NBS-LRR class of proteins. When a part of a plant becomes infected with a microbial or viral pathogen, in case of an incompatible interaction triggered by specific elicitors, the plant produces a localized hypersensitive response (HR), in which cells at the site of infection undergo rapid apoptosis to prevent spread to other parts of the plant. HR has some similarities to animal pyroptosis, such as a requirement of caspase-1-like proteolytic activity of VPEγ, a cysteine protease that regulates cell disassembly during cell death.


title: Innate immune system

text: "Resistance" (R) proteins, encoded by R genes, are widely present in plants and detect pathogens. These proteins contain domains similar to the NOD Like Receptors and TLRs. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is a type of defensive response that renders the entire plant resistant to a broad spectrum of infectious agents. SAR involves the production of chemical messengers, such as salicylic acid or jasmonic acid. Some of these travel through the plant and signal other cells to produce defensive compounds to protect uninfected parts, e.g., leaves. Salicylic acid itself, although indispensable for expression of SAR, is not the translocated signal responsible for the systemic response. Recent evidence indicates a role for jasmonates in transmission of the signal to distal portions of the plant. RNA silencing mechanisms are important in the plant systemic response, as they can block virus replication. The "jasmonic acid response" is stimulated in leaves damaged by insects, and involves the production of methyl jasmonate.


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: Jeremy Cedric Spencer (born 4 July 1948) is a British musician, best known for playing slide guitar and piano in the original line-up of the rock band Fleetwood Mac. A member since Fleetwood Mac's inception in July 1967, he remained with the band until his abrupt departure in February 1971, when he joined the "Children of God", a new religious movement now known as "The Family International", with which he is still affiliated. After a pair of solo albums in the 1970s, he continued to tour as a musician, but did not release another album until 2006. He released further solo albums from 2012 onwards and has also recorded as part of the folk trio Steetley. As a member of Fleetwood Mac, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1998.


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: Spencer was born in Hartlepool, County Durham, and began taking piano lessons at the age of nine. Switching to guitar in his teens, his speciality became the slide guitar, and he was influenced by the American blues musician Elmore James.


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: In the summer of 1967, Spencer came to the attention of ex-Bluesbreakers guitarist Peter Green, who was looking for another musician to join him in his new Fleetwood Mac project. Green had recruited drummer Mick Fleetwood and temporary bassist Bob Brunning, and wanted a second guitar player to fill out the sound onstage. Spencer was then playing with blues trio the Levi Set, and was already an accomplished slide guitarist and pianist. He fitted in well, and soon after his arrival, the band's intended bassist John McVie joined.


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: This line-up of Fleetwood Mac recorded two albums of traditional blues songs, with Spencer contributing many variations on the Elmore James theme, particularly centred around James' version of "Dust My Broom", plus a few songs of his own. Green became frustrated because Spencer did not seem willing to contribute to Green's songs, whereas Green always played on Spencer's recordings where necessary.


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: On "Fleetwood Mac", the 1968 debut album, Spencer gives a solo performance on vocal and piano of Robert Johnson's "Hellhound on My Trail".


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: Since Spencer's musical contributions to the band were too narrowly focused, Green and Fleetwood brought in a third guitarist, 18-year-old Danny Kirwan, after 1968's "Mr. Wonderful". This album featured several of Spencer's Elmore James tunes.


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: Green and Kirwan found that they worked well together musically, quickly developing the style that provided hits such as "Albatross", "Man of the World" and "Oh Well", none of which featured Spencer. Spencer found himself slightly isolated within the band, and chose to contribute very little to the band's third album "Then Play On". It was intended to complement this album with a separate EP of Spencer's work, but this never materialised. In the end, his input amounted to some piano on Green's neo-classical epic "Oh Well Pt. 2".


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: On stage however, Spencer was an integral part of the band, with a raucous routine of old blues songs which were extremely popular with audiences. Spencer was a gifted mimic, providing excellent impersonations of Elvis Presley, Buddy Holly, Elmore James, John Mayall and whoever else he felt like sending up at the time. He was also often given to occasional suggestive behaviour onstage, particularly at early concerts, which sometimes landed the band in trouble with promoters and venue owners, and got them banned from London's Marquee Club. This wild onstage atmosphere was caught in Spencer's recording "Somebody's Gonna Get Their Head Kicked In Tonite", which was chosen as the B-side to the gentle "Man of the World" single in 1969.


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: Away from the stage, Spencer was often quiet and withdrawn, and other band members recall him often reading the Bible in his hotel room, strongly at odds with his on-stage persona.


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: Spencer became the first member of Fleetwood Mac to release a solo album, simply titled "Jeremy Spencer", in 1970. This album featured many 1950s parodies and amusing songs but was not a success. In December 2015, the album was released on CD.


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: When Green left Fleetwood Mac in mid-1970, the band were in a state of flux and there was a possibility of not continuing. However, the band held together, and both Spencer and Kirwan worked on new songs, which appeared on the "Kiln House" album released in the late summer of 1970. For the first time, the defining Elmore James songs were absent on "Kiln House"; instead, this album featured more of Spencer's 1950s parodies, including the Buddy Holly tribute "Buddy's Song". Another song, "One Together", touched on the many different personas that Spencer used onstage.


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: During a tour of the United States in February 1971 with new keyboardist Christine McVie now having joined the band, Spencer grew disillusioned with his life in Fleetwood Mac, and has mentioned in several interviews an incident when the band were listening to a recording of an old concert. When he heard himself singing, he said, "That sounds horrible. It sounds like shit." According to one account by Mick Fleetwood, Spencer apparently had difficulty recovering from a mescaline trip he had experienced very early on the US tour. Shortly before a journey of the band from San Francisco to Los Angeles, LA experienced a major earthquake. Being in a fragile mental state and filled with strong negative premonitions, Spencer was very apprehensive about having to travel to LA. He unsuccessfully pleaded with Fleetwood to cancel this leg of the tour. Shortly after arriving in LA on 15 February 1971, the day of a gig the group was scheduled to perform at the Whisky a Go Go, Spencer left the hotel room he shared with Fleetwood to visit a bookshop on Hollywood Boulevard. He did not return, forcing the cancellation of that evening's concert while the band and members of their entourage went searching for him. Some days later, he was found to have joined the Children of God, and he declared that he no longer wanted to be involved with Fleetwood Mac. Despite appeals from the band's manager, Clifford Davis, to fulfil his obligations to Fleetwood Mac, Spencer could not be persuaded to rejoin the band and they had to struggle on without him, first recalling Peter Green out of retirement as an emergency measure, and later recruiting new guitarist Bob Welch.


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: Despite many rumours of brainwashing and forced induction into the organisation, Spencer has always maintained that he joined the organisation of his own free will. He had been approached by a young man named Apollos, who engaged Spencer in conversation about God, and invited him to a nearby mission where other members were staying. During the evening, Spencer became convinced that this change of direction was the best course for him to take, and by the time Fleetwood Mac found him, his mind was made up. Despite his continued confidence that he made the right choice, he has said that the manner of his departure from the band was regrettable: "The way I left was wrong and a mistake. I should've told them right away but I was desperate."


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: Spencer and his then-wife Fiona moved to the US to settle with the Children of God. He soon formed a new band within the organisation and played free concerts around the country. An album was recorded, "Jeremy Spencer and the Children", although without commercial success. In contrast to his commercially successful period, relatively little is known about this period of his life, but he travelled the world recording a considerable amount of music for the purposes of the organization. He moved to Brazil in 1975 and then to Italy in 1977.


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: In 1978 a member of the Children of God hired Martin and Steven Machat to represent Spencer and his new band. The Machats then secured them a major record deal with Atlantic Records in New York. In 1978–79 the newly formed Jeremy Spencer Band recorded the album "Flee", which had a little commercial success. During the 1980s Spencer lived in the Philippines before working in India in the 1990s, holding charity concerts. He later lived in Ireland and then Germany and still works for the Children of God (now called the Family International), mainly as a book illustrator and story writer. He has continued to play music, often for his own amusement or in small settings, but also has appeared more often at various blues and gospel conventions. In 2006 he released the album "Precious Little", recorded in Norway. The album showed a return to the blues and the slide guitar style that he became famous for while he was with Fleetwood Mac.


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: Spencer was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1998 for his past work as a member of Fleetwood Mac.


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: During the 2000s there were rumours of a reunion of the early line-up of Fleetwood Mac involving Peter Green and Jeremy Spencer. Whilst these two guitarists and vocalists apparently remained unconvinced of the merits of such a project, Danny Kirwan, who joined the band in 1968 as a third guitarist and vocalist and was fired in 1972, remained silent on the subject. In April 2006, during a question-and-answer session on the "Penguin" Fleetwood Mac fan website, bassist John McVie said of the reunion idea: "If we could get Peter and Jeremy to do it, I'd probably, maybe, do it. I know Mick would do it in a flash. Unfortunately, I don't think there's much chance of Danny doing it. Bless his heart." Kirwan died in 2018, and Green in 2020.


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: In 2007 Spencer was in contact with his former Fleetwood Mac bandmates Mick Fleetwood and John McVie, and according to McVie, the three had informal jam sessions with Rick Vito at Fleetwood's home. Spencer also took part in the TV documentary "", in which he was interviewed together with John McVie and Mick Fleetwood.


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: In 2012 Spencer released a new album, "Bend in the Road", which was recorded at Tempermill Studios in Ferndale, Michigan, US. The vinyl, CD and download featured different track listings. This was followed in 2014 by "Coventry Blue".


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: Since then Spencer has concentrated on instrumental work. "Homebrewed Blues" (2016) showcased his slide guitar playing while "Treading Softly" (2018) and "Latina Nights" (2019) focused on music inspired by Ireland and Latin America respectively.


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: During 2012–13, Spencer became involved with Hartlepool-based singer-songwriter Andy Oliver, and they eventually decided to record songs together. They formed a trio named Steetley, along with the Northern Irish musician and actress Janet Bamford, and in December 2013, released their debut album, "The Moment She Fell".


title: Jeremy Spencer

text: On 26 February 2020, he made an appearance at the Peter Green tribute concert, making his first stage appearance with Mick Fleetwood in 49 years.


title: Peter Lim

text: Peter Lim (born 21 May 1953) is a Singaporean business magnate who was a stockbroker, and is now a private investor who has invested in sectors ranging from palm oil to medicine. In 2019, Forbes ranked him as the 10th richest person in Singapore with a net worth of US$2.5 billion. He is a shareholder of English club Salford City and the owner of Spanish La Liga club Valencia CF since 2014.


title: Peter Lim

text: The son of a fishmonger, Lim and his seven siblings grew up in a two-bedroom government flat in the Bukit Ho Swee public housing estate. Lim completed his secondary school education at the Raffles Institution. After National Service, he went to Perth to study at the University of Western Australia. To fund his university education, Lim worked part-time doing odd jobs as a taxi driver, cook and waiter.


title: Peter Lim

text: It was while working at Australian fast-food chain Red Rooster that he learnt how business was done. Lim studied how they started, how they grew, and how they scaled up.


title: Peter Lim

text: He graduated with a degree in accounting and finance and first worked as an accountant and did some tax consultancy before going into stocks.


title: Peter Lim

text: In the early 1990s, Lim invested about US$10 million in a start-up palm-oil company, Wilmar. In 2010, Lim cashed out at the peak of commodity prices and sold his Wilmar shares for US$1.5 billion.


title: Peter Lim

text: Known as the "Remisier King" due to his success in stocks, Lim explains that while there was an element of luck, it was also because he created a role for himself as a "one man merchant bank" in the M&A space in Indonesia in the late 80s.


title: Peter Lim

text: Lim quit the brokerage business in 1996 and became a private investor. He was able to escape the 1998 Asian Financial Crisis as he had liquidated most of his stocks and was holding cash.


title: Peter Lim

text: In the sports sector, Lim owns a controlling stake (83%) in Spanish La Liga club Valencia CF, a 40% stake in Salford City F.C (with former Manchester United players Ryan Giggs, Gary Neville, Phil Neville, Paul Scholes, Nicky Butt and David Beckham holding the other 60%), stakes in British supercar maker McLaren Automotive and Hotel Football next to Old Trafford stadium in Manchester. Since becoming majority shareholder of Valencia CF in 2014, the club has qualified for the UEFA Champions League only 3 times, but also won the Copa del Rey in 2019. After six years of ownership, the club consistently underperformed and achieved some of the poorest results in its modern history. Separately, Salford City achieved 4 promotions in 5 seasons to reach League Two in 2019. Salford City also won the delayed 2020 Papa John's Trophy after beating Portsmouth 4–2 on penalties.


title: Peter Lim

text: In May 2014, Lim was designated by the Fundación Valencia CF as the buyer of 70.4% of the shares owned by the club's foundation. After months of negotiations between Lim and Bankia (the main creditor of the club), an agreement was reached in August 2014. Nuno Espírito Santo was hired as head manager on 2 July 2014, which was one of the conditions Lim had insisted on when buying the club. This raised eyebrows in the media because of Nuno's close relationship with the football agent Jorge Mendes, whose first-ever client was Nuno. Lim and Mendes are also close friends and business partners. Regardless, Nuno's first season was a successful one. Notable signings included Álvaro Negredo, André Gomes and Enzo Pérez, who had just won the LPFP Primeira Liga Player of the Year in the Portuguese Primeira Liga. Valencia finished the 2014–15 season in fourth place for Champions League qualification with 77 points, just one point ahead of Sevilla after a dramatic final week, defeating Granada 4–0.


title: Peter Lim

text: Valencia had a poor start to the 2015–16 season, winning 5 out of 13 matches and failing to progress from the Champions League group stages. The fans were also increasingly concerned about the growing influence of Jorge Mendes in the club's activities. On 29 November, Nuno resigned as manager and former Manchester United defender Gary Neville was hired as his replacement on 2 December. Valencia went winless for nine matches before earning their first win under Neville in a 2–1 victory at home against Espanyol. On 30 March 2016, Neville was sacked after recording the lowest win percentage in La Liga history for a Valencia manager with minimum of five matches, winning just 3 out of 16 matches. He was replaced by Pako Ayestarán, who was brought in by Neville as the assistant coach just one month prior. Valencia finished the season in 12th position, even despite having the 4th biggest budget in the competition.


title: Peter Lim

text: In the summer of 2016, André Gomes and Paco Alcácer were both sold to Barcelona and Shkodran Mustafi was sold to Arsenal, while Ezequiel Garay and former Manchester United player Nani were brought in. Pako Ayestarán was sacked on 21 September 2016 after four-straight defeats at the beginning of the 2016–17 season. Former Italy national team head coach Cesare Prandelli was hired as his replacement on 28 September. However, he resigned after just three months on 30 December, claiming the club had made him false transfer promises. Days later, on 7 January 2017, Valencia sporting director Jesús García Pitarch also resigned, saying he felt like he was being used as a shield for criticism by the club and that he could not defend something he no longer believed in. Voro was named caretaker manager for the fifth time until the end of season, with Valencia in 17th position and in danger of relegation. However, results improved under Voro and he steered Valencia clear off relegation, ultimately finishing the season in 12th place. On 27 March, Mateu Alemany was named the new director general of Valencia.


title: Peter Lim

text: The club also announced club president Lay Hoon Chan had submitted her resignation and that she would be replaced by Anil Murthy. After rumours arose of Lim's attempts at selling the club, Murthy assured the fans and local media that Valencia was a long-term project for both him and Lim, and they would not consider selling the club. For the following season, former Villarreal coach Marcelino was named the new manager on 12 May.


title: Peter Lim

text: After a successful first season under Marcelino, the club secured 4th position and a return to the Champions League. Valencia also reached the semi-finals of the UEFA Europa League. On 25 May 2019, Valencia won the Copa del Rey for the first time since 2008, upsetting FC Barcelona in the final. However, both Marcelino and sporting director Mateu Alemany, were fired on 11 September 2019 after falling out with Lim. The manager was replaced by Albert Celades, who was eventually sacked after a run of poor results despite earlier qualifying for the UEFA Champions League knockout stages, while new sports director César Sanchez resigned that same season, making six different managers and another six sports directors by 2020.


title: Peter Lim

text: For season 2020–21, manager Javi Gracia was hired. He was put in charge of a team of young prospects and lower profile players after failing to sign any player during summer transfer season, while the club was selling key players such as captain Dani Parejo, who left for free to regional rivals Villarreal. Ferran Torres was sold to Manchester City for half his market value, as he refused to renew his contract and attempted to leave for free. Overall, Valencia sold players worth 85 million dollars in order to rebalance the club's books. These arrangements allowed the club to continue paying salaries to the players, which failed to do at the beginning of the season. During the winter season, the club reinforced the team with three loan signings, Italian striker Patrick Cutrone, Uruguayan midfielder Christian Oliva, and central defender Ferro. After six seasons under Peter Lim's ownership, Valencia CF began to pay the banks, which it was financially unable to do previously. The club thus far has accumulated loses of 323 million euros in the club. His management resulting in player sell-offs and lack of inward transfers has been criticised by Valencia's fans, players such as Geoffrey Kondogbia, and managers and directors such as Cesare Prandelli, Javier Subirats, and Javi Gracia.


title: Peter Lim

text: In October 2021, Peter Lim co-founded ZujuGP with his son. ZujuGP is envisioned as a digital platform to digitize the live game experience for fans by providing entertainment, networking and e-commerce options. It will also build an ecosystem of services for teams to recruit players, club personnel, train and mentor aspiring players powered by its open source, AI-driven platform.


title: Peter Lim

text: ZujuGP is endorsed by Manchester United star Cristiano Ronaldo who is a long time friend and partner of Peter Lim.


title: Peter Lim

text: In June 2010 the Singapore Olympic Foundation (SOF) set up the SOF-Peter Lim Scholarship with a S$10 million donation from Lim. The gift is the single largest donation in Singapore from an individual towards sports development. The recipients are typically students who come from financially challenged backgrounds and have demonstrated a potential to excel in their respective sports. In 2019, Lim further pledged to continue supporting young local athletes for another 10 years from 2021 to 2030 by donating another S$10 million to the SOF-Peter Lim Scholarship. Since the inception of the scholarship, 2642 student-athletes have received scholarships amounting to $7.2 million.


title: Peter Lim

text: Lim further committed a separate $20 million to start a new community project focused on helping children from less privileged backgrounds, with the aim of helping them reach their potential.


title: Peter Lim

text: In 2014, Lim also endowed Nanyang Technological University with S$3 million to fund a professorship in peace studies at the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies to protect and promote harmony in Singapore.


title: Edu (footballer, born 1978)

text: Eduardo César Daud Gaspar (born 16 May 1978), known as Edu, is a Brazilian former professional footballer who is the sporting director of Premier League club Arsenal. As a player, he was an attacking and central midfielder, and played for Corinthians in Brazil, Arsenal in England, and Valencia in Spain across a twelve-year career.


title: Edu (footballer, born 1978)

text: Edu started his career in Série A with Corinthians. While with Corinthians, Edu won the 1998 and 1999 Brasileiro championships, and the 2000 FIFA Club World Championship.


title: Edu (footballer, born 1978)

text: After initially planning to join Arsenal in 2000, his transfer was put on hold after it was realised that he was in possession of a fake Portuguese passport. Months later, after qualifying for a European Union (EU) passport (aided by Italian lineage on his father's side), he signed for Arsenal on 16 January 2001 for £6 million. He had a turbulent time early on as his sister was killed in a car accident.


title: Edu (footballer, born 1978)

text: His Arsenal debut came in 2001 in a goalless draw tarnished by an injury after 15 minutes against Leicester City. He had replaced Freddie Ljungberg at half time only to be replaced by Dennis Bergkamp minutes later. It was an unfortunate start and he only managed to play in four more matches for the club during that season, one of which was a 0–3 defeat at home to Middlesbrough in which he contributed an own goal. His first goal for the club came against Grimsby in the League Cup on 27 November 2001. He went on to make a substitute appearance in the 2002 FA Cup Final as Arsenal emerged victorious. He also contributed 14 league appearances, and a goal against Aston Villa, as Arsenal won the 2001–02 Premier League, with Edu becoming the first Brazilian to win the Premier League.


title: Edu (footballer, born 1978)

text: In 2002–03 Edu made 18 appearances in the Premier League and featured heavily as Arsenal got to the FA Cup final for the third year running. Edu scored in Arsenal's fifth round win against Manchester United at Old Trafford, however injury issues in the latter part of the season meant he was left out of the squad for the final.


title: Edu (footballer, born 1978)

text: 2003–04 season in midfield for Arsenal was seen as his finest season so far in football, he was part of the team which went 49 games unbeaten, (the whole 2003–04 Premier League season without defeat). He appeared in 30 League games and scored 2 goals, both against Chelsea, he scored the fourth of Arsenal's 5 in a 5–1 historic win against Inter Milan in the UEFA Champions League in November 2003, he made a career high 48 appearances and 7 goals for Arsenal in all competitions. Edu was on the pitch as Arsenal clinched the 2003–04 Premier League title at White Hart Lane on 25 April 2004. During the season, he made his 100th appearance for Arsenal.


title: Edu (footballer, born 1978)

text: Edu enjoyed mixed fortunes in the 2004–05 season. He missed the start of the season because he was away with Brazil at the Copa América. This was followed by speculation over his future at the club as he was in the last year of his contract with Arsenal. Talks with Valencia of Spain in January 2005 failed as the Mestalla outfit were not able to pay the fee Arsenal demanded.


title: Edu (footballer, born 1978)

text: Edu only scored two goals for Arsenal in 2004–05 – one was a fine chip in the 2–0 away win at West Bromwich Albion in May 2005, and the other a penalty kick in a 7–0 win over Everton in 2005. He did however come on as an extra time substitute as Arsenal won the 2005 FA Cup Final.


title: Edu (footballer, born 1978)

text: In May 2005, it was confirmed that he would leave Arsenal in the summer on a Bosman ruling free transfer. Valencia, Juventus, Inter Milan, and Barcelona were hot favourites to secure the signature of Edu, and on 30 May, Valencia announced it had signed him to a five-year deal. Shortly after signing, Edu suffered a pre-season injury that ruled him out of first-team action until 4 April 2006, when he made his debut in the 5–3 victory over Cádiz. On 3 July 2009, the Brazilian midfielder left Valencia through contractual termination.


title: Edu (footballer, born 1978)

text: After being released in Spain, Edu signed a contract with his former club Corinthians on 6 August 2009, which was to last until 31 December 2011. After playing four matches during the 2010 season, his contract was terminated by mutual consent, and Edu announced his retirement from professional football.


title: Edu (footballer, born 1978)

text: Edu initially considered playing for the England national team upon gaining a British passport as he did not think he would be picked for Brazil. He finally got a call-up to the Brazilian national team in 2004 and made his debut on 28 April 2004 in a friendly match against Hungary. He played for them in the 2004 Copa América and 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup, which were both won by Brazil. In the final of the Copa América 2004 he scored one of the penalties in the shootout as Brazil defeated Argentina.