title: German casualties in World War II

text: Statistics for German World War II military casualties are divergent. The wartime military casualty figures compiled by German High Command, up until January 31, 1945, are often cited by military historians when covering individual campaigns in the war. A recent study by German historian Rüdiger Overmans found that the German military casualties were 5.3 million, including 900,000 men conscripted from outside of Germany's 1937 borders, in Austria and in east-central Europe, higher than those originally reported by the German high command. The German government reported that its records list 4.3 million dead and missing military personnel.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Civilian deaths during the war include air raid deaths, estimates of German civilians killed only by Allied strategic bombing have ranged from around 350,000 to 500,000.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Civilian deaths, due to the flight and expulsion of Germans, Soviet war crimes and the forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union are disputed and range from 500,000 to over 2.0 million. According to the German government "Suchdienste" (Search Service) there were 300,000 German victims (including Jews) of Nazi racial, political and religious persecution. This statistic does not include 200,000 German people with disabilities who were murdered in the Action T4 and Action 14f13 euthanasia programs.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: In the post-war era the military search service Deutsche Dienststelle (WASt) has been responsible for providing information for the families of those military personnel who were killed or went missing in the war. They maintain the files of over 18 million men who served in the war. By the end of 1954, they had identified approximately 4 million military dead and missing (2,730,000 dead and 1,240,629 missing). (Since German reunification, the records in the former GDR (East Germany) have become available to the WASt). The German Red Cross reported in 2005 that the records of the military search service WAS list total Wehrmacht losses at 4.3 million men (3.1 million dead and 1.2 million missing) in World War II. Their figures include Austria and conscripted ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: The German historian Rüdiger Overmans used the files of WASt) to conduct his research project on German military casualties.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: The German military system for reporting casualties was based on a numerical reporting of casualties by individual units and a separate listing of the names of individual casualties. The system was not uniform because various military branches such as the Army, Air Force, Navy, Waffen SS and the military hospitals each had different systems of reporting. In early 1945 the German High Command (OKW) prepared a summary of total losses up to January 31, 1945. The German historian Rüdiger Overmans believes, based on his research, that these figures are incomplete and unreliable. According to Overmans, the casualty reporting system broke down in the chaos at the end of the war. Many men who went missing or were taken prisoner were not included in the German High Command (OKW) figures. Overmans maintains that many individual reports of casualties were not processed by the end of the war and are not reflected in the German High Command (OKW) statistics.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: According to a report published by the Reuters News Agency, on July 29 1945 highly confidential archives found at Flensburg, in the house of General Reinecke showed German losses up to November 30, 1944, as 3.6 million, detailed in the following schedule.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Percy Ernst Schramm was responsible for maintaining the official OKW diary during the war. In 1949 he published an article in the newspaper "Die Zeit", in which he listed OKW Casualty Figures these figures also appeared in a multi-volume edition of the OKW diaries.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Source of Figures: Percy Schramm Kriegstagebuch des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht: 1940—1945: 8 Bde. 1961


title: German casualties in World War II

text: 1-These statistics include losses of the Waffen SS as well as Volkssturm and paramilitary serving with the regular forces.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: 2-These statistics include casualties of the volunteer forces from the Soviet Union. 83,307 dead; 57,258 missing and 118,127 wounded.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Notes: Figures include Waffen SS, Austrians and conscripted ethnic Germans. Figures for missing include POW held by Allies. Source: "Statistisches Jahrbuch für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1960", Page 78


title: German casualties in World War II

text: In 1969, the West German military historian Burkhart Müller-Hillebrand published the third volume of his study of the German Army in World War II "Das Heer 1933–1945" that listed OKW casualty figures and his estimate of total German casualties. Müller-Hillebrand maintained that the OKW figures did not present an accurate accounting of German casualties because they understated losses in the final months of the war on the eastern front and post war deaths of POW in Soviet captivity. According to Müller-Hillebrand actual irrecoverable losses in the war were between 3.3 and 4.5 million men. Overall Müller-Hillebrand estimated the total dead and missing at 4.0 million men.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: The figure of 1,277,000 killed and missing from January 1 1945 - April 30 1945 was estimated by the U.S. Army in the 1947 report "German Manpower"


title: German casualties in World War II

text: The German historian Rüdiger Overmans in 2000 published the study "Deutsche militärische Verluste im Zweiten Weltkrieg" "(German Military Casualties in the Second World War)," which has provided a reassessment of German military war dead based on a statistical survey of German military personnel records. The financial support for the study came from a private foundation. When Overmans conducted his research project during 1992 to 1994 he was an officer in the German Armed Forces. Overmans was an associate of the German Armed Forces Military History Research Office from 1987 until 2004 and was on the faculty of the University of Freiburg from 1996 to 2001. In 1992 when Overmans began the project, German military dead in the war listed at the military search service Deutsche Dienststelle (WASt) were 4.3 million men (3.1 million confirmed dead and 1.2 missing and presumed dead). Since the collapse of communism previously classified documentation regarding German military casualties became available to German researchers.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: The research project involved taking a statistical sample of the confidential German military personnel records located at the (WASt). The project sought to determine total deaths and their cause, when and in which theatre of war the losses occurred as well as a demographic profile of the men who served in the war. Nineteen employees at Deutsche Dienststelle assisted in the survey. The personnel records included 3,070,000 men who were confirmed dead in the "Death Files" and another 15,200,000 men in the "General Files" who had served in the war including those listed as missing and presumed dead. The total sample pulled for the research consisted of the files of 4,844 personnel dead or missing in military service during the war: The first group 4,137 from Army, Air Force and 172 from Waffen SS and paramilitary organizations including (3,051 confirmed dead from the "Death Files" and another 1,258 found to be dead or missing in the "General Files") The Second Group of 535 men found to be dead or missing was selected from the separate Navy files. Overmans maintains that based on the size of the sample selected that there was a 99% confidence level that the results were accurate. The research by Overmans concluded in 2000 that the total German military dead and missing were 5,318,000. The results of the Overmans research project were published with the endorsement of the German Armed Forces Military History Research Office of the Federal Ministry of Defense (Germany).


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Of the 2 million presumed dead, Overmans believes 700,000 died in Soviet custody without being reported as POWs.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Overmans states that there is not sufficient data to break down the 1,230,045 deaths in the 1945 "final battles" in Germany between the Western Allied invasion of Germany and Eastern Front in 1945, although he estimates that 2/3 of these casualties can be attributed to the Eastern Front. This proportion (2/3 East vs. 1/3 West) contradicts the "Heeresarzt" weekly casualty reports for the army regarding the period from 1.1.-20.4.1945, according to which ca. 83% of the KIA and 87% of the WIA in the "final battles" occurred in the East.For the entire year 1945 Overmans puts total losses at 1,540,000 (1,230,045 in the final battles; 57,495 in other theaters and 252,188 POW). Overmans 1,230,045 figure for the "final battles" includes (1) killed, (2) missing, (3) otherwise deceased "without prisoners of war", as is differentiated on p. 272. The missing (697,319) does not include confirmed deaths in captivity, however on page 288 Overmans mentions 400,000 missing in the East in 1945 and states that this figure of missing was based on his finding that two thirds of deaths during the "final battles" occurred in the East of Germany. He further argues (p. 289) that about half of the 1,536,000 missing in the East between 1941 and 1945, according to his calculations, may well have died in Soviet captivity. On the other hand, Overmans states that "300,000 soldiers per month" (p. 275), "that is, 10,000 men per day" (p. 279, cf. p. 283, also stated in the introduction) actually died in 1945. Overall, Overmans estimates losses for the entire war on the Eastern front at 4 million and in the West 1 million.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Monthly German military casualties at point of death per Overmans study. (Not including living POWs still held.)


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Notes: Figures include Waffen SS, Austrians, conscripted ethnic Germans, Volkssturm, and other paramilitary forces. Figures do not include prisoners held by Allies. Prisoners held during the war are listed in a separate schedule below. Monthly figures do not add because of rounding.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Soviet sources reported that "In 1945 the German Army lost more than 1,000,000 men killed on the Soviet-German front alone."


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Figures do not include POW deaths of 363,000 in Soviet captivity; these losses were listed separately by Overmans.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: According to Overmans there are no reliable figures to breakout the national origin for the figure of 900,000 men of German ancestry conscripted into the Waffen-SS Overmans maintains that records of the Deutsche Dienststelle (WASt) surveyed only persons of German ancestry "deutsche nach Abstammung" However Polish sources maintain that during the war the Germans forcibly conscripted ethnic Poles into the German military. Professor Ryszard Kaczmarek of the University of Silesia in Katowice, author of a monograph titled "Polacy w Wehrmachcie" ("Poles in the Wehrmacht") noted that many Polish citizens in the Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany were forcibly conscripted in Upper Silesia and in Pomerania. They were declared citizens of the Third Reich by law and therefore subject to drumhead court-martial in case of draft evasion. A 1958 West German estimate put the military war dead of ethnic German(deutschen Bevölkerung) foreign nationals from east-central Europe in the German Armed Forces at 432,000 (Baltic States 15,000, Poland 108,000, Czechoslovakia 180,000, Hungary 32,000, Yugoslavia 40,000 and Romania 35,000)


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Overmans does not include Russian volunteers in the Wehrmacht in his figures, only persons of German ancestry (Deutsche nach Abstammung). According to Overmans there is no reliable data on losses of Soviet volunteers Russian military historian G. I. Krivosheev estimated losses in the Wehrmacht of volunteer formations and SS troops (Vlasovites, Balts, Muslims etc.) at 215,000. The statistics of the German High Command put casualties of the volunteer forces from the Soviet Union up until 1/31/1945 at: 83,307 dead; 57,258 missing and 118,127 wounded


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Overmans maintains that his research project taking a statistical sample of the records of the Deutsche Dienststelle (WASt) found that the German military casualty reporting system broke down during the war and that losses were understated. The following schedule compares the total dead and living POW according to Overmans at 12/31/1944 with the figures of the German High Command.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: See also: German prisoners of war in northwest Europe, German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union and German prisoners of war in the United States


title: German casualties in World War II

text: The fates of German prisoners of war have been a concern in post war Germany. By 1950 the Soviets reported that they had repatriated all German prisoners of war except a small number of convicted war criminals. During the cold war in West Germany there were claims that one million German prisoners of war were held in secret by the USSR. The West German government set up the Maschke Commission to investigate the fate of German POW in the war; in its report of 1974 the Maschke Commission found that about 1.2 million German military personnel reported as missing more than likely died as POWs, including 1.1 million in the USSR. Based on his research, Rüdiger Overmans believes that the deaths of 459,000 dead POWs can be confirmed in the files of Deutsche Dienststelle (WASt)(including 363,000 in the USSR). Overmans estimates the actual death toll of German POWs is about 1.1 million men (including 1.0 million in the USSR); he maintains that among those reported as missing were men who actually died as prisoners. Data from the Soviet Archives published by G. I. Krivosheev put the deaths in the USSR of German POWs at 450,600 including 356,700 in NKVD camps and 93,900 in transit. After the collapse of communism, data from the Soviet Archives became available concerning the deaths of German POWs in the USSR. In recent years there has been a joint Russian-German project to investigate the fate of POWs in the war.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: According to the records of the western Allies 2.8 million German soldiers surrendered on the Western Front between D-day and the end of April 1945; 1.3 million between D-day and March 31, 1945,; and 1.5 million of them in the month of April. From early March these surrenders seriously weakened the Wehrmacht in the West, and made further surrenders more likely, thus having a snowballing effect. On March 27 Eisenhower declared at a press conference that the enemy were a whipped army . In March the daily rate of POWs taken on the Western Front was 10,000; in the first 14 days of April it rose to 39,000 and in the last 16 days the average peaked at 59,000 soldiers captured each day. The number of prisoners taken in the west in March and April was over 1,800,000, more than double the 800,000 German soldiers who surrendered to the Russians in the last three or four months of the war. One reason for this huge difference, possibly the most important, was that German forces facing the Red Army tended to fight to the end for fear of Soviet captivity whereas German forces facing the Western Allies tended to surrender without putting up much if any resistance. Accordingly, the number of German killed and wounded was much higher in the East than in the West.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: . The total haul of German POWs held by the Western Allies by April 30, 1945, in all theatres of war was over 3,150,000, rising in NW Europe to 7,614,790 after the end of the war.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: It is worth noting that the allied armies which captured the 2.8 million German soldiers up to April 30, 1945, while Adolf Hitler was still alive and resisting as hard as he could, comprised at their peak 88 divisions, with a peak strength in May 1945 of 2,639,377 in the US and 1,095,744 in the British and Canadian forces. The casualties suffered by the Western Allies in making this contribution to the defeat of the Wehrmacht were relatively light, 164,590–195,576 killed/missing, 537,590 wounded, and 78,680 taken prisoner, a total loss of 780,860 to 811,846 to inflict a loss of 2.8 million prisoners on the German army. The number of dead and wounded on both sides was about equal. This, plus the fact that most surrenders occurred in April 1945, suggests that (unlike on the Eastern Front (World War II), where the number of German killed and wounded far exceeded the number of prisoners taken by the Soviets), most German soldiers who surrendered to the Western Allies did so without a fight. For instance, in the battle of the Ruhr Pocket, there were about 10,000 fatalities on the German side (including prisoners of war in German captivity, foreign forced laborers, Volkssturm militia and unarmed civilians), whereas about 317,000 Germans surrendered. ""Many a German walked mile after mile before finding an American not too occupied with other duties to bother to accept his surrender."" For comparison, in the Battle of Halbe on the Eastern Front from 24 April to 1 May 1945, over 30,000 German soldiers, out of a much smaller number encircled, were killed fighting the Red Army.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Source of figures-Rüdiger Overmans, "Soldaten hinter Stacheldraht. Deutsche Kriegsgefangene des Zweiten Weltkrieges." Page 246.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Source:Rüdiger Overmans "Soldaten hinter Stacheldraht. Deutsche Kriegsgefangene des Zweiten Weltkriege". Ullstein Taschenbuch vlg., 2002 Pages 272-273


title: German casualties in World War II

text: The Russian military historian G. I. Krivosheev has published figures for the casualties on all fronts compiled by the German High Command up until April 30 1945 based on captured German records in the Soviet Archives.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Krivosheev gave a separate set of statistics that put losses at 2,230,000 Killed; 2,400,000 missing and 5,240,000 wounded.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: According to Krivosheev "The figures in the Wehrmacht documents relating to Germany's war losses are therefore contradictory and unreliable."


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Based on Soviet sources Krivosheev put German losses on the Eastern Front from 1941-1945 at 6,923,700 men: includingkilled 4,137,100, taken prisoner 2,571,600 and 215,000 dead among Russian volunteers in the Wehrmacht. Deaths of POW were 450,600 including 356,700 in NKVD camps and 93,900 in transit.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Soviet sources claimed that "In 1945 the German Army lost more than 1,000,000 men killed on the Soviet-German front alone."


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Estimated figures for German World War II casualties are divergent and contradictory. The authors of the "Oxford Companion to World War II" maintain that "casualty statistics are notoriously unreliable" The following is a list of published statistics for German casualties in World War II.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: According to the report of General George Marshall issued in 1945 the "breakdown of German and Italian losses against American, British, and French forces" in the war in Europe was as follows:


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Source of figures: Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army to the Secretary of War : July 1, 1943, to June 30, 1945


title: German casualties in World War II

text: (A) 252,415 Germans and Italians were captured in Tunisia According to the Imperial War Museum Following the Italian surrender in 1943, 100,000 Italians volunteered to work as 'co-operators'. They were given considerable freedom and mixed with local people. Italian fascist forces fought in the Italian campaign until the end of the war with the Italian Social Republic


title: German casualties in World War II

text: The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army issued in 1945 also estimated Japanese "battle dead" at 1.219 million. Marshall's figures of enemy battle deaths are juxtaposed with deaths in the US Army only, suggesting that the losses of Japanese naval forces are not included. Japanese government figures from 2003 put their military war dead at 2.3 million. According to the Japanese Relief Bureau of the Ministry of Health and Welfare in March 1964, a total of 2,121,000 Japanese servicemen perished in WWII. Of these 1,647,200 were in the army and 473,800 were in the naval forces. Of the army dead a total of 1,456,500 occurred on the battlefronts that Marshall's figures refer to (Southern Pacific, Central Pacific, India-Burma, China and Aleutians.) Marshall's figure for China is much lower than that of the Relief Bureau (126,000 vs. 435,600), but for the theaters where Japanese forces confronted American and British Empire forces the sum of Marshall's figures (1,093,000) is slightly higher than the sum of the Relief Bureau's figures for these theaters (1,020,900).


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Based on information available in January 1946, the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. put German military dead at 3,250,000. According to Gregory Frumkin this presumably referred to aggregate German forces including those conscripted outside the 1937 German borders.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: In 1951, Gregory Frumkin, who was throughout its existence the editor of the Statistical Year Book of the League of Nations, provided an assessment of German military losses based on a demographic analysis of the European population from 1939 to 1947. Frumkin put total German military dead and missing at 3,975,000: Germany (1937 borders) 3,500,000; Austria 230,000; 200,000 Sudeten Germans from Czechoslovakia; 40,000 from France, 3,700 from the Netherlands; 700 from Norway and 398 from Denmark.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: The West German government in November 1949, based on an analysis of the population balance for Germany within its 1937 borders, put German military losses at 3,250,000: 1,650,000 killed and 1,600,000 missing. Figures exclude Austria and conscripted ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe


title: German casualties in World War II

text: A demographic analysis of the population balance by the West German government in 1960 put the total military losses of the Wehrmacht at 4,440,000; 3,760,000 for Germany (1937 borders); 430,000 conscripted ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe and 250,000 from Austria.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Official statistics published by the West German government 1956 put the death toll due to air raids at 635,000. However, estimates from other sources tend to be lower, ranging from 305,000 to 500,000 persons killed by Allied bombing of German cities.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: The schedule below details the statistics published by the West German government 1956. They estimated 635,000 total deaths, 500,000 due to the strategic bombing of Germany and an additional 135,000 killed in air raids during the 1945 flight and evacuations on the eastern front. The civilian deaths in the air raids on eastern Front after 1/31/1945 are also included with the figures of the losses during the Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)


title: German casualties in World War II

text: 1-The summary report of September 30, 1945 put total casualties for the entire period of the war at 305,000 killed and 780,000 wounded.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: 2- The section "Effects of Strategic Bombing on the German War Economy" of October 31, 1945 put the losses at 375,000 killed and 625,000 wounded


title: German casualties in World War II

text: 3-The section "The Effect of Bombing on Health and Medical Care in Germany" of January 1947 made a preliminary calculated estimate of air raid dead at 422,000 According to the report "no complete and accurate figures on German civilian air raid casualties, covering the entire period of the war, are available". The authors maintain that the German figures for 1940 through 1943 of 111,000 killed was generally correct and that their estimate of 311,000 dead for the years 1944 and 1945 was based on the tons of bombs dropped and the population size of the cities bombed. Regarding overall losses they concluded that "It was further estimated that an additional number, approximately 25% of known deaths in 1944 and 1945, were still unrecovered and unrecorded. With an addition of this estimate of 1944 and 1945 unrecorded deaths, the final estimation gave in round numbers a half a million German civilians killed by Allied aerial attacks"


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Historian Richard Overy in 2014 published a study of the air war "The Bombers and the Bombed: Allied Air War Over Europe 1940-1945" in which he disputed the official German figures of air war dead. He estimated total air raid deaths at 353,000. The main points of Overy's analysis are as follows.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: The West German government in made a rough estimate in 1956 of 20,000 civilians killed during the 1945 military campaign in current post war German borders, not including the former German territories in Poland. However, there is a more recent estimate of 22,000 civilians killed during the fighting in Berlin only. Not included in these figures are civilians who died in the fighting and atrocities in East-Prussia (Konigsberg, Pillau), Pommerania (Danzig, Kolberg) and Silesia (Breslau). The losses of civilians from East-Central Europe in the 1945 are included with the expulsion dead, the German Archives report of 1974 estimated 150,000 violent deaths of civilians in East-Central Europe during the 1945 military campaign.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: The West German government put the number of Germans killed by the Nazi political, racial and religious persecution at 300,000 (including 160,000 German Jews)


title: German casualties in World War II

text: A 2003 report by the German Federal Archive put the total murdered during the Action T4 Euthanasia program at over 200,000 persons. Previously it was reported that 70,000 persons were murdered in the euthanasia program, recent research in the archives of the former East Germany indicate that the number of victims in Germany and Austria was about 200,000.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: The Soviets set up NKVD special camps in the Soviet-occupied parts of Germany and areas east of the Oder-Neisse line to intern Germans accused of alleged ties to the Nazis, or because they were hindering the establishment of Stalinism in East Germany. Between 122,000 and 150,000 were detained and at least 43,000 did not survive.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Civilian deaths, due to the flight and expulsion of Germans and the forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union, are sometimes included with World War II casualties. During the Cold War, the West German government estimated the death toll at 2.225 million in the wartime evacuations, forced labor in the Soviet Union as well as the post war expulsions. This figure was to remain unchallenged until the 1990s when some German historians put the actual death toll in the expulsions at 500,000 confirmed deaths listed in a 1965 German Red Cross study. The German Historical Museum puts the figure at 600,000 dead; they maintain the figure of 2 million expulsion deaths cannot be supported. However, the position of the German government, the German Federal Agency for Civic Education and the German Red Cross is that the death toll in the expulsions is between 2.0 and 2.5 million civilians. The German historian Rüdiger Overmans maintains that there are more arguments for a lower figure of 500,000 rather than the higher figures of over 2.0 million. He believes that the previous studies by the German government should be subject to critical revision and new research is needed to establish the actual number of expulsion deaths.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Estimated total German population losses (in 1937 German borders) directly related to the war range between 5.5 to 6.9 million persons. These figures do not include ethnic Germans from other nations in the German military and ethnic German civilians who were killed in expulsions. In 1956 the West German government figures in the table below list an estimated about 5.5 million deaths (military and civilian) directly caused by the war within the borders of 1937. A study by the German demographer Peter Marschalck put the total deaths directly related to the war both military and civilians at 5.2 million, plus an estimated decline in births of 1.7 million, bringing total population losses related to the war at 6.9 million persons within the borders of 1937. There were additional deaths of the ethnic Germans outside of Germany in Eastern Europe, men conscripted during the war and ethnic German civilian deaths during post war expulsions.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: In 2005 the German government Suchdienste (Search Service) put the total combined German military and civilian war dead at 7,375,800, including ethnic Germans outside of Germany and Austrians. This figure includes 4.3 million military dead and missing, 500,000 killed by strategic bombing, 300,000 victims of Nazi political, racial and religious persecution, 2,251,500 civilian dead in expulsions and 24,300 Austrian civilians.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: The Austrian government provides the following information on human losses during the rule of the Nazis.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: In 1958 the West German government statistical office put the losses of the ethnic Germans at 1,318,000 (886,000 civilians in the expulsions and 411,000 in the German military and 22,000 in the Hungarian and Romanian military) The research of Rüdiger Overmans puts military losses of ethnic Germans at 534,000Ingo Haar points out that of the 886,000 estimated civilian dead from east Europe only about 170,000 deaths have been confirmed; the balance are considered unsolved cases.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: In post-war Germany the fate of civilians and prisoners of war has been a contentious topic. The current view of the German government is that these losses were due to an aggressive war started by the German nation. However, there are fringe groups who attempt to trivialize the crimes of the Hitler period by comparing German losses to the Holocaust.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: The bombing of Dresden and the bombing campaign in general has been a topic of discussion in post-war Germany. Amongst others, the German historian Wolfgang Benz believes that the use of the term "Bombing Holocaust" runs contrary to historical fact. The German government currently places the ultimate blame for the mass flight and expulsion on the wartime policy of the Nazis in Eastern Europe. There are those like Heinz Nawratil who try to equate the expulsions from Eastern Europe with the Holocaust. The German historian Martin Broszat (former head of Institute of Contemporary History in Munich) described Nawratil's writings as "polemics with a nationalist-rightist point of view", and that Nawratil "exaggerates in an absurd manner the scale of 'expulsion crimes'". The Federation of Expellees has represented the interests of Germans from Eastern Europe. Erika Steinbach, the current President of the Federation, provoked outrage when she supported the statements of other members of the expellee organization claiming that Hitler's attack on Poland was a response to Poland's policy. The Federation of Expellees initiated the formation of the Center Against Expulsions. The former President of Germany Joachim Gauck and the former German chancellor Angela Merkel have voiced support for the Center Against Expulsions. However, in Poland it is viewed by some as an attempt to reopen the wounds of the war and to revert to pre-war borders.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: The fate of over one million missing German soldiers in the USSR was an issue in post-war West Germany, with some claiming that they were held in secret labor camps by the Soviets. It is now known that they did not survive the war, Rüdiger Overmans believes that more than likely they died in Soviet custody.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: James Bacque, a Canadian author with no previous historical research experience, has written a book "Other Losses" in which he claims that the United States are responsible for the deaths of 800,000 to 1,000,000 German POW. Based on his own research Bacque claims that documents from the US Archives show that there were 800,000 German POW who did not survive US captivity. Bacque alleges that General Eisenhower and the US military deliberately withheld support for the German POW, causing their deaths. Bacque presents his arguments with a description of the horrific conditions at the Rheinwiesenlager POW camps and eyewitness accounts of retired US military officers. Bacque maintains that there has been a conspiracy by the United States to cover up these losses. Bacque's book received wide attention when it was first published in 1989, since then his claims have been challenged by historians who have found his thesis to be unsubstantiated. The US military historian Stephen Ambrose was co-editor of the book "Eisenhower and the German POWs" in which he refutes Bacque's claims. Ambrose maintains that the figure of 800,000 POW missing from the US records was a bookkeeping error, that many POW were released and no records were maintained. Ambrose points out that the US and the UK had to cope with a major logistical problem in order to maintain the huge number of surrendered German personnel and finds the claim that Eisenhower and the US military deliberately withheld support for the German POW to be without merit. Rüdiger Overmans believes that "on the basis of factual individual data, shown before, the thesis of the Canadian James Bacque cannot be supported".


title: German casualties in World War II

text: A humanitarian organisation, known as (), is directed by the Federal Republic of Germany to record all the German fallen soldiers and maintain their graveyards abroad in 46 countries. The organisation was founded on 16 December 1919 to look after the World War I soldiers' graves. Later on, it commenced to track German casualties again starting from 1946 after the World War II. Currently, the commission runs an online database in which soldiers' family can search for the missing relatives.


title: German casualties in World War II

text: Estimates indicate that at least 40,000 war casualties are found a year. The commission has already built more than 300 cemeteries from World War II and 190 from World War I all over Europe.


title: Huevos rancheros

text: Huevos rancheros (, 'ranch-style eggs') is a breakfast dish consisting of eggs served in the style of the traditional large mid-morning fare on rural Mexican farms.


title: Huevos rancheros

text: The basic dish consists of fried eggs served on lightly fried or charred corn or flour tortillas topped with a pico de gallo made of tomatoes, chili peppers, onion, and cilantro. Common accompaniments include refried beans, Mexican-style rice, and guacamole or slices of avocado, with cilantro as a garnish.


title: Huevos rancheros

text: As the dish spread beyond Mexico, variations using wheat flour tortillas instead of corn, and pureed chili or enchilada sauce instead of tomato-chili pico de gallo, have appeared. Non-Mexican additions such as cheese, sour cream, and lettuce also have become common additions beyond the dish's native range.


title: Huevos rancheros

text: "Huevos divorciados" (divorced eggs) are simply two eggs served in the same style as huevos rancheros but with a different sauce for each egg – usually a salsa roja and a salsa verde.


title: Huevos rancheros

text: Another variation, "huevos ahogados" or drowned eggs, is a traditional Mexican breakfast of eggs poached in a tomato-chile salsa.


title: Mary Martin

text: Mary Virginia Martin (December 1, 1913 – November 3, 1990) was an American actress and singer. A muse of Rodgers and Hammerstein, she originated many leading roles on stage over her career, including Nellie Forbush in "South Pacific" (1949), the title character in "Peter Pan" (1954), and Maria von Trapp in "The Sound of Music" (1959). She was named a Kennedy Center Honoree in 1989. She was the mother of actor Larry Hagman.


title: Mary Martin

text: Martin was born in Weatherford, Texas. Her autobiography described her childhood as secure and happy. She had close relationships with both of her parents as well as her siblings. As a young actress Martin had an instinctive ear for recreating musical sounds.


title: Mary Martin

text: Martin's father, Preston Martin, was a lawyer, and her mother, Juanita Presley, was a violin teacher. Although the doctors told Juanita that she would risk her life if she attempted to have another baby, she was determined to have a boy. Instead, she had Mary, who later obliged by becoming quite a tomboy.


title: Mary Martin

text: Martin's family had a barn and orchard that kept her entertained. She played with her elder sister Geraldine (whom she called "Sister"), climbing trees and riding ponies. Martin adored her father. "He was tall, good-looking, silver-haired, with the kindest brown eyes. Mother was the disciplinarian, but it was Daddy who could turn me into an angel with just one look." Martin, who said "I'd never understand the law" began singing at a bandstand, outside the courtroom where her father worked every Saturday night. She sang in a trio with her sister and Marion Swofford, all three in bellhop costumes. "Even in those days, without microphones, my high piping voice carried all over the square. I have always thought that I inherited my carrying voice from my father."


title: Mary Martin

text: She remembered having a photographic memory as a child. School tests were not a problem, and learning songs was easy. She got her first taste of singing solo at a fire hall, where she soaked up the crowd's appreciation. "Sometimes I think that I cheated my own family and my closest friends by giving to audiences so much of the love I might have kept for them. But that's the way I was made; I truly don't think I could help it." Martin's craft was developed by seeing movies and becoming a mimic. She would win prizes for looking, acting and dancing like Ruby Keeler and singing exactly like Bing Crosby. "Never, never, never can I say I had a frustrating childhood. It was all joy. Mother used to say she never had seen such a happy child — that I awakened each morning with a smile. I don't remember that, but I do remember that I never wanted to go to bed, to go to sleep, for fear I'd miss something."


title: Mary Martin

text: During high school, Martin dated Benjamin Hagman before she left to attend finishing school at Ward–Belmont in Nashville, Tennessee. In Nashville she enjoyed imitating Fanny Brice at singing gigs, but she found school dull and felt confined by its strict rules. She was homesick for Weatherford, her family and Hagman. During a visit, Mary and Benjamin persuaded Mary's mother to allow them to marry. She was legally married on November 3, 1930, at Grace Episcopal Church (Hopkinsville, Kentucky). 10 months later, pregnant with her first child (Larry Hagman) she was forced to leave Ward–Belmont. She was, however, happy to begin her new life, but she soon learned that this life as she would later say was nothing but "role playing".


title: Mary Martin

text: Their honeymoon was at her parents' house, and Martin's dream of life with a family and a white-picket fence faded. "I was 17, a married woman without real responsibilities, miserable about my mixed-up emotions, afraid there was something awfully wrong with me because I didn't enjoy being a wife. Worst of all, I didn't have enough to do." (p. 39) It was "Sister" who came to her rescue, suggesting that she should teach dance. "Sister" taught Martin her first real dance—the waltz clog. Martin perfectly imitated her first dance move, and she opened a dance studio. Here, she created her own moves, imitated the famous dancers she watched in the movies and taught "Sister's" waltz clog. As she later recalled, "I was doing something I wanted to do—creating."


title: Mary Martin

text: Wanting to learn more moves, Martin went to California to attend the dance school at the Franchon and Marco School of the Theatre and then opened her own dance studio in Mineral Wells, Texas. She was given a ballroom studio with the premise that she would sing in the lobby every Saturday. There, she learned how to sing into a microphone and how to phrase blues songs. One day at work, she accidentally walked into the wrong room, where auditions were being held. They asked her in what key she would like to sing "How Red the Rose, How Blue the Sky". Having absolutely no idea what her key was, she sang regardless and got the job.


title: Mary Martin

text: Returning to California, Martin was hired to sing "How Red the Rose" at the Fox Theater in San Francisco followed by a gig at the Paramount Theater in Los Angeles. There was one catch: she had to sing in the wings. She scored her first professional gig unaware that she would soon be center stage.


title: Mary Martin

text: Soon after, Martin learned that her studio in Texas had been burned down by a man who thought dancing was a sin. She began to express her unhappiness. Her father gave her advice, saying she was too young to be married. Martin left everything behind including her young son, Larry, and stayed in Los Angeles while her father handled her divorce from Benjamin Hagman for her. In Los Angeles, Martin plunged herself into auditions—so many that she became known as "Audition Mary". Her first professional audition and job was on a national radio network. Among Martin's first auditions, she sang "Indian Love Call". After she finished the song, "a tall, craggly man who looked like a mountain" told Martin that he thought she had something special. It was Oscar Hammerstein II This marked the start of her career.


title: Mary Martin

text: Martin began her radio career in 1939 as the vocalist on a short-lived revival of "The Tuesday Night Party" on CBS. In 1940, she was a singer on NBC's "Good News of 1940", which was renamed "Maxwell House Coffee Time" during that year. In 1942, she joined the cast of Kraft Music Hall on NBC, replacing Connie Boswell. She was also one of the stars of "Stage Door Canteen" on CBS, 1942–1945.


title: Mary Martin

text: Martin was cast in Cole Porter's "Leave It to Me!", making her Broadway debut in November 1938 in that production. She became popular on Broadway and received attention in the national media singing "My Heart Belongs to Daddy". With that one song in the second act, she became a star 'overnight'. Martin reprised the song in "Night and Day", a Hollywood film about Cole Porter, in which she played herself auditioning for Porter (Cary Grant). "My Heart Belongs to Daddy" catapulted her career and became very special to Martin—she even sang it to her ailing father in his hospital bed while he was in a coma. Martin did not learn immediately that her father had died. Headlines read "Daddy Girl Sings About Daddy as Daddy Dies". Because of the show's demanding schedule, Martin was unable to attend her father's funeral. In 1943 she starred in the new Kurt Weill musical "One Touch of Venus" and then "Lute Song" in 1946.


title: Mary Martin

text: As nurse Nellie Forbush, Martin opened on Broadway in "South Pacific" on April 7, 1949. Her performance was called "memorable ... funny and poignant in turns", and she earned a Tony Award.


title: Mary Martin

text: Richard Watts Jr. of the "New York Post" wrote: "nothing I have ever seen her do prepared me for the loveliness, humor, gift for joyous characterization, and sheer lovableness of her portrayal of Nellie Forbush ... Hers is a completely irresistible performance." She opened in the West End production on November 1, 1951.


title: Mary Martin

text: Her next major success was in the role of Peter in the Broadway production of "Peter Pan" in October 1954 with Martin winning the Tony Award.


title: Mary Martin

text: Martin opened on Broadway in "The Sound of Music" as Maria on November 16, 1959, and stayed in the show until October 1961. She won the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical. The musical gave Martin "the chance to display her homespun charm".


title: Mary Martin

text: In 1966, she appeared on Broadway in the two-person musical "I Do! I Do!" with Robert Preston and was nominated for the Tony Award (Leading Actress in a Musical). A national tour with Preston began in March 1968 but was canceled early due to Martin's illness.


title: Mary Martin

text: Although she appeared in nine films between 1938 and 1943, she was generally passed over for the filmed version of the musical plays. She herself once explained that she did not enjoy making films because she did not have the connection with an audience that she had in live performances. The closest that she ever came to preserving her stage performances was her television appearances as "Peter Pan". The Broadway production from 1954 was subsequently performed on NBC television in RCA's compatible color in 1955, 1956, and 1960. Martin also preserved her 1957 stage performance as Annie Oakley in "Annie Get Your Gun" when NBC television broadcast the production live that year.


title: Mary Martin

text: While Martin did not enjoy making films, she apparently did enjoy appearing on television as she did frequently. Her last feature film appearance was a cameo as herself in MGM's "Main Street to Broadway" in 1953. Martin made an appearance in 1980 in a Royal Variety Performance in London performing "Honeybun" from "South Pacific." Martin appeared in the play "Legends" with Carol Channing in a one-year US national tour opening in Dallas on January 9, 1986.


title: Mary Martin

text: Martin was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame in 1973. She received the Kennedy Center Honors, an annual honor for career achievements, in 1989. She received the Donaldson Award in 1943 for "One Touch of Venus". A Special Tony Award was presented to her in 1948 while she appeared in the national touring company of "Annie Get Your Gun" for "spreading theatre to the rest of the country while the originals perform in New York." In 1955 and 1956, she received, first, a Tony Award for "Peter Pan", and then an Emmy for appearing in the same role on television. She also received Tonys for "South Pacific" and in 1959 for "The Sound of Music".


title: Mary Martin

text: After Martin's 1936 divorce from Benjamin Hagman, she married Richard Halliday in 1940. Early in their marriage, he worked as a drama critic for the "New York World-Telegram" and a movie critic for the "New York Daily News". Eventually, Halliday became producer or co-producer of at least two of Martin's projects. In the early 1970s, the couple lived, according to his March 1973 obituary in the "Connecticut Sunday Herald", "on a vast ranch they own near Anápolis" in the state of Goiás, Brazil. The ranch was called "Nossa Fazenda Halliday" (Our Halliday Farm).


title: Mary Martin

text: Cultural scholar Lillian Faderman wrote that Martin and actress Janet Gaynor often traveled together along with Halliday and with Gaynor's husband.


title: Mary Martin

text: On the evening of September 5, 1982, Martin, Janet Gaynor, Gaynor's husband Paul Gregory, and Martin's manager Ben Washer were involved in a serious car crash in San Francisco.


title: Mary Martin

text: A van ran a red light at the corner of California and Franklin streets and crashed into the Luxor taxicab in which the group was riding, knocking it into a tree. Washer was killed, Martin sustained two broken ribs and a broken pelvis, and Gaynor's husband suffered two broken legs. Gaynor sustained several serious injuries. The driver of the van was arrested on two counts of felony drunk driving, reckless driving, speeding, running a red light, and vehicular homicide. On March 15, 1983, he was found guilty of drunk driving and vehicular homicide and was sentenced to three years in prison. Gaynor died two years later from complications from her injuries.


title: Mary Martin

text: Martin died of cancer four weeks before her 77th birthday at her home in Rancho Mirage, California, on November 3, 1990.


title: Inspector George Gently

text: Inspector George Gently (also known as George Gently for the pilot and first series) is a 2008 British television crime drama series produced by Company Pictures for BBC One, set in the 1960s and loosely based on some of the Inspector Gently novels written by Alan Hunter. The series stars Martin Shaw as the eponymous inspector and Lee Ingleby as Detective Sergeant John Bacchus, with Simon Hubbard and Lisa McGrillis in supporting roles as police constables in the fictitious North East Constabulary.


title: Inspector George Gently

text: The series moved the setting of the stories to North East England, centring on Newcastle upon Tyne, Northumberland, and County Durham, as opposed to the Norfolk setting in the books. The death penalty is still in effect in Britain as the series begins, and it is used as a plot feature in some early episodes. The abolition of the death penalty in 1965 is noted in the series. The earliest episodes are set in 1964 with the eighth series taking place in 1970.


title: Inspector George Gently

text: After fair ratings for the first three series, the BBC secured funding from the North East Content Fund to produce further episodes. The fourth series was filmed between January and June 2011, and was broadcast that autumn. On 26 March 2012, the BBC announced that four new feature-length episodes were being produced to be shown later the same year. The fifth series ended on a dramatic cliffhanger, with the fate of both leading characters uncertain. However, in September 2012, the lead writer, Peter Flannery, confirmed that a sixth series, consisting of four episodes, had been commissioned. The sixth series was shown in February 2014. A seventh series of four episodes was subsequently commissioned, and began being broadcast in April 2015. The eighth and final series was broadcast in 2017.


title: Inspector George Gently

text: Filming for the eighth series began in January 2017. It was subsequently confirmed that this would be the final series, and it would comprise two feature-length episodes, set in 1970, written as a way to "close" the series. Company Pictures CEO Michele Buck commented: "We felt the character was coming to a natural end, and wanted to bring the audience an ambitious and exciting conclusion to such a well-loved show." Episode Two was originally set to air on 28 May 2017, but was postponed due to its proximity to the general election in the UK, given that the storyline – not confirmed at the time – dealt with a controversial politician.


title: Con te partirò

text: "Con te partirò" (; "With You I Shall Depart") is an Italian song written by Francesco Sartori (music) and Lucio Quarantotto (lyrics). It was first performed by Andrea Bocelli at the 1995 Sanremo Music Festival and recorded on his album of the same year, "Bocelli". The single was first released as an A-side single with "Vivere" in 1995, topping the charts, first in France, where it became one of the best-selling singles of all-time, and then in Belgium, breaking the all-time record sales there.


title: Con te partirò

text: A second version of the song, sung partly in English, released in 1996 as "Time to Say Goodbye", paired Bocelli with British soprano Sarah Brightman, and achieved even greater success, topping charts all across Europe, including Germany, where it became the biggest-selling single in history. Brightman and Bocelli produced a version with Brightman singing in German and Bocelli in Italian, with this version being available on the CD "Time to Say Goodbye". That version alone has now sold more than 12 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling singles of all time.


title: Con te partirò

text: Bocelli also recorded a full Spanish version of the song in 1997, titled "Por ti volaré" ("For You I Will Fly").


title: Con te partirò

text: The song's original single release by Polydor Records was not commercially successful in Italy, and received little radio airplay there. Elsewhere, however, it was a massive hit. In France and Switzerland, the single topped the charts for six weeks, earning a triple Gold sales award. In Belgium, it became the biggest hit of all-time, spending 12 weeks at No. 1.


title: Con te partirò

text: Pan-European magazine "Music & Media" wrote about the song, "The Benelux triumph of poppy tenor Andrea Bocelli continues with this excellent seasonal anthem, which wisely leaves the singers classically trained voice in the spotlight. The orchestral arrangements take a back seat, as they should in Bocelli's case." After Sarah Brightman released her version, Larry Flick from "Billboard" stated that she "has one of the truly glorious voices in musical theater". He described the song as a "lushly orchestral piece". British magazine "Music Week" rated the duet version five out of five, picking it as Single of the Week. They added, "Mostly sung in Italian, it has a beautiful, soaring melody that gives it true Nessun Dorma potential."


title: Con te partirò

text: In Germany, East West Records, in conjunction with Polydor, marketed a lyrically-changed version of "Con te partirò", retitled "Time to Say Goodbye", as the theme song for the final match of boxer Henry Maske (then the light-heavyweight champion of the International Boxing Federation), having seen previous success when Vangelis's "Conquest of Paradise" was also promoted via Maske's fights. "Time to Say Goodbye" was also turned into a duet with Sarah Brightman, who had performed "A Question of Honour" for one of Maske's previous fights. German producer Frank Peterson, who has worked with Brightman since 1991, opted to give the song an English title rather than the German title "Mit dir werde ich fortgehen". Recording of the song took place at Peterson's Nemo Studio, in Hamburg.


title: Con te partirò

text: The match took place on 23 November 1996, pitting Maske against American Virgil Hill, and drew a television broadcast audience of over 21 million. Bocelli and Brightman performed the song to open the match, and it was used again during Maske's exit.


title: Con te partirò

text: By December, the "Time to Say Goodbye" single, released on 15 November 1996 through East West, had reached number one on the German singles chart, with sales estimated at 40,000–60,000 per day and projected for at least one million by the end of the year. Both singers' albums also received a boost in sales. Airplay on German radio stations such as Norddeutscher Rundfunk was well received by listeners. By February of the following year, the single had broken the all-time sales record in Germany with 1.65 million sales, and would eventually get certified 11x Gold for selling over 2,750,000 copies.


title: Con te partirò

text: "Time to Say Goodbye" reached number two on the UK Singles Chart upon its release there in May 1997, and was certified Gold. It remained in the top 30 for another two months, helped by steady radio airplay on BBC Radio 2, which was overtaking Radio 1 in popularity with an MOR-orientated playlist.


title: Con te partirò

text: The duet was included on Brightman's 1997 album "Timeless", re-titled as "Time to Say Goodbye" in the U.S. with the song itself moved to the start of the album. Brightman has also recorded a solo version, which was released on the duet single as well as later albums including "Classics" and "Diva: The Singles Collection". A live version was released on "" CD as well as her various tour DVDs. Bocelli and Brightman have performed the duet together publicly several times including Bocelli's "Statue of Liberty concert" held in New York City, and "Live in Tuscany" concerts.


title: Con te partirò

text: "I Will Go with You (Con te partirò)", is a dance version performed by American singer Donna Summer, which went to number one on the US dance chart. Her version also peaked at number two on the Spanish singles charts and number three on the Spanish Radio chart. As of 1999, it has sold over 221,000 units in the United States.


title: Con te partirò

text: Chuck Taylor from "Billboard" wrote that the song is a "deliciously grand interpretation of the smash Andrea Bocelli/Sarah Brightman ballad "Time To Say Goodbye"-replete with romantic new lyrics. Summer is in peak vocal form, alternating between technically sharp note-scaling and warmly soulful vamping." He also added that she is "complemented by clubland hero Hex Hector's well-measured production, which couples melodramatic faux-classical string flourishes with time-sensitive dance beats."


title: Con te partirò

text: Since its release, the song has spawned numerous other versions and been performed by numerous other singers. Notable alternative versions include "Por ti volaré", a Spanish version with significantly modified lyrics.


title: Con te partirò

text: Although the song is most associated with sporting events, it has featured frequently in film and television and is a favourite concert item. It is also a very popular piece for funerals.


title: Grid (South Korean TV series)

text: Grid () is South Korean streaming television series starring Seo Kang-joon, Kim Ah-joong, Kim Mu-yeol, Kim Sung-kyun, and Lee Si-young. It premiered on Disney+ on February 16, 2022 for Asia-pacific subscribers.


title: Grid (South Korean TV series)

text: A mystery tracking thriller of the General Affairs Bureau and detectives digging into the truth about the mysterious existence that saved mankind in crisis.


title: Grid (South Korean TV series)

text: The series is directed by Khan Lee, director of films such as "Desert Dream" (2007), and written by Lee Soo-eun, who wrote the series "Life" (2018) and the famous legal drama "Stranger". It is produced by Ace Factory, Arc Media, and an original series for the Disney Streaming platform including Disney+'s Star Hub and Hulu.


title: Matt Monro

text: Matt Monro (born Terence Edward Parsons, 1 December 1930 – 7 February 1985) was an English singer. Known as "The Man with the Golden Voice", he performed internationally during his 30-year career. AllMusic has described Monro as "one of the most underrated pop vocalists of the '60s", who "possessed the easiest, most perfect baritone in the business".


title: Matt Monro

text: His recordings include the UK Top 10 hits: "Portrait of My Love", "My Kind of Girl", "Softly As I Leave You", "Walk Away" and "Yesterday" (originally by The Beatles). He also recorded several film themes such as "From Russia with Love" for the eponymous James Bond film, "Born Free" for the eponymous film and "On Days Like These" for "The Italian Job".


title: Matt Monro

text: Monro was born Terence Edward Parsons on 1 December 1930 in Finsbury, north London, to Frederick and Alice Parsons. He had three brothers — Arthur, Reg and Harry — and a sister, Alice. He attended Duncombe School in Islington, and Elliott School, Putney.


title: Matt Monro

text: Monro had a difficult childhood. His father died when he was three and after his mother became ill, he was fostered out for two years. Leaving school at 14, he tried a succession of jobs without remaining in any of them for very long, before National Service beckoned in 1948. Monro became a tank driving instructor in the British armed forces and was posted to Hong Kong. He had sung in public from an early age, for example at the Tufnell Park Palais, and in Hong Kong he took to entering local talent contests, winning several. In fact, he became a regular guest (and frequent winner) of Radio Rediffusion's "Talent Time" show in Hong Kong. He was invited by then-host Ray Cordeiro to perform in his own one-off show entitled "Terry Parsons Sings," on the condition that he would bow out of future "Talent Time" episodes to make way for others. Agreeing to the deal, he performed his first on-air concert for Rediffusion on 27 June 1953.


title: Matt Monro

text: Following his discharge from the Army after five years, he returned to London, to try to make a career out of singing. Initially he had little success and was obliged to take on a number of different jobs to supplement his meagre income from the occasional singing engagement. He also hung around the music publishers offices in Denmark Street and occasionally made demos of new songs for their ever-optimistic song-pluggers. Eventually, he became a bus driver for London Transport, driving Route 27 from Holloway (Garage code J) Bus Garage (now demolished: the present Holloway Garage (HT) is the former Holloway Trolleybus Depot).


title: Matt Monro

text: In 1956, he made a demo record "Polka Dots and Moonbeams" which was heard by pianist Winifred Atwell, who was an important influence on his early career. She recommended him to her own recording company, Decca Records, who signed him. She became his mentor, providing him with his stage name, Matt Monro. Matt came from Matt White, a journalist friend, and Monro was Atwell's father's Christian name. His first record which was released in November 1956, was "Ev'rybody Falls in Love with Someone", a song which had just won the BBC Festival of Popular Songs. Monro gained some radio exposure on Radio Luxembourg and, starting on January 2, 1957, became a featured vocalist with the BBC-TV Show Band Parade show presented by Cyril Stapleton which ran until June 28, 1957. He also got a television spot on The Winifred Atwell Show in 1956.


title: Matt Monro

text: In 1957, Monro released "Blue and Sentimental", an album of standards. Despite the album's favourable reception, Monro languished among the young male singers trying to break through at the end of the 1950s, many of them emulating Frankie Vaughan by recording cover versions of American hits. Monro even recorded a version of Vaughan's "Garden of Eden" during this period. A short recording contract with Fontana Records followed.


title: Matt Monro

text: By the end of the 1950s, Monro's mid-decade profile had declined, and he returned to relative obscurity. He and his wife Mickie lived from her wages as a song plugger and his royalties from a TV advertising jingle for Camay soap. In 1959, he recorded a country pastiche song, "Bound for Texas", for "The Chaplin Revue", a feature-length compilation of Charlie Chaplin shorts. It would be the first of many Monro soundtrack themes.


title: Matt Monro

text: Prior to producing the Peter Sellers album "Songs for Swingin' Sellers" in 1959, EMI producer George Martin asked Monro to record "You Keep Me Swingin'", a satirical song to help the comedian imitate the song with a Frank Sinatra-type styling. When Sellers heard the recording he decided to use it to be the opening track on the record, rather than record his own version, which he realised he couldn't improve on himself. However, Sellers billed Monro as "Fred Flange", and though it was a demoralising experience at the time, the incident developed into a lifelong friendship with Martin, who subsequently asked Monro to begin recording with him for EMI's Parlophone record label. Their second single and Monro's highest UK chart success, "Portrait of My Love", written by Cyril Ornadel and Norman Newell (using the pseudonym "David West") and arranged/conducted by Johnnie Spence, reached number three in the UK Singles Chart.


title: Matt Monro

text: By the following year, Monro had been named Top International Act by "Billboard". In February 1961, the British music magazine, "NME" reported that Monro had won ITV's "A Song for Britain" with "My Kind of Girl". His follow-up hits included that song, plus "Softly as I Leave You" (1962) and the title song from the James Bond film "From Russia with Love" (1963). For the latter, his vocals were not used in the opening titles, as became the standard for the series; they were heard on a radio during the film and over the final credits.


title: Matt Monro

text: At the 1964 Eurovision Song Contest, singing "I Love the Little Things", Monro finished second behind Italy's 16-year-old Gigliola Cinquetti, his rendition being described an "excellent performance of the only English language song of the night". The Austrian entry "Warum nur warum?", performed by songwriter Udo Jürgens, caught Monro's ear, despite its sixth-place finish, and he recorded an English version titled "Walk Away", earning him another hit single late in 1964. The song had lyrics by Monro's manager and friend, Don Black, whom he had met during his Denmark Street days when Black was working for Toff Music. He also had a hit with the Beatles' "Yesterday" in 1965, the first cover version of the most recorded song, even predating the Beatles' own release.


title: Matt Monro

text: The following year, Monro sang the Oscar-winning title song for the film, "Born Free," which became his signature tune. It was also his second collaboration with John Barry, following "From Russia With Love". Monro went on to record two further songs from Barry film scores: "Wednesday's Child" (from the film "The Quiller Memorandum") and "This Way Mary" (from "Mary, Queen of Scots"). Both "Born Free" and "On Days Like These" (from the film "The Italian Job") had lyrics by Don Black.


title: Matt Monro

text: In the late 1960s, he recorded another Udo Jürgens song with the name "Was Ich Dir Sagen Will". It was adapted to English as "The Music Played". Monro recorded a Spanish version of the song with the adapted title of "Alguien Cantó". The Spanish version was a top sales hit (Superventas) in Spain in 1969. Additionally, Monro recorded an English version of Jürgens' 1966 Eurovision winner "Merci, Chérie", but it failed to chart when released as a UK single.


title: Matt Monro

text: On 31 December 1976, Monro performed Black's "Walk Away" on BBC1's "A Jubilee of Music", celebrating British pop music for Queen Elizabeth II's impending Silver Jubilee.


title: Matt Monro

text: Monro reached the United States charts when "My Kind of Girl" (1961) and "Walk Away" (1964) hit the Top 40. In 1966, following the death of Nat King Cole, EMI moved Monro from Parlophone to Capitol. The new recording contract necessitated a move to the United States. This would be the beginning of a trend towards LPs, and he now worked with American arrangers such as Sid Feller and Billy May on recording albums which included "This Is The Life," "The Late Late Show," "Invitation to the Movies" and "Invitation to Broadway." However, unlike "Born Free," his other Capitol singles in California were not particularly successful.


title: Matt Monro

text: After relocating to California and recording several albums with American arrangers, Monro returned to the UK and stayed with George Martin. He later began to change labels within EMI to Columbia, where his final U.S. album "Close To You" was released in 1970. This LP contained "We're Gonna Change The World", a semi-satirical song originally used in a TV commercial for Kellogg's Cornflakes. It was not a hit in either the US or the UK but was nevertheless widely played, and became enduringly popular on BBC Radio 2. A re-recording in 1995, in which Monro's son duetted electronically with his late father, did however just scrape into the UK chart.


title: Matt Monro

text: Monro continued touring and recording until just before his death, releasing a single and promoting it throughout the UK and Australia in 1984. In one of his final appearances Monro praised Boy George, observing the importance of quality recordings in all musical genres.


title: Matt Monro

text: Monro was a heavy smoker and battled alcoholism from the 1960s until 1981. He died from liver cancer on 7 February 1985 at the Cromwell Hospital, Kensington, London, aged 54, leaving a widow, Mickie, and three children: Mitchell, Michele, and Matthew. Mitchell, a professional pilot, also died of cancer in 2003. Matt Monro was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium. The ashes were removed by the family. A memorial service was also held in Harrow.


title: Matt Monro

text: The 20th anniversary of Monro's death spotlighted the continuing interest in his music, with a Top 10 tribute compilation CD (UK), a No. 1 concert DVD (UK), and a BBC TV documentary all appearing in 2005. A 2007 compilation CD entitled "From Matt With Love" reached the Top 40 of the UK Albums Chart during its first week of release. His songs were featured on "Friday Night is Music Night" on 8 October 2010.


title: Matt Monro

text: In late 2005, Matt Monro Jr. toured the United Kingdom with a tribute concert commemorating the anniversary. Also, EMI re-released "Matt Sings Monro", a 1995 duet album that combined his voice with the senior Monro's. Another posthumous Matt Monro duet, with Cliff Richard, appeared on Richard's duets CD, "Two's Company", in 2007.


title: Matt Monro

text: Monro never recorded a "live" concert album, preferring the technical purity of the recording studio and wanting his public performances to retain an element of uniqueness. However, in the past few years, commercially released concert albums have emerged following meticulous remastering of radio and television shows, private recordings he commissioned. These include an intimate 1967 cabaret performance from his first tour of Australia; a 1967 BBC concert with Nelson Riddle; a 1966 arena concert before 24,000 fans in Manila; and one of his final concerts, recorded on the last night of his fifteenth and final Australian tour in 1984.


title: Matt Monro

text: His daughter Michele has written a biography, "The Singer's Singer: The Life and Music of Matt Monro" and has been instrumental, along with sound engineer Richard Moore, in releasing rare and unreleased material by Matt Monro in recent years.


title: Matt Monro

text: Through the years, Monro's recordings have been featured regularly in radio and television commercials. In July 2020, the Unilever brand Axe began airing an American TV campaign for its deodorant line that spoofed the restrictions on dating during the COVID-19 pandemic, with Monro's "Born Free" as the soundtrack theme.


title: Matt Monro

text: In March 2020, Monro reached no. 8 in the UK Albums Chart with an album of performances with a quintet recorded in New York. These recordings, later overdubbed by Dave Cavenaugh in Hollywood, were released for the first time as Monro wanted them to be.


title: Matt Monro

text: What would have been Monro's 90th birthday in December 2020, was celebrated by his family with the creation of an official YouTube page, and the four part audio documentary, "The Boy From Shoreditch".


title: Matt Monro

text: Most of Monro's recordings were produced or overseen by George Martin. Unlike his contemporaries, Monro recorded very few Tin Pan Alley standards during his career. (The exception was "Matt Monro Sings Hoagy Carmichael", one of his most highly regarded albums.) Instead, he and Martin searched for material written by promising newcomers and commissioned English lyrics for dramatic melodies written by European composers.


title: Matt Monro

text: Monro also covered many of the most popular stage and screen songs of the 1950s and 1960s. Over the years, his recordings featured arrangements by Sid Feller, Billy May, John Barry, Buddy Bregman, Kenny Clayton and Colin Keyes, and Martin himself. He also had a long and fruitful musical partnership with British arranger Johnnie Spence. Monro also teamed up with American star arrangers Nelson Riddle and Billy May and leading British bandleader Ted Heath, for concerts broadcast by the BBC.


title: Matt Monro

text: In 1973, Monro released a vocal version of the popular "Van der Valk" TV-series theme titled "And You Smiled", with lyrics written by Melvyn Taggart. It was his final hit. In 1977, he recorded the Don Black penned, "If I Never Sing Another Song", which became a latter-day standard among his contemporaries, its lyrics referring to the "heyday" of fan mail, awards, and other trappings of celebrity that had faded for them.


title: Matt Monro

text: In 1979, Monro recorded his final studio album, the third all-Spanish album produced by Leonardo Schultz and Gary Mason. Schultz and Mason hoped to capitalize on the success of the earlier hit song "Alguien Cantó", which Leonardo Schultz had adapted to Spanish. The album, entitled "Un Toque De Distinción", was recorded in George Martin's Air London Studios, as well as in Miami, Los Angeles, and New York. The arranger was Kenny Woodman, and it was engineered by Tom Greto. The album was eventually released in 1982. The album was a critical success, and was a hit in various Latin American countries. The song "Volveré Alguna Vez" from the album made it on to the singles chart; the song was subsequently sung by José Feliciano and became a hit.


Leah Remini: Scientology and the Aftermath is an American documentary series that investigates the Church of Scientology through the experiences of American actress Leah Remini and other former members. She was a follower of Scientology between 1979, when she joined at the age of nine alongside her parents, and 2013, when she left under acrimonious circumstances. She subsequently became an outspoken critic of Scientology and published a bestselling memoir, "", in 2015.


title: Leah Remini: Scientology and the Aftermath

text: The show's first season was aired by A&E in seven regular and three special episodes commencing November 29, 2016. It received positive reviews from critics, recorded A&E's best premiere ratings since 2014 and maintained a consistently high viewership for subsequent episodes. The first season garnered two Emmy nominations, scoring one win. The series was renewed for a second season of ten regular and four special episodes commencing August 15, 2017. The Church of Scientology was extremely critical of Remini and the show and established several websites attacking the show, its presenters and many of the interviewees.


text: In each 43-minute episode, Remini and co-host Mike Rinder investigate what A&E calls "shocking stories of abuse, heartbreak and harassment experienced by those who have left the church and spoken publicly about their experiences". She interviews former members of the church who describe their experiences with Scientology and how they have continued to be affected by it even after leaving. She also speaks with a number of former high-ranking church officials who explain the background to the church's policies and organization, and how this relates to the experiences of ex-members.


text: In a statement issued by A&E, Remini explained the purpose of her series. She said that she hoped to "shed light on information that makes the world aware of what is really going on and encourages others to speak up so the abuses can be ended forever. I hope that people who have left now feel they have a safe place to go. I hope others who have also experienced abuses will come forward and help us to do something about it."


text: As part of the pre-broadcast publicity, Remini hosted an "Ask Me Anything" on Reddit in which she explained her views on Scientology and discussed the show. It received nearly 20,000 comments and prompted two similarly themed special episodes to be added to the show's schedule in December 2016 and January 2017.


text: The series was developed by Remini following the 2015 publication of her memoir "Troublemaker: Surviving Hollywood and Scientology". After several former Scientologists contacted her in the wake of the book's release, she decided to shoot a teaser based on the story of one family and approached a number of producers to obtain backing for production. When she spoke with Eli Holzman and Aaron Saidman of The Intellectual Property Corporation, she says that she told them: "Don't be pussies. If you're going to be pussies, you're not the right producers for this." According to Holzman, "Aaron and I huddled and said, 'Are we pussies?'". They decided that they were not, took on the project and facilitated talks with A&E. Explaining why he decided to produce the series, Holzman said: "We're not pro-Scientology or anti-Scientology. We're just documentarians who take the facts as they come to us and investigate every lead as best we can."


text: "Scientology and the Aftermath" was mostly filmed over the summer of 2016. Remini served as executive producer for her company, No Seriously Productions, with Holzman and Saidman co-producing. Alex Weresow was the series' showrunner and another executive producer.


text: An extra episode, titled "Ask Me Anything", was added to the series schedule after its broadcast run started and premiered on December 19. It was filmed over the course of the preceding week in reaction to the ratings success of the opening episode. A second "Ask Me Anything" special was broadcast on January 17, 2017. Another special episode was aired after the end of the first season, titled "Merchants of Fear".


text: Following the ratings success of the first season, a second, ten-episode season was announced by A&E in March 2017, which premiered August 15, 2017. Executive production was again handled by Remini and her company No Seriously Productions, with Eli Holzman and Aaron Saidman of The Intellectual Property Corp also executive producing. Remini said in a statement: "The show is really about standing up for what is right and not letting bullies have their way. I feel it is important for people to know that you can take action to bring about change, both for yourself and for others."


text: Remini said that after the first season aired, many people contacted her and Mike Rinder to tell their own stories of abuse in Scientology. She had not originally intended to make a second season, but went ahead following what Holzman called a "deluge of people emboldened to come forward". He said that the team was "sitting on some really damning and actionable material and can't wait to premiere."


text: The first season comprises seven episodes broadcast on Tuesday nights, plus two episodes added to the schedules for the night of Monday, December 19, 2016 and Tuesday, January 17, 2017, as well as a two-hour special aired on May 29, 2017.


text: The show's seven original episodes (minus the three specials) have also been broadcast in Europe on the satellite TV Crime & Investigation Network (Europe), commencing March 11, 2017, and in South East Asia on the Crime & Investigation Network (South East Asia) commencing April 2017.


text: The second season contained ten regular and four special episodes, broadcasting on Tuesday nights commencing August 15, 2017.


text: On March 14, 2018, A&E announced that the series would return for a third season. On November 13, 2018, A&E aired a special two-hour episode titled "Scientology and the Aftermath: The Jehovah's Witnesses" in which Remini and Rinder investigate the similarities between Jehovah's Witnesses and Scientology, followed by a second special episode about the "Emotional Aftermath" of Scientology on Leah and Mike's families, broadcast November 18, 2018. The first regular episode of the third season premiered on November 27, 2018.


text: The show attracted moderately positive reviews for its first episode, though some reviewers questioned its likely impact. "The Hollywood Reporter" described it as "interesting, but unlikely to generate a following", commenting that while it would "stir up some viewer emotions" its format was not very dynamic, with "a lot of sitting around talking, interspersed with footage from fairly innocuous Scientology promotional videos and event interviews." "Newsday" felt that in the light of previous Scientology exposés such as the book and film "Going Clear" and Remini's own earlier book, "almost nothing here feels fresh or unexpected." The "Los Angeles Times" called it "a compelling, if unsophisticated, investigation" of Scientology and described its focus on harmed families "an effective strategy that will likely resonate with many viewers." Writing in "The Atlantic", Sophie Gilbert highlighted Remini's ability to reach broader audiences and called the show "a valuable continuation of efforts to shed light on some of [Scientology's] most egregious practices".


text: CNN saw the show as "a step up in class for A&E" that delivers "a sobering warning to those who might be susceptible to the [Scientology] sales pitch". While acknowledging the repetitive nature of Remini "hearing the same story over and over again", "The Huffington Post" commented that "under normal circumstances, the same story over eight episodes would make for a tedious and boring show, but "Aftermath" is telling a horror story, and the repetition is powerful." "Salon" suggested that the show's best asset was "Remini's honest anger and frustration, both of which blaze across the screen in reaction to particularly damning revelations", but wondered who the show's audience was meant to be and questioned the extent of its appeal: "It is hard to fathom anyone other than the most hard-core obsessives sticking around to watch all eight installments of this limited series."


text: By the end of the first season's run, it had attracted critical praise as well as strong viewer numbers. Describing it as a "Peak TV Treasure", Kimberly Roots of TVLine commented that "If you heard about the docu-series and quickly dismissed it as a pathetic cash-grab on Remini's part (like I did at first), it's worth a second look." "The Straits Times" called it "riveting television" for telling the "remarkable" stories of its interviewees.


text: The Church of Scientology was critical of the series. Prior to broadcast, it issued a 530-word statement attacking Remini. The church's statement alleged that she was spreading lies about the Church of Scientology along with claims that former Scientologists who participate in the show were kicked out. It established a website dedicated to attempting to discredit the series, and its lawyers also sought to force A&E to abandon the planned broadcast of the show. In response, Remini demanded that the church pay her $1.5 million in damages for past and present reputational, emotional, and economic injuries. When Remini appeared on "Conan" on January 25, 2017, to promote "Scientology and the Aftermath", the Church sent the show's host Conan O'Brien a personal letter seeking to discredit her – something that O'Brien says had never before happened in his 24 years of hosting late-night talk shows.


text: At the start of each segment, statements appear on-screen describing the church's dispute of the material presented and its refusal to participate in the series. Excerpts from letters written by the church, attacking the credibility of Remini and her interview subjects, are also displayed and read in a move that "Salon" described as an attempt to "appease the notoriously litigious church".


text: The premiere of the second season prompted an Indian Scientologist to start a petition on Change.org calling on A&E to cancel the show, claiming that it was "a type of hate-show made to create violence, with false claims, showing a totally negative side of Scientology. This is total criminal! Ban it!". Scientologists Taking Action Against Discrimination (STAND), a front group for the church, circulated form letters to its parishioners for them to send to A&E's advertisers asking them to disown the show for its "religious hate and bigotry which leads to violence". A Scientology spokesperson claimed that the show had led to "violent acts and death threats against the church." An ex-Scientologist also circulated a petition calling on the U.S. government to review the tax status of Scientology in the United States and revoke its tax exemption.


text: The first episode of the show was a major ratings success for A&E, attracting 2.1 million viewers. This represented the network's most successful premiere since "Big Smo" in 2014, and substantially exceeded the 1.65 million who watched the premiere of HBO's Scientology documentary film "Going Clear" in March 2015. The ratings for the subsequent episodes were lower but held steady at between 1.4 and 0.9 million viewers.


text: The second season's first two episodes produced ratings of 1.4 million viewers, down from the first season, but reflecting August's typically lower number of viewers.


title: Parallel computing

text: Parallel computing is a type of computation in which many calculations or processes are carried out simultaneously. Large problems can often be divided into smaller ones, which can then be solved at the same time. There are several different forms of parallel computing: bit-level, instruction-level, data, and task parallelism. Parallelism has long been employed in high-performance computing, but has gained broader interest due to the physical constraints preventing frequency scaling. As power consumption (and consequently heat generation) by computers has become a concern in recent years, parallel computing has become the dominant paradigm in computer architecture, mainly in the form of multi-core processors.


title: Parallel computing

text: Parallel computing is closely related to concurrent computing—they are frequently used together, and often conflated, though the two are distinct: it is possible to have parallelism without concurrency, and concurrency without parallelism (such as multitasking by time-sharing on a single-core CPU). In parallel computing, a computational task is typically broken down into several, often many, very similar sub-tasks that can be processed independently and whose results are combined afterwards, upon completion. In contrast, in concurrent computing, the various processes often do not address related tasks; when they do, as is typical in distributed computing, the separate tasks may have a varied nature and often require some inter-process communication during execution.


title: Parallel computing

text: Parallel computers can be roughly classified according to the level at which the hardware supports parallelism, with multi-core and multi-processor computers having multiple processing elements within a single machine, while clusters, MPPs, and grids use multiple computers to work on the same task. Specialized parallel computer architectures are sometimes used alongside traditional processors, for accelerating specific tasks.


title: Parallel computing

text: In some cases parallelism is transparent to the programmer, such as in bit-level or instruction-level parallelism, but explicitly parallel algorithms, particularly those that use concurrency, are more difficult to write than sequential ones, because concurrency introduces several new classes of potential software bugs, of which race conditions are the most common. Communication and synchronization between the different subtasks are typically some of the greatest obstacles to getting optimal parallel program performance.


title: Parallel computing

text: A theoretical upper bound on the speed-up of a single program as a result of parallelization is given by Amdahl's law.


title: Parallel computing

text: Traditionally, computer software has been written for serial computation. To solve a problem, an algorithm is constructed and implemented as a serial stream of instructions. These instructions are executed on a central processing unit on one computer. Only one instruction may execute at a time—after that instruction is finished, the next one is executed.


title: Parallel computing

text: Parallel computing, on the other hand, uses multiple processing elements simultaneously to solve a problem. This is accomplished by breaking the problem into independent parts so that each processing element can execute its part of the algorithm simultaneously with the others. The processing elements can be diverse and include resources such as a single computer with multiple processors, several networked computers, specialized hardware, or any combination of the above. Historically parallel computing was used for scientific computing and the simulation of scientific problems, particularly in the natural and engineering sciences, such as meteorology. This led to the design of parallel hardware and software, as well as high performance computing.


title: Parallel computing

text: Frequency scaling was the dominant reason for improvements in computer performance from the mid-1980s until 2004. The runtime of a program is equal to the number of instructions multiplied by the average time per instruction. Maintaining everything else constant, increasing the clock frequency decreases the average time it takes to execute an instruction. An increase in frequency thus decreases runtime for all compute-bound programs. However, power consumption "P" by a chip is given by the equation "P" = "C" × "V" × "F", where "C" is the capacitance being switched per clock cycle (proportional to the number of transistors whose inputs change), "V" is voltage, and "F" is the processor frequency (cycles per second). Increases in frequency increase the amount of power used in a processor. Increasing processor power consumption led ultimately to Intel's May 8, 2004 cancellation of its Tejas and Jayhawk processors, which is generally cited as the end of frequency scaling as the dominant computer architecture paradigm.


title: Parallel computing

text: To deal with the problem of power consumption and overheating the major central processing unit (CPU or processor) manufacturers started to produce power efficient processors with multiple cores. The core is the computing unit of the processor and in multi-core processors each core is independent and can access the same memory concurrently. Multi-core processors have brought parallel computing to desktop computers. Thus parallelisation of serial programmes has become a mainstream programming task. In 2012 quad-core processors became standard for desktop computers, while servers have 10 and 12 core processors. From Moore's law it can be predicted that the number of cores per processor will double every 18–24 months. This could mean that after 2020 a typical processor will have dozens or hundreds of cores.


title: Parallel computing

text: An operating system can ensure that different tasks and user programmes are run in parallel on the available cores. However, for a serial software programme to take full advantage of the multi-core architecture the programmer needs to restructure and parallelise the code. A speed-up of application software runtime will no longer be achieved through frequency scaling, instead programmers will need to parallelise their software code to take advantage of the increasing computing power of multicore architectures.


title: Parallel computing

text: Optimally, the speedup from parallelization would be linear—doubling the number of processing elements should halve the runtime, and doubling it a second time should again halve the runtime. However, very few parallel algorithms achieve optimal speedup. Most of them have a near-linear speedup for small numbers of processing elements, which flattens out into a constant value for large numbers of processing elements.


title: Parallel computing

text: Since , it shows that a small part of the program which cannot be parallelized will limit the overall speedup available from parallelization. A program solving a large mathematical or engineering problem will typically consist of several parallelizable parts and several non-parallelizable (serial) parts. If the non-parallelizable part of a program accounts for 10% of the runtime ("p" = 0.9), we can get no more than a 10 times speedup, regardless of how many processors are added. This puts an upper limit on the usefulness of adding more parallel execution units. "When a task cannot be partitioned because of sequential constraints, the application of more effort has no effect on the schedule. The bearing of a child takes nine months, no matter how many women are assigned."


title: Parallel computing

text: Amdahl's law only applies to cases where the problem size is fixed. In practice, as more computing resources become available, they tend to get used on larger problems (larger datasets), and the time spent in the parallelizable part often grows much faster than the inherently serial work. In this case, Gustafson's law gives a less pessimistic and more realistic assessment of parallel performance:


title: Parallel computing

text: Both Amdahl's law and Gustafson's law assume that the running time of the serial part of the program is independent of the number of processors. Amdahl's law assumes that the entire problem is of fixed size so that the total amount of work to be done in parallel is also "independent of the number of processors", whereas Gustafson's law assumes that the total amount of work to be done in parallel "varies linearly with the number of processors".


title: Parallel computing

text: Understanding data dependencies is fundamental in implementing parallel algorithms. No program can run more quickly than the longest chain of dependent calculations (known as the critical path), since calculations that depend upon prior calculations in the chain must be executed in order. However, most algorithms do not consist of just a long chain of dependent calculations; there are usually opportunities to execute independent calculations in parallel.


title: Parallel computing

text: Let "P" and "P" be two program segments. Bernstein's conditions describe when the two are independent and can be executed in parallel. For "P", let "I" be all of the input variables and "O" the output variables, and likewise for "P". "P" and "P" are independent if they satisfy


title: Parallel computing

text: Violation of the first condition introduces a flow dependency, corresponding to the first segment producing a result used by the second segment. The second condition represents an anti-dependency, when the second segment produces a variable needed by the first segment. The third and final condition represents an output dependency: when two segments write to the same location, the result comes from the logically last executed segment.


title: Parallel computing

text: In this example, instruction 3 cannot be executed before (or even in parallel with) instruction 2, because instruction 3 uses a result from instruction 2. It violates condition 1, and thus introduces a flow dependency.


title: Parallel computing

text: In this example, there are no dependencies between the instructions, so they can all be run in parallel.


title: Parallel computing

text: Bernstein's conditions do not allow memory to be shared between different processes. For that, some means of enforcing an ordering between accesses is necessary, such as semaphores, barriers or some other synchronization method.


title: Parallel computing

text: Subtasks in a parallel program are often called threads. Some parallel computer architectures use smaller, lightweight versions of threads known as fibers, while others use bigger versions known as processes. However, "threads" is generally accepted as a generic term for subtasks. Threads will often need synchronized access to an object or other resource, for example when they must update a variable that is shared between them. Without synchronization, the instructions between the two threads may be interleaved in any order. For example, consider the following program:


title: Parallel computing

text: If instruction 1B is executed between 1A and 3A, or if instruction 1A is executed between 1B and 3B, the program will produce incorrect data. This is known as a race condition. The programmer must use a lock to provide mutual exclusion. A lock is a programming language construct that allows one thread to take control of a variable and prevent other threads from reading or writing it, until that variable is unlocked. The thread holding the lock is free to execute its critical section (the section of a program that requires exclusive access to some variable), and to unlock the data when it is finished. Therefore, to guarantee correct program execution, the above program can be rewritten to use locks:


title: Parallel computing

text: One thread will successfully lock variable V, while the other thread will be locked out—unable to proceed until V is unlocked again. This guarantees correct execution of the program. Locks may be necessary to ensure correct program execution when threads must serialize access to resources, but their use can greatly slow a program and may affect its reliability.


title: Parallel computing

text: Locking multiple variables using non-atomic locks introduces the possibility of program deadlock. An atomic lock locks multiple variables all at once. If it cannot lock all of them, it does not lock any of them. If two threads each need to lock the same two variables using non-atomic locks, it is possible that one thread will lock one of them and the second thread will lock the second variable. In such a case, neither thread can complete, and deadlock results.


title: Parallel computing

text: Many parallel programs require that their subtasks act in synchrony. This requires the use of a barrier. Barriers are typically implemented using a lock or a semaphore. One class of algorithms, known as lock-free and wait-free algorithms, altogether avoids the use of locks and barriers. However, this approach is generally difficult to implement and requires correctly designed data structures.