title: Orbital hybridisation

text: One misconception concerning orbital hybridization is that it incorrectly predicts the ultraviolet photoelectron spectra of many molecules. While this is true if Koopmans' theorem is applied to localized hybrids, quantum mechanics requires that the (in this case ionized) wavefunction obey the symmetry of the molecule which implies resonance in valence bond theory. For example, in methane, the ionised states (CH) can be constructed out of four resonance structures attributing the ejected electron to each of the four sp orbitals. A linear combination of these four structures, conserving the number of structures, leads to a triply degenerate T state and an A state. The difference in energy between each ionized state and the ground state would be ionization energy, which yields two values in agreement with experimental results.


title: Orbital hybridisation

text: Bonding orbitals formed from hybrid atomic orbitals may be considered as localized molecular orbitals, which can be formed from the delocalized orbitals of molecular orbital theory by an appropriate mathematical transformation. For molecules in the ground state, this transformation of the orbitals leaves the total many-electron wave function unchanged. The hybrid orbital description of the ground state is, therefore "equivalent" to the delocalized orbital description for ground state total energy and electron density, as well as the molecular geometry that corresponds to the minimum total energy value.


title: Orbital hybridisation

text: Molecules with multiple bonds or multiple lone pairs can have orbitals represented in terms of sigma and pi symmetry or equivalent orbitals. Different valence bond methods use either of the two representations, which have mathematically equivalent total many-electron wave functions and are related by a unitary transformation of the set of occupied molecular orbitals.


title: Orbital hybridisation

text: For multiple bonds, the sigma-pi representation is the predominant one compared to the equivalent orbital (bent bond) representation. In contrast, for multiple lone pairs, most textbooks use the equivalent orbital representation. However, the sigma-pi representation is also used, such as by Weinhold and Landis within the context of natural bond orbitals, a localized orbital theory containing modernized analogs of classical (valence bond/Lewis structure) bonding pairs and lone pairs. For the hydrogen fluoride molecule, for example, two F lone pairs are essentially unhybridized p orbitals, while the other is an sp"" hybrid orbital. An analogous consideration applies to water (one O lone pair is in a pure p orbital, another is in an sp"" hybrid orbital).


title: Hyperreality

text: Described by Jean Baudrillard, the concept of hyperreality captures the inability to distinguish "The Real" (a term borrowed from Jacques Lacan) from the signifier of it. This is more prominent in technologically advanced societies. Hyperreality is seen as a condition in which what is real and what is fiction are seamlessly blended together so that there is no clear distinction between where one ends and the other begins. It allows the merging of physical reality with virtual reality (VR) or augmented reality (AR), and human intelligence with artificial intelligence (AI).


title: Hyperreality

text: Jean Baudrillard is a French cultural theorist, sociologist and philosopher. His most notable work consists of establishing the concept of hyperreality and the simulacra. Some of Baudrillard's most influential theorists consist of Karl Marx, Freud, Levi Strauss, Nietzsche, etc. Baudrillard's work stems around his interest in the theories of post-structuralism and post-modernism. Some famous theorists who contributed to the field of hyperreality/hyperrealism include Jean Baudrillard, Albert Borgmann, Daniel J. Boorstin, Neil Postman and Umberto Eco.


title: Hyperreality

text: The study of hyperreality and the effects it has on the consumer falls under the study of semiotics and postmodernism studies. As the study of semiotics advances, codes are used to categorize a map of meanings. These codes are systems of ideas that people use to interpret behaviours and messages they receive. Cultural codes are specific sets of knowledge that provides reference points in the process of interpretation of signs. Thus codes connect semiotics systems of meaning with social values and structure.


title: Hyperreality

text: Postmodernism is a scholarly tradition in the field of communication studies that speaks directly to larger social concerns. Postmodernism was established through the social turmoil of the 1960s, spurred by social movements that questioned pre-existing conventions and social institutions. Through the postmodern lens reality is viewed as fragmented, locally produced and polysemic. Social realities are constantly produced and reproduced, ever changing through the use of language and symbolic forms. Systems, signs, objects and symbols are viewed to have multiple meanings.


title: Hyperreality

text: The postmodern semiotic concept of "hyperreality" was contentiously coined by French sociologist Jean Baudrillard in "Simulacra and Simulation" Baudrillard defined "hyperreality" as "the generation by models of a real without origin or reality"; and his earlier book "Symbolic Exchange and Death". hyperreality is a representation, a sign, without an original referent. According to Baudrillard, the commodities in this theoretical state do not have use-value as defined by Karl Marx but can be understood as signs as defined by Ferdinand de Saussure. He believes hyperreality goes further than confusing or blending the 'real' with the symbol which represents it; it involves creating a symbol or set of signifiers which represent something that does not actually exist, like Santa Claus. Baudrillard borrows, from Jorge Luis Borges' "On Exactitude in Science" (already borrowed from Lewis Carroll), the example of a society whose cartographers create a map so detailed that it covers the very things it was designed to represent. When the empire declines, the map fades into the landscape. He says that, in such a case, neither the representation nor the real remains, just the hyperreal.


title: Hyperreality

text: Baudrillard's idea of hyperreality was heavily influenced by phenomenology, semiotics, and Marshall McLuhan. Baudrillard and Eco explained that it is "the unlimited existence of "hyperreal" number or "non-standard reals", infinite and infinitesimal, that cluster about assumedly fixed or real numbers and factor through transference differentials." Baudrillard, however, challenges McLuhan's famous statement that "the medium is the message," by suggesting that information devours its own content. He also suggested that there is a difference between the media and reality and what they represent. Hyperreality is the inability of consciousness to distinguish reality from a simulation of reality, especially in technologically advanced societies. However, Baudrillard's hyperreality theory goes a step further than McLuhan's medium theory: "There is not only an implosion of the message in the medium, there is, in the same movement, the implosion of the medium itself in the real, the implosion of the medium and of the real in a sort of hyperreal nebula, in which even the definition and distinct action of the medium can no longer be determined".


title: Hyperreality

text: American author Micah Dunham explores the notion of hyperreality further by suggesting that the action of hyperreality is to desire reality and in the attempt to achieve that desire, to fabricate a false reality that is to be consumed as real. Linked to contemporary western culture Umberto Eco and post-structuralists would argue, that in current cultures fundamental ideals are built on desire and particular sign-systems.


title: Hyperreality

text: Hyperreality is significant as a paradigm to explain current cultural conditions. Consumerism, because of its reliance on sign exchange value (e.g. brand X shows that one is fashionable, car Y indicates one's wealth), could be seen as a contributing factor in the creation of hyperreality or the hyperreal condition. Hyperreality tricks consciousness into detaching from any real emotional engagement, instead opting for artificial simulation, and endless reproductions of fundamentally empty appearance. Essentially (although Baudrillard himself may balk at the use of this word), fulfillment or happiness is found through simulation and imitation of a transient simulacrum of reality, rather than any interaction with any "real" reality.


title: Hyperreality

text: While hyperreality is not a new concept, its effects are more relevant in modern society, incorporating technological advancements like artificial intelligence, virtual reality and neurotechnology (simulated reality). This is attributed to the way it effectively captured the postmodern condition, particularly how people in the postmodern world seek stimulation by creating unreal worlds of spectacle and seduction and nothing more. There are dangers to the use of hyperreality within our culture; individuals may observe and accept hyperreal images as role models when the images don't necessarily represent real physical people. This can result in a desire to strive for an unobtainable ideal, or it may lead to a lack of unimpaired role models. Daniel J. Boorstin cautions against confusing celebrity worship with hero worship, "we come dangerously close to depriving ourselves of all real models. We lose sight of the men and women who do not simply seem great because they are famous but who are famous because they are great". He bemoans the loss of old heroes like Moses, Ulysses S. Grant, Aeneas, Jesus, Julius Caesar, Muhammed, Joan of Arc, William Shakespeare, George Washington, Napoleon, and Abraham Lincoln, who did not have public relations (PR) agencies to construct hyperreal images of themselves. The dangers of hyperreality are also facilitated by information technologies, which provide tools to dominant powers that seek to encourage it to drive consumption and materialism. The danger in the pursuit of stimulation and seduction emerge not in the lack of meaning but, as Baudrillard maintained, "we are gorged with meaning and it is killing us."


title: Hyperreality

text: Hyperreality, some sources point out, may provide insights into the postmodern movement by analyzing how simulations disrupt the binary opposition between reality and illusion but it does not address or resolve the contradictions inherent in this tension.


title: Hyperreality

text: The concepts most fundamental to hyperreality are those of simulation and the simulacrum, first conceptualized by Jean Baudrillard in his book "Simulacra and Simulation". The two terms are separate entities with relational origin connections to Baudrillard's theory of hyperreality.


title: Hyperreality

text: Simulation is characterized by a blending of 'reality' and representation, where there is no clear indication of where the former stops and the latter begins. Simulation is no longer that of a territory, a referential being, or a substance; "It is the generation by models of a real without origin or reality: a hyperreal." Baudrillard suggests that simulation no longer takes place in a physical realm; it takes place within a space not categorized by physical limits i.e., within ourselves, technological simulations, etc.


title: Hyperreality

text: The simulacrum is often defined as a copy with no original, or as Gilles Deleuze (1990) describes it, "the simulacrum is an image without resemblance". Baudrillard argues that a simulacrum is not a copy of the real, but becomes truth in its own right. He created four steps of reproduction: (1) basic reflection of reality, (2) perversion of reality; (3) pretense of reality (where there is no model); and (4) simulacrum, which "bears no relation to any reality whatsoever".


title: Hyperreality

text: The concept of "hyperstition" as expounded upon by the Cybernetic Culture Research Unit generalizes the notion of hyperreality to encompass the concept of "fictional entities that make themselves real." In Nick Land's own words:


title: Hyperreality

text: The concept of hyperstition is also related to the concept of "theory-fiction." An oft-cited example of such a process is that of "cyberspace," which originated in William Gibson's 1984 novel Neuromancer. By the mid-1990s, the realization of this concept had begun to emerge on a mass scale in the form of the internet


title: Hyperreality

text: The truth was already being called into question with the rise of media and technology, but with the presence of hyperreality being used most and embraced as a new technology, there are a couple of issues or consequences of hyperreality. It's difficult enough to hear something on the news and choose not to believe it, but it's quite another to see an image of an event or anything and use your empirical sense to determine whether the news is true or false, which is one of the consequences of hyperrealism. The first is the possibility of various simulations being used to influence the audience, resulting in an inability to differentiate fiction from reality, which affects the overall truth value of a subject at hand. Another implication or disadvantage is the possibility of being manipulated by what we see. The audience can interpret different messages depending on the ideology of the entity behind an image. As a result, power equates to control over the media and the people. Celebrities, for example, have their photographs taken and altered so that the public can see the final result. The public then perceives celebrities based on what they have seen rather than how they truly are. It can progress to the point where celebrities appear completely different. As a result of celebrities' body modifications and editing, there has been an increase in surgeries and a decrease in self-esteem during adolescence. Because the truth is threatened, a similar outcome for hyperreality is possible.


title: Hyperreality

text: Some believe that the future of hyperreality can be seen through a shift in how people use the internet. The transition from Web 1.0 to Web 2.0 to Web3 can be used to illustrate where hyperreality can lead us. Web 1.0 was designed for reading, with readers being able to search for a topic and read it online. Yahoo, Google, and MSN are examples of Web 1.0. Instagram, TikTok, and Messenger are examples of Web 2.0 platforms that transform what was once a reading platform into an interaction platform. Web3 is a newer platform that allows users to fully integrate the virtual world into a decentralised environment. Filecoin and the metaverse are two examples of Web3 where users can participate in a virtual world.


title: Hyperreality

text: Because it can be used to simulate reality and add depth to the experience, hyperreality is useful in training, education, military, and medical settings. With the rise of hyperreality and technological progress, the next logical step would be to combine the two. One of the future challenges of hyperreality is the lack of laws governing its use and development. Decentralisation of a virtual world can result in an uncontrolled or slightly biased environment, which is a potential drawback. Baudrillard wrote a book called “The Gulf War Did Not Take Place” in which he discusses media bias and how media is used to portray a "reality" in order to set an agenda. As a result, because there is no distinction between what is real and the simulation chosen to be believed or portrayed, people will believe what they see.


title: Hyperreality

text: As society has transitioned toward a consumer culture, it is apparent that the combination of the free market economy and the advancements found within media and communication technologies have influenced this development. Through the emergence of new media technologies and the ever-growing role of media found within the modern day, a growing link is displayed between the incorporation and effects of hyperreality. There is a strong link between media and the impact that the presence of hyperreality has on its viewers. This has shown to blur the lines between artificial realities and reality, influencing the day to day experiences of those exposed to it. As hyperreality captures the inability to distinguish reality from a simulation of reality, common media outlets such as news, social media platforms, radio and television contribute to this misconception of true reality.


title: Hyperreality

text: Through Jean Baudrillard's book "Simulacra and Simulation", Baudrillard describes hyper reality as a critical theory of postmodernism. The negative impacts of hyperreality are found in media and literature. They present themselves as becoming blended with reality, which influence the experience of life and truth for its viewers. Baudrillard explains these impacts as having a direct effect on younger generations who idolize the heroes, characters or influencers found on these platforms. As media is a social institution that shapes and develops its members within society, the exposure to hyperreality found within these platforms present an everlasting effect. Baudrillard concludes that exposure to hyperreality over time will lead to confusion and chaos, leading toward the destruction of identity, originality and character.


title: Hyperreality

text: With the introduction of the smartphone in the early 2000s, online presence and presence in the real world have become synonymous. An individual's digital footprint can often tell us more about an individual than their real lives. This is because people's behaviors can change dramatically on the internet with virtually no repercussions or laws telling them to do so; the internet has become the anarchist's safe haven. The role social media has in society has dramatically increased in the recent decades and creating a public image or online presence has become an online standard. Twitter has become a main source for public figures to express themselves and for corporations to inform the public. The hyperreality environment on the internet has shifted dramatically over the course of the COVID-19 pandemic, so much so that it has an influence on the Italian Stock Exchange in 2021. The hyperreality created on social media platforms is so strong and influential, its quality and emotion are translated in the physical reality where value has been lost and careers are damaged. Emotions expressed on social media are directly having real-life effects on numerous sectors despite having any factual basis or tangible information. As social media becomes more ingrained into the daily lives of countless individuals, the distinction between stories on the internet and truth in real life are becoming more blurred as it descends into the core of hyperreality.


title: Hyperreality

text: The proliferation of social media has led the way for instantaneous sharing of not only information, but emotions, opinions and culture. The Netflix special, Squid Game, a Korean drama TV series, saw unprecedented numbers in terms of viewership and audience feedback. The show became a cultural phenomena, starting in South Korea and branching worldwide, gathering billions of views and reaching audiences across the world. The show featured numerous childhood activities native to South Korea that many Korean adults knew and were familiar with but were completely foreign to any other nation. The show created hyperreal conditions on the internet where millions were sharing their own feelings and opinions about the show, even going as far as to play the games and practice the activities portrayed in the show. The hyperreal conditions were created so effectively that individuals were picking up unique Korean cultural aspects but only giving credit to the show and not the country; individuals believed the show created these games. This is hugely significant because it illustrates Baudrillard's notion of models or reality without reality; a fictional TV show produced real events and practices and completely removed the real cultural significance. Countless TV shows have done this in the past but none to the extent of Squid Game or in such reach; where individuals who did not know the language, country or culture were practicing Korean games almost unknowingly. The Hollywood sign in Los Angeles, California, itself produces similar notions, but is more a symbol of hyperreality, the creation of a city with its main target being media production.


title: Hyperreality

text: The increase in social media influencers has shown rise to a popular 'story telling' trend, where creators recount past experiences, often exaggerating and dramatizing the experience for perceived importance and relevance. The trend mixes reality with the virtual world as viewers often feel part of the creators' life and identify with this given image the creator produces for their audience. Social media currently offers what news and other sources of media could not forty years ago, the chance to not only share news but to also create news. To exaggerate this even further, TikTok has seen the nuance of AI accounts that present themselves as human-like animated beings with unique personalities, artificial social circles and personal likes and interests. Once designed by humans, now completely independent of any influence, these AI creations have mass followings that present conditions of perfect four-dimensional simulation as described by Baudrillard. With the incentive for viewership and notoriety, social media influencers/creators have little incentive to produce meaningful and actual news and instead lean toward these storytelling methods that produce large reactions that blur the lines or reality and false online narratives.


title: Hyperreality

text: Both Umberto Eco and Jean Baudrillard refer to Disneyland as an example of hyperreality. Eco believes that Disneyland with its settings such as Main Street and full sized houses has been created to look "absolutely realistic", taking visitors' imagination to a "fantastic past". This false reality creates an illusion and makes it more desirable for people to buy this reality. Disneyland works in a system that enables visitors to feel that technology and the created atmosphere "can give us more reality than nature can". The "fake nature" of Disneyland satisfies our imagination and daydream fantasies in real life. The idea is that nothing in this world is real. Nothing is original, but all are endless copies of reality. Since we do not imagine the reality of simulations, both imagined and real are equally hyperreal, for example, the numerous simulated rides, including the submarine ride and the Mississippi boat tour. When entering Disneyland, consumers form into lines to gain access to each attraction. Then they are ordered by people with special uniforms to follow the rules, such as where to stand or where to sit. If the consumers follow each rule correctly, they can enjoy "the real thing" and see things that are not available to them outside of Disneyland's doors.


title: Hyperreality

text: In his work "Simulacra and Simulation", Baudrillard argues the "imaginary world" of Disneyland magnetizes people inside and has been presented as "imaginary" to make people believe that all its surroundings are "real". But he believes that the Los Angeles area is not real; thus it is hyperreal. Disneyland is a set of apparatuses which tries to bring imagination and fiction to what is called "real". This concerns the American values and way of life in a sense and "concealing the fact that the real is no longer real, and thus of saving the reality principle."


title: Hyperreality

text: "The Disneyland imaginary is neither true or false: it is a deterrence machine set up in order to rejuvenate in reverse the fiction of the real. Whence the debility, the infantile degeneration of this imaginary. It's meant to be an infantile world, in order to make us believe that the adults are elsewhere, in the "real" world, and to conceal the fact that real childishness is everywhere, particularly among those adults who go there to act the child in order to foster illusions of their real childishness."


title: Iced Earth

text: Iced Earth is an American heavy metal band formed in Tampa, Florida and currently based in Columbus, Indiana. They were formed in 1984 under the name the Rose, then Purgatory, by guitarist and main songwriter Jon Schaffer and original drummer Greg Seymour. Iced Earth released their debut album in 1990 and have since released twelve studio albums, four EPs, three compilations, three box sets, three live albums and eleven music videos.


title: Iced Earth

text: After releasing the demo EP "Enter the Realm" (1989) and signing to Century Media Records, the band released two full-length studio albums – "Iced Earth" (1990) and "Night of the Stormrider" (1991) – before taking a two-year hiatus from 1992 to 1994, after which the band returned with new lead vocalist Matt Barlow. Iced Earth went on to release four studio albums with him in over half a decade: "Burnt Offerings" (1995), "The Dark Saga" (1996), "Something Wicked This Way Comes" (1998) and "Horror Show" (2001).


title: Iced Earth

text: After "Horror Show", Barlow quit the band and joined the police force, while Iced Earth continued on with Tim "Ripper" Owens, formerly of Judas Priest, on vocals. With Owens, the band released two studio albums (2004's "The Glorious Burden" and 2007's ""). In late 2007, Barlow rejoined the band, and they recorded one more album with him: "" (2008). In 2011, Barlow once again left Iced Earth, and was replaced by Into Eternity frontman Stu Block. "Dystopia", Block's first album with the group, was released that October; the album received a positive response, while some critics called it one of Iced Earth's best albums. The group recorded two more albums with Block: "Plagues of Babylon" (2014) and "Incorruptible" (2017).


title: Iced Earth

text: Before arriving at their current lineup, Iced Earth has had numerous line-up changes, with founder Jon Schaffer as the only founding member remaining. As of 2021, there have been over thirty musicians in and out of Iced Earth since its formation in 1984.


title: Iced Earth

text: The band is composed solely of Schaffer and drummer Brent Smedley, with all other band members having departed following Schaffer's January 2021 arrest by the FBI for his involvement in the 2021 United States Capitol attack. Schaffer is in FBI custody on felony charges, which has generated new publicity for Iced Earth and has resulted in the band being dropped from their longtime label Century Media.


title: Iced Earth

text: The central figure of Iced Earth is, and has been, guitarist Jon Schaffer, who formed the band on January 20, 1985, in Tampa, Florida. Schaffer's original vision for the band started under the moniker "The Rose" in 1984.


title: Iced Earth

text: The group was very short-lived, after which Schaffer formed a band called Purgatory, which would eventually change its name to Iced Earth. Line-up changes were common within the band, with Schaffer staying as the only constant member. The group recorded a demo in 1985, titled "Psychotic Dreams". In 1988, Purgatory changed its name to Iced Earth. According to Schaffer, a friend of his, who died in a motorcycle accident prior to Schaffer moving to Florida was responsible for the name. In 1989, Iced Earth recorded another demo called "Enter the Realm", with the line-up of Gene Adam on vocals, Randall Shawver on lead guitar, Dave Abell on bass, Greg Seymour on drums and Schaffer on rhythm guitar and vocals. All of the songs on "Enter the Realm" would later appear on the band's debut album, with the exception of "Nightmares" and the title track.


title: Iced Earth

text: After getting signed to Century Media Records, the band, now with Mike McGill on drums, started work on their debut album. Recorded at Morrisound Recording, with Tom Morris and Schaffer as producers, "Iced Earth" was released in November 1990 in Europe and on February 25, 1991 in the US. Following the album's release, Iced Earth toured across Europe with Blind Guardian.


title: Iced Earth

text: Following their self-titled debut, Iced Earth quickly began work on their second album. Prior to the recording process, singer Gene Adam was let go from the band after he refused to take singing lessons. Adam was subsequently replaced by John Greely, as was drummer McGill by Richey Secchiari. The album, entitled "Night of the Stormrider", was again recorded at Morrisound Recording, with Schaffer and Morris as producers. The album was released on November 11, 1991, in Europe, but in the US, the album's release was delayed until April 1992, so it wouldn't compete with the group's debut album. Following "Night of the Stormrider's" release, Iced Earth again toured Europe with Blind Guardian.


title: Iced Earth

text: Following the supporting tour for "Night of the Stormrider", Iced Earth entered a two-year hiatus from 1992 to 1994. During this downtime, the band was faced with issues that almost resulted in them breaking up, but eventually Iced Earth resurfaced with "Burnt Offerings". Heralded as Iced Earth's heaviest album, "Burnt Offerings" was released on April 14, 1995, and was the band's first album to feature drummer Rodney Beasley and vocalist Matthew Barlow.


title: Iced Earth

text: In January 1996, Iced Earth began recording their fourth studio album, this time with Tom Morris' brother Jim Morris acting as co-producer, along with Schaffer. The album was also the first to feature drummer Mark Prator, and the last to feature longtime bassist Dave Abell, who left the group after finishing recording. Although Abell was credited for playing on the album, bassist Keith Menser appears on the back cover, because Century Media demanded the touring line-up to appear on the cover. Menser was fired after he didn't learn any of the band's songs for the tour, so he was soon replaced by James MacDonough. Mark Prator was also let go from the band, and was subsequently replaced by Brent Smedley. Released on May 23, 1996, "The Dark Saga" was a concept album based on the comic book character Spawn. Musically the album was much more melodic and simplified compared to previous Iced Earth albums. For the supporting tour, Iced Earth was joined by Nevermore.


title: Iced Earth

text: On April 21, 1997, Iced Earth released their first compilation album: "Days of Purgatory". The album featured songs from their first two albums, as well as the "Enter the Realm" demo, resung by Matt Barlow, with new drums and bass on some tracks as well. The album also featured a few songs from "Burnt Offerings", remixed and remastered.


title: Iced Earth

text: In March 1998, work began on the band's fifth studio album, with Jim Morris returning as the producer. Prior to the recording process, long-time guitarist Randall Shawver left the group. Guitarist Larry Tarnowski handled lead guitar duties on the album, but wasn't credited as a full-time member of the band, but as a session musician. Brent Smedley was also unable to play on the album, due to personal reasons, and was temporarily replaced by Mark Prator, whom Smedley had originally replaced in 1996. Released on June 17, 1998, "Something Wicked This Way Comes" was notable for featuring the debut of Schaffer's Something Wicked Saga, which he would expand upon on future albums. While on the supporting tour for "Something Wicked This Way Comes" (with Brent Smedley back on drums), the band recorded their first live album in Athens, Greece on January 23 and 24, 1999. Entitled "Alive in Athens", the three CD set was recorded in front of a sold-out audience (both nights) at the Rodon Club. The album was released on July 19, 1999.


title: Iced Earth

text: Also in 1999, the band released "The Melancholy E.P.". Originally conceived as a radio-only single, the EP contained three previously released songs ("Melancholy (Holy Martyr)", "Watching Over Me" and "I Died for You"), as well as two new ones (cover versions of Bad Company's "Shooting Star" and Black Sabbath's "Electric Funeral"). However, Century Media Records did not end-up releasing the EP, so it was made available for fans as a limited 1500-copy special release.


title: Iced Earth

text: In 2000, work began on Iced Earth's sixth studio album. Entitled "Horror Show", the album contained songs based on horror films and literature, such as "Dracula", "The Phantom of the Opera" and the "Wolf Man". Released on June 26, 2001, the album was the band's first to feature drummer Richard Christy, and the third with guitarist Larry Tarnowski (now a full-time member). Originally Steve di Giorgio played bass on the album, but left the group after the recording process. According to Schaffer, Di Giorgio was required and agreed to go on tour, but left due to "prior commitments". He was replaced by James MacDonough. "Horror Show" was also the first Iced Earth album to be partially recorded at Schaffer's home studio "Schaffer Sound".


title: Iced Earth

text: On November 26, 2001 (March 5, 2002 in America) the band released the boxset "Dark Genesis", which featured the band's first three albums plus the "Enter the Realm" -demo, remastered and remixed with new cover art. The set also featured a new album, entitled "Tribute to the Gods". It was Iced Earth's seventh studio album, featuring songs from such bands as Iron Maiden, Kiss and Blue Öyster Cult.


title: Iced Earth

text: After the events of 9/11, Matt Barlow came to the conclusion that he wanted to start contributing to the "real world". Barlow approached Schaffer with this in late 2002, but Schaffer convinced Barlow to stay with the band. When Iced Earth began recording their next studio album, Schaffer realized that Barlow's vocals were not what he desired; he felt that they lacked passion and quality, so he decided to let Barlow go after all. Barlow became a police officer in the Georgetown Police Dept. in Georgetown, Delaware.


title: Iced Earth

text: After Barlow's departure, Iced Earth continued work on their next album, and eventually Schaffer got Tim "Ripper" Owens, from Judas Priest, to sing on the record as a favor. Owens, who was still in Judas Priest at the time, was originally supposed to be credited as a guest musician, but after singer Rob Halford rejoined Judas Priest, Owens joined Iced Earth full-time. Prior to the recording process, Tarnowski was let go from the band, so the lead guitar parts on the album were played by producer Jim Morris and session guitarist Ralph Santolla.


title: Iced Earth

text: Prior to the album's release, Iced Earth released "The Reckoning". The single contained four songs off the new album, that the band felt were most likely to get radio airplay. "The Glorious Burden" was released on January 12, 2004, in Europe and on January 13, in the United States. Much like how "Horror Show" was based on horror films and literature, "The Glorious Burden" was inspired by historical events. It was also the band's first album with their new record company SPV. Following the supporting tour, James MacDonough left Iced Earth to join Megadeth.


title: Iced Earth

text: After "The Glorious Burden", work began on the group's next album, which would be an expanded concept album on the "Something Wicked" storyline from "Something Wicked This Way Comes". Before starting work on the album, Iced Earth was faced with multiple line-up changes. In July 2006, Ernie Carletti was chosen as the group's new lead guitar player, but after being faced with rape and kidnapping charges, he was replaced by Tim Mills. Incidentally, Mills was also forced to leave Iced Earth in order to concentrate on his own business, "Bare Knuckle Pickups". In October 2006, Brent Smedley rejoined Iced Earth again, replacing Richard Christy on the drums. Because the band were left without a bassist and lead guitar player, Schaffer ended up performing most of the lead guitar and bass parts on the album (although some tracks featured playing from producer Jim Morris, guitarist Troy Seele and bassist Dennis Hayes) In May 2007, Seele was announced as a permanent member of the band, as was Dennis Hayes two months earlier.


title: Iced Earth

text: Before releasing the full-length album, Iced Earth released the EP "Overture of the Wicked", which featured re-recorded versions of the original "Something Wicked Trilogy" as well as a brand new track, entitled "Ten Thousand Strong". "" was released on September 7, 2007, in Germany, September 10, in the rest of Europe, and on September 11, in the United States.


title: Iced Earth

text: In December 2007, it was announced that Barlow would be rejoining Iced Earth after five years. Following his return, work continued on Iced Earth's next album, originally titled "Revelation Abomination: Something Wicked Part 2". Majority of the album's music had been recorded at the same time as "Framing Armageddon", and originally Schaffer had planned to finish the album after the end of 2007. However work on the album had to be pushed back, due to Barlow's prior commitments to his other band, Pyramaze. In early 2008, it was announced that Dennis Hayes had been replaced by bassist Freddie Vidales.


title: Iced Earth

text: Before releasing their next full-length album, Iced Earth released the single "I Walk Among You" which contained a new song from the forthcoming album, as well as two song from "Framing Armageddon", resung by Barlow. After being retitled "," Iced Earth's tenth studio album was released in September 2008. After "The Crucible of Man", the band released "Box of the Wicked", in early 2010. The boxset contained "Framing Armageddon: Something Wicked Part 1", "The Crucible Of Man: Something Wicked Part 2", the "Overture of the Wicked" EP and the "I Walk Among You" single, as well as a bonus CD, containing one song from "Framing Armageddon", now with Barlow on lead vocals, as well as three previously unreleased live tracks from the Graspop Metal Meeting festival in 2008. The boxset also included a poster and a booklet. Also in early 2010, Iced Earth signed a new contract with their former record company, Century Media Records.


title: Iced Earth

text: In March 2011, Barlow issued a statement on Iced Earth's official website, stating that he was retiring from the band due to family commitments, among other things. Barlow still took part in the band's 2011 summer tour, and played his final show with Iced Earth on August 6, 2011, at the Wacken Open Air festival in Germany. Shortly after announcing Barlow's departure, Iced Earth revealed that Into Eternity frontman Stu Block had been chosen as the band's new lead vocalist. With Block now on board, Iced Earth began recording their next studio album in May 2011.


title: Iced Earth

text: On June 27, 2011, the band released the DVD "Festivals of the Wicked", which featured shows from Metal Camp Open Air (2008), the Rock Hard Festival (2008) and Wacken Open Air (2007). On September 7, 2011, Iced Earth released a re-recorded version of the song "Dante's Inferno", from the album "Burnt Offerings". The band's new album "Dystopia" was released on October 17, 2011 in Europe and October 18 in the United States. While not a concept album, many of the album's songs were inspired by dystopian themes and films such as "V for Vendetta", "Dark City" and "Equilibrium". Two songs ("Dystopia" and "Tragedy and Triumph") also featured the return of the "Something Wicked" storyline. After the "Dystopia"s release, Iced Earth kicked off the Dystopia World Tour, which was heralded as "the most extensive world tour Iced Earth has ever undertaken" and that it would take the band "to countries it has never previously played".


title: Iced Earth

text: On April 10, 2012, it was announced that Freddie Vidales had left Iced Earth. He was subsequently replaced by Luke Appleton from Fury UK. On August 19, 2012, Iced Earth recorded a new live CD/DVD in Cyprus, entitled "Live in Ancient Kourion".


title: Iced Earth

text: Iced Earth began writing new material for their twelfth studio album in early 2013. Drummer Smedley left the band in May 2013 due to personal reasons. Raphael Saini therefore played drums on the album, titled "Plagues of Babylon", as well as filling in on tour until Jon Dette took over on drums in November 2013. The album was released in January 2014, reaching position #5 on the German Media Control Charts, which is band’s highest chart position in their entire career.


title: Iced Earth

text: On April 7, 2015, following a period of inactivity as a result of Schaffer requiring cervical fusion surgery, the band announced that Iced Earth would begin writing for their 13th studio album. The announcement also revealed that drummer Smedley had rejoined the band, replacing Dette, and that the new album was to be tentatively titled "The Judas Goat", with an expected release date and subsequent touring cycle in early 2016. In August 2016 lead guitarist Troy Seele announced his departure from the band citing family reasons. He was replaced on September 25, 2016 by Jake Dreyer.


title: Iced Earth

text: On December 6, 2016, Schaffer spoke in an interview with Fernando Bonenfant from Metal Wani and announced that the new album would be called "Incorruptible", originally due for release in May 2017. On March 13, 2017, the band confirmed that they had completed work on the album for a mid-June release. On April 6, the artwork was revealed with the album being set for a June 16 release. The release of the album also fulfilled the band's second deal with Century Media Records.


title: Iced Earth

text: On October 26, 2018, it was revealed that Jon Schaffer had recruited previous Iced Earth members Gene Adam (vocals) and Bill Owen (lead guitar); along with guests Jim Morris (lead guitar), Ruben Drake (bass guitar), and Mark Prator (drums); to form "Jon Schaffer's Purgatory", taking the name from the precursor to Iced Earth. The band had re-recorded old pre-Iced Earth demos, including (in their original form) tracks that were later re-recorded for Iced Earth releases. This EP, titled "Purgatory", was released in December 2018.


title: Iced Earth

text: Iced Earth's 1989 demo "Enter the Realm" was released on CD and vinyl for the first time on April 12, 2019, exactly 30 years after its original release.


title: Iced Earth

text: In a Facebook Live chat that took place on April 14, 2020, Schaffer confirmed that, after "a little bit of time off", Iced Earth would start working on their thirteenth studio album for a spring 2021 release. He stated: "Everything is a little bit up in the air right now. Even working on a new Iced Earth album is gonna be challenging until we see how all this plays out, because it's an international band. Stu's in Canada and Luke is in the U.K., so that makes it even more difficult for travel…the biggest issue now is logistics of actually getting together to do it, because we're an international band. If we lived in the same town or even in the same country, it would make things a lot easier. But we will [get around to making a new album], and there will be a time for that, no doubt. To say when that's gonna be, my plan was to focus on it in the back half of this year and have a release in spring of 2021. But the world's flipped upside down and has gotten pretty weird lately."


title: Iced Earth

text: In early January 2021, Schaffer appeared on the Most Wanted section of the FBI after being photographed taking part of the 2021 United States Capitol attack. On January 9, Block posted a message via his personal Instagram account on behalf of the rest of the band members regarding Schaffer's situation:


title: Iced Earth

text: "Some of you have been concerned by our silence, which we understand. We needed some time to properly process the information and find out some facts before we made a statement. First and foremost we absolutely DO NOT condone nor do we support riots or the acts of violence that the rioters were involved in on January 6th at the US Capitol building. We hope that all those involved that day are brought to justice to be investigated and answer for their actions." On January 17, it was announced that Schaffer was in FBI custody, on six felony charges, after turning himself in to authorities. Iced Earth and Demons & Wizards were both later dropped from Century Media due to these events. On February 15, 2021, vocalist Stu Block and bassist Luke Appleton both announced their resignation from the band as a result of the event. On the same day, Jake Dreyer also announced his departure, stating that he would be focusing on his band Witherfall. Only Schaffer and drummer Brent Smedley remain.


title: Iced Earth

text: Schaffer entered a guilty plea of unlawfully entering Congress and obstructing an official proceeding, on April 16, 2021, and was granted sponsorship for United States Federal Witness Protection Program.


title: Iced Earth

text: Iced Earth has commonly been described as heavy metal, thrash metal, power metal and speed metal. When asked about the band's musical style, Schaffer, Iced Earth's chief songwriter, said: "We're a metal band. That's what we are. We have every dynamic from Pink Floyd to Slayer and everything in between."


title: Iced Earth

text: Iced Earth's music has evolved and shifted several times during the band's history. On the group's 1990 self-titled debut album, the band's sound was characterized by time changes, acoustic passages and Iron Maiden-type galloping rhythms. Many of these elements carried over to the follow-up album "Night of the Stormrider", which added keyboards and piano, as well as some choral arrangements. 1995's "Burnt Offerings" has been heralded as Iced Earth's heaviest album, and included the band's longest song to date, "Dante's Inferno". As a counter measure to "Burnt Offerings", 1996's "The Dark Saga" featured a much more subdued sound compared to previous releases. The focus was less on technical musicianship, but on emotion and melody. "Something Wicked This Way Comes" combined elements found on previous albums with brand new ideas. The "Something Wicked Trilogy", which closes the album, took many cues from the "Night of the Stormrider" album. Iced Earth continued to expand their sound throughout the 2000s, like adding a full-piece orchestra to the song "Gettysburg" from 2004's "The Glorious Burden".


title: Iced Earth

text: Common lyrical themes in Iced Earth's music have been religion, history, fantasy, literature, and films. The band has also released several concept albums, the first being 1991's "Night of the Stormrider". The second, 1996's "The Dark Saga", was based on the Todd McFarlane comic book character Spawn. 1998's "Something Wicked This Way Comes" introduced the Something Wicked Saga, which was later expanded upon on 2007's "", and 2008's "". Iced Earth have also released several albums written around a theme. 2001's "Horror Show" was largely based on horror literature and films, 2004's "The Glorious Burden" was inspired by history and war, while 2011's "Dystopia" centered around dystopian themes in literature and film.


title: Ghillie suit

text: A ghillie suit is a type of camouflage clothing designed to resemble the background environment such as foliage, snow or sand. Typically, it is a net or cloth garment covered in loose strips of burlap (hessian), cloth, or twine, sometimes made to look like leaves and twigs, and optionally augmented with scraps of foliage from the area.


title: Ghillie suit

text: Military personnel, police, hunters, and nature photographers may wear a ghillie suit to blend into their surroundings and conceal themselves from enemies or targets. The suit gives the wearer's outline a three-dimensional breakup, rather than a linear one. When manufactured correctly, the suit will move in the wind in the same way as surrounding foliage. Some ghillie suits are made with light and breathable material that allows a person to wear a shirt underneath.


title: Ghillie suit

text: A well-made ghillie suit is extremely effective in camouflaging its wearer. A ghillie-suited soldier sitting perfectly still with local flora attached to their webbing is nearly impossible to detect visually, even at close range. However the suit does nothing to prevent thermal detection using technologies such as forward-looking infrared cameras. In fact, the warmth of the heavy suit can make a wearer stand out more than a standard soldier when viewed using these methods.


title: Ghillie suit

text: The English word "ghillie" is derived from the Scots Gaelic "gille", meaning a young man or older boy who works as an outdoor servant, and is most familiar in reference to those employed to assist sportsmen with recreational shooting or fishing in the Highlands. The term "ghillie suit" may be a reference to the Ghillie Dhu (English: "black-haired youth" or "dark-haired lad"), an earth spirit clothed in leaves and moss in Scottish mythology.


title: Ghillie suit

text: The Lovat Scouts, a Scottish Highland regiment formed by Simon Fraser, 14th Lord Lovat during the Second Boer War, is the first known military unit to use ghillie suits and in 1916 went on to become the British Army's first sniper unit. The Lovat Scouts were initially recruited from Scottish Highland estate workers, especially professional stalkers and gamekeepers.


title: Ghillie suit

text: Similar sniper outfits in the Australian Army are nicknamed "yowie suit", named for their resemblance to the yowie, a mythical hominid similar to the yeti and bigfoot which is said to live in the Australian wilderness.


title: Ghillie suit

text: Although highly effective, conventional ghillie suits (made in fabric or 3D leafsuits) are impractical for many situations where camouflage is useful. They tend to be very heavy and hot. Even in moderate climates, the temperature inside the ghillie suit can reach over . The burlap is also flammable, unless treated with fire retardant, so the wearer may be at increased risk from ignition sources such as smoke grenades or white phosphorus. Moreover, conventional ghillie suits and 3D leafsuits are made using fabric, so they retain water, and this dramatically increases weight. Conventional ghillie suits are not designed to camouflage in the IR spectrum, so they are highly detectable using night vision devices. Fabric strips, especially of coarse material like burlap, readily snag on thorns, twigs, and barb wire.


title: Ghillie suit

text: To enhance safety, the US Army Soldier Systems Center has developed an inherently fire-resistant, self extinguishing fabric to replace jute or burlap. This material was field tested in late 2007 at the Sniper School at Fort Benning and has been standard issue since June 2008.


title: Ghillie suit

text: There are also increased risks associated with wearing a ghillie suit in cold environments, as ghillie suits absorb water and trap it against the body, in some cases resulting in hypothermia.


title: Ghillie suit

text: Civilians have, on rare occasions, purchased ghillie suits to commit crimes (other than unlawful hunting). Police arrested an Australian man after they found that he had assaulted women while wearing such a suit.


title: Ghillie suit

text: In 2021, a man tried to cross state lines to South Australia from Victoria wearing some sort of ghillie suit and was arrested. Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the government wanted people to go through checkpoints to pass through another region of Australia.


title: Xin Zhui

text: Xin Zhui (; –168 or 169 BC), also known as Lady Dai, or Marquise of Dai, was a Chinese noblewoman, and wife to Li Cang (), the Marquis of Dai, and Chancellor of the Changsha Kingdom, during the Western Han dynasty of ancient China. Her tomb, containing her well-preserved remains and 1,400 artifacts, was discovered in 1968 at Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan, China. Her body and belongings are currently under the care of the Hunan Museum; artifacts from her tomb were displayed in Santa Barbara and New York City in 2009. Her body is notable as being one of the most well preserved mummies ever found.


title: Xin Zhui

text: Xin Zhui lived a grand lifestyle for her time. She had private musicians for entertainment who would play for her parties as well as for her personal amusement. She may have enjoyed playing music as well, particularly the , which was traditionally associated with refinement and intellect. As a noble, Xin Zhui also had access to a variety of imperial foods, including various types of meat, which were reserved for the royal family and members of the ruling class. Most of her clothing was made of silk and other valuable textiles, and she owned many cosmetics.


title: Xin Zhui

text: As she aged, Xin Zhui suffered from many ailments that eventually led to a heart attack that killed her. Along with schistosomiasis, a parasitic infection, she also had coronary thrombosis and arteriosclerosis, most likely linked to excessive weight gained due to a sedentary lifestyle, diabetes, angina pectoris, liver disease, and hypertension. Lumbago and a compressed spinal disc probably caused her immense pain, which contributed to a decrease in physical activity. She also suffered from gallstones, one of which lodged in her bile duct and further deteriorated her condition. Her arteries were almost totally clogged.


title: Xin Zhui

text: A total of 138 melon seeds were found in her stomach, intestines, and esophagus; researchers believed she gulped down the melon in a great haste. It is inferred that she died in summer, when fruits and melons ripen. The presence of melon seeds in her stomach also indicates that she died within two to three hours after eating the fruit.


title: Xin Zhui

text: In 1968, workers digging an air raid shelter for a hospital near Changsha unearthed the tomb of Xin Zhui, as well as the tombs of her husband and a young man who is most commonly thought to be her son. With the assistance of over 1,500 local high school students, archaeologists began a large excavation of the site beginning in January 1972. Xin Zhui's body was found within four rectangular pine constructs that sat inside one another which were buried beneath layers of charcoal and white clay. The corpse was wrapped in twenty layers of clothing bound with silk ribbons.


title: Xin Zhui

text: In the tomb of Xin Zhui, four coffins of decreasing sizes enclosed one another. The first and outermost coffin is painted black, the color of death and the underworld. All painted images sealed inside this coffin were thus designed not for an outside viewer but for the deceased and concern the themes of death and rebirth, protection in the afterlife, and immortality. The second coffin has a black background but is painted with a pattern of stylized clouds and with protective deities and auspicious animals roaming an empty universe. A tiny figure, the deceased woman, is emerging at the bottom center of the head end. Only her upper body is shown, for she is about to enter this mysterious world. The third coffin exhibits a different color scheme and iconography. It is shining red, the color of immortality, and the decorative motifs include divine animals and a winged immortal flanking three-peaked Mount Kunlun, which is a prime symbol of eternal happiness. Inside this tomb on top of the fourth and innermost coffin the excavators found a painted silk banner about two meters long.


title: Xin Zhui

text: Yellow and black feathers are stuck on the cover board of the coffin. The feathers stuck to the coffin were expressing the hopes that Xin Zhui would grow feathers on the body and enter the heavens to become immortal.


title: Xin Zhui

text: Xin Zhui's body was remarkably well preserved in an unknown fluid inside the coffin. Her skin was soft and moist, with muscles that still allowed for her arms and legs to flex at the joints. All her organs and blood vessels were also intact, with small amounts of Type A blood being found in her veins. There was hair on her head, with a wig pinned with a hair clasp on the back of her head. There was skin on her face, and her eyelashes and nose hair still existed. The tympanic membrane of her left ear was intact, and her finger and toe prints were distinct. This preservation allowed doctors at Hunan Provincial Medical Institute to perform an autopsy on 14 December 1972. Much of what is known about Xin Zhui's lifestyle was derived from this and other examinations. As a member of the nobility, her body would have been washed with fragrant water and wine, which has antibacterial properties. Xin Zhui's body was soaked in an unknown liquid that was acidic, which may have helped preserve the body by preventing bacteria from growing. Many scientists believe that the fluid is water from the body, rather than liquid poured into the coffin.


title: Xin Zhui

text: More than 1,400 precious artifacts were found with Xin Zhui's body including a wardrobe containing 100 silk garments, 182 pieces of expensive lacquerware, makeup and toiletries and 162 carved wooden figurines representing servants. In Western Han Dynasty, elaborate and lavish burials were common practice; it was believed that another world, or afterlife, existed for the dead, and they needed food and accommodation just like the living and the necessities in life should be brought into the grave for use in the afterlife. The importance of filial piety during that time also resulted in a lavish burial with many artifacts.


title: Xin Zhui

text: Scientists believe that three major factors helped preserve her body. First was the careful preparation of the body for burial, which slowed early stage of decomposition. Second, the body was placed in an airtight set of coffins. Lastly, the burial chamber was positioned deep underground, surrounded by charcoal and white clay. Water and air did not leak in and the temperature stayed constantly cool. However, scientists do not know for certain what combination of factors helped preserve Xin Zhui's corpse, or why similar conditions failed to preserve other bodies.


title: Xin Zhui

text: Other "Mawangdui-Type" cadavers in similar conditions have been found in China. Two from the same time period as Xin Zhui; they belong to a male official named found in Jingzhou and a noblewoman named found in Lianyungang. No consistent pattern explained why their bodies were preserved. All three had coffins containing liquid. However, Lady Dai's was acidic, whereas others' were alkaline, which would have aided bacterial growth. The tombs were also dug to different depths, from 5 metres (16 feet) to 16 metres (52 feet) and contained differing amounts of charcoal and white clay. In addition, similar airtight and watertight coffins failed to keep other cadavers from decomposing into skeletons or dust.


title: Xin Zhui

text: Besides having some of the best preserved human remains ever discovered in China, the contents of Xin Zhui's tomb revealed much information about life in the Han dynasty that was previously unknown. The discovery continues to advance the fields of archaeology and science in the 21st century, particularly in the area of preservation of ancient human remains. Scientists in 2003 developed a "secret compound" that was injected into Xin Zhui's still existing blood vessels to assure her preservation.


title: Paoli Dam

text: Paoli Dam (born 1980) is an Indian actress who started her career with the Bengali television serial "Jibon Niye Khela" (2003). She then worked in Bengali television serials such as "Tithir Atithi" and "Sonar Harin"; the former ran for six years on ETV Bangla.


title: Paoli Dam

text: Dam spent her childhood in Kolkata, earning a postgraduate degree in chemistry from Rajabazar Science College. Initially, she wanted to become a chemical researcher or a pilot.


title: Paoli Dam

text: Her debut Bengali film—"Teen Yaari Katha", directed by Sudeshna Roy and Abhijit Guha—began in 2004, but was not released until 2012. Dam's first film release was "Agnipariksha", directed by Ravi Kinagi. Between 2006 and 2009, she appeared in five Bengali films, coming into prominence with the 2009 "Kaalbela", directed by Goutam Ghose.


title: Paoli Dam

text: In 2011, she received international recognition for her role in the Bengali film "Chatrak." The film was screened at the Cannes Film Festival and also at film festivals in Toronto and the U.K. In 2012, Dam made her Bollywood debut in "Hate Story" and also appeared in Vikram Bhatt's "Ankur Arora Murder Case", directed by Sohail Tatari. She won the Viewers' Choice Award for Best Actress for her performance in Natoker Moto at the Hyderabad Bengali Film Festival in 2016.


title: Paoli Dam

text: Dam was born in Kolkata, West Bengal to a Bengali family, which is originally from Faridpur (now in Bangladesh). Her father and mother are Amol and Papiya Dam respectively. She also has a brother, Mainak.


title: Paoli Dam

text: Dam attended Loreto School in Bowbazar, before passing her Higher Secondary Examination. She was a good student, winning scholarships. Dam was admitted to Vidyasagar College, affiliated with the University of Calcutta, graduating with a degree in chemistry. She earned a postgraduate degree in chemistry from the Rajabazar Science College Campus of the University of Calcutta.


title: Paoli Dam

text: She learnt classical dance and was also interested in theater from an early age, but she never aspired to become an actor.


title: Paoli Dam

text: Dam began her acting career in Bengali television serials. In 2003, she appeared in "Jibon Niye Khela", for "Zee Bangla" and later in the "ETV Bangla" serial "Tithir Atithi", directed by Jishu Dasgupta; the latter ran for six years. The actress also appeared in "Tarpor Chand Uthlo", "Sonar Harin" and "Jaya". Dam has said that she has learned a great deal from Bengali television, and it groomed her for a film career.


title: Paoli Dam

text: Dam's debut Bengali film "Teen Yaari Katha", (directed by Sudeshna Roy and Abhijit Guha), began in 2004, but was not released until 2012. Her first film release was "Agnipariksha" (2006). The film was directed by Ravi Kinagi and produced by Debendra Kuchar; Dam played a supporting role. The actress next appeared in "Tulkalam" (2007), directed by Haranath Chakraborty and produced by Pijush Saha. Mithun Chakraborty and Rachana Banerjee played the lead male and female characters, respectively. Dam's third Bengali film release was "I Love You", in which she had a supporting role as the heroine's friend. In 2008 the actress appeared in the Bengali film "Hochheta Ki", a comedy of errors directed by Basu Chatterjee, in which Dam played a Bengali housewife.


title: Paoli Dam

text: In 2009 Dam appeared in seven Bengali films, and came into focus with the success of "Kaalbela" (directed by Goutam Ghose). Based on a Bengali novel by Samaresh Majumdar, the film's background was the Naxalite movement of the 1980s. Dam played Madhabilata, the girlfriend of a young Naxalite leader, and her performance was praised. In its review, "The Times of India" appreciated: "Pauli, who plays Madhabilata with such integrity that the pain in her eyes and the romance in her voice charms viewers to believe that she has it in her to lend her face to everything that Madhabilita has epitomised". In an interview, Dam said the film was a "turning point" in her career: "Everybody needs a platform Kalbela gave me the platform. I had to prove myself". Her other six films released that year were "Hochchheta ki", directed by Basu Chatterjee; Jamai Raja, directed by Swapan Saha; "Box No. 1313"; "Mallick Bari"; "Shob Charitro Kalponik", directed by Rituparno Ghosh and "Tinmurti".


title: Paoli Dam

text: In 2010, Dam appeared in eleven Bengali films, including "Tara" (directed by Bratya Basu), "Takhan Teish" (directed by Atanu Ghosh), "Moner Manush" (directed by Goutam Ghose), "Kagojer Bou" (directed by Bappaditya Bandyopadhyay) and "Banshiwala" (directed by Anjan Das); five of the eleven are unreleased. "Moner Manush" was Dam's second film with Ghose; in this film she played Komli, a Baul. In its review, "The Times of India" found Dam making "sincere efforts in portraying the role of Kamli". The actress later said in an interview that she learned a great deal from working with Ghose.


title: Paoli Dam

text: In 2011, Dam appeared in "Chatrak", directed by the Sri Lankan Vimukthi Jayasundara. The actress played Paoli, a Bengali girl, and the film triggered controversy in India when an explicit unstimulated no-body-double sex scene with Dam and Anubrata Basu was leaked on the Internet.


title: Paoli Dam

text: In 2012, Dam's first Hindi film "Hate Story" was released; she also appeared in three Bengali films: "Bedroom" (directed by Mainak Bhaumik), "Elar Char Adhyay" (directed by Bappaditya Bandyopadhyay) and "Teen Yaari Katha" (the actress' first film appearance, directed by Sudeshna Roy and Abhijit Guha). "Bedroom"s story line revolved around the lives of Kolkata urban couples; Dam played Priyanka, a bored and irritable housewife. "Elar Char Adhyay" was based on Rabindranath Tagore's literary work "Char Adhyay", and was set in British Raj India during the 1940s. Dam played Ela, teacher of a group fighting for Indian independence. Her acting was praised; "The Indian Express" found Dam's characterization of Ela "wonderful" and "The Times of India" wrote: "Those who thought Paoli's "Hate Story" outing was all about being bold will be pleasantly surprised by her sheer maturity in reinterpreting boldness in the context of an era long left behind". In "Teen Yaari Katha", the actress played a supporting role.


title: Paoli Dam

text: Dam also appeared in Mainak Bhaumik's "Family Album". The film, also starring Swastika Mukherjee, deals with an MMS scandal.


title: Paoli Dam

text: In 2014, Dam acted in "Chaya Manush". In the film, directed by Arindam De, she played Trisha, a journalist. Later that year, Dam acted in "Obhishopto Nighty" ("cursed nighty"), directed by Birsa Dasgupta. Dam played the character of Miss Monica, a Bengali bar singer of the 1980s in the comedy-romantic film. Dam said that she was initially reluctant to accept the role, but later realised that it was a "love story". Her next releases were the drama film "Sada Canvas" and the romantic comedy "Hercules", directed by Abhijit Guha and Sudeshna Roy. Dam described her character in "Hercules", Minu, as "practical, grounded and not driven by emotions". Her first 2015 release was Anjan Das' "Ajana Batash", in which she played Deepa, who works in an ad agency in Kolkata, "lost in depression amongst all the affluence".


title: Paoli Dam

text: Dam's upcoming films include Debesh Chattopadhyay's "Natoker Moto - Like a Play" which, according to Dam, was a "fictional biopic of a famous actress of the Bengali stage during the 1970s", "Auroni Taukhon" by Saurav Chakraborty, which is a love story set against the background of communal riots, and Swarup Ghosh's rom-com "Tobuo Aparichito".


title: Paoli Dam

text: In 2012, Dam made her Bollywood debut in "Hate Story", directed by Vivek Agnihotri and produced by Vikram Bhatt. The film had female protagonists; Dam played Kavyah Krishna, a sex worker. In the film, she and her friend Vicky pull off a caper against one of India's biggest business tycoons.


title: Paoli Dam

text: Paoli Dam doesn't disappoint one bit on the latter aspect, she is not bad in terms of her acting abilities either. She doesn't incite the pathos that one could fervently feel for her character's plight. But though her act is not accomplished, she manages to pull off her role quite well.


title: Paoli Dam

text: After the film's commercial success, producer Vikram Bhatt planned a sequel, in which Dam was replaced by Surveen Chawla.


title: Paoli Dam

text: After "Hate Story", Dam appeared in Vikram Bhatt's next film "Ankur Arora Murder Case". The film, directed by Sohail Tatari, is based on the true story of a young boy who died in an operating room due to medical negligence. Dam plays a lawyer fighting for justice. In an interview, she described her role: "It's something very real and close to life and it's a de-glamourised role. It's something that I really enjoyed playing". After attending a special screening of the film in Mumbai, Indian film critic and journalist Taran Adarsh called Dam and said that she should work more in Bollywood.


title: Paoli Dam

text: Dam performed an item number in the 2014 comedy-horror film "Gang of Ghosts", directed by Satish Kaushik.


title: Paoli Dam

text: Dam is scheduled to appear in the Hindi film "Yaara Silly Silly", directed by Subhash Sehgal. , she will also appear in Ashuu Trikha's thriller "Jee Jaan Se" (with Kay Kay Menon and Raveena Tandon) as a homemaker whose life is shattered after the death of her husband. According to a 25 April 2013 article in "The Times of India", after working in two Vikram Bhatt films, Dam has been offered a third (also a thriller).


title: Paoli Dam

text: In 2012, Dam began working on the Konkani film "Baga Beach", directed by Laxmikant Shetgaonkar. The actress said in an interview: "I like working in different kinds of films. I met Laxmikant Shetgaonkar at the Cannes film festival in 2011 and later heard his script for "Baga Beach" and liked it. I thought it would be a very unique experience working in a Konkani film. And I thought 15 to 20 days of commitment to a film is not much to give".


title: White dress of Marilyn Monroe

text: Marilyn Monroe wore a white dress in the 1955 film "The Seven Year Itch", directed by Billy Wilder. It was created by costume designer William Travilla and worn in the movie's best-known scene. The image of it and her above a windy subway grating has been described as one of the most iconic images of the 20th century.


title: White dress of Marilyn Monroe

text: Costume designer William Travilla, known as Travilla, won an Oscar for his work in "The Adventures of Don Juan" in 1948. In 1952, at 20th Century Fox, he began working with Monroe for the film "Don't Bother to Knock". He designed her clothes for eight films and said they had a brief affair. In 1955, while his wife Dona Drake was on vacation, he designed the white cocktail dress Monroe wore. According to the book "Hollywood Costume: Glamour! Glitter! Romance!" by Dale McConathy and Diana Vreeland, he instead bought it off the rack. He denied this.


title: White dress of Marilyn Monroe

text: The dress appears in the sequence of "The Seven Year Itch" in which Monroe and costar Tom Ewell exit the Trans-Lux 52nd Street Theatre on Lexington Avenue, having just watched "Creature from the Black Lagoon". When they hear a subway train passing below the sidewalk grate, she steps on it and asks "Ooh, do you feel the breeze from the subway?" It blows the dress up, exposing her legs.


title: White dress of Marilyn Monroe

text: The scene was scheduled to shoot on the street outside the Trans-Lux at 1:00 am on 15 September 1954. Monroe and the movie cameras caught the curiosity of hundreds of fans, so director Billy Wilder reshot the moment on a set at 20th Century Fox. The scene was compared to a similar event in the 1901 short film, "What Happened on Twenty-third Street, New York City". The leg shot was called one of the iconic images of the entire 20th century.


title: White dress of Marilyn Monroe

text: After Monroe's death in 1962, Travilla kept the dress locked up with many of the costumes he made for her, to the point the collection was rumored lost. After he died in 1990, the clothes were displayed by his colleague Bill Sarris. It joined the private collection of Hollywood memorabilia owned by Debbie Reynolds at the Hollywood Motion Picture Museum. During an interview with Oprah Winfrey, Reynolds said it was ecru, "because as you know it is very very old now". In 2011, she said she would sell the entire collection at a staged auction, beginning on 18 June. It was predicted to sell for between $1 and $2 million, but made $5.6 million (including a $1 million commission).


title: White dress of Marilyn Monroe

text: The dress is a light-colored ivory cocktail dress in a style that was in vogue in the 1950s and 1960s. The halter-like bodice has a plunging neckline and is made of two pieces of softly pleated cellulose acetate (then considered a type of rayon) fabric that come together behind the neck, leaving the wearer's arms, shoulders and back bare. The halter is attached to a band situated immediately under the breasts. The dress fits closely from there to the natural waistline. A soft and narrow self belt was wrapped around the torso, criss-crossing in front and then tied into a small neat bow at the waist, at the front on the left side. Below the waistband is a softly pleated skirt that reaches to mid-calf or below the calf length. There is a zipper at the back of the bodice, and tiny buttons at the back of the halter.


title: White dress of Marilyn Monroe

text: Monroe's husband at the time the movie was filmed, Joe DiMaggio, is said to have "hated" the dress, but it is a popular element of Monroe's legacy. In the years following Monroe's death, images of her wearing the white dress were shown in many of the imitations, representations, and posthumous depictions of the actress. As an example, a full-sized plaster likeness of Monroe in this dress was featured in a key scene in the Ken Russell film of the Who's "Tommy" (1975). It has been emulated even into the late 20th and throughout the 21st century in cinema, worn by Fiona in "Shrek 2" (2004), by Amy Poehler in "Blades of Glory" (2007), and Anna Faris in "The House Bunny" (2008), among others. In the film "The Woman in Red" (1984), Kelly Le Brock repeats the same scene, but wearing a red dress.


title: White dress of Marilyn Monroe

text: "Glamour" magazine website has classified the dress as one of history's most famous dresses. A similar survey conducted by Cancer Research UK voted the dress number one of all-time iconic celebrity fashion moments.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Prepositions and postpositions, together called adpositions (or broadly, in traditional grammar, simply prepositions), are a class of words used to express spatial or temporal relations ("in", "under", "towards", "before") or mark various semantic roles ("of", "for").


title: Preposition and postposition

text: A preposition or postposition typically combines with a noun phrase, this being called its complement, or sometimes object. A preposition comes before its complement; a postposition comes after its complement. English generally has prepositions rather than postpositions – words such as "in", "under" and "of" precede their objects, such as "in England", "under the table", "of Jane" – although there are a few exceptions including "ago" and "notwithstanding", as in "three days ago" and "financial limitations notwithstanding". Some languages that use a different word order have postpositions instead, or have both types. The phrase formed by a preposition or postposition together with its complement is called a prepositional phrase (or postpositional phrase, adpositional phrase, etc.) – such phrases usually play an adverbial role in a sentence.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: A less common type of adposition is the circumposition, which consists of two parts that appear on each side of the complement. Other terms sometimes used for particular types of adposition include "ambiposition", "inposition" and "interposition". Some linguists use the word "preposition" in place of "adposition" regardless of the applicable word order.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: The word "preposition" comes from prefix (pre- prefix) ("before") and ("to put"). This refers to the situation in Latin and Greek (and in English), where such words are placed before their complement (except sometimes in Ancient Greek), and are hence "pre-positioned".


title: Preposition and postposition

text: In some languages, including Sindhi, Hindi, Urdu, Turkish, Hungarian, Korean, and Japanese, the same kinds of words typically come after their complement. To indicate this, they are called "postpositions" (using the prefix "post-", from Latin "post" meaning "behind, after"). There are also some cases where the function is performed by two parts coming before and after the complement; this is called a "circumposition" (from Latin "circum-" prefix "around").


title: Preposition and postposition

text: In some languages, for example Finnish, some adpositions can be used as both prepositions and postpositions.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Prepositions, postpositions and circumpositions are collectively known as "adpositions" (using the Latin prefix "ad-", meaning "to"). However, some linguists prefer to use the well-known and longer established term "preposition" in place of "adposition", irrespective of position relative to the complement.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: An adposition typically combines with exactly one complement, most often a noun phrase (or, in a different analysis, a determiner phrase). In English, this is generally a noun (or something functioning as a noun, e.g., a gerund), together with its specifier and modifiers such as articles, adjectives, etc. The complement is sometimes called the "object" of the adposition. The resulting phrase, formed by the adposition together with its complement, is called an adpositional phrase or prepositional phrase (PP) (or for specificity, a postpositional or circumpositional phrase).


title: Preposition and postposition

text: An adposition establishes a grammatical relationship that links its complement to another word or phrase in the context. It also generally establishes a semantic relationship, which may be spatial ("in", "on", "under", ...), temporal ("after", "during", ...), or of some other type ("of", "for", "via", ...). The World Atlas of Language Structures treats a word as an adposition if it takes a noun phrase as a complement and indicates the grammatical or semantic relationship of that phrase to the verb in the containing clause.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Some examples of the use of English prepositions are given below. In each case, the prepositional phrase appears in "italics", the preposition within it appears in bold, and the preposition's complement is underlined. As demonstrated in some of the examples, more than one prepositional phrase may act as an adjunct to the same word.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: In the last of these examples the complement has the form of an adverb, which has been nominalised to serve as a noun phrase; see Different forms of complement, below. Prepositional phrases themselves are sometimes nominalized:


title: Preposition and postposition

text: An adposition may determine the grammatical case of its complement. In English, the complements of prepositions take the objective case where available ("from him", not *"from he"). In Koine Greek, for example, certain prepositions always take their objects in a certain case (e.g., ἐν always takes its object in the dative), while other prepositions may take their object in one of two or more cases, depending on the meaning of the preposition (e.g., διά takes its object in the genitive or in the accusative, depending on the meaning). Some languages have cases that are used exclusively after prepositions (prepositional case), or special forms of pronouns for use after prepositions (prepositional pronoun).


title: Preposition and postposition

text: The functions of adpositions overlap with those of case markings (for example, the meaning of the English preposition "of" is expressed in many languages by a genitive case ending), but adpositions are classed as syntactic elements, while case markings are morphological.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Adpositions themselves are usually non-inflecting ("invariant"): they do not have paradigms of form (such as tense, case, gender, etc.) the same way that verbs, adjectives, and nouns can. There are exceptions, though, such as prepositions that have fused with a pronominal object to form inflected prepositions.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: As noted above, adpositions are referred to by various terms, depending on their position relative to the complement.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: While the term "preposition" is sometimes used to denote any adposition, in its stricter meaning it refers only to one which precedes its complement. Examples of this, from English, have been given above; similar examples can be found in many European and other languages, for example:


title: Preposition and postposition

text: In certain grammatical constructions, the complement of a preposition may be absent or may be moved from its position directly following the preposition. This may be referred to as preposition stranding (see also below), as in "Whom did you go with?" and "There's only one thing worse than being talked about." There are also some (mainly colloquial) expressions in which a preposition's complement may be omitted, such as "I'm going to the park. Do you want to come with [me]?", and the French "Il fait trop froid, je ne suis pas habillée pour" ("It's too cold, I'm not dressed for [the situation].")


title: Preposition and postposition

text: The bolded words in these examples are generally still considered prepositions because when they form a phrase with a complement (in more ordinary constructions) they must appear first.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: An adposition like the above, which can be either a preposition or a postposition, can be called an ambiposition. However, "ambiposition" may also be used to refer to a circumposition (see below), or to a word that appears to function as a preposition and postposition simultaneously, as in the Vedic Sanskrit construction (noun-1) "ā" (noun-2), meaning "from (noun-1) to (noun-2)".


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Whether a language has primarily prepositions or postpositions is seen as an aspect of its typological classification, and tends to correlate with other properties related to head directionality. Since an adposition is regarded as the head of its phrase, prepositional phrases are head-initial (or right-branching), while postpositional phrases are head-final (or left-branching). There is a tendency for languages that feature postpositions also to have other head-final features, such as verbs that follow their objects; and for languages that feature prepositions to have other head-initial features, such as verbs that precede their objects. This is only a tendency, however; an example of a language that behaves differently is Latin, which employs mostly prepositions, even though it typically places verbs after their objects.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: A "circumposition" consists of two or more parts, positioned on both sides of the complement. Circumpositions are very common in Pashto and Kurdish. The following are examples from Northern Kurdish (Kurmanji):


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Most such phrases, however, can be analyzed as having a different hierarchical structure (such as a prepositional phrase modifying a following adverb). The Chinese example could be analyzed as a prepositional phrase headed by "cóng" ("from"), taking the locative noun phrase "bīngxīang lǐ" ("refrigerator inside") as its complement.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: An inposition is a rare type of adposition that appears between parts of a complex complement. For example, in the native Californian Timbisha language, the phrase "from a mean cold" can be translated using the word order "cold from mean"—the inposition follows the noun but precedes any following modifiers that form part of the same noun phrase. The Latin word "cum" is also commonly used as an inposition, as in the phrase "summa cum laude", meaning "with highest praise", lit. "highest with praise".


title: Preposition and postposition

text: The term interposition has been used for adpositions in structures such as "word for word", French "coup sur coup" ("one after another, repeatedly"), and Russian друг с другом ("one with the other"). This is not a case of an adposition appearing inside its complement, as the two nouns do not form a single phrase (there is no phrase *"word word", for example); such uses have more of a coordinating character.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Preposition stranding is a syntactic construct in which a preposition occurs somewhere other than immediately before its complement. For example, in the English sentence "What did you sit on?" the preposition "on" has "what" as its complement, but "what" is moved to the start of the sentence, because it is an interrogative word. This sentence is much more common and natural than the equivalent sentence without stranding: "On what did you sit?" Preposition stranding is commonly found in English, as well as North Germanic languages such as Swedish. Its existence in German is debated. Preposition stranding is also found in some Niger–Congo languages such as Vata and Gbadi, and in some North American varieties of French.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Some prescriptive English grammars teach that prepositions cannot end a sentence, although there is no rule prohibiting that use. Similar rules arose during the rise of classicism, when they were applied to English in imitation of classical languages such as Latin. Otto Jespersen, in his "Essentials of English Grammar" (first published 1933), commented on this definition-derived rule: "...nor need a preposition (Latin: "praepositio") stand before the word it governs (go the fools "among" (Sh[akespeare]); What are you laughing "at"?). You might just as well believe that all blackguards are black or that turkeys come from Turkey; many names have either been chosen unfortunately at first or have changed their meanings in course of time."


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Simple adpositions consist of a single word ("on", "in", "for", "towards", etc.). Complex adpositions consist of a group of words that act as one unit. Examples of complex prepositions in English include "in spite of", "with respect to", "except for", "by dint of", and "next to".


title: Preposition and postposition

text: The distinction between simple and complex adpositions is not clear-cut. Many complex adpositions are derived from simple forms (e.g., "with + in" → "within", "by + side" → "beside") through grammaticalisation. This change takes time, and during the transitional stages, the adposition acts in some ways like a single word, and in other ways like a multi-word unit. For example, current German orthographic conventions recognize the indeterminate status of certain prepositions, allowing two spellings: "anstelle"/"an Stelle" ("instead of"), "aufgrund"/"auf Grund" ("because of"), "mithilfe"/"mit Hilfe" ("by means of"), "zugunsten"/"zu Gunsten" ("in favor of"), "zuungunsten"/"zu Ungunsten" ("to the disadvantage of"), "zulasten/zu Lasten" ("at the expense of").


title: Preposition and postposition

text: The distinction between complex adpositions and free combinations of words is not a black and white issue: complex adpositions (in English, "prepositional idioms") can be more fossilized or less fossilized. In English, this applies to a number of structures of the form "preposition + (article) + noun + preposition", such as "in front of", "for the sake of". The following characteristics are good indications that a given combination is "frozen" enough to be considered a complex preposition in English:


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Marginal prepositions are prepositions that have affinities with other word classes, most notably verbs. Marginal prepositions behave like prepositions but derive from other parts of speech. Some marginal prepositions in English include "barring", "concerning", "considering", "excluding", "failing", "following", "including", "notwithstanding", "regarding", and "respecting".


title: Preposition and postposition

text: In descriptions of some languages, prepositions are divided into proper (or "essential") and improper (or "accidental"). A preposition is called improper if it is some other part of speech being used in the same way as a preposition. Examples of simple and complex prepositions that have been so classified include "prima di" ("before") and "davanti (a)" ("in front of") in Italian, and "ergo" ("on account of") and "causa" ("for the sake of") in Latin. In reference to Ancient Greek, however, an improper preposition is one that cannot also serve as a prefix to a verb.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: As noted above, adpositions typically have noun phrases as complements. This can include nominal clauses and certain types of non-finite verb phrase:


title: Preposition and postposition

text: The word "to" when it precedes the infinitive in English is not a preposition, but rather is a grammatical particle outside of any main word class.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: In other cases, the complement may have the form of an adjective or adjective phrase, or an adverbial. This may be regarded as a complement representing a different syntactic category, or simply as an atypical form of noun phrase (see nominalization).


title: Preposition and postposition

text: In the last example, the complement of the preposition "from" is in fact another prepositional phrase. The resulting sequence of two prepositions ("from under") may be regarded as a complex preposition; in some languages, such a sequence may be represented by a single word, as Russian из-под "iz-pod" ("from under").


title: Preposition and postposition

text: It is more commonly assumed, however, that "Sammy" and the following predicate forms a "small clause", which then becomes the single complement of the preposition. (In the first example, a word such as "as" may be considered to have been elided, which, if present, would clarify the grammatical relationship.)


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Adpositions can be used to express a wide range of semantic relations between their complement and the rest of the context. The relations expressed may be spatial (denoting location or direction), temporal (denoting position in time), or relations expressing comparison, content, agent, instrument, means, manner, cause, purpose, reference, etc.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Most common adpositions are highly polysemous (they have various different meanings). In many cases a primary, spatial meaning becomes extended to non-spatial uses by metaphorical or other processes. Because of the variety of meanings, a single adposition often has many possible equivalents in another language, depending on the exact context in which it is used; this can cause significant difficulties in foreign language learning. Usage can also vary between dialects of the same language (for example, American English has "on the weekend", where British English uses "at the weekend").


title: Preposition and postposition

text: In some contexts (as in the case of some phrasal verbs) the choice of adposition may be determined by another element in the construction or be fixed by the construction as a whole. Here the adposition may have little independent semantic content of its own, and there may be no clear reason why the particular adposition is used rather than another. Examples of such expressions are:


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Spatial meanings of adpositions may be either "directional" or "static". A directional meaning usually involves motion in a particular direction ("Kay went to the store"), the direction in which something leads or points ("A path into the woods"), or the extent of something ("The fog stretched from London to Paris"). A static meaning indicates only a location ("at the store", "behind the chair", "on the moon"). Some prepositions can have both uses: "he sat in the water" (static); "he jumped in the water" (probably directional). In some languages, the case of the complement varies depending on the meaning, as with several prepositions in German, such as "in":


title: Preposition and postposition

text: In English and many other languages, prepositional phrases with static meaning are commonly used as predicative expressions after a copula ("Bob is at the store"); this may happen with some directional prepositions as well ("Bob is from Australia"), but this is less common. Directional prepositional phrases combine mostly with verbs that indicate movement ("Jay is going into her bedroom", but not *"Jay is lying down into her bedroom").


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Directional meanings can be further divided into "telic" and "atelic". Telic prepositional phrases imply movement all the way to the endpoint ("she ran to the fence"), while atelic ones do not ("she ran towards the fence").


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Static meanings can be divided into "projective" and "non-projective", where projective meanings are those whose understanding requires knowledge of the perspective or point of view. For example, the meaning of "behind the rock" is likely to depend on the position of the speaker (projective), whereas the meaning of "on the desk" is not (non-projective). Sometimes the interpretation is ambiguous, as in "behind the house", which may mean either at the natural back of the house, or on the opposite side of the house from the speaker.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: There are often similarities in form between adpositions and adverbs. Some adverbs are derived from the fusion of a preposition and its complement (such as "downstairs", from "down (the) stairs", and "underground", from "under (the) ground"). Some words can function both as adverbs and as prepositions, such as "inside", "aboard", "underneath" (for instance, one can say "go inside", with adverbial use, or "go inside the house", with prepositional use). Such cases are analogous to verbs that can be used either transitively or intransitively, and the adverbial forms might therefore be analyzed as "intransitive prepositions". This analysis could also be extended to other adverbs, such as "here" (this place), "there" (that place), "afterwards", etc., even though these never take complements.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Many English phrasal verbs contain particles that are used adverbially, even though they mostly have the form of a preposition (such words may be called prepositional adverbs). Examples are "on" in "carry on", "get on", etc., "over" in "take over", "fall over", and so on. The equivalents in Dutch and German are separable prefixes, which also often have the same form as prepositions: for example, Dutch "aanbieden" and German "anbieten" (both meaning "to offer") contain the separable prefix "aan/an", which is also a preposition meaning "on" or "to".


title: Preposition and postposition

text: It would be possible to analyze such conjunctions (or even other subordinating conjunctions) as prepositions that take an entire clause as a complement.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: In some languages, including a number of Chinese varieties, many of the words that serve as prepositions can also be used as verbs. For instance, in Standard Chinese, 到 "dào" can be used in either a prepositional or a verbal sense:


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Because of this overlap, and the fact that a sequence of prepositional phrase and verb phrase often resembles a serial verb construction, Chinese prepositions (and those of other languages with similar grammatical structures) are often referred to as coverbs.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: As noted in previous sections, Chinese can also be said to have postpositions, although these can be analyzed as nominal (noun) elements. For more information, see the article on Chinese grammar, particularly the sections on coverbs and locative phrases.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Some grammatical case markings have a similar function to adpositions; a case affix in one language may be equivalent in meaning to a preposition or postposition in another. For example, in English the agent of a passive construction is marked by the preposition "by", while in Russian it is marked by use of the instrumental case. Sometimes such equivalences exist within a single language; for example, the genitive case in German is often interchangeable with a phrase using the preposition "von" (just as in English, the preposition "of" is often interchangeable with the possessive suffix " 's").


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Adpositions combine syntactically with their complement, whereas case markings combine with a noun morphologically. In some instances it may not be clear which applies; the following are some possible means of making such a distinction:


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Even so, a clear distinction cannot always be made. For example, the post-nominal elements in Japanese and Korean are sometimes called case particles and sometimes postpositions. Sometimes they are analysed as two different groups because they have different characteristics (e.g., the ability to combine with focus particles), but in such analysis, it is unclear which words should fall into which group.


title: Preposition and postposition

text: Turkish, Finnish and Hungarian have both extensive case-marking and postpositions, but there is evidence to help distinguish the two:


title: Preposition and postposition

text: In these examples, the case markings form a word with their hosts (as shown by vowel harmony, other word-internal effects and agreement of adjectives in Finnish), while the postpositions are independent words. As is seen in the last example, adpositions are often used in conjunction with case affixes – in languages that have case, a given adposition usually takes a complement in a particular case, and sometimes (as has been seen above) the choice of case helps specify the meaning of the adposition.


title: Open Shortest Path First

text: Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a routing protocol for Internet Protocol (IP) networks. It uses a link state routing (LSR) algorithm and falls into the group of interior gateway protocols (IGPs), operating within a single autonomous system (AS).


title: Open Shortest Path First

text: OSPF gathers link state information from available routers and constructs a topology map of the network. The topology is presented as a routing table to the Internet Layer for routing packets by their destination IP address. OSPF supports Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) and Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) networks and supports the Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) addressing model.


title: Open Shortest Path First

text: OSPF is widely used in large enterprise networks. IS-IS, another LSR-based protocol, is more common in large service provider networks.