title: Assassination attempts on Fidel Castro

text: Allegedly, after several unsuccessful attempts to introduce the poison into Castro's food, Orta abruptly demanded to be let out of the mission, handing over the job to another unnamed participant. Later, a second attempt was mounted through Giancana, Roselli, and Trafficante using Anthony Varona, the leader of the Cuban Exile Junta, who had, according to Trafficante, become "disaffected with the apparent ineffectual progress of the Junta". Verona requested US$10,000 in expenses and US$1,000 worth of communications equipment. However, the second assassination attempt was apparently thwarted when Castro stopped visiting the restaurant that had the botulinum toxin poison pills, and was cancelled due to the launching of the Bay of Pigs Invasion.


title: Assassination attempts on Fidel Castro

text: According to Top Secret transcripts declassified in 2021, Scott Breckinridge, in his 1975 Church Committee hearing told senators that the CIA had also contemplated using botulinum toxin to lace cigars to be delivered to Castro, but this plan never went forward.


title: Assassination attempts on Fidel Castro

text: On October 26, 2017, during the presidency of Donald Trump, declassified documents revealed that US Attorney General Robert Kennedy hesitated to recruit the Mafia in assassination attempts on Castro due to his push against organized crime. When President Trump was asked about assassination attempts on other political figures such as Putin in Russia, he replied, "You think our country’s so innocent?"


title: Assassination attempts on Fidel Castro

text: The Church Committee stated that it substantiated eight attempts by the CIA to assassinate Fidel Castro in 1960–1965. , a retired chief of Cuba's counterintelligence, who had been tasked with protecting Castro, estimated the number of assassination schemes or actual attempts by the Central Intelligence Agency to be 638, a project code-named "Executive Action", and split them among U.S. administrations as follows: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 38; John F. Kennedy, 42; Lyndon B. Johnson, 72; Richard Nixon, 184; Jimmy Carter, 64; Ronald Reagan, 197; George H. W. Bush, 16; Bill Clinton, 21.


title: Assassination attempts on Fidel Castro

text: Some of them were a part of the covert CIA program dubbed Operation Mongoose aimed at toppling the Cuban government. The assassination attempts reportedly included cigars poisoned with botulinum toxin, a tubercle bacilli-infected scuba-diving suit along with a booby-trapped conch placed on the sea bottom, an exploding cigar (Castro loved cigars and scuba diving, but he quit smoking in 1985), and plain, mafia-style execution endeavors, among others. There were plans to blow up Castro during his visit to Ernest Hemingway's museum in Cuba.


title: Assassination attempts on Fidel Castro

text: Some of the plots were depicted in a documentary film entitled "638 Ways to Kill Castro" (2006) aired on Channel 4 of the British public-service television. One of these attempts was by his ex-lover Marita Lorenz, whom he met in 1959. She agreed to aid the CIA and attempted to smuggle a jar of cold cream containing poison pills into his room. When Castro learned about her intentions, he reportedly gave her a gun and told her to kill him but her nerves failed. Some plots aimed not at murder but at character assassination; they, for example, involved using thallium salts to destroy Castro's famous beard, or lacing his radio studio with LSD to cause him disorientation during the broadcast and damage his public image.


title: Assassination attempts on Fidel Castro

text: When Castro travelled abroad, the CIA cooperated with Cuban exiles for some of the more serious assassination attempts. The last documented attempt on Castro's life was in 2000, and involved placing 90 kg of explosives under a podium in Panama where he would give a talk. Castro’s personal security team discovered the explosives before he arrived. Castro once said, in regards to the numerous attempts on his life he believed had been made, "If surviving assassination attempts were an Olympic event, I would win the gold medal."


title: Assassination attempts on Fidel Castro

text: The CIA in 1962 considered a plan called "Operation Bounty", which would have involved dropping leaflets over Cuba offering financial rewards to the Cuban population for the assassination of various individuals, including $5,000 to $20,000 for informants, $57,000 for department heads, $97,000 for foreign Communists operating in Cuba, up to $1 million for members of the Cuban government, and only $0.02 for Castro himself, which was meant "to denigrate" him in the eyes of the Cuban people. The top secret document which revealed the plan, which was never put into practice, was one of 2,800 related to the federal investigation of the Kennedy assassination, which were released as scheduled in October 2017.


title: Assassination attempts on Fidel Castro

text: The Church Committee rejected political assassination as a foreign policy tool and declared that it was "incompatible with American principle, international order, and morality." It recommended Congress to consider developing a statute to eradicate such or similar practices, which was never introduced. In 1976 President Gerald Ford signed Executive Order 11905, which stated that "No employee of the United States government shall engage in, or conspire in, political assassination."


title: Global Trade Item Number

text: The Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) is an identifier for trade items, developed by the international organization GS1. Such identifiers are used to look up product information in a database (often by entering the number through a barcode scanner pointed at an actual product) which may belong to a retailer, manufacturer, collector, researcher, or other entity. The uniqueness and universality of the identifier is useful in establishing which product in one database corresponds to which product in another database, especially across organizational boundaries.


title: Global Trade Item Number

text: The GTIN standard has incorporated the International Standard Book Number (ISBN), International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), International Standard Music Number (ISMN), International Article Number (which includes the European Article Number and Japanese Article Number) and some Universal Product Codes (UPCs), into a universal number space.


title: Global Trade Item Number

text: GTINs may be eight, 12, 13, or 14 digits long, and each of these four numbering structures are constructed in a similar fashion, combining Company Prefix, Item Reference and a calculated Check Digit (GTIN-14 adds another component- the Indicator Digit, which can be 0-9). GTIN-8s will be encoded in an EAN-8 barcode. GTIN-12s may be shown in UPC-A, ITF-14, or GS1-128 barcodes. GTIN-13s may be encoded in EAN-13, ITF-14 or GS1-128 barcodes, and GTIN-14s may be encoded in ITF-14 or GS1-128 barcodes. The choice of barcode will depend on the application; for example, items to be sold at a retail establishment could be marked with EAN-8, EAN-13, UPC-A or UPC-E barcodes.


title: Global Trade Item Number

text: The EAN-8 code is an eight-digit barcode used usually for very small articles, such as chewing gum, where fitting a larger code onto the item would be difficult. Note: the equivalent UPC small format barcode, UPC-E, encodes a GTIN-12 with a special Company Prefix that allows for "zero suppression" of four zeros in the GTIN-12. The GS1 encoding and decoding rules state that the entire GTIN-12 is used for encoding and that the entire GTIN-12 is to be delivered when scanned.


title: Global Trade Item Number

text: Note that GTIN-12 and GTIN-13 numbers can be encoded as GTIN-13 or GTIN-14 by adding initial padding zeroes. For GTIN-14, this indicates a "packaging level" of a single item.


title: Global Trade Item Number

text: All books and serial publications sold internationally (including those in U.S. stores) have GTIN (GTIN-13) codes. The book codes are either constructed by prefixing the old 10-digit ISBN with 978, and recalculating the trailing check digit, or from 1 January 2007 issued as thirteen digits starting with 978 (eventually 979 as the 978 ranges are used up).


title: Global Trade Item Number

text: Each type of trade item is given its own GTIN, with the understanding that there is a potential need to retrieve predefined information from such items; this product or service may be priced, ordered, or invoiced at any point in the supply chain. This includes individual items as well as all of their different packaging configurations.


title: Gitanos

text: The Romani in Spain, generally known by the exonym () or the endonym Calé, belong to the Iberian Cale Romani subgroup, with smaller populations in Portugal (known as ) and in Southern France. Their sense of identity and cohesion stems from their shared value system, expressed among the as the ('Gypsy laws').


title: Gitanos

text: Traditionally, they maintain their social circles strictly within their patrigroups, as interaction between patrigroups increases the risk of feuding, which may result in fatalities. The emergence of Pentecostalism has impacted this practice, as the lifestyle of Pentecostal "gitanos" involves frequent contact with "gitanos" from outside their own patrigroups during church services and meetings. Data on ethnicity are not collected in Spain, although the public pollster CIS estimated in 2007 that the number of "gitanos" present in Spain is probably around one million.


title: Gitanos

text: The term "gitano" evolved from the word "egiptano" ("Egyptian"), which was the Old Spanish demonym for someone from "Egipto" (Egypt). "Egiptano" was the regular adjective in Old Spanish for someone from Egypt, however, in Middle and Modern Spanish the irregular adjective "egipcio" supplanted "egiptano" to mean Egyptian, probably to differentiate Egyptians proper from Gypsys. Meanwhile, the term "egiptano" evolved through elision into "egitano" and finally into "gitano", losing the meaning of Egyptian and carrying with it a specific meaning of Romanis in Spain. The two peoples are now unambiguously differentiated in modern Spanish, "egipcios" for Egyptians and "gitanos" for Roma in Spain, with "egiptano" being obsolete for either.


title: Gitanos

text: Though etymologically the term "gitano" originally meant "Egyptian", the use itself of the Old Spanish word meaning "Egyptian" (egiptano) to refer to Romanis in Spain developed in the same way that the English word "Gypsy" also evolved from the English adjective "Egyptian" to refer to Romanis in Britain. Some Romanis, a people originating in the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent, upon their first arrivals to Europe, either claimed to be Egyptians for a more favourable treatment by local Europeans, or were mistaken as Egyptians by local Europeans.


title: Gitanos

text: The group's identity is particularly complex in Spain for a variety of reasons which are examined below. Nevertheless, it can be safely said that both from the perspective of "gitano" and non-"gitano" ("payo") Spaniards, individuals generally considered to belong to this ethnicity are those of full or near-full "gitano" descent and who also self-identify as such. A confusing element is the thorough hybridization of Andalusian and Roma culture (and some would say identity) at a popular level. This has occurred to the point where Spaniards from other regions of Spain can commonly mistake elements of one for the other. The clearest example of this is flamenco music and Sevillanas, art forms that are Andalusian rather than "gitano" in origin but, having been strongly marked by "gitanos" in interpretative style, is now commonly associated to this ethnicity by many Spaniards. The fact that the largest population of "gitanos" is concentrated in Southern Spain has even led to a confusion between "gitano" accents and those typical of Southern Spain even though many "Kale" populations in the northern half of Spain (such as Galicia) do not speak Andalusian Spanish.


title: Gitanos

text: Indeed, the boundaries among "gitano" and non-"gitano" ethnicities are so blurred by intermarriage and common cultural traits in the south of the country, that self-identification is on occasion the only real marker for ethnicity. Few Spaniards are aware, for example, that Andalusian singer and "gitano" popular icon Lola Flores was, in fact, not of "gitano" ethnicity and did not consider herself as such. The mistake can be commonly attributed to her being a Flamenco singer of humble origin, with a strong Andalusian accent, her vaguely South Asian features as well as to her having married into a "gitano" family.


title: Gitanos

text: The term ""gitano"" has also acquired among many a negative socio-economic connotation referring to the lowest strata of society, sometimes linking it to crime and marginality and even being used as a term of abuse. In this, one can be "gitano" "by degree" according to how much one fits into pre-conceived stereotypes or social stigmas.


title: Gitanos

text: On the other hand, the exaltation of Roma culture and heritage is a large element of wider Andalusian folklore and Spanish identity. "Gitanos", rather than being considered a "foreign" or "alien" minority within the country, are perceived as "deep" or "real Spain", as is expressed by the term ""España Cañí"" which means both "Gypsy Spain" and "Traditional" or "Folkloric Spain". This is largely the result of the period of romantic nationalism which followed the Spanish War of Independence, during which the values of the Enlightenment arriving from Western Europe were rejected and Calé became the symbol of Spanish traditionalism, independence and racial consciousness.


title: Gitanos

text: The Romani people originate from northwestern Hindustan, presumably from the northwestern Indian state of Rajasthan and the Punjab region shared between India and Pakistan.


title: Gitanos

text: The linguistic evidence has indisputably shown that roots of Romani language lie in the Indian subcontinent: the language has grammatical characteristics of Indic languages and shares with them a big part of the basic lexicon, for example, body parts, daily routines and numerals.


title: Gitanos

text: More exactly, Romani shares the basic lexicon with Hindi and Punjabi. It shares many phonetic features with Marwari, while its grammar is closest to Bengali. Linguistic evaluation carried out in the nineteenth century by Pott (1845) and Miklosich (1882–1888) showed that the Romani language is to be classed as a New Indo-Aryan language (NIA), not a Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA), establishing that the ancestors of the Romani could not have left the Indian subcontinent significantly earlier than AD 1000, then finally reaching Europe several hundred years later.


title: Gitanos

text: Genetic findings in 2012 suggest the Romani originated in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent and migrated as a group.


title: Gitanos

text: According to a genetic study in 2012, the ancestors of present scheduled tribes and scheduled caste populations of northern India, traditionally referred to collectively as the "Ḍoma", are the likely ancestral populations of modern "Roma" in Europe.


title: Gitanos

text: How and when the Romani arrived in the Iberian Peninsula from Northern India is a question whose consensus is far from being reached. A popular theory, although without any documentation, claims they came from North Africa, from where they would have crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to meet again in France with the northern migratory route. Thus, "gitanos" would be a deformation of Latin Tingitani, that is, from "Tingis", today Tangier. Another, more consistent theory, and well documented, is that they entered the Iberian Peninsula from France. Although there is controversy of the date of the first arrival, since there is evidence of a safe conduct granted in Perpignan in 1415 by the infante Alfonso of Aragon to one Tomás, son of Bartolomé de Sanno, who is said to be "Indie Majoris". Or instead, could be the so-called Juan de Egipto Menor, who entered through France, who in 1425 Alfonso V granted him a letter of insurance, which is mostly accepted as the first Romani person to reach the peninsula.


title: Gitanos

text: In 1435 they were seen in Santiago de Compostela. "Gitanos" were recorded in Barcelona and Zaragoza by 1447, and in 1462 they were received with honors in Jaén. Years later, to the "gitanos", the "grecianos", pilgrims who penetrated the Mediterranean shore in the 1480s, were added to them, probably because of the fall of Constantinople. Both of them continued to wander throughout the peninsula, being well received at least until 1493, year in which a group of "gitanos" arrived at Madrid, where the Council agreed to ""... give alms to the "gitanos" because at the request of the City passed ahead, ten reales, to avoid the damages that could be done by three hundred people who came ... "".


title: Gitanos

text: In those years safe conducts were granted to supposedly noble Calé pilgrims. The follow-up of these safe-conducts throughout Spain has provided some data to historians according to Teresa San Román:


title: Gitanos

text: In 1492, the Roma auxiliaries helped the army of the Kingdom of Castile and León in the Reconquista in Granada ending the reign of Muslims in Spain.


title: Gitanos

text: "Gitanos" have a low and little politically committed role, with some particular exceptions, in Andalusian nationalism and identity, which is strongly based on a belief in the oriental basis of Andalusi heritage acted as a bridge between occidental-western and oriental-eastern Andalusian culture at a popular level. The father of such a movement, Blas Infante, in his book "Orígenes de lo flamenco y secreto del cante jondo", etymologically, went as far as alleging that the word "flamenco" derives from Andalusian Arabic "fellah mengu", supposedly meaning "escapee peasant". Infante believed that numerous Muslim Andalusians became Moriscos, who were obliged to convert, dispersed and eventually ordered to leave Spain stayed and mixed with the Romani newcomers instead of abandoning their land. These claims have been rejected by many historians and genetic research papers.


title: Gitanos

text: For about 300 years, Romanies were subject to a number of laws and policies designed to eliminate them from Spain as an identifiable group: Romani settlements were broken up and the residents dispersed; sometimes, Romanies were required to marry non-Roma; they were prohibited from using their language and rituals, and were excluded from public office and from guild membership. In 1749, a major effort to get rid of the Calé population in Spain was carried out through a raid organized by the government. It arrested all Calé (Romani) in the realm, and imprisoned them in jails, eventually releasing them due to the widespread discontent that the measure caused.


title: Gitanos

text: During the Spanish Civil War, "gitanos" were not persecuted for their ethnicity by either side. Under the regime of Francisco Franco, "gitanos" were often harassed or simply ignored, although their children were educated, sometimes forcibly, much as all Spaniards are nowadays. On the other hand, Andalusian and "gitano" culture was instrumentalized in the country's tourist promotion strategy which focused on the south to exalt the uniqueness of Spanish culture. However, the country's industrialization negatively affected "gitanos" as the migration of rural Spaniards to major cities led to the growth of shanty towns around urban areas with a consequent explosion in birth rates and a drastic fall in the quality of living and an abandonment of traditional professions. Traditional "gitano" neighbourhoods such as Triana in Seville became gentrified and "gitanos" were slowly pushed out to the periphery and these new shanty towns.


title: Gitanos

text: In the post-Franco era, Spanish government policy has been much more sympathetic, especially in the area of social welfare and social services. In 1977, the last anti-Romani laws were repealed, an action promoted by Juan de Dios Ramírez Heredia, the first Romani deputy.


title: Gitanos

text: Beginning in 1983, the government operated a special program of Compensatory Education to promote educational rights for the disadvantaged, including those in Romani communities. During the heroin epidemic that afflicted Spain in the 1980s and 1990s, "gitano" shanty towns became central to the drug trade, a problem which afflicts Spain to this day. Although the size of shanty towns has been vastly reduced in Madrid, they remain significant in other major cities such as Seville, Huelva and Almería. Nevertheless, Spain is still considered a model for integration of "gitano" communities when compared to other countries with Romani populations in Eastern Europe.


title: Gitanos

text: Historically, "gitanos" spoke Caló fluently, often alongside the language spoken in the region they inhabited. Caló is a type of para-Romani, combining the phonology and grammar of the Catalan or Castilian, with a lexicon derived from Romani. The para-Romani resulting from the combination of Basque and Romani is called Erromintxela. Very few "gitanos" maintain a comprehensive and functional knowledge of Caló. A study on the actual usage patterns of Caló among a group of mainly Andalusian "gitanos" concluded that the language currently consists of between 350 and 400 unique terms, the knowledge of which varies considerably among "gitanos". This would exclude a similar number of Calo words which have entered mainstream Spanish slang. According to the authors of the study, the majority of "gitanos" acknowledge that the language is in a terminal state, with many asserting that the language is totally lost.


title: Gitanos

text: In Spain, "gitanos" were traditionally Roman Catholics who participated in four of the Church's sacraments (baptism, marriage, confirmation, and extreme unction). They are not regular churchgoers but follow traditions such as the cult of the Virgin of El Rocío.


title: Gitanos

text: In 1997, Pope John Paul II beatified the Catholic "gitano" martyr Ceferino Giménez Malla, in a ceremony reportedly attended by some 3000 Roma. Sara-la-Kali is the patron saint of Romani people.


title: Gitanos

text: They rarely go to folk healers, and they participate fully in Spain's state-supported medical system. "Gitanos" have a special involvement with recently dead kin and visit their graves frequently. They spend more money than non-"gitanos" of equivalent economic classes in adorning grave sites.


title: Gitanos

text: The Spanish New-Protestant/New-Born Federation (mostly composed by members of the Assemblies of God and Pentecostal) claims that 150,000 "gitanos" have joined their faith in Spain. The Romani Evangelical Assembly is the only religious institution entirely led and composed by Roma. The "gitano" Evangelical church (Iglesia de Filadelfia) asserts the "gitano" people originate from a group of Jews who got lost during Moses' lifetime and eventually became the "gitanos".


title: Gitanos

text: The traditional Spanish Romani place a high value on the extended family. Virginity is essential in unmarried women. Both men and women often marry young.


title: Gitanos

text: A traditional "gitano" wedding requires a "pedimiento" (similar to an engagement party) followed by the "casamiento" (wedding ceremony), where "el yeli" must be sung to the bride to celebrate the virginity and "honour" of the bride (proven by the ritual of the "pañuelo"). In the pañuelo ritual, a group consisting of an "ajuntaora" (a professional who is skilled in performing the ritual and is paid by the family), along with the married women of the family, take the bride into a separate room during the wedding and examine her to ascertain that she is a virgin. The ajuntaora is the one who performs the ritual on the bride, as the other women watch to be witnesses that the bride is virgin. The ajuntaora wraps a white, decoratively embroidered cloth (the "pañuelo") around her index finger and inserts it shallowly into the vaginal canal of the bride. During this process, the Bartholin's glands are depressed, causing them to secrete a liquid that stains the cloth. This action is repeated with three different sections of the cloth to produce three stains, known as "rosas". This process is conceived by the women as the retrieval of the bride's "honra", her "honour", contained within a "grape" inside her genitals which is popped during the examination, and the spillage collected onto the pañuelo.


title: Gitanos

text: When finished with the exam, the women come out of the room and sing "el yeli" to the couple. During this, the men at the wedding rip their shirts and lift the wife onto their shoulders and do the same with the husband, as they sing "el yeli" to them. Weddings can last very long; up to three days is usual in "Gitano" culture. At weddings, "gitanos" invite everyone and anyone that they know of (especially other "gitanos"). On some occasions, "payos" ("gadjos") may attend as well, although this is not common. Through the night, many "bulerías" are danced and especially sung. Today, "rumba gitana" or "rumba flamenca" are a usual party music fixture.


title: Gitanos

text: According to a website of the "Fundación Secretariado Gitano" ("Gitano Secretariat Foundation"), published in 2002, in the Spanish prison system the Spanish Romani women represented 25% of the incarcerated female population, while Spanish Romani people represented 1.4% of the total Spanish population. In Portugal, 64% of the detentions of gitano people were drug trafficking-related, 93.2% of women inmates for drug trafficking were "gitanas", and 13.2% of the total drug trafficking-related inmates were of gitano ethnicity.


title: Gitanos

text: Marginalisation occurs on an institutional level. "Gitano" children are regularly segregated from their non-"gitano" peers and have poorer academic outcomes. In 1978, 68% of adult "gitanos" were illiterate. Literacy has greatly improved over time, and approximately 10% of "gitanos" were illiterate as of 2006-2007 (with older "gitanos" much more likely than younger "gitanos" to be illiterate). Ninety-eight percent of "gitanos" live below the poverty line. Health outcomes and housing - including reduced access to clean water and electricity supplies - is poorer amongst Roma compared to non-Roma in Spain and Portugal, in common with the other surveyed European countries.


title: Gitanos

text: Roma continue to experience discrimination on an interpersonal level, such as by being refused entry to bars and clubs or losing their jobs if their ethnicity is made known to their employer. In 2016, the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights reported that its survey showed 71 percent of Portuguese "cigano", and 51 percent of Spanish "gitano" had suffered an episode of discrimination within the previous five years. A traditional discriminatory practice in Portugal, where shops and businesses display toad figurines at entrances to dissuade "ciganos" from entering, was reported as being still widely seen in Portugal in 2019. (Toads are viewed as symbolic of evil and ill-omen in Roma communities in Portugal.) "Ciganos" and anti-discrimination activists complained of hostility to Roma being commonplace and unremarkable. Some shopkeepers were noted as defending their discouragement of Roma as appropriate.


title: Gitanos

text: Spanish Roma contributed to flamenco. Many famous Spanish flamenco musicians are of Romani ethnicity.


title: Gitanos

text: Due to endogamy, several Spanish surnames are more frequent among the Gitanos, though they are not exclusive to them:


title: Camel (band)

text: Camel are an English progressive rock band formed in Guildford, Surrey, in 1971. Led by guitarist Andrew Latimer, they have released fourteen studio albums and fourteen singles, plus numerous live albums and DVDs. Without achieving mass popularity, the band gained a cult following in the 1970s with albums such as "Mirage" (1974) and "The Snow Goose" (1975). They moved into a jazzier, more commercial direction in the early 1980s, but then went on an extended hiatus. Since 1991 the band has been independent, releasing albums on their own label.


title: Camel (band)

text: Despite no new studio releases since 2002, the band performed on tour as recently as 2018. Their music has influenced artists including Marillion, Opeth and Steven Wilson. Music journalist Mark Blake described Camel as "the great unsung heroes of 70s prog rock".


title: Camel (band)

text: Andrew Latimer (guitar), Andy Ward (drums), and Doug Ferguson (bass) had been playing as a trio called the Brew around the Guildford, Surrey area of England. In early 1971 they auditioned to be the back-up band for singer/songwriter Phillip Goodhand-Tait and appeared on his album "I Think I'll Write a Song" on DJM Records. They then recruited keyboardist Peter Bardens and after an initial gig to fulfill a Bardens commitment under the name Peter Bardens' On, they changed their name to Camel. Their first gig under that name was at Waltham Forest Technical College, London supporting Wishbone Ash in December 1971.


title: Camel (band)

text: In August 1972 Camel signed with MCA Records and their eponymous debut album "Camel" was released in early 1973. The record was not a success and the band moved to the Deram Records division of Decca Records (UK). In 1974 they released their second album, the critically acclaimed "Mirage", on which Latimer showed he was also adept on flute. Although failing to chart at home, it gained success in the United States, prompting a three-month tour there.


title: Camel (band)

text: Released in 1975, the instrumental concept album "The Snow Goose", inspired by the Paul Gallico , was the breakthrough album that brought Camel wider attention and success. However, the album attracted a lawsuit from Gallico. It is often reported that Gallico brought the suit because he "loathed smoking" and thought the band were related to the cigarette brand. In reality Gallico described himself as "an addict of the vice in all its blackest forms" and his objection was simply on the grounds of copyright infringement. Camel accordingly added the prefix "Music inspired by..." to the album's front cover and removed the story notes from the back cover. The album's success led to a prestigious appearance at Royal Albert Hall with the London Symphony Orchestra in October 1975.


title: Camel (band)

text: The band's fourth album, "Moonmadness" (1976), was the last to feature the original lineup. Mel Collins was added to the band on saxophone and flute for the subsequent tour. Drummer Ward was pushing for a move into jazz, which caused bassist Ferguson to quit the band in early 1977. Ferguson formed the band Headwaiter and later became a property developer.


title: Camel (band)

text: Richard Sinclair (formerly of Caravan) replaced Ferguson, and Mel Collins joined the band in an official capacity. This lineup released "Rain Dances" (1977) and "Breathless" (1978). The latter was the last album to feature Bardens, who announced his departure before the supporting tour. He was replaced by two keyboard players both recruited from Caravan: Dave Sinclair (cousin of Richard) and Jan Schelhaas. The Sinclair cousins both left the band after the tour, replaced by keyboardist Kit Watkins and bassist Colin Bass. This lineup recorded the more commercial "I Can See Your House from Here" (1979); the album's cover, photographed and designed by Gered Mankowitz, is a manipulated photographic image of a crucified astronaut looking at Earth.


title: Camel (band)

text: The 1981 release "Nude" was a concept album based on a true story of Japanese soldier Hiroo Onoda. Duncan Mackay provided most of the keyboards in lieu of Watkins and Schelhaas, who were involved in other projects but returned for the tour. This was the first album to feature lyrics by Latimer's future wife Susan Hoover. In mid-1981, Ward stopped playing drums due to alcohol and drug abuse and Camel quietly disbanded.


title: Camel (band)

text: Without a band, but with a contract to fulfill and pressure from Decca for a hit song, Latimer was joined by an array of guest and session musicians at Abbey Road Studios in early 1982. The album "The Single Factor" was released later that year, reaching no. 57 in the UK. Another lineup featuring keyboardist Ton Scherpenzeel (of Dutch prog-rock band Kayak) and drummer Paul Burgess (ex-10cc) released the album "Stationary Traveller" in 1984. Camel's contract with Decca expired in late 1984, while Latimer prevailed in a legal dispute with a former manager. Latimer moved to the United States and disbanded the group again.


title: Camel (band)

text: After a seven-year hiatus, Latimer revived the Camel name in 1991 and released the album, "Dust and Dreams" under his own independent label Camel Productions. The album featured several players who had appeared on the group's two previous albums in the early 1980s. Keyboardist Mickey Simmonds, who had previously backed Mike Oldfield and Fish, joined in 1992.


title: Camel (band)

text: In 1992, a man named Roy Clay approached former Camel drummer Andy Ward and claimed to be a fan of the band as well as an experienced music manager. Clay proposed a Camel reunion tour; Ward supported the scheme but Peter Bardens was the only other former member to show interest. Clay then enlisted some former members of Caravan and attempted to promote the band as a legitimate new lineup of Camel, but a copyright challenge from Latimer forced a name change. Under the name Mirage, this group conducted a short tour in late 1994 and released a live album. The members of Mirage were never compensated, and Clay's fraudulent practices were addressed in a 1995 song by Caravan. Also under Clay's management, Bardens led another band under the name Mirage that released a live album in 1996. Clay also sold counterfeit Camel merchandise, and several years later was convicted of fraud and forgery.


title: Camel (band)

text: In the meantime, Latimer and Hoover wrote "Harbour of Tears" (a nickname for Cobh Harbour in Ireland from which many sailed to the United States during the Great Famine) under the Camel name, which was released in 1996. In 1999 Latimer, drummer Dave Stewart, bassist Colin Bass, and keyboardist Ton Scherpenzeel recorded "Rajaz", a record inspired by an ancient Arabic poetic metre of the same name that reflects the rhythm of camel footsteps in the desert.


title: Camel (band)

text: In 2001, Latimer assembled another new lineup with Bass, drummer Denis Clement, and keyboardist Guy LeBlanc. The band released the album "A Nod and a Wink" in 2002. The album was dedicated to former member Peter Bardens, who had died early that year, The group was inactive for much of the following decade as Latimer received treatment for myelofibrosis.


title: Camel (band)

text: After Latimer's recovery, Camel returned to touring in 2013, including full performances of "The Snow Goose". A new and extended version of that album was released in November 2013. LeBlanc withdrew from touring in 2014 due to illness and died in 2015; he was replaced by a returning Ton Scherpenzeel.


title: Camel (band)

text: Latimer was presented with a Lifetime Achievement award at Orange Amplification's 2014 Progressive Music Awards, and the 2013-14 "Snow Goose" tour was nominated in the category of Live Event. The band continued to tour throughout the decade, and a live DVD recorded at Royal Albert Hall was released in early 2020. Latimer continues to write new music, though the band has not released a studio album since 2002.


title: Camel (band)

text: Camel have been described as a "symphonic prog rock band". Predominantly instrumental, Camel's music combines elements from rock, pop, jazz, blues, folk, classical and electronica. Though they are not from Canterbury, they have long been associated with the Canterbury scene due to their many historical connections with Caravan and other Canterbury progressive rock musicians.


title: Camel (band)

text: Camel have been acknowledged as one of the principal influences on the neo-progressive rock subgenre which emerged in the 1980s and produced Marillion as its most successful band. Former Marillion lead singer Fish said of his first impression of the band: "I thought they were a lot like Camel."


title: ZeroZeroZero

text: ZeroZeroZero is an Italian crime drama television series created by Stefano Sollima, Leonardo Fasoli and Mauricio Katz for Sky Atlantic, Canal+ and Amazon Prime Video. It is based on the book of the same name by Roberto Saviano, a study of the business around the drug cocaine, covering its movement across continents. The series stars Andrea Riseborough, Dane DeHaan and Gabriel Byrne as the American Lynwood family, controlling an international shipping company which acts as cocaine broker between Mexican and Italian organized crime. The series derives its name from the whitest, finest-milled type of wheat flour (000), which is "the nickname among narcotraffickers for the purest cocaine on the market."


title: ZeroZeroZero

text: The world premiere of "ZeroZeroZero" was on 5 September 2019 at the 76th Venice International Film Festival, where the first two episodes were screened out of competition. The series premiered on television on 14 February 2020 on Sky Atlantic in Italy. The series received generally favorable reviews.


title: ZeroZeroZero

text: The series follows the troubled journey of a large shipment of cocaine from Monterrey, Mexico to Gioia Tauro, Italy. The sellers are Mexican drug lords Enrique and Jacinto Leyra, who are aided in their criminal activities by Manuel Quinteras and his group of corrupt soldiers; the buyer is Don Minu La Piana, a boss of the 'Ndrangheta, whose position is challenged by his ambitious grandson Stefano and the Curtiga family; the brokers in charge of the shipment are the Lynwoods, an American family from New Orleans owning a prestigious shipping company. The infighting within the 'Ndrangheta causes the shipment to be rerouted to Morocco, and the delay has dramatic consequences for all the interested parties.


title: ZeroZeroZero

text: The series premiered on 14 February 2020 on Sky Atlantic in Italy. It was released in its entirety on 6 March 2020 on Amazon Prime Video in the United States, Canada, Latin America and Spain. "ZeroZeroZero" premiered on 9 March 2020 on Canal+ in France, and on 26 March 2020 on Sky Atlantic in Germany and Austria. It premiered on 14 May 2020 on SBS and SBS On Demand in Australia. The series premiered on 4 February 2021 on Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom and Ireland.


title: ZeroZeroZero

text: "ZeroZeroZero" has been well-received by critics. It has a 94% "fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 8/10, based on 34 reviews. The Critics Consensus states, "An addictive thriller whose greatest weakness is that it is at times too withholding, "ZeroZeroZero" will stick with you long after the credits roll. It holds a 75/100 rating on Metacritic based on 10 reviews, indicating "generally favorable" reviews.


title: ZeroZeroZero

text: Nick Allen of "RogerEbert.com" praised "ZeroZeroZero" as "the kind of thriller that makes such a deep impression because it can think big and small at the same time, uniting three gripping individual stories into one massive saga." Mike Hale of "The New York Times" characterized the show as a "three shows in one: an Italian mafia saga with rocky Calabrian hillsides and generational omertà; a Mexican narco thriller with lavish cartel violence; and, more improbably, an indie-movie-style American family drama and character study. The series toggles among the three stories, which are intimately connected but for the most part told separately, with occasional meetings that are invariably bad news for the characters involved." He compared the series unfavorably to the earlier Roberto Saviano-based series, "Gomorrah", but praised the characterization and performances of Riseborough and DeHaan. Daniel Fienberg of "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote that "ZeroZeroZero" was "beautifully shot, but frustratingly limited on character," and adding that "genre familiarity may make "ZeroZeroZero" less fresh, but it remains quite watchable, if you can ignore its vaguely nihilistic streak, thanks to a good cast, confident direction and cinematography that's really quite stunning at times."


title: Grindelwald

text: Grindelwald is a village and municipality in the Interlaken-Oberhasli administrative district in the canton of Berne. In addition to the village of Grindelwald, the municipality also includes the settlements of Alpiglen, Burglauenen, Grund, Itramen, Mühlebach, Schwendi, Tschingelberg and Wargistal.


title: Grindelwald

text: Grindelwald village is located at above sea level. Mentioned for the first time in 1146, it has become a major tourist destination of both Switzerland and the Alps since the golden age of alpinism in the 19th century. It is notably overlooked by the section of the Bernese Alps from the Wetterhorn to the Eiger, making up a huge natural barrier. Together with the adjacent valley of Lauterbrunnen, the valley of Grindelwald forms part of the Jungfrau Region of the Bernese Oberland, between Interlaken and the main crest of the Bernese Alps.


title: Grindelwald

text: Similarly to Lauterbrunnen, Grindelwald is connected to Interlaken by the Bernese Oberland Railway and is the start of the Wengernalp Railway, leading to Kleine Scheidegg. The latter resort is the start of the Jungfrau Railway, the highest railway in Europe and a gateway to the Jungfrau-Aletsch protected area.


title: Grindelwald

text: The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is "Gules on a Bar Argent a Semi Chamois rampant issuant Sable between seven, 4-3, Mullets of the second."


title: Grindelwald

text: Grindelwald was first mentioned in 1146 as "Grindelwalt". This designation is probably derived from the Old High German words "grintil" (bar, barrier) and "walt" (forest), thus describing the nature of the valley. According to a legend, the name Grindelwald comes from two monks of the Interlaken Monastery. After exploring the Lütschinen valleys, they are said to have reported about "Grinden" and "Wald", i.e. "stones" and "forests". This was initially the explanation for the origin of the name.


title: Grindelwald

text: The oldest traces of a settlement in the area are scattered neolithic tools which have been discovered around Grindelwald village. Several Roman era coins have also been found in the municipality. A castle was built on the Burgbühl hill above the village during the High Middle Ages.


title: Grindelwald

text: In 1146, King Conrad III granted estates in Grindelwald to Interlaken Monastery. In the late 12th century, the barons of the alpine valleys in what became the Berner Oberland went to war against the expansionist Duke Berthold V of Zähringen. The Duke defeated a coalition of nobles in the Grindlewald valley in 1191. His victory allowed him to expand Zähringen power into the Oberland, to expand the city of Thun and found the city of Bern. Beginning in the 13th century, Interlaken Monastery began to purchase rights and land in Grindelwald and eventually forced the local nobles out of the valley. The Monastery continued to exert influence in the village and in 1315 and again in 1332 ordered the villagers to raid Unterwalden to further the political ambitions of the Abbot's patrons. In response to the raids, in 1342, Unterwalden attacked Grindelwald. A few years later, in 1348–49, the villagers joined in an unsuccessful rebellion against ecclesiastical power. In 1528, the city of Bern adopted the Protestant Reformation and proceeded to spread the new faith in Grindelwald against the populations' wishes. Berne was able to impose its will, converted the village and secularized Interlaken Abbey and the Abbey's lands. Grindelwald became part of the bailiwick of Interlaken, under a Bernese bailiff.


title: Grindelwald

text: The first village church was a wooden building from the mid-12th century. The wooden building was replaced with the stone St. Mary's Church in 1180. This church was replaced in the 16th century, and the present church was built in 1793. On August 18, 1892, a large part of the village was destroyed by a fire. That day, which followed a drought period, a violent foehn storm was raging. Within two hours, 116 buildings in the Grindelwald valley were destroyed and 412 residents became homeless.


title: Grindelwald

text: The tourism industry began in Grindelwald in the late 18th century as foreigners discovered the scenic town. Pictures of the vistas were widely reprinted, quickly making the village internationally famous. In the 19th century many Englishmen came to the village to climb the alpine peaks around the valley. The Finsteraarhorn (), the Wetterhorn (), the Eiger (), the Schreckhorn () and the Gross Fiescherhorn () were all climbed during the 19th century, an ascent of the Wetterhorn marking the beginning of the golden age of alpinism. The ascent of the north face of the Eiger, in 1938, was also a milestone in mountaineering history.


title: Grindelwald

text: The Grindelwald road was built in 1860–72, and the Bernese Oberland railway reached the village in 1890, both of which transformed an arduous journey into a simple trip and allowed tourists to flood into the village. In 1888, Grindelwald was the first resort in the Bernese Oberland to also become a winter destination, attractions being sleigh rides, curling, skating and, from 1891, skiing. The first resort opened in 1888, there were 10 hotels in 1889, and by 1914 there were 33 in Grindelwald. A rack railway was built to Kleine Scheidegg in 1893, and it was expanded to the Jungfraujoch in 1912. Numerous ski lifts, cable cars, hiking trails and alpine huts were built in the late 19th and 20th centuries to allow tourists to explore the mountains, notably the Wetterhorn Elevator, one of the first modern aerial tramways. Today, almost the entire economy of Grindelwald is based on tourism. The V-cableway, inaugurated in 2020, is the last major development in the valley.


title: Grindelwald

text: The Grindelwald region has been the subject of scientific investigations, including in the "Alpine Studies" by the English alpinist W. A. B. Coolidge (1912) and in the Unesco research program Man and Biosphere of the Geographical Institute of the University of Bern on the effects of tourism (1979-1984).


title: Grindelwald

text: The municipality is quite large and is divided into seven mountain communities. However the municipality is dominated by the large tourist center of Grindelwald, slightly above the Black Lütschine, the main river of the valley, the latter converging with the White Lütschine. The village is surrounded by the mountains of the Faulhorn, Schwarzhorn, Wellhorn, Wetterhorn, Mettenberg, Schreckhorn, Lauteraarhorn, Agassizhorn, Fiescherhorn, Mönch (the highest), Eiger, Lauberhorn and Männlichen, all of which are either within or on the border of the municipality. The Kleine Scheidegg and the Grosse Scheidegg, respectively "minor watershed" and "major watershed" are the two main passes of the valley.


title: Grindelwald

text: Grindelwald has an area of . Of this area, or 28.9% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 16.4% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 1.8% is settled (buildings or roads), or 0.8% is either rivers or lakes, and or 52.1% is unproductive land.


title: Grindelwald

text: Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 1.0% and transportation infrastructure made up 0.6%. Out of the forested land, 12.9% of the total land area is heavily forested, and 2.3% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 5.1% is pastures and 23.8% is used for alpine pastures. All the water in the municipality is flowing water. Of the unproductive areas, 6.6% is unproductive vegetation, 24.0% is too rocky for vegetation, and 21.6% of the land is covered by glaciers.


title: Grindelwald

text: The highest peaks of the valley, from the Wellhorn and Wetterhorn to the Eiger and Mönch, are part of the Jungfrau-Aletsch protected area, a world heritage site.


title: Grindelwald

text: On 31 December 2009, Amtsbezirk Interlaken, the municipality's former district, was dissolved. On the following day, 1 January 2010, it joined the newly created Verwaltungskreis Interlaken-Oberhasli.


title: Grindelwald

text: Grindelwald has a population () of . , 18.0% of the population are resident foreign nationals. In the period from 2000 to 2010, the population changed at a rate of −1.3%. Migration accounted for 0.2%, while births and deaths accounted for −1.7%.


title: Grindelwald

text: Most of the population () spoke German (3,531 or 86.8%) as their first language, Portuguese is the second most common (183 or 4.5%) and French was the third (69 or 1.7%). There were 60 people who speak Italian and four people who spoke Romansh.


title: Grindelwald

text: , the population was 50.1% male and 49.9% female. The population was made up of 1,556 Swiss men (40.9% of the population) and 354 (9.3%) non-Swiss men. There were 1,568 Swiss women (41.2%) and 331 (8.7%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 1,846 or about 45.4% were born in Grindelwald and lived there in 2000. There were 847 or 20.8% who were born in the same canton, while 510 or 12.5% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 679 or 16.7% were born outside of Switzerland.


title: Grindelwald

text: , children and teenagers (0–19 years old) made up 17.5% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) made up 62.5% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 20%.


title: Grindelwald

text: , there were 1,750 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 1,971 married individuals, 221 widows or widowers and 127 individuals who were divorced.


title: Grindelwald

text: , there were 679 households that consisted of only one person and 82 households with five or more people. , a total of 1,581 apartments (44.9% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 1,750 apartments (49.6%) were seasonally occupied and 194 apartments (5.5%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 13.1 new units per 1000 residents.


title: Grindelwald

text: The Jungfraubahn, a mountain railway up the Jungfrau mountain, is listed as a Swiss heritage site of national significance. The land around the Kleine Scheidegg is part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites. Both Jungfraubahn and Kleine Scheidegg are shared between the municipalities of Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen.


title: Grindelwald

text: In the 2011 federal election, the most popular party was the Swiss People's Party (SVP) which received 54.2% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the Conservative Democratic Party (BDP) (14.8%), the FDP.The Liberals (8.8%) and the Green Party (6.9%). In the federal election, a total of 1,194 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 44.4%.


title: Grindelwald

text: The principal commercial artery of Grindelwald is the Dorfstrasse, which is the prolongation of the Grindelwaldstrasse, the main access road of the village.


title: Grindelwald

text: , Grindelwald had an unemployment rate of 1.48%. , there were a total of 2,714 people employed in the municipality. Of these, there were 334 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 130 businesses involved in this sector. 393 people were employed in the secondary sector, and there were 51 businesses in this sector. 1,987 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 229 businesses in this sector. There were 2,403 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 45.4% of the workforce.


title: Grindelwald

text: , there were 432 workers who commuted into the municipality and 265 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 1.6 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. Of the working population, 9.2% used public transportation to get to work, and 36.2% used a private car.


title: Grindelwald

text: From the , 690 or 17.0% were Catholic, while 2,874 or 70.6% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 31 members of an Orthodox church (or about 0.76% of the population), there were two individuals (or about 0.05% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 105 individuals (or about 2.58% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There was one individual who was Jewish, and 32 (or about 0.79% of the population) who were Muslim. There were 14 individuals who were Buddhist and one individual who belonged to another church. One hundred forty-four (or about 3.54% of the population) belonged to no church, were agnostic or atheist, and 227 individuals (or about 5.58% of the population) did not answer the question.


title: Grindelwald

text: Between 1981 and 2010, Grindelwald had an average of 145.4 days of rain or snow per year and on average received of precipitation. The wettest month was August during which time Grindelwald received an average of of rain or snow. During this month there was precipitation for an average of 14.4 days. The month with the most days of precipitation was June, with an average of 14.8, but with only of rain or snow. The driest month of the year was February with an average of of precipitation over 9.7 days.


title: Grindelwald

text: As the municipality territory stretches from Lütschental (approx. 730 metres above sea level) to the summit of the Mönch (4,110 metres), huge differences in average temperature are naturally found. The Montane zone and the Subalpine zone extend from the bottom of the valley to the tree line, at approx. 2,000 metres. There, coniferous trees and snowfall progressively replace deciduous tree and rainfall. Above that is the Alpine zone, consisting of Alpine tundra. The last region, above 3,000 metres, is the Ice cap climate zone.


title: Grindelwald

text: Grindelwald railway station, in the centre of Grindelwald village, is served by trains of the Berner Oberland Bahn (BOB), which run to Interlaken, and by trains of the Wengernalpbahn (WAB), which run to Kleine Scheidegg and on to Wengen and Lauterbrunnen. At Kleine Scheidegg, a connection can be made with the Jungfraubahn, which ascends inside the Eiger to the Jungfraujoch.


title: Grindelwald

text: Besides Grindelwald station, there are eight other railway stations within the municipality of Grindelwald. These are Burglauenen, , and Schwendi on the BOB; Grindelwald Grund, Brandegg and Alpiglen on the WAB; and and on the Jungfraubahn.


title: Grindelwald

text: The Gondelbahn Grindelwald-Männlichen connects Grindelwald with the Männlichen and with onward travel on the Luftseilbahn Wengen-Männlichen offers an alternative route to Wengen. The recently built Eiger Express, connects directly Grindelwald to Eigergletscher, on the Jungfraubahn. Both Männlichen and Eiger Express cable transport start at the Grindelwald Terminal.


title: Grindelwald

text: Both mountain locations of First and Pfingstegg are also accessible by cable transport. In addition, during the summer season, buses run from Grindelwald to Meiringen via the Grosse Scheidegg, at nearly 2,000 metres above sea level.


title: Grindelwald

text: Long famed as a winter tourist destination with slopes for beginners, intermediates and the challenges of the Eiger glacier for the experienced, there are activities for the non-skiers, from tobogganing to groomed winter hiking tracks. It is the usual starting point for ascents of the Eiger and the Wetterhorn. Nowadays Grindelwald is also a popular summer activity resort with many miles of hiking trails across the Alps.


title: Grindelwald

text: The first person to ski there was Englishman, Gerald Fox (who lived at Tone Dale House) who put his skis on in his hotel bedroom in 1881 and walked out through the hotel bar to the slopes wearing them.


title: Grindelwald

text: In Grindelwald, about 1,647 or (40.5%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 302 or (7.4%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 302 who completed tertiary schooling, 57.9% were Swiss men, 24.5% were Swiss women, 9.3% were non-Swiss men and 8.3% were non-Swiss women.


title: Grindelwald

text: The Canton of Bern school system provides one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten, followed by six years of primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower secondary, students may attend additional schooling, or they may enter an apprenticeship.


title: Grindelwald

text: During the 2010-11 school year, there were a total of 341 students attending classes in Grindelwald. There were three kindergarten classes with a total of 55 students in the municipality. Of the kindergarten students, 27.3% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 20.0% had a mother language different from the classroom language. The municipality had 12 primary classes and 187 students. Of the primary students, 15.0% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 12.8% had a mother tongue different from the classroom language. During the same year, there were six lower secondary classes with a total of 99 students. There were 8.1% who were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 5.1% who had a mother tongue different from the classroom language.


title: Grindelwald

text: , there were 20 students in Grindelwald who came from another municipality, while 39 residents attended schools outside the municipality.


title: Grindelwald

text: Grindelwald is home to the "Bibliothek Grindelwald" library. The library has () 6,144 books or other media, and loaned out 10,777 items in the same year. It was open a total of 136 days with average of 6.5 hours per week during that year.


title: No taxation without representation

text: "No taxation without representation" is a political slogan that originated in the American Revolution, and which expressed one of the primary grievances of the American colonists for Great Britain. In short, many colonists believed that as they were not represented in the distant British parliament, any taxes it imposed on the colonists (such as the Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts) were unconstitutional, and were a denial of the colonists' rights as Englishmen.


title: No taxation without representation

text: The firm belief that the government should not tax a populace unless that populace is represented in some manner in the government developed in the English Civil War, following the refusal of parliamentarian John Hampden to pay ship money tax. In the context of British taxation of its American colonies, the slogan "No taxation without representation" appeared for the first time in a headline of a February 1768 "London Magazine" printing of Lord Camden's "Speech on the Declaratory Bill of the Sovereignty of Great Britain over the Colonies," which was given in parliament. The British government argued for virtual representation, the idea that people were represented by members of Parliament even if they didn't get to vote for them.


title: No taxation without representation

text: The term has since been used by various other groups advocating for representation or protesting against taxes, such as women before the women's suffrage movement, advocates of District of Columbia voting rights, the Tea Party movement, and others.


title: No taxation without representation

text: The English Parliament had controlled colonial trade and taxed imports and exports since 1660. By the 1760s, the Americans were being deprived of a historic right. The English Bill of Rights 1689 had forbidden the imposition of taxes without the consent of Parliament. Since the colonists had no representation in Parliament, the taxes violated the guaranteed Rights of Englishmen. Parliament initially contended that the colonists had virtual representation, but the idea "found little support on either side of the Atlantic". The person who first suggested the idea of Parliamentary representation for the colonies appears to have been Oldmixon, an American annalist of the era of Queen Anne or George I. It was afterwards put forward with approbation by Adam Smith, and advocated for a time, but afterwards rejected and strongly opposed, by Benjamin Franklin."


title: No taxation without representation

text: The 1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance, which was written by the Virginia House of Burgesses was likewise sent to Parliament, only to be ignored.


title: No taxation without representation

text: The phrase had been used for more than a generation in Ireland. By 1765, the term was in use in Boston, and local politician James Otis was most famously associated with the phrase, "taxation without representation is tyranny." In the course of the Revolutionary era (1750–1783), many arguments were pursued that sought to resolve the dispute surrounding Parliamentary sovereignty, taxation, self-governance and representation.


title: No taxation without representation

text: In the course of the 1760s and 1770s, William Pitt the Elder, Sir William Pulteney, and George Grenville, amongst other prominent Britons and colonial Americans, such as Joseph Galloway, James Otis Jr., Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, the London Quaker Thomas Crowley, Royal Governors such as Thomas Pownall M.P., William Franklin, Sir Francis Bernard, and the Attorney-General of Quebec, Francis Maseres, debated and circulated plans for the creation of colonial seats in London, imperial union with Great Britain, or a federally representative British Parliament with powers of taxation that was to consist of American, West Indian, Irish and British Members of Parliament. Despite the fact that these ideas were considered and discussed seriously on both sides of the Atlantic, it appears that neither the American Congress, nor the colonial Assemblies, nor the British Government in Westminster, at least prior to the Carlisle Peace Commission of 1778, officially proposed such constitutional developments. Governor Thomas Hutchinson apparently referred to a colonial representational proposal when he wrote that, The Assembly of Massachusetts Bay was the first which ever took exception to the right of Parliament to impose Duties or Taxes on the Colonies, whilst they had no representatives in the House of Commons. This they did in a letter to their Agent in the summer of 1764 ... And in this letter they recommend to him a pamphlet, wrote by one of their members, in which there are proposals for admitting representatives from the Colonies to fit in the House of Commons ... an American representation is thrown out as an expedient which might obviate the objections to Taxes upon the Colonies, yet ... it was renounced ... by the Assembly of the Colony which first proposed it, as utterly impracticable.


title: No taxation without representation

text: Jared Ingersoll Sr., colonial agent for Connecticut, wrote to his American colleague, the Royal Governor of Connecticut Thomas Fitch, that following Isaac Barre's famous Parliamentary speech against the Stamp Act in 1764, Richard Jackson, M.P., supported Barre and other pro-American M.P.s by producing before the House copies of earlier Acts of Parliament that had admitted Durham and Chester seats upon their petitions for representation. The argument was put forward in Parliament that America ought to have representatives on these grounds too. Richard Jackson supposed that Parliament had a right to tax America, but he much doubted the expediency of the Stamp Act. He said if it was necessary, as ministers claimed, to tax the colonies, the latter should be permitted to elect some part of the Parliament, "otherwise the liberties of America, I do not say will be lost, but will be in danger."


title: No taxation without representation

text: William Knox, an aide of George Grenville, pamphleteer and subsequent Irish Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, received an appointment in 1756 to the American provinces, and after his return to London in 1761, he recommended the creation of a colonial aristocracy and colonial representation in the British Parliament. He was shortly afterwards appointed agent for Georgia and East Florida, a post which he forfeited by writing in favour of the Stamp Act. In his Grenville-backed pamphlet of 1769, "The Controversy between Great Britain and her Colonies Reviewed", Knox suggested that colonial representatives might have been offered seats in the British Parliament if they had sought such representation. Knox submitted that: Whilst [the radical colonists] exclaim against Parliament for taxing them when they are not represented, they candidly declare they will not have representatives [in Parliament] lest they should be taxed ... The truth ... is that they are determined to get rid of the jurisdiction of Parliament ... and they therefore refuse to send members to that assembly lest they should preclude themselves of [the] plea [that Parliament's] legislative acts ... are done without their consent; which, it must be confessed, holds equally good against all laws, as against taxes ... The colony advocates ... tell us, that by refusing to accept our offer of representatives they ... mean to avoid giving Parliament a pretence for taxing them.


title: No taxation without representation

text: Edmund Burke responded to Knox, who had drawn up "The Controversy between Great Britain and her Colonies Reviewed" as well as "The Present State of the Nation" under the supervision of George Grenville, by opining in his political tract "Observations on a Late State of the Nation": NOW comes [Knox's] American representation ... Is not the reader a little astonished at the proposal of an American representation from that quarter [of Grenville's]? It is proposed merely as a project of speculative improvement; not from the necessity in the case, not to add any thing to the authority of parliament: but that we may afford a greater attention to the concerns of the Americans, and give them a better opportunity of stating their grievances, and of obtaining redress. I am glad to find the author has at length discovered that we have not given a sufficient attention to their concerns, or a proper redress to their grievances. His great friend [Grenville] would once have been exceedingly displeased with any person, who should tell him, that he did not attend sufficiently to those concerns. He thought he did so, when he regulated the colonies over and over again: he thought he did so, when he formed two general systems of revenue; one of port-duties, and the other of internal taxation. These systems supposed, or ought to suppose, the greatest attention to, and the most detailed information of, all their affairs. However, by contending for the American representation, he seems at last driven virtually to admit, that great caution ought to be used in the exercise of all our legislative rights over an object so remote from our eye, and so little connected with our immediate feelings; that in prudence we ought not to be quite so ready with our taxes, until we can secure the desired representation in parliament. Perhaps it may be some time before this hopeful scheme can be brought to perfect maturity; although the author seems to be no wise aware of any obstructions that lie in the way of it.


title: No taxation without representation

text: While Knox, Grenville and Burke were not necessarily opposed in principle to direct colonial representation in Parliament, Grenville nonetheless conjectured that Parliament retained a constitutional right to virtually represent the colonial subjects.


title: No taxation without representation

text: Burke supported the doctrine of virtual representation in Britain. Yet in his Parliamentary speech of 1774, entitled "On American Taxation", Burke responded to the suggestion that America was virtually represented in Parliament by remarking: What! does the electric force of virtual representation more easily pass over the Atlantic than pervade Wales, which lies in your neighborhood? or than Chester and Durham, surrounded by abundance of representation that is actual and palpable? But, Sir, your ancestors thought this sort of virtual representation, however ample, to be totally insufficient for the freedom of the inhabitants of territories that are so near, and comparatively so inconsiderable. How, then, can I think it sufficient for those which are infinitely greater, and infinitely more remote? You will now, Sir, perhaps imagine that I am on the point of proposing to you a scheme for a representation of the colonies in Parliament. Perhaps I might be inclined to entertain some such thought; but a great flood stops me in my course. Opposuit Natura. I cannot remove the eternal barriers of the creation. The thing, in that mode, I do not know to be possible. As I meddle with no theory, I do not absolutely assert the impracticability of such a representation; but I do not see my way to it; and those who have been more confident have not been more successful ... My resolutions, therefore, mean to establish the equity and justice of a taxation of America by grant, and not by imposition; to mark the legal competency of the colony assemblies for the support of their government in peace, and for public aids in time of war; to acknowledge that this legal competency has had a dutiful and beneficial exercise, and that experience has shown the benefit of their grants, and the futility of Parliamentary taxation, as a method of supply.


title: No taxation without representation

text: However, Burke apparently qualified such remarks concerning America by stating in the same speech that: The Parliament of Great Britain ... is never to intrude into the place of the [provincial legislatures], whilst they are equal to the common ends of their institution. But in order to enable [Parliamentary] ... superintendence, her powers must be boundless. The gentlemen who think the powers of Parliament limited may please themselves to talk of requisitions. But suppose the requisitions are not obeyed? What! shall there be no reserved power in the empire, to supply a deficiency which may weaken, divide, and dissipate the whole? We are engaged in war,—the Secretary of State calls upon the colonies to contribute,—some would do it, I think most would cheerfully furnish whatever is demanded,—one or two, suppose, hang back, and, easing themselves, let the stress of the draft lie on the others,—surely it is proper that some authority might legally say, 'Tax yourselves for the common Supply, or Parliament will do it for you.' This backwardness was, as I am told, actually the case of Pennsylvania for some short time towards the beginning of the last war, owing to some internal dissensions in that colony. But whether the fact were so or otherwise, the case is equally to be provided for by a competent sovereign power. But then this ought to be no ordinary power, nor ever used in the first instance. This is what I meant, when I have said, at various times, that I consider the power of taxing in Parliament as an instrument of empire, and not as a means of supply.


title: No taxation without representation

text: The views of Knox, Grenville and Burke did not go unchallenged: William Pitt was amongst those who disputed that a Parliamentary right or power existed to levy "internal" taxes "for the purposes of raising a revenue" without the consent of actual representatives of the "Commons of America". "It is my opinion," Pitt said, "that this kingdom has no right to lay a tax upon the colonies."


title: No taxation without representation

text: Otis, Jr., attended the Stamp Act Congress of 1765 along with other colonial delegates. The resolutions of the Congress stated that the Stamp Act had "a manifest tendency to subvert the rights and liberties of the colonists" and that "the only Representatives of the People of these Colonies, are Persons chosen therein by themselves, and that no Taxes ever have been, or can be Constitutionally imposed on them, but by their respective Legislature." Furthermore, it was declared that, "it is unreasonable and inconsistent with the Principles and Spirit of the British Constitution, for the People of Great-Britain, to grant to his Majesty the Property of the Colonists."


title: No taxation without representation

text: Daniel Dulany, Jr., of Maryland, wrote in an influential 1765 pamphlet that, "the Impropriety of a Taxation by the British Parliament ... [is proven by] the Fact, that not one inhabitant in any Colony is, or can be actually or virtually represented by the British House of Commons." Dulany, Jr., denied that Parliament had a right "to impose an internal Tax upon the Colonies, without their consent for the single Purpose of Revenue."


title: No taxation without representation

text: In 1766, Benjamin Franklin told the House of Commons that, "an internal tax is forced from the people without their consent if not laid by their own representatives. The Stamp Act says we shall have no commerce, make no exchange of property with each other, neither purchase nor grant, nor recover debts; we shall neither marry nor make our wills, unless we pay such and such sums; and thus it is intended to extort our money from us or ruin us by the consequence of refusing to pay it."


title: No taxation without representation

text: To those sympathetic to republicanism, such as James Burgh, Catherine Macauley, and Richard Price, any tax revenue measures that were voted into effect without the direct representation of Americans were "unconstitutional" and "pernicious". Burgh felt that virtual representation was "subversive of liberty" and "unjust in its principles" and that the House of Commons must include colonial representatives when it voted on colonial matters, or operate by using the consent of the colonial Assemblies.


title: No taxation without representation

text: American colonists rejected the Stamp Act of 1765 brought in by British Prime Minister George Grenville, and initiated boycotts of British goods which helped bring about the repeal of the Act in 1766. The passage of the Townshend Acts in 1767 and 1768 again led to colonial protests, including a renewed boycott movement against British wares. Most of the taxes in the Townshend Acts were repealed in 1770 by the Ministry of Lord North. The passage of the Tea Act in May 1773, which enforced the remaining taxes on tea, led to the Boston Tea Party on December 16, 1773. The Parliament considered this an illegal act because they believed it undermined the authority of the Crown-in-Parliament. When the British then used the military to enforce laws that the colonists believed Parliament had passed illegally, the colonists responded by forming militias and seized political control of each colony, ousting the royal governors – with the exception of the American-born Royal Governor of Connecticut, John Trumbull, who was allowed to remain as the new Patriot Governor.


title: No taxation without representation

text: The complaint was never officially over the amount of taxation (the taxes were quite low, though ubiquitous), but always on the political decision-making process by which taxes were decided in London, i.e. without representation for the colonists in British Parliament.


title: No taxation without representation

text: Patrick Henry's resolution in the Virginia legislature implied that Americans possessed all the rights of Englishmen, that the principle of no taxation without representation was an essential part of the British Constitution, and that Virginia alone had the right to tax Virginians.


title: No taxation without representation

text: This offer of actual imperial representation was likewise re-stated to the delegates of the colonies via the colonial agents in 1774, according to Connecticut-born Reverend Thomas Bradbury Chandler, in his publication "A Friendly Address to All Reasonable Americans". In February 1775, Britain passed the Conciliatory Resolution which ended taxation for any colony which satisfactorily provided for the imperial defence and the upkeep of imperial officers.


title: No taxation without representation

text: James Macpherson, a colonial secretary of British West Florida, defended the North administration in an officially sponsored polemic in 1776 named "The Rights of Great Britain Asserted". This work replied to the Continental Congress' July 6, 1775 "Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms" by proposing that, Had the Americans, instead of flying to arms, submitted the same supposed grievance [as the taxed though unrepresented Palatine counties in England had], in a peaceable and dutiful manner, to the Legislature, I can perceive no reason why their request should be refused. Had they, like the County and City of Chester, represented, that "for lack of Knights and Burgesses to represent them in the High Court of Parliament, they had been oftentimes TOUCHED and GRIEVED with Acts and Statutes made within the said Court, derogatory to their most ancient jurisdictions, liberties and privileges, and prejudicial to their quietness, rest and peace;" this Country [of Britain] would, I am persuaded, have no objection to their being represented in her Parliament ... If they are not madly bent on independence, let them propose the conditions on which they wish to continue as subjects ... The Legislature of this Kingdom cannot possibly depart from any part of its supremacy over the Colonies; but it is in the power of the Colonies to share in that supremacy. If they complain of being taxed without having the privilege of sending Members to Parliament, let them be represented. Nay, more: Let their representation increase in proportion to the Revenue they shall furnish. If they wish rather to vote their QUOTA towards the general supply, through their own General Courts and Assemblies, the resolution of Parliament on that subject is still open to their choice. But, as long as they assume the language of a Sovereign State, this Kingdom can enter into no negociation , can meet no compromise." The noted economist Adam Smith seconded this view in his famous 1776 publication "Wealth of Nations" when he recommended the Americans "to send fifty or sixty new representatives to Parliament" on the basis of the amount of taxes they would contribute to the Imperial coffers.


title: No taxation without representation

text: Writing in October 1776 to Lord North in "Strictures upon the Declaration of the Congress" of the recent Declaration of Independence, and particularly of James Otis, Jr.'s pamphlet "Rights of the British Colonies" and its endorsement by the Massachusetts Assembly, Governor Thomas Hutchinson said, The Assembly of Massachusetts Bay, therefore, was the first that took any publick of the [Sugar] Act, and the first which ever took exception to the right of Parliament to impose Duties or Taxes on the Colonies, whilst they had no representatives in the House of Commons. This they did in a letter to their Agent in the summer of 1764, which they took care to print and publish before it was possible for him to receive it. And in this letter they recommend to him a pamphlet, wrote by one of their members, in which there are proposals for admitting representatives from the Colonies to fit in the House of Commons. I have this special reason, my Lord, for taking notice of this Act of the Massachusetts Assembly; that though an American representation is thrown out as an expedient which might obviate the objections to Taxes upon the Colonies, yet it was only intended to amuse the authority in England; and as soon as it was known to have its advocates here [in London], it was renounced by the colonies, and even by the Assembly of the Colony which first proposed it, as utterly impracticable." Indeed, the resolves of the Continental Congresses of both 1765 and 1774 declared that imperial representation was too impractical on the footing that "local and other circumstances, cannot properly be represented in the British parliament". The British Government, similarly, does not appear to have formally requested discussions with the Americans concerning the issue of Parliamentary seats until 1778. In that year "the commissioners of the king of Great Britain," known as the Carlisle Peace Commission of 1778, made an offer to the Congress of "a reciprocal deputation of an agent or agents from the different states, who shall have the privilege of a seat and voice in the parliament of Great Britain".


title: No taxation without representation

text: In Britain, representation was highly limited due to unequally distributed voting constituencies and property requirements; only 3% of the population could vote and they were often controlled by local gentry. This meant that spurious arguments had come to be employed in Britain to try to explain away and cover up the iniquities in its political life. Therefore the British government tried to argue that the colonists had virtual representation in their interests. In the winter of 1764–65, George Grenville, and his secretary Thomas Whately, invented the doctrine of 'virtual representation' in an attempt to extend the scope of such unjust arguments to America, and thereby attempt to legitimize the pernicious policies of the Stamp Act.


title: No taxation without representation

text: In English history, "no taxation without representation" was an old principle and meant that Parliament had to pass all taxes. At first, the "representation" was held to be one of land, but, by 1700, this had shifted to the notion that, in Parliament, all British subjects had a "virtual representation." "We virtually and implicitly allow the institutions of any government of which we enjoy the benefit and solicit the protection," declared Samuel Johnson in his political pamphlet "Taxation No Tyranny". He rejected the plea that the colonists, who had no vote, were unrepresented. "They are represented," he said, "by the same virtual representation as the greater part of England." However, the tradition of greater democracy amongst Americans gave impetus to the well-founded charge, voiced by Britons and colonists alike, that virtual representation was "sophistry" and "a mere Cob-web, spread to catch the unwary, and intangle ["sic"] the weak." The colonial insistence on direct representation as opposed to virtual representation has thus been seen by later commentators to have "usher[ed] in a profound political and social revolution, which rooted out most of the remaining traces of monarchic rule and feudalism inherited from the only partially complete English bourgeois revolution. The Americans carried through the bourgeois democratic revolution on a scale never before seen in history."


title: No taxation without representation

text: Virtual representation was wholly rejected in the colonies also who said the "virtual" was a cover for political corruption and was irreconcilable with their belief that government derives its just powers from the consent of the governed. In 1765, the American lawyer and politician James Otis, Jr., responded to Soame Jenyns' "The Objections to the Taxation of Our American Colonies, by the Legislature of Great Britain, Briefly Considered". Otis' own publication was entitled "Considerations on Behalf of the Colonists, in a Letter to a Noble Lord". He wrote in it, "To what purpose is it to ring everlasting changes to the colonists on the cases of Manchester, Birmingham and Sheffield, who return no members? If those now so considerable places are not represented, they ought to be." Writing in his 1763 publication "The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved", Otis declared that,


title: No taxation without representation

text: Every British subject born on the continent of America, or in any other of the British dominions, is by the law of God and nature, by the common law, and by act of parliament, (exclusive of all charters from the Crown) entitled to all the natural, essential, inherent and inseparable rights of our fellow subjects in Great Britain. Among those rights ... which it is humbly conceived no man or body of men, not excepting the parliament, justly, equitably and consistently with their own rights and the constitution, can take away ... [are that the] supreme and subordinate powers of the legislation should be free and sacred in the hands where the community have once rightfully placed them ... [that the] supreme national legislative cannot be altered justly 'till the commonwealth is dissolved, nor a subordinate legislative taken away without forfeiture or other good cause. Nor then can the subjects in the subordinate government be reduced to a state of slavery, and subject to the despotic rule of others ... Even when the subordinate right of legislature is forfeited, and so declared, this cannot affect the natural persons either of those who were invested with it, or the inhabitants, so far as to deprive them of the rights of subjects and of men — The colonists will have an equitable right notwithstanding any such forfeiture of charter, to be represented in Parliament, or to have some new subordinate legislature among themselves. It would be best if they had both ... [Furthermore, the right of every British subject is that the] supreme power cannot take from any man any part of his property, without his consent in person, or by representation.


title: No taxation without representation

text: Otis simultaneously refuted, in "The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved", a contemporary argument that attempted to rationalise virtual representation on the basis of the colonial agents' alleged influence on British policy. "As to the colonists being represented by the provincial agents," he wrote,


title: No taxation without representation

text: I know of no power ever given them but to appear before his Majesty, and his ministry. Sometimes they have been directed to petition the parliament: But they none of them have, and I hope never will have, a power given them, by the colonists, to act as representatives, and to consent to taxes; and if they should make any concessions to the ministry, especially without order, the provinces could not by that be considered as represented in parliament.


title: No taxation without representation

text: Colonists said no man was represented if he were not allowed to vote. Moreover, even "If every inhabitant of America had the requisite freehold," said Daniel Dulany, "not one could vote, but upon the supposition of his ceasing to become an inhabitant of America, and becoming a resident of Great Britain." The colonists and like-minded Britons insisted that representation was achieved only through an assembly of men actually elected by the persons they were intended to represent.


title: No taxation without representation

text: The argument between the colonies and Parliament sought to resolve how the British 'commoners' of the various part of the Empire were represented most constitutionally – as Daniel Dulany, an American Loyalist and lawyer, put it "[the] constitutional authority [of Parliament's rights to bind American subjects] depends upon the single question, Whether the Commons of Great-Britain are virtually the representatives of the Commons of America, or not.


title: No taxation without representation

text: The theory of virtual representation was attacked in Britain by Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden, and his ally William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. William Pitt argued in 1766 that the Commons of Britain ought not to tax the '"Commons of America" without gaining consent of their representatives in stating, "even under former arbitrary reigns, Parliaments were ashamed of taxing a people without their consent, and allowed them representatives. Why did [Grenville] confine himself to Chester and Durham? He might have taken a higher example in Wales—Wales, that never was taxed by Parliament till it was incorporated." He then said, I am no courtier of America. I stand up for this kingdom. I maintain that the Parliament has a right to bind, to restrain America. Our legislative power over the colonies is sovereign and supreme. When it ceases to be sovereign and supreme, I would advise every gentleman to sell his lands, if he can, and embark for that country. When two countries are connected together like England and her colonies, without being incorporated, the one must necessarily govern. The greater must rule the less. But she must so rule it as not to contradict the fundamental principles that are common to both ... let the sovereign authority of this country over the colonies be asserted in as strong terms as can be devised, and be made to extend to every point of legislation whatsoever; that we may bind their trade, confine their manufactures, and exercise every power whatsoever, except that of taking their money out of their pockets without their consent."


title: No taxation without representation

text: In his first speeches in Parliament, Lord Camden vigorously attacked the declaratory act which was proposed to mollify the crown on the repeal of the Stamp Tax. After his first affirmation of "no taxation without representation" Camden was attacked by British PM Grenville, Chief Justice James Mansfield, Robert Henley, 1st Earl of Northington, and others. He responded:[T]he British Parliament have no right to tax the Americans. I shall not consider the Declaratory Bill now lying on your table; for to what purpose, but loss of time, to consider the particulars of a Bill, the very existence of which is illegal, absolutely illegal, contrary to the fundamental laws of nature, contrary to the fundamental laws of this constitution? A constitution grounded on the eternal and immutable laws of nature; a constitution whose foundation and centre is liberty, which sends liberty to every individual who may happen to be within any part of its ample circumference. Nor, my Lords, is the doctrine new, it is as old as the constitution; it grew up with it; indeed it is its support; taxation and representation are inseparably united; God hath joined them, no British parliament can separate them; to endeavour to do it, is to stab our very vitals. ... My position is this—I repeat it—I will maintain it to my last hour,—taxation and representation are inseparable; this position is founded on the laws of nature; it is more, it is itself an eternal law of nature; for whatever is a man's own, is absolutely his own; no man has a right to take it from him without his consent, either expressed by himself or representative; whoever attempts to do it, attempts an injury; whoever does it, commits a robbery; he throws down and destroys the distinction between liberty and slavery. Taxation and representation are coeval with and essential to the constitution. ... [T]here is not a blade of grass growing in the most obscure corner of this kingdom, which is not, which was not ever, represented since the constitution began; there is not a blade of grass, which when taxed, was not taxed by the consent of the proprietor. ... I can never give my assent to any bill for taxing the American colonies, while they remain unrepresented; for as to the distinction of a virtual representation, it is so absurd as not to deserve an answer; I therefore pass it over with contempt. The forefathers of the Americans did not leave their native country, and subject themselves to every danger and distress, to be reduced to a state of slavery: they did not give up their rights; they looked for protection, and not for chains, from their mother country; by her they expected to be defended in the possession of their property, and not to be deprived of it: for, should the present power continue, there is nothing which they can call their own; or, to use the words of Mr. Locke, 'What property have they in that, which another may, by right, take, when he pleases, to himself?'"In an appearance before Parliament in January 1766, former Prime Minister William Pitt stated:


title: No taxation without representation

text: The idea of a virtual representation of America in this House is the most contemptible that ever entered into the head of a man. It does not deserve a serious refutation. The Commons of America, represented in their several assemblies, have ever been in possession of the exercise of this their constitutional right, of giving and granting their own money. They would have been slaves if they had not enjoyed it.


title: No taxation without representation

text: Grenville responded to Pitt, saying the disturbances in America "border on open rebellion; and if the doctrine I have heard this day be confirmed, nothing can tend more directly to produce a revolution." External and internal taxes are the same, argued Grenville.


title: No taxation without representation

text: In the 1860s, suffragette Sarah E. Wall of Worcester, Massachusetts invoked the principle of "no taxation without representation", initiating an anti-tax protest in which she encouraged women not to pay taxes until they were granted the right to vote. Soon after she began this movement, the Worcester city tax collector sued Wall for refusing to pay taxes, and the case reached the Massachusetts Supreme Court in 1863. In "Wheeler v. Wall," the court ruled against Wall and held that despite not having the right to vote, women are still obligated to meet their tax burden. Even still, Wall refused to cooperate with the collector, and as a result, officers seized and sold her property in order to raise the money necessary to meet her tax obligation. After several years, Wall's inexorability eventually prevailed, as the collector began to ignore Wall and allow her to abstain from paying taxes. In 1884, Susan B. Anthony cited Wall's audacity and willingness to stand up for women's suffrage, stating, "for the last twenty-five years, [she] has resisted the tax gatherer when he came around. I want you to look at her. She looks very harmless, but she will not pay a dollar of tax. She says when the Commonwealth of Massachusetts will give her the right of representation she will pay her taxes."


title: No taxation without representation

text: The phrase is also used by other groups in America who pay various types of taxes (sales, income, property) but lack the ability to vote, such as felons (who are, in many states, barred from voting), people who work in one state and live in another (thus having to pay income tax to a state they don't live in), or people under 18.


title: No taxation without representation

text: To become citizens of the United States, immigrants most often must be permanent residents for a period of time (usually 5 years). Permanent residents must pay taxes on their worldwide income and, in most cases, cannot vote. However, throughout the 19th century, many states did allow immigrants to vote after they had declared their intention to become citizens. This was primarily because these new states were populated in large part by immigrants who had not yet attained citizenship. Throughout U.S. history, non-citizens have been allowed to vote in 40 U.S. states and territories. As of 2005, non-citizens are allowed to vote in seven jurisdictions in the United States: Chicago and six towns in Montgomery County, Maryland. As of 2021, both Montpelier and Winooski, Vermont allow non-citizens to vote in municipal elections.


title: No taxation without representation

text: In 2009, the phrase "taxation without representation" was also used in the Tea Party protests, where protesters were upset over increased government spending and taxes, and specifically regarding a growing concern amongst the group that the U.S. government is increasingly relying upon a form of taxation without representation through increased regulatory levies and fees which are allegedly passed via unelected government employees who have no direct responsibility to voters and cannot be held accountable by the public through elections.


title: No taxation without representation

text: A modified version of the phrase, "no tuition without representation", is sometimes used in disputes over governance in higher education in the United States to emphasize student's rights to a voice in institutional decisions. The term first emerged in a 1977 dispute at Union County College in New Jersey. It has been used more recently in disputes at Dartmouth College, UC Berkeley School of Law, and elsewhere.


title: No taxation without representation

text: In the United States, the phrase is used in the District of Columbia as part of the campaign for a vote in Congress, to publicize the fact that District of Columbia residents pay Federal taxes, but do not have representation in Congress. In November 2000, the D.C. Department of Motor Vehicles began issuing license plates bearing the slogan "Taxation without representation". In a show of support for the city, President Bill Clinton used the "Taxation Without Representation" plates on the presidential limousine; however, President George W. Bush had the tags replaced to those without the motto shortly after taking office. President Barack Obama announced his intention to use the plates with the motto beginning at his second inauguration. President Donald Trump continued usage of the plates with the protest motto after he was elected, though he has stated he has "no position" on the issue of granting D.C. statehood.


title: No taxation without representation

text: In 2002, the Council of the District of Columbia authorized adding the slogan to the D.C. flag, but no new flag design was approved. In 2007, the District of Columbia and United States Territories Quarters program was created based on the successful 50 State Quarters program. DC submitted designs containing the slogan, but they were rejected by the U.S. Mint.


title: No taxation without representation

text: The first government of South Australia was by a legislative council, whose members were chosen by the Crown and from which office-bearers "Official Members" were selected by the Governor. John Stephens and his "South Australian Register" were among those who campaigned for democratic reform. Partial reform took place in 1851, when a majority of Members of the South Australian Legislative Council, 1851–1855 were elected.