title: Independence

text: Independence is a condition of a person, nation, country, or state in which residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory. The opposite of independence is the status of a dependent territory. The commemoration of the independence day of a country or nation celebrates when a country is free from all forms of foreign colonialism; free to build a country or nation without any interference from other nations.


title: Independence

text: Whether the attainment of independence is different from revolution has long been contested, and has often been debated over the question of violence as legitimate means to achieving sovereignty. In general, revolutions aim only to redistribute power with or without an element of emancipation,such as in democratization "within" a state, which as such may remain unaltered. For example, the Mexican Revolution (1910) chiefly refers to a multi-factional conflict that eventually led to a new constitution; it has rarely been used to refer to the armed struggle (1821) against Spain. However, some wars of independence have been described as revolutions, such as the ones in the United States (1783) and Indonesia (1949), while some revolutions that were specifically about a change in the political structure have resulted in breakaway states. Mongolia and Finland, for example, gained their independence during the revolutions occurring in China (1911) and Russia (1917) respectively. Causes for a country or province wishing to seek independence are many, but most can be summed up as a feeling of inequality compared to the dominant power. The means can extend from intended peaceful demonstrations as in the case of India (1947), to a violent war as in the case of Algeria (1962). In some cases, a country may also have declared independence, but may only be partially recognized by other countries; such as Kosovo (2008), whose independence Serbia, from which Kosovo has seceded, has not recognized.


title: Independence

text: "Autonomy" refers to a kind of independence which has been granted by an overseeing authority that itself still retains ultimate authority over that territory (see Devolution). A protectorate refers to an autonomous region that depends upon a larger government for its protection as an autonomous region.


title: Independence

text: During the 20th century wave of decolonization colonies gained rights to independence through documents such as the 1960 Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, but this right remained mostly applicable only to unfree territorial entities, such as colonies.


title: Independence

text: How much these rights apply to all people has been a crucial point of discussion. The rights to nationality and self-determination allow clarification. The right of self-determination allows self-governance, as for example in the case of indigenous peoples, but is not a right of secession, except in extreme cases of oppression as a remedy from the oppression. Therefore the right to secession is generally determined by the legislation of sovereign states and independence by the capacity to be a state.


title: Independence

text: Sometimes, a state wishing to achieve independence from a dominating power will issue a declaration of independence; the earliest surviving example is Scotland's Declaration of Arbroath in 1320, with the most recent example being Azawad's declaration of independence in 2012. Declaring independence and attaining it, however, are quite different. A well-known successful example is the U.S. Declaration of Independence issued in 1776. The dates of established independence (or, less commonly, the commencement of revolution), are typically celebrated as a national holiday known as an independence Day.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Pop-Tarts is a brand of toaster pastries produced and distributed by Kellogg's since 1964, consisting of a sweet filling sealed inside two layers of thin, rectangular pastry crust. Most varieties are also frosted. Although sold pre-cooked, they are designed to be warmed inside a toaster or microwave oven. They are usually sold in pairs inside Mylar (previously foil) packages and do not require refrigeration.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Pop-Tarts is Kellogg's most popular brand to date in the United States, with millions of units sold each year. They are distributed mainly in the United States, but also in Canada, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Pop-Tarts are produced in dozens of flavors, plus various one-time, seasonal, and "limited edition" flavors that appear for a short time.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: In the 1960s, Post invented a process for enclosing moist food in foil to keep it fresh — first used for dog food — and adapted it to its new toaster-prepared breakfast food. Intended to complement its cold cereals, Post announced its new product to the press in 1964 before they went to market, calling them "Country Squares".


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Because Post had revealed Country Squares before they were ready for the marketplace, their biggest competitor, Kellogg, was able to develop its version in six months. Initially called Fruit Scones, the name was soon changed to Pop-Tarts as a pun on the then popular Pop Art movement. The product, advertised by an animated, anthropomorphic toaster named Milton, became so popular that Kellogg could not keep up with demand. The first shipment of Pop-Tarts to stores sold out in two weeks, and Kellogg's ran advertisements apologizing for the empty shelves. This only increased demand for the new product.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: The first Pop-Tarts came in four flavors: strawberry, blueberry, brown sugar cinnamon, and apple currant, which was soon renamed apple-berry. Originally unfrosted when first introduced in 1964, it was later determined that frosting could withstand the toaster, and the first frosted Pop-Tarts were released in 1967. As of 2021, there are over 20 standard Pop-Tart flavors, including hot fudge sundae, s'mores, raspberry, and cinnamon pretzel.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Pop-Tarts were introduced with fairly substantial marketing to the United Kingdom in the early 1990s. Chocotastic and Strawberry Sensation are available in most major UK supermarkets.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Kellogg's keeps between 20 and 30 flavors in production at any time, and is constantly testing and trying new flavors to meet shifting consumer tastes.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Pop Tart's core flavors have been unchanged for over 30 years and include favorites such as frosted strawberry and brown sugar cinnamon. In addition, Kellogg's is constantly introducing new flavors into regular production and removing ones that don't sell well. In 2020, they introduced three new Pretzel flavors while ceasing production of most of the 'wild' flavor line.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Kellogg's produces some flavors for a short time every year, to coincide with seasonal or holiday events. Some examples include Pumpkin Pie, released every Fall since 2011, and Red White and Blueberry, brought back every Summer since 2012.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Limited flavors are produced for a short time, a few months or less, and usually have a "Limited Edition" banner on the box. They are sometimes made in cooperation with another food brand. Dunkin Donuts, Jolly Rancher, and A&W Root Beer have collaborated with Kellogg's to create limited-edition branded Pop-Tart flavors. They have also worked with other Kellogg's brands to make Froot Loops and Eggo flavored Pop-Tarts.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Occasionally a limited flavor will sell so well that Kellogg's will keep producing it longer or make it a regular flavor. Red Velvet was initially released as a limited flavor in 2013, but sold so well that it was kept in production until 2017 and returned as a standard flavor in 2021.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: At least one flavor, Mister-E, was discontinued shortly after its two-month marketing in Summer 2021 as Kellogg’s pulled the plug on the flavor after receiving numerous complaints. It was confirmed to be known as "Everything Bagel" on the Pop-Tart website prior to its conclusion.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: A much more limited number of flavors are available outside the US. This is due to local laws that may prohibit the use of specific food dyes, or the use of high fructose corn syrup.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Presto Pizza was a pizza flavored toaster pastry produced by Kelloggs in 1971, and retired less than a year later.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Pastry Swirls were introduced in the mid-1990s and were similar to a competitor Pillsbury's Toaster Strudels. Pastry Swirls were bigger and thicker than regular Pop-Tarts and had less icing. Flavors included Cherry Cheese Danish and Cinnamon Cream. Sales were disappointing, and the products were discontinued in 2001.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Snak-Stix, a portable break-apart version intended as an after-school snack for children, was introduced in 2002. The new product was launched with a massive media tie-in with the "American Idol" TV show and live tour. It did not sell well and was discontinued a year later.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Go-Tarts was another attempt at a snack-sized product, released in 2006. These were thicker, narrow, and wrapped individually (instead of in packages of two). Go-Tarts were discontinued in 2008.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Mini Crisps was introduced in 2011. as a bite-sized, cracker-like pastry with no filling. They originally sold in 60-calorie pouches but were discontinued after poor sales. They were brought back in a larger size in 2018, as Pop Tart Crisps. The newer version is a larger bar-sized crispy pastry with filling and frosting.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Pop-Tarts Bites are a smaller, bite-sized version sold in pouches. They were originally introduced in 1994 but ceased production the next year. Kellogg's brought them back in 2018 in Frosted Strawberry and Brown Sugar Cinnamon flavors and has announced plans to expand to more flavors.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Pop Tarts Cereal was originally made in 1994, and sold through the early 2000s. Kellogg's brought it back in 2019 with two flavors: strawberry and brown sugar cinnamon.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: In June 2021, Jerry Seinfeld announced he would produce and star in a movie about the creation of the Pop-Tart. The film, "", will be released on Netflix in late 2022.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: The first episode of the History Channel series, "The Food That Built America", includes the battle between the Kellogg and Post companies, and the invention of the Pop-Tart.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Various recipes for homemade versions of Pop-Tarts have appeared online and in local coffee shops and bakeries. The recipes claim to be healthier, taste better than the mass-produced version, and are more versatile with the filling ingredients.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Industry trade groups have raised issues with Pop-Tarts advertising. In 2003, the Produce for Better Health Foundation (PBH) and the United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Association told the Food and Drug Administration's Obesity Working Group that:


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Pop-Tarts introduced a new advertising campaign, "Crazy Good", in 2004. Characters that appeared often were a singing lizard and a group of children, dubbed "crazy-good kids", who commonly frightened the Pop-Tarts and caused them to be eaten or chased away. The sound design and signature "TaDa" opening and closings were created by Kamen Entertainment Group, Inc. The ads employ squiggly animation, surrealist humor, and non sequitur, all of which bear a strong resemblance to the signature work of animator Don Hertzfeldt. One "crazy-good kid" in particular bears strong resemblance to Billy in Hertzfeldt's Billy's Balloon. However, Hertzfeldt was not involved in any way with these advertisements and in 2006 was considering possible litigation for stealing his work.


title: Pop-Tarts

text: In 2006, the Children's Advertising Review Unit (CARU) of the Council of Better Business Bureaus, prompted by a customer complaint, "recommended that Kellogg modify packaging, eliminate the phrase 'made with real fruit'." Kellogg agreed to do so, and redesigned packages for the Pop-Tarts line accordingly; they assured CARU that the "claim does not appear on television or print advertising" and offered to "participate in CARU's self-regulatory process" and "take CARU's focus areas into consideration" as Kellogg proceeds with its "future child-directed advertising."


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Cable in the Classroom has used a Pop-Tarts television commercial as an example in its media literacy program for children. They ask adults to watch a Pop-Tarts commercial with their children or students and "have them look at how much product information is presented and how much is really about lifestyle or attitude."


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Thomas Nangle filed a lawsuit in 1992, suing Kellogg for damages after his Pop-Tart became stuck in his toaster and caught fire. The case gained wider notoriety when humorist Dave Barry wrote a column about starting a fire in his own toaster with Pop-Tarts. Texas A&M University Corpus Christi professor Patrick Michaud performed a 1994 experiment showing that when left in the toaster too long, strawberry Pop-Tarts could produce flames to about high. The discovery triggered a flurry of lawsuits. Since then, Pop-Tarts carry the warning: "Due to possible risk of fire, never leave your toasting appliance or microwave unattended."


title: Pop-Tarts

text: In October 2021, a woman in New York sued Kellogg's for $5 million over what she claimed was misleading advertising about Strawberry Pop-Tarts. Her suit alleged, "The strawberry representations are misleading because the Product has less strawberries than consumers expect based on the labeling." This lawsuit was dismissed in March 2022, with US District Judge Marvin Aspin writing "The word 'Strawberry,' combined with a picture of half of a strawberry and a Pop-Tart oozing red filling, does not guarantee that there will be a certain amount of strawberries in the product's filling,"


title: Pop-Tarts

text: Pop-Tarts have been the subject of recalls when mislabeling could lead to serious allergic reactions. On August 4, 1995, it was announced that 94,500 cartons of Smucker's Real Fruit Frosted Strawberry pastries actually contained the Chocolate Fudge variety. In 2002, Kellogg alerted the public that egg was an undeclared ingredient in its Frosted Brown Sugar Cinnamon Pop-Tarts. In 2006, they alerted the public that some Frosted Blueberry Pop-Tarts contained milk as an undeclared ingredient.


title: Hypnotic

text: Hypnotic (from Greek "Hypnos", sleep), or soporific drugs, commonly known as sleeping pills, are a class of (and umbrella term for) psychoactive drugs whose primary function is to induce sleep (or surgical anesthesia) and to treat insomnia (sleeplessness).


title: Hypnotic

text: This group of drugs is related to sedatives". "Whereas the term sedative describes drugs that serve to calm or relieve anxiety, the term hypnotic generally describes drugs whose main purpose is to initiate, sustain, or lengthen sleep. Because these two functions frequently overlap, and because drugs in this class generally produce dose-dependent effects (ranging from anxiolysis to loss of consciousness), they are often referred to collectively as sedative-hypnotic drugs.


title: Hypnotic

text: Hypnotic drugs are regularly prescribed for insomnia and other sleep disorders, with over 95% of insomnia patients being prescribed hypnotics in some countries. Many hypnotic drugs are habit-forming and—due to many factors known to disturb the human sleep pattern—a physician may instead recommend changes in the environment before and during sleep, better sleep hygiene, the avoidance of caffeine and alcohol or other stimulating substances, or behavioral interventions such as cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I), before prescribing medication for sleep. When prescribed, hypnotic medication should be used for the shortest period of time necessary.


title: Hypnotic

text: Among individuals with sleep disorders, 13.7% are taking or prescribed nonbenzodiazepines, while 10.8% are taking benzodiazepines, as of 2010, in the USA. Early classes of drugs, such as barbiturates, have fallen out of use in most practices but are still prescribed for some patients. In children, prescribing hypnotics is not yet acceptable—unless used to treat night terrors or sleepwalking. Elderly people are more sensitive to potential side effects of daytime fatigue and cognitive impairments, and a meta-analysis found that the risks generally outweigh any marginal benefits of hypnotics in the elderly. A review of the literature regarding benzodiazepine hypnotics and Z-drugs concluded that these drugs can have adverse effects, such as dependence and accidents, and that optimal treatment uses the lowest effective dose for the shortest therapeutic time period, with gradual discontinuation in order to improve health without worsening of sleep.


title: Hypnotic

text: Falling outside the above-mentioned categories, the neurohormone melatonin and its analogues (such as ramelteon) serve a hypnotic function.


title: Hypnotic

text: Hypnotica was a class of somniferous drugs and substances tested in medicine of the 1890s and later. These include Urethan, Acetal, Methylal, Sulfonal, paraldehyde, Amylenhydrate, Hypnon, Chloralurethan and Ohloralamid or Chloralimid.


title: Hypnotic

text: Research about using medications to treat insomnia evolved throughout the last half of the 20th century. Treatment for insomnia in psychiatry dates back to 1869, when chloral hydrate was first used as a soporific. Barbiturates emerged as the first class of drugs in the early 1900s, after which chemical substitution allowed derivative compounds. Although they were the best drug family at the time (with less toxicity and fewer side effects), they were dangerous in overdose and tended to cause physical and psychological dependence.


title: Hypnotic

text: During the 1970s, quinazolinones and benzodiazepines were introduced as safer alternatives to replace barbiturates; by the late 1970s, benzodiazepines emerged as the safer drug.


title: Hypnotic

text: Benzodiazepines are not without their drawbacks; substance dependence is possible, and deaths from overdoses sometimes occur, especially in combination with alcohol and/or other depressants. Questions have been raised as to whether they disturb sleep architecture.


title: Hypnotic

text: Nonbenzodiazepines are the most recent development (1990s–present). Although it is clear that they are less toxic than barbiturates, their predecessors, comparative efficacy over benzodiazepines have not been established. Such efficacy is hard to determine without longitudinal studies. However, some psychiatrists recommend these drugs, citing research suggesting they are equally potent with less potential for abuse.


title: Hypnotic

text: Other sleep remedies that may be considered "sedative-hypnotics" exist; psychiatrists will sometimes prescribe medicines off-label if they have sedating effects. Examples of these include mirtazapine (an antidepressant), clonidine (an older antihypertensive drug), quetiapine (an antipsychotic), and the over-the-counter allergy and antiemetic medications doxylamine and diphenhydramine. Off-label sleep remedies are particularly useful when first-line treatment is unsuccessful or deemed unsafe (as in patients with a history of substance abuse).


title: Hypnotic

text: Barbiturates are drugs that act as central nervous system depressants, and can therefore produce a wide spectrum of effects, from mild sedation to total anesthesia. They are also effective as anxiolytics, hypnotics, and anticonvulsalgesic effects; however, these effects are somewhat weak, preventing barbiturates from being used in surgery in the absence of other analgesics. They have dependence liability, both physical and psychological. Barbiturates have now largely been replaced by benzodiazepines in routine medical practice – such as in the treatment of anxiety and insomnia – mainly because benzodiazepines are significantly less dangerous in overdose. However, barbiturates are still used in general anesthesia, for epilepsy, and for assisted suicide. Barbiturates are derivatives of barbituric acid.


title: Hypnotic

text: The principal mechanism of action of barbiturates is believed to be positive allosteric modulation of GABA receptors.


title: Hypnotic

text: Quinazolinones are also a class of drugs which function as hypnotic/sedatives that contain a 4-quinazolinone core. Their use has also been proposed in the treatment of cancer.


title: Hypnotic

text: Examples of quinazolinones include cloroqualone, diproqualone, etaqualone (Aolan, Athinazone, Ethinazone), mebroqualone, Afloqualone (Arofuto), mecloqualone (Nubarene, Casfen), and methaqualone (Quaalude).


title: Hypnotic

text: Benzodiazepines can be useful for short-term treatment of insomnia. Their use beyond 2 to 4 weeks is not recommended due to the risk of dependence. It is preferred that benzodiazepines be taken intermittently—and at the lowest effective dose. They improve sleep-related problems by shortening the time spent in bed before falling asleep, prolonging the sleep time, and, in general, reducing wakefulness. Like alcohol, benzodiazepines are commonly used to treat insomnia in the short-term (both prescribed and self-medicated), but worsen sleep in the long-term. While benzodiazepines can put people to sleep (i.e., inhibit NREM stage 1 and 2 sleep), while asleep, the drugs disrupt sleep architecture by decreasing sleep time, delaying time to REM sleep, and decreasing deep slow-wave sleep (the most restorative part of sleep for both energy and mood).


title: Hypnotic

text: Other drawbacks of hypnotics, including benzodiazepines, are possible tolerance to their effects, rebound insomnia, and reduced slow-wave sleep and a withdrawal period typified by rebound insomnia and a prolonged period of anxiety and agitation. The list of benzodiazepines approved for the treatment of insomnia is fairly similar among most countries, but which benzodiazepines are officially designated as first-line hypnotics prescribed for the treatment of insomnia can vary distinctly between countries. Longer-acting benzodiazepines such as nitrazepam and diazepam have residual effects that may persist into the next day and are, in general, not recommended.


title: Hypnotic

text: It is not clear as to whether the new nonbenzodiazepine hypnotics (Z-drugs) are better than the short-acting benzodiazepines. The efficacy of these two groups of medications is similar. According to the US Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, indirect comparison indicates that side-effects from benzodiazepines may be about twice as frequent as from nonbenzodiazepines. Some experts suggest using nonbenzodiazepines preferentially as a first-line long-term treatment of insomnia. However, the UK National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) did not find any convincing evidence in favor of Z-drugs. A NICE review pointed out that short-acting Z-drugs were inappropriately compared in clinical trials with long-acting benzodiazepines. There have been no trials comparing short-acting Z-drugs with appropriate doses of short-acting benzodiazepines. Based on this, NICE recommended choosing the hypnotic based on cost and the patient's preference.


title: Hypnotic

text: Older adults should not use benzodiazepines to treat insomnia—unless other treatments have failed to be effective. When benzodiazepines are used, patients, their caretakers, and their physician should discuss the increased risk of harms, including evidence which shows twice the incidence of traffic collisions among driving patients, as well as falls and hip fracture for all older patients.


title: Hypnotic

text: Nonbenzodiazepines are a class of psychoactive drugs that are very "benzodiazepine-like" in nature. Nonbenzodiazepine pharmacodynamics are almost entirely the same as benzodiazepine drugs, and therefore entail similar benefits, side-effects and risks. Nonbenzodiazepines, however, have dissimilar or entirely different chemical structures, and therefore are unrelated to benzodiazepines on a molecular level.


title: Hypnotic

text: Examples include zopiclone (Imovane, Zimovane), eszopiclone (Lunesta), zaleplon (Sonata), and zolpidem (Ambien, Stilnox, Stilnoct).


title: Hypnotic

text: Research on nonbenzodiazepines is new and conflicting. A review by a team of researchers suggests the use of these drugs for people that have trouble falling asleep (but not staying asleep), as next-day impairments were minimal. The team noted that the safety of these drugs had been established, but called for more research into their long-term effectiveness in treating insomnia. Other evidence suggests that tolerance to nonbenzodiazepines may be slower to develop than with benzodiazepines. A different team was more skeptical, finding little benefit over benzodiazepines.


title: Hypnotic

text: Melatonin, the hormone produced in the pineal gland in the brain and secreted in dim light and darkness, among its other functions, promotes sleep in diurnal mammals. Ramelteon and tasimelteon are synthetic analogues of melatonin which are also used for sleep-related indications.


title: Hypnotic

text: In common use, the term "antihistamine" refers only to compounds that inhibit action at the H receptor (and not H, etc.).


title: Hypnotic

text: Clinically, H antagonists are used to treat certain allergies. Sedation is a common side-effect, and some H antagonists, such as diphenhydramine (Benadryl) and doxylamine, are also used to treat insomnia.


title: Hypnotic

text: Second-generation antihistamines cross the blood–brain barrier to a much lower degree than the first ones. This results in their primarily affecting peripheral histamine receptors, and therefore having a much lower sedative effect. High doses can still induce the central nervous system effect of drowsiness.


title: Hypnotic

text: While some of these drugs are frequently prescribed for insomnia, such use is not recommended unless the insomnia is due to an underlying mental health condition treatable by antipsychotics as the risks frequently outweigh the benefits. Some of the more serious adverse effects have been observed to occur at the low doses used for this off-label prescribing, such as dyslipidemia and neutropenia, and a recent network meta-analysis of 154 double-blind, randomized controlled trials of drug therapies vs. placebo for insomnia in adults found that quetiapine did not demonstrated any short-term benefits in sleep quality. Examples of antipsychotics with sedation as a side effect that are occasionally used for insomnia:


title: Hypnotic

text: A major systematic review and network meta-analysis of medications for the treatment of insomnia was published in 2022. It found a wide range of effect sizes (standardized mean difference (SMD)) in terms of efficacy for insomnia. The assessed medications included benzodiazepines (SMDs 0.58 to 0.83), Z-drugs (SMDs 0.03 to 0.63), sedative antidepressants and antihistamines (SMDs 0.30 to 0.55), quetiapine (SMD 0.07), orexin receptor antagonists (SMDs 0.23 to 0.44), and melatonin receptor agonists (SMDs 0.00 to 0.13). The certainty of evidence varied and ranged from high to very low depending on the medication.


title: Hypnotic

text: The use of sedative medications in older people generally should be avoided. These medications are associated with poorer health outcomes, including cognitive decline.


title: Hypnotic

text: Therefore, sedatives and hypnotics should be avoided in people with dementia, according to the clinical guidelines known as the Medication Appropriateness Tool for Comorbid Health Conditions in Dementia (MATCH-D). The use of these medications can further impede cognitive function for people with dementia, who are also more sensitive to side effects of medications.


title: MC Lyte

text: Lana Michele Moorer (born October 11, 1970), better known by her stage name MC Lyte, is an American rapper, DJ, actress and entrepreneur. Considered one of the pioneers of female rap, Lyte first gained fame in the late 1980s, becoming the first solo female rapper to release a full album with 1988's critically acclaimed "Lyte as a Rock". She released a total of eight solo studio albums (2015's "Legend" being her latest) and an EP with Almost September.


title: MC Lyte

text: With songs like "Cha Cha Cha", "Paper Thin", "10% Dis", "Ruffneck" (with which she became the first female solo rapper to achieve a gold certification) and "Poor Georgie", MC Lyte became a pioneering figure in hip hop and has been cited as an influence to many female rap figures. She has also had collaborations with mainstream artists such as Sinéad O'Connor, Janet Jackson, Brandy, Xscape, Mary J. Blige, Moby, Beyoncé and will.i.am. In addition to her career as a rapper, she has worked in parallel as voiceover talent for various events, writer, DJ and has starred in various roles in film and television. In 2022 has her directional debut with the short film "Break Up In Love". Lyte has also worked with several charities, including her own foundation, "Hip Hop Sisters".


title: MC Lyte

text: MC Lyte was recognized for her career with the "I Am Hip Hop" Icon Lifetime Achievement from the BET Hip Hop Awards and was honored at the VH1 Hip Hop Honors.


title: MC Lyte

text: Lana Michele Moorer was raised in the East Flatbush section of Brooklyn, New York City. She began rapping at the age of 12. MC Lyte's original stage name was Sparkle. She began recording her first track at age 14, although it took two years before it was able to be released.


title: MC Lyte

text: She regards Milk Dee and DJ Giz, the hip hop duo Audio Two, as "totally like [her] brothers", because the three grew up together. Audio Two's father, Nat Robinson, started a label for them called First Priority. After making the label, Robinson cut a deal with Atlantic with one condition, that Lyte would get a record contract with Atlantic as well.


title: MC Lyte

text: In 1987, at the age of 16, Lyte released her debut single, "I Cram to Understand U (Sam)", being one of the first songs written about the crack era. She was 12 years old at the time she wrote the song. Lyte was also featured in the remix and music video of "I Want Your (Hands on Me)" by Irish singer Sinéad O'Connor, which debuted in May 1988 on MTV.


title: MC Lyte

text: In January 1989 Lyte joined Stop the Violence Movement with Boogie Down Productions, Public Enemy and Heavy D, among others. Together they released the single "Self Destruction" in response to violence in the hip hop and African American communities. The song debuted at #1 on the first week of "Billboard" Hot Rap Singles existence and the proceeds were donated to the National Urban League. In late August of that year, her song "I'm Not Havin' It" with Positive K would have an entry on the "Billboard" Hot Rap Singles (peaking at #16), becoming MC Lyte's first appearance on a chart as solo artist. In October 1989 Lyte would publish her second album "Eyes on This". This album, like its predecessor, received a great critical reception and is recognized as a hip hop classic. With "Eyes on This" she became the first solo female rapper to have an entry on the "Billboard" 200. From this album came the singles "Cha Cha Cha" (with which for the first time as solo artist she charted on the "Billboard" Hot Black Singles and reached #1 on the Hot Rap Singles). "Stop, Look, Listen", and the socially conscious "Cappucino". During that year she also collaborated with Foster & McElroy, known for their work with En Vogue and Tony! Toni! Toné!, in the song "Dr. Soul". This single peaked #10 on "Billboard" Black Songs.


title: MC Lyte

text: MC Lyte's DJ since the start of her career, DJ K-Rock, is a cousin, Kennith Moorer; aside from a break in 1992, the two have toured consistently to the present. During that time she also had her own dancers, Leg One and Leg Two, who performed with her both in shows and in music videos.


title: MC Lyte

text: On May 1, 1991, Lyte performed on "Yo! Unplugged Rap", the first MTV Unplugged to feature rap artists, alongside A Tribe Called Quest, De La Soul and LL Cool J. Her performance was praised by Entertainment Weekly's Ken Tucker, who commented "MC Lyte performed her song 'Cappucino' like a rapping Aretha Franklin: Lyte brought out the soul in her lyrics." In September 1991 Lyte released her third album, "Act Like You Know", in which develops in some tracks a softer sound influenced by R&B/New Jack Swing. This have more mixed reviews than in her previous albums and commercially it performed weaker than its predecessor "Eyes on This". From this album came the singles "When in Love" and the socially conscious "Poor Georgie" (with which had her first entry on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and her third #1 on the Hot Rap Singles) and "Eyes Are the Soul".


title: MC Lyte

text: That year she also participated in the socially conscious single "Heal Yourself" by the collective "HEAL Human Education Against Lies", which also included Big Daddy Kane, Boogie Down Productions, Run-DMC, Queen Latifah and LL Cool J.


title: MC Lyte

text: Between 1991 and 1992 Lyte participated in the show called ""The Greatest Rap Show Ever"" at Madison Square Garden with Public Enemy, Naughty by Nature, Queen Latifah, Geto Boys and DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince, among others. In the fall of 1991, she also performed in the hip-hop special "Sisters In The Name of Rap" alongside Salt-N-Pepa, Yo-Yo, Queen Latifah and Roxanne Shanté, among many others. it was recorded at the Ritz in NYC as Pay-per-view TV concert and released as VHS the following year.


title: MC Lyte

text: In October 1992, as part of the movie Mo Money soundtrack, MC Lyte collaborated with Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, known primarily for their work with Janet Jackson, on the single "Ice Cream Dream". In 1992 she also performed on Kris Kross's "Back to School Jam" tour, which also featured A Tribe Called Quest and Fu-Schnickens.


title: MC Lyte

text: Also during that year Lyte began work on her next album, titled "Ain't No Other", which was released on June 22, 1993. With this album, in which she adopts a more hardcore sound, Lyte achieved better critical reception than her predecessor. "Ruffneck" was released as a single, which would become her first top 40 single on the "Billboard" Hot 100, peaking at #35, and fourth #1 on the Hot Rap Singles, also earning her first gold certification. With "Ruffneck" MC Lyte would also get a nomination for the 36th edition of the Grammy Awards in the Best Rap Solo Performance category. In October of that year, Lyte performed at the "1993 Budweiser Superfest" with SWV, Bell Biv Devoe, LeVert, Big Daddy Kane and Silk.


title: MC Lyte

text: In 1994 Lyte collaborated in the remixes and music videos of "You Want This" by Janet Jackson and "I Wanna Be Down" by Brandy, in this last one in collaboration with Queen Latifah and Yo-Yo. During the summer of '94 participated in Janet Jackson's Janet World Tour. In 1994 she participated the performance on the finale of "The Arsenio Hall Show", alongside the likes of KRS-One, Wu-Tang Clan, Naughty by Nature, Guru of Gang Starr, Yo-Yo, Das EFX and A Tribe Called Quest, among others.


title: MC Lyte

text: In early 1995 MC Lyte appeared in the rap remix of "Freedom" on the soundtrack for the movie "Panther", alongside Meshell Ndegeocello, Patra, Yo-Yo, Latifah, Salt-N-Pepa and " Left Eye " Lopes of TLC.


title: MC Lyte

text: During that year Lyte also participated with Lin Que on the remix of "You Bring Me Joy" by Mary J. Blige. In June she performs at the "Jam for Peace" with Warren G, Mary J. Blige, Brownstone, Adina Howard, Montell Jordan and Soul for Real.


title: MC Lyte

text: In February 1996, MC Lyte collaborated on the R&B group Xscape's single "Can't Hang". In March, after signing with East West Records, she released "Keep On Keepin' On", the first single from her forthcoming album. This new collaboration with Xscape reached #10 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, her highest position on this chart as main artist, getting a gold certification. "Keep On Keepin' On" would also be part of the soundtrack of the film "Sunset Park". In September of that year win the Best R&B, Soul or Rap Video category in the 3th edition of Soul Train Lady of Soul Awards with this song. In August of that same year, Lyte released her fifth album, "Bad as I Wanna B". With tracks with a Pop/R&B-oriented sound the album would receive mixed reviews. In November, Sean "Puffy" Combs remix of "Cold Rock a Party" is released as a single, featuring the then-emerging Missy Elliott. This single peaked at #11 on the Hot 100 and would become her fifth #1 single on the "Billboard" Hot Rap Singles (fourth as lead artist), earning a gold certification. It also enters the top 40 of various charts outside the United States, being #1 and certified platinum in New Zealand.


title: MC Lyte

text: In February 1997 "Keep on Pushin" was included in the soundtrack of "Dangerous Ground", in which MC Lyte, Bahamadia, Nonchalant and Yo-Yo collaborate under the production of Pete Rock. In March 1997, she collaborated with R&B singer Billy Lawrence on the single "Come On", which was included in the soundtrack of the movie "Set it Off". In November of that year she collaborated with LL Cool J and Busta Rhymes on the debut album of the R&B supergroup LSG on the track "Curious", which was later released as single.


title: MC Lyte

text: In August 1998 MC Lyte released her sixth studio album "Seven & Seven". Despite having an all-star line-up of producers, it sold poorly, which led to Lyte's departure from East West Records.


title: MC Lyte

text: In November 1999 MC Lyte collaborated in the remix of Jammin of Bob Marley in his album "Chant Down Babylon". This track would later be released as single. During that month she also collaborated with Will Smith and Tatyana Ali on "Who Am I" from Smith's album "Willennium".


title: MC Lyte

text: In March 2000 MC Lyte collaborated with Common and Bilal on the track "A Film Called (Pimp)" on Common's album "Like Water for Chocolate".


title: MC Lyte

text: In April 2002 the soundtrack for the TV series "Dark Angel" is released, which includes Lyte's songs "Dark Angel Theme" (in collaboration with Public Enemy) and "No Dealz" (with Ericka Yancey). In May of that year, MC Lyte collaborated with Angie Stone on the album version of "Jam for the Ladies" by electronica musician Moby. In November she collaborates with Erick Sermon and Rah Digga on the track "Tell Me" on Sermon's album "React". During that time Lyte also became honorary member of Sermon's Def Squad.


title: MC Lyte

text: In March 2003, Lyte released the independently produced record "Da Undaground Heat, Vol. 1", featuring the actor and singer Jamie Foxx. The album has little commercial impact and mixed reviews, but does earn a Grammy nomination in the "Best Female Rap Vocal Performance" category for the single "Ride Wit Me". That song was also nominated for Best Female Hip-Hop Artist at the BET Awards. In September of that year Lyte collaborates with the Black Eyed Peas frontman will.i.am and Fergie on the track "Mash Out" on will.i.am's solo album "Must B 21".


title: MC Lyte

text: MC Lyte's song "My Main Aim" was the title song of the basketball video game "NBA Live 2005" by EA Sports. In 2005, she released two songs produced by Richard "Wolfie" Wolf called "Can I Get It Now" and "Don't Walk Away" (with Meechie).


title: MC Lyte

text: During October 2006, MC Lyte was one of the honored artists on VH1's annual award show "Hip Hop Honors". She was joined by fellow female MC's Da Brat, Remy Ma, and Lil' Kim as they performed some of her tracks, such as "Cha Cha Cha", "Lyte as a Rock", "Paper-Thin", and "Ruffneck". She became the first female emcee to be inducted into the VH1 Hip-Hop Honors.


title: MC Lyte

text: In 2007, she released a song called "Mad at Me" and, in 2008, two songs called "Juke Joint" and "Get Lyte". In 2009, a song titled "Brooklyn" was released, as well as "Craven".


title: MC Lyte

text: In 2013, MC Lyte received the Lifetime Achievement Award at the 2013 Hip Hop Inaugural Ball. She was the first female solo hip hop artist to receive BET's "I Am Hip Hop" Icon Lifetime Achievement Award.


title: MC Lyte

text: "Dear John" (featuring Common & 10Beats) was released on September 9, 2014, and peaked on the "Billboard" Twitter Trending 140 chart at number three. After twelve years without an album, MC Lyte's eighth album, "Legend", came out on April 18, 2015. "Ball" (featuring Lil Mama & AV) and "Check" are also singles from the album.


title: MC Lyte

text: During 2018, she continued to release a strand of singles, one of which was 'Easy', in response to her British audience claiming that artists who recorded new jack swing were sexually explicit.


title: MC Lyte

text: In January 2019 received The Trail Blazer Award at the Trumpet Awards in Atlanta with rappers Yo Yo, Lil Mama, Da Brat, Big Tigger, and Dj K-Rock helping to celebrate with a performance.


title: MC Lyte

text: Her first acting role was in 1991, an off-Broadway theater play titled "Club Twelve", a hip-hop twist on "Twelfth Night" alongside Wyclef Jean, Lauryn Hill, and Lisa Nicole Carson. After she made her film debut in the 1993 movie titled "", starring alongside Jeffrey Sams, Ron Brice, and Steve Gomer, she also starred other films, such as "A Luv Tale" (1999), "Train Ride" (2000), "Civil Brand" (2002) and "Playa's Ball" (2003). In 2011, she guest starred in the "Regular Show" episode "Rap It Up", portraying a member of a hip-hop group also including characters voiced by Tyler, the Creator and Childish Gambino. Lyte signed with the production unit, Duc Tha Moon, for three years and eventually made a deal with Sirius Satellite Radio. Lyte also made appearances on the following television shows: Lyric Cafe, Hip Hop Honors, and Black in the 80's.


title: MC Lyte

text: In June 2006, MC Lyte was interviewed for the documentary "The Rap Report, Part 2". MC Lyte talked about her career in rap music and what it was like during the beginnings of hip hop. She also performs a concert of her most famous hits. The program is produced by Rex Barnett.


title: MC Lyte

text: In 2007, Lyte joined the cast of MTV's "Celebrity Rap Superstar" and coached Shar Jackson to a hip hop emcee victory in a mere eight weeks.


title: MC Lyte

text: In 2017 Lyte played Detective Makena Daniels in the drama series "Tales". Immediately following she played DEA Special Agent Katrina 'K.C.' Walsh in the Police drama "S.W.A.T." and Tiffany in TV ONE production "Loved to Death". Lyte has been featured on television as herself on such shows as "In Living Color", "Moesha", "Cousin Skeeter", "New York Undercover", "My Wife and Kids", and "Sisters in the Name of Rap". She also acted on TV in such shows as "In the House", "Get Real", "Half & Half", Queen of the South, and "The District".


title: MC Lyte

text: In 2020, Lyte starred in "Bad Hair" directed by Justin Simien, and "Sylvie's Love", a period piece set in the 1960s opposite Tessa Thompson.


title: MC Lyte

text: MC Lyte opened Shaitel, a Los Angeles boutique that specialized in accessories from belts to sunglasses. "We sell a mixture of new and vintage [items]," she explained. "We also have a few signature pieces that are done just for the store. We boast to bring a little New York flavor out here to California."


title: MC Lyte

text: In 1997, MC Lyte launched Sunni Gyrl Inc., a global entertainment firm that specializes in artist management and development, production, and creative services and consulting.


title: MC Lyte

text: In 1996, MC Lyte began doing voiceovers, working on a short-lived BET show called "The Boot" and doing some branding for the Starz network, Tide, AT&T, the National Urban League, and many others. She did the voice of Tia for the Mattel toy line Diva Starz from 2000 to 2002.


title: MC Lyte

text: DJ MC Lyte served as the DJ of choice at Michael Jordan's 50th Birthday Celebration, at his 2013 wedding reception, and at Jay Leno's farewell party. Lyte has gone on to provide music for The Image Awards, Nissan, Google, Black Enterprise, and many others.


title: MC Lyte

text: MC Lyte has spoken at colleges and universities, for organizations around the globe, and with notable people like Iyanla Vanzant, Russell Simmons, and Soledad O'Brien bringing a message of empowerment from her book "Unstoppable: Igniting the Power Within to Achieve Your Greatest Potential". She also partnered with the Thurgood Marshall College Fund on the iLEAD international tour in South Africa to empower the continent's youth and up-and-coming leaders.


title: MC Lyte

text: In 1991, MC Lyte was featured in TV informercial promoting pro-abortion rights political action "The Most Exciting Women in Music" alongside Corina, Juliet Cuming, Kim Gordon (Sonic Youth), Lady Miss Kier (Deee-Lite), Kate Pierson (The B-52's), Crystal Waters, Tina Weymouth (Talking Heads, Tom Tom Club).


title: MC Lyte

text: In February 2006, her diary, as well as a turntable, records, and other assorted ephemera from the early days of hip hop, were donated to the Smithsonian Institution. This collection, entitled "Hip-Hop Won't Stop: The Beat, the Rhymes, the Life" is a program to assemble objects of historical relevance to the hip hop genre from its inception.


title: MC Lyte

text: MC Lyte served as the President of the Los Angeles Chapter of the Recording Academy (the Grammy organization) from 2011 to 2013. She was the first African American woman to serve in this role.


title: MC Lyte

text: She is the founder of Hip Hop Sisters Foundation, which presented two $100,000 scholarships to college students each of the first two years of its inception and three $50,000 scholarships as a part of its #EducateOurMen initiative during its third year during the Soul Train Music Awards Red Carpet Preshow.


title: MC Lyte

text: MC Lyte has considered artists such as Salt-N-Pepa, Rakim, Roxanne Shanté, Doug E. Fresh, Boogie Down Productions, Kool Moe Dee, Sha-Rock from Funky 4 + 1, Run-DMC and Big Daddy Kane as her inspirations early in her musical career. In an interview with XXL in 2013, Lyte talks about the influence in her early days of Melle Mel and Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five (specifically the song "The Message"). She also claimed to know "all the words" on the Kurtis Blow records. Throughout her career has also paid tribute to other artists such as Spoonie Gee (who she covered on "Act Like You Know"), Slick Rick, The Rock Steady Crew, LL Cool J and Queen Latifah. In an interview with The Source in 2015, when asked about her motivation to record her latest album "Legend", Lyte said she was inspired by Kendrick Lamar, Kanye West and Drake among other rappers.


title: MC Lyte

text: Her style of Rap has been described in the book "Listen to Rap! Exploring a Musical Genre" as "mid-tempo but aggressive (lots of plosives) and carefully articulated, with emphasis on end rhymes."


title: MC Lyte

text: Greg Prato of AllMusic, referred to her as one of the first female rappers to "point out the sexism and misogyny that often runs rampant in hip-hop", often taking the subject "head on lyrically" in her songs. "The Birmingham Times" has credited her for helping transition hip-hop from the "feel-good, party vibe" of the late 1970s into a "socially conscious form of expression," as the rapper addressed issues like racism, sexism, and the drug culture had been affecting the African-American community. "Billboard", "The Washington Post", and NPR have cited her as a "hip-hop pioneer".


title: MC Lyte

text: MC Lyte has influenced the work of later female rap figures such as Queen Latifah, Lil' Kim, Da Brat, Missy Elliott, Lauryn Hill, Monie Love, Eve, Rapsody, and Flo Milli, as well as rock artist Jack White. Also About.com ranked her  26 on their list of the 50 Greatest MCs of Our Time (1987–2007) and  6 in the Greatest Rappers Ever survey organized by NME. Furthermore, "Vibe" magazine has referred to MC Lyte as the "Queen of Rap".


title: MC Lyte

text: In the early 1990s, Lyte was in a relationship with Todd "Todd 1" Brown (1970-2019), then the producer of "Yo! MTV Raps" and at that time she would also make public in an interview that they were engaged. Brown later said that the latter was part of a joke started by one of the hosts of the show Tyrone "T Money" Kelsie "he came up with the marriage idea and then mayhem ensued. After the initial show, the story got so big that an interviewer actually asked Lyte about her "marriage"... and instead of her shooting down the rumor, she went along with it." At the time, comedian and actor Martin Lawrence said in a "Def Comedy Jam" appearance that he had previously been in a relationship with Lyte. Later it was speculated in the media that for a few years she had a relationship with actress Tichina Arnold. Later these rumors were denied by Arnold. In May 2015 some media speculated that Lyte had dated R&B singer Janelle Monae, but these rumors have not been confirmed by either of them. In 2016, producer and rapper Q-Tip revealed on his Apple Music 1 show "Abstract Radio" that he used to date Lyte in his days before landing a record deal with A Tribe Called Quest.


title: MC Lyte

text: In early 2016, she started dating Marine Corps veteran and entrepreneur John Wyche, after meeting him on Match.com. They announced their engagement in May 2017. "What can I say, except thank you Lord!!!... It's been a long time, this single life, and I thank you all for your prayers and kind words of hope," she wrote in an Instagram post dated January 21, 2017. "God has sent me true love. For all of you waiting on LOVE- don't give up – keep God first and he will see that you meet your match." In August they exchanged their vows during a musical wedding in Montego Bay, Jamaica. Reggae Congo bands played as Lyte walked down the aisle, and the couple's friend Kelly Price serenaded them during the ceremony. Afterward, an intimate gathering with only close friends and family members was held.


title: National League System

text: The National League System comprises the six levels of the English football league system immediately below the level of the English Football League. It comes under the jurisdiction of The Football Association. The National League System has a hierarchical format with promotion and relegation between leagues at different levels. For details of leagues above and below the National League System, see the English football league system.


title: National League System

text: The system underwent a rearrangement from 2004 to 2008 and was rearranged again in 2018. Phase one went into operation in 2004–05. At the start of the 2006–07 season, phase two was introduced, and a further phase three started from 2007–08 with the starting of a second Step 4 league in the north of England. Phase four took effect in 2018–19. Ahead of the 2020-21 season, Step 7 was abolished, being replaced by feeder leagues overseen by local county FAs.


title: National League System

text: At the top of the National League System pyramid is the National League. Its top division, also called the National League (currently called the Vanarama National League), is the only division in the System which is organised on a national rather than regional basis. Although the National League is the top level of the non-league pyramid, it is not the highest level of English football (it is actually the fifth overall division). The Premier League and the three divisions of the English Football League (EFL) comprise the top 92 clubs in the English game, and two teams from the National League are currently able to achieve promotion to the English Football League. Some leagues have more than one division. At the lower levels the existence of leagues becomes intermittent, although in some areas there are as many as twenty layers.


title: National League System

text: All the leagues are bound together by the principle of promotion and relegation. Clubs that are successful in their league can rise higher in the pyramid, whilst those that finish at the bottom can find themselves sinking further down. In theory it is possible for a lowly local amateur club to rise to the pinnacle of the English game and become champions of the Premier League. While this may be unlikely in practice, there certainly is significant movement within the pyramid. The number of teams promoted between leagues or divisions varies, and promotion is usually contingent on meeting criteria set by the higher league, especially concerning appropriate facilities and finances.


title: National League System

text: In particular, clubs that hope to be promoted from Step 5 leagues to Step 4 must apply in advance to be assessed for whether they meet the grading requirements. The teams must then also finish in the top 3 in their league to be considered for promotion, which is not automatic. For instance, in the 2005–06 season 100 clubs applied to be considered for promotion, of which 51 met the grading requirements, and 29 of those finished in the top 3 in their leagues. With an additional division commencing at Step 4 in 2006–07, all 29 clubs had their promotions accepted.


title: National League System

text: Under the direction of The Football Association, the National League System evolved over many years. Today's pyramid can be said to be barely twenty years old. Leagues have formed and dissolved over the years and reorganisations have taken place every few years as a result. Beginning with the 2004–05 season, Phase One of the latest change was introduced with the formation of a Conference North and Conference South immediately below the Football Conference, renamed Conference Premier, dropping the top divisions of the Southern League, Isthmian League, and Northern Premier League down one level. The Conference North and South have since been renamed the National League North and South.


title: National League System

text: This table includes the six steps of the National League System (NLS). Above the NLS are the Premier League and the English Football League. Two teams from the National League can be promoted to EFL League Two at the end of each season. This structure was the result of changes made after the 2005–06 season.


title: National League System

text: The official name is given for all the leagues listed, and the sponsorship name is also provided for the leagues in the top four steps. All divisions in the top four steps have 20 to 24 clubs each. The FA's National League System Committee determine promotion and relegation between leagues shown, mainly based on location. The NLS Committee also has the power to transfer clubs between divisions and even leagues at the same level of the pyramid should this be deemed necessary to maintain geographically practical and numerically balanced divisions and leagues at every level.


title: National League System

text: All clubs in the NLS are eligible to compete in the FA Cup, but are seeded into it according to Step standing. Step 1 to 4 clubs are eligible for the FA Trophy and Step 5 to 6 clubs (and some at NLS Feeder League level) for the FA Vase, as well as their respective regional league cups and county cups.


title: National League System

text: For the 2012–13 season, the FA announced a re-structuring of the National League System's lowest level, Step 7. It was split into three sub-categories, which were full Step 7 divisions, Step 7A and Step 7B. The categorisation depended on the ground facilities of the particular league's clubs. The required percentage of clubs to meet ground grade requirements for each of the categorisations were as follows:


title: National League System

text: Step 7 – was awarded to leagues where 100% of their clubs met the Step 7 minimum ground grading requirements on 31 March and the league complies with all other requirements for Step 7 status.


title: National League System

text: Step 7A – was awarded to leagues where 75% or more of their clubs met the Step 7 minimum ground grading requirements after 31 March and the league complied with all other requirements for Step 7 status. (It was noted that in the 2011–12 season these leagues were referred to as provisional.)


title: National League System

text: Step 7B – was awarded to leagues where 60% or more of their clubs met the ground grading requirements after 31 March and the league complied with all other requirements for Step 7 status.


title: National League System

text: The sub-categories were removed in the 2016–17 season. In 2020–21, Step 7 was abolished altogether, with former leagues at this step instead being designated NLS Feeder Leagues, organised by county FAs.


title: National League System

text: In March 2018, representatives of the National League system confirmed that a pure pyramid in a 1-2-4-8-16 was the goal. This meant the introduction of an eighth division at Step 4 and two further divisions at Step 5. The comments were made just prior to the introduction of the fourth division at Step 3 and the seventh at Step 4. On 17 April 2019, it was clarified that there would be 17 divisions at Step 6, down from 19 in 2018–19 and that the two new divisions at Step 5 would be in the Midlands and the west London/Thames Valley areas. On 24 April, it was announced that the Northern Premier League had been awarded the operation of the eighth division at Step 4. Initially scheduled for implementation in 2020–21, but due to the coronavirus disease pandemic in England which prematurely ended the remainder of the 2019–20 season for leagues at Steps 3 to 6 on 26 March 2020, the FA postponed it to the 2021–22 season when football leagues from Step 2 below had their seasons curtailed again by restrictions from COVID-19 lockdowns on 24 February 2021. The two Step 5 divisions are administered by the Combined Counties and United Counties leagues.


title: EuroMillions

text: EuroMillions is a transnational lottery that requires seven correct numbers to win the jackpot. It was launched on 7 February 2004 by France's Française des Jeux, Spain's "Loterías y Apuestas del Estado" and the United Kingdom's Camelot. The first draw was held on 13 February 2004 in Paris. Initially, only the UK, France and Spain participated, with the Austrian, Belgian, Irish, Luxembourgish, Portuguese and Swiss lotteries joining for the 8 October 2004 draw.


title: EuroMillions

text: Draws are held every Tuesday and Friday night at 20:45 CET in Paris. A standard EuroMillions ticket costs €2.50, £2.50 or CHF3.50 per line played, but this depends on the local currency.


title: EuroMillions

text: Ireland has an exclusive option called "Plus", which adds €1.00 per line. As of February 2014, a non-optional addition called "My Million" in France adds €0.50 per line, while in Portugal it is called "M1lhão" and represents €0.30 of the whole €2.50 bet.


title: EuroMillions

text: The cost of playing in the UK increased from £1.50 to £2.00 per line on 7 November 2009, due to the EUR/GBP exchange rate and automatic entry into its Millionaire Raffle. On 24 September 2016, the cost per line increased from £2.00 to £2.50 in the UK. On the same day, in Ireland and Spain it rose to €2.50 per line.


title: EuroMillions

text: From 24 September 2016, the number of lucky stars changed from a pool of 11 to a pool of 12 numbers, decreasing the jackpot-winning odds from 1:117million to 1:140million.


title: EuroMillions

text: All prizes, including the jackpot, are tax-free (except in Switzerland, Spain and Portugal, since 2013) and are paid as a lump sum.


title: EuroMillions

text: Draws take place at 20:45 every Tuesday and Friday in Paris. The results are published shortly after the draw on associated and independent websites around 20:45 UTC.


title: EuroMillions

text: The game is currently available to players in Andorra, Austria, Belgium, France (including overseas regions and collectives), Ireland, the Isle of Man, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.


title: EuroMillions

text: Entrants must be at least 18 years old. There is no restriction on the nationality of buyers; non-residents are eligible to participate as long as they meet the age requirement.


title: EuroMillions

text: The Prize Guarantee Fund is available to contribute to the jackpot, for example, to boost the initial jackpot in a sequence of growing jackpots. The amount utilized each week is determined in advance by the participating lotteries.


title: EuroMillions

text: A new rule change of 12 January 2012 locked the Jackpot cap at €190,000,000 permanently and if the jackpot was not won after two draws, the prize money would be distributed among the winners at the next level. A new rule change of 24 September 2016 stated that if the jackpot is not won five draws after it reaches €190,000,000, the prize money will be distributed among the winners at the next level. The minimum jackpot prize increased from 15m euros to 17m euros.


title: EuroMillions

text: In February 2020, the rules regarding the EuroMillions jackpot changed again. The new cap was set at €200,000,000, but that would no longer be fixed. If the jackpot gets to this amount, the cycle can last for five draws. If there are no winners in the fifth draw, the jackpot is paid out to the lower tier. For the next cycle, the maximum jackpot is set to €210,000,000, and is again paid out to the lower tier if there is no winner. In subsequent cycles, the maximum jackpot is raised to 220, 230, 240 and finally 250 million euros. The latest maximum jackpot, €230m, was reached on 8 July 2022.


title: EuroMillions

text: The participating national lotteries in the EuroMillions game have each established a EuroMillions Trust account. This is used for the settlement of all amounts due, and for holding amounts in respect of future prizes. This trust arrangement protects the participating lotteries between them from a default from one of the national companies, and ultimately the players' interests.


title: EuroMillions

text: Super Draws and Event Draws are special drawings when the Jackpot is set to a guaranteed amount – often €100,000,000. The difference is that a Super Draw jackpot will roll over to the next drawing if not won, but an Event Draw jackpot will be distributed among the winners in the next lower tier (i.e. match 5 + 1). Until now, jackpots in a Super Draw have rolled over to the next drawing if not won.


title: EuroMillions

text: The first Super Draw of 2011 took place on Tuesday 10 May to mark the introduction of the second weekly Euromillions draw and changes to the game format (11 lucky stars instead of 9 and a new "match 2 main numbers and no lucky stars" prize tier).


title: EuroMillions

text: The first Super Draw of 2016 took place on Friday 30 September to introduce the change to the game format (12 lucky stars instead of 11 and increased price).


title: EuroMillions

text: A €100,000,000 Super draw was planned for 6 June 2014 but was cancelled when the jackpot rolled over to €105,000,000. This also happened for the superdraw that was planned for Friday, 29th April 2022.


title: EuroMillions

text: The first huge jackpot of over €115.4 million was won by Irish lady Dolores McNamara on 29 July 2005. On 3 February 2006, three winners shared the record jackpot of €183 million after the first rank was eleven draws vacant. Two French people and one Portuguese received €61,191,026 each. In order to limit the jackpot from growing higher, the rules of the game in the period from 2006 to 2009 stipulated that after the twelfth draw without a winner before the jackpot amount would be rolled down and shared between the winners in the next prize tier. This happened for the first time on 17 November 2006, after over €183 million had accumulated in the jackpot. The sum was shared between the winners of the second rank (there were 20 winners of €9.6 million each). The first highest jackpot with €190 million was won by the Bayford couple from England on 10 August 2012, and they received "only" £148.6 million because of the strength of the pound. The €185 million (£161.6 million) jackpot that was won by the Weir couple from Scotland on 12 July 2011 was considered to be the highest jackpot in the UK until Peter Wilson's win on the 8 October 2019.


title: EuroMillions

text: A jackpot of nearly €175.5 million was won by a family syndicate of 8 siblings (7 alive and one who had passed away but whose family were still included in the winnings) who were from Naul in North County Dublin on 19 February 2019.


title: EuroMillions

text: A jackpot of €190 million (£170.2 million) was won by a single ticket holder in the UK bearing the winning numbers - 7,10,15,44,49 and the lucky numbers 3,12.


title: EuroMillions

text: The highest jackpot ever won in the UK, and second highest jackpot to date, was £184,262,899 (€215,840,341), on 10 May 2022, with numbers 3,25,27,28,29, lucky numbers 4 and 9.


title: EuroMillions

text: Chris and Colin Weir won the EuroMillions and pledged to donate their prize money to good causes. However, cybercriminals started using their names in their email scams to fool the general public and ultimately cheat them of money.


title: EuroMillions

text: In June 2007, the Irish National Lottery introduced "Plus," an add-on to the main EuroMillions game available only to Irish players. For an extra €1 per line, players can enter their five main EuroMillions numbers in an additional draw for a fixed, non-rolling jackpot of €500,000. Players can also win fixed prizes of €2,000 for a Match-4 and €20 for a Match-3. The odds of winning the Plus jackpot are 1 in 2,118,760.


title: EuroMillions

text: Since November 2009 at least one UK player every week has won a guaranteed £1,000,000. With the introduction of the Tuesday EuroMillions Draw on Tuesday 10 May 2011 there were 2 Millionaire Raffle winners each week. Changes to Euromillions in September 2016 meant that two guaranteed Millionaire Raffle winners were made per draw, or 4 per week across the two draws.


title: EuroMillions

text: According to the Euromillions website, the chances of winning the UK Millionaire Maker game on a Tuesday can be estimated as 1 in 3,570,000 with a standard £14m jackpot. On a Friday, it can be calculated as approximately 1 in 5,080,000 - again with a baseline £14m jackpot. Winning in this game depends entirely on the number of the payslips sold so the odds fluctuate. The odds may also fluctuate during a super draw or a special event in the UK Millionaire Raffle.


title: EuroMillions

text: Prices per line in the UK increased by 50p to £2.00. The 50p was added due to weak exchange rates between the pound and the euro and to cover the expense of the new Millionaire Maker.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The Jaguar AJ-8 is a compact DOHC V8 piston engine used in many Jaguar vehicles. It was the fourth new engine type in the history of the company. It was an in house design with work beginning before Ford's purchase of the company.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: In 1997 it replaced both designs previously available on Jaguar cars: the straight-6 Jaguar AJ6 engine (or rather its AJ16 variant), and the Jaguar V12 engine. It remained the only engine type available on Jaguar until 1999 with the launch of the S-Type, when the Jaguar AJ-V6 engine was added to the list. The AJ-V8 is available in displacements ranging from 3.2L to 5.0L, and a supercharged version is also produced. Ford Motor Company also used this engine in other cars, including the Lincoln LS and the 2002-2005 Ford Thunderbird, as well as in several Land Rovers, and the Aston Martin V8 Vantage.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The AJ-V8 was designed to use Nikasil-coated cylinders rather than the more-common iron cylinder liners. However, like the BMW M60, high-sulphur fuel reacted with the Nikasil coating and caused engine failures. Jaguar replaced affected engines, and has used conventional cast-iron linings ever since.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The engine originally used a two-state Variable Valve Timing system to switch the intake cam timing by 30°. Newer variants use a more sophisticated system which can vary intake timing incrementally up to 48°. The Lincoln version was made in the United States.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: Other engine features include fracture-split forged powder metal connecting rods, a special one-piece cast camshaft, and reinforced plastic intake manifold.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: Ford ceased production of the AJ-V8 engine in September 2020 when it closed the Bridgend Plant. However, in August 2020 JLR was able to take over production means for the AJ-V8.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The AJ8 engine is manufactured in an all-new, dedicated Jaguar facility located within the Ford Bridgend Engine Plant in Bridgend, South Wales. The Jaguar "plant-within-a-plant" saved considerable investment costs by Jaguar. It is staffed by workers dedicated to Jaguar engine production and includes a linked flow-line of computer numerically controlled machines with automated loading and assembly. Component supply is on a "just-in-time" basis.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The AJ26 engine was introduced in 1996. The number "26" comes from 12+6+8 (cylinders), because when the first ideas were sketched, a family of 6-, 8- and 12-cylinder engines was contemplated, although only the 8-cylinder version was produced.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: It has a square bore and stroke. It was updated in 1998 as the AJ27 with continuously variable valve timing. The AJ-V8 was updated again in 2000 as the AJ28. The naturally aspirated version produces in the 2000-2002 XK8.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The supercharged version of the AJ26 is used in the high-performance "R" versions of Jaguar's cars. The engine was updated with AJ27 specifications for 2000. It produces and with the help of an Eaton supercharger (modified Roots-blower). The supercharged engine did not use variable cam timing as the normal benefits of improved volumetric efficiency are not noticeable on a boosted engine.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The 3.2 litre variant was the second to be introduced. It reduces the stroke to and power falls to and . This variant was not available in the North American market.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The , marketed as "3.5", was used in the XJ series as well. The stroke was . Output was at 6,250 rpm and at 4,200 rpm.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The AJ30/AJ35 variant is a unique displacement used only by Ford and Lincoln and is built in Ford's Lima, OH engine plant. Bore and stroke is . The AJ35 version introduced for the 2003 model year added variable valve timing of the intake camshafts and electronic throttle control. While the block, crankshaft, pistons, and connecting rods are all unique to this displacement, many other parts are shared with the AJ-V8 engines produced in the UK by Jaguar.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The last AJ35 was produced in March 2006 after only 3 years. Total run of AJ30/35 was nearly 250,000 units


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The , AJ33 and AJ34 versions retain the bore with stroke. It was introduced in 2002 as the AJ33 and produces at 6,000 rpm with of torque at 4,100 rpm, later increased to and .


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The AJ33S is a supercharged/intercooled variant of the AJ33. It was introduced in 2002 to replace the 4.0 SC and produces at 6,100 rpm with of torque at 3,500 rpm. The engine was later updated to AJ34S specification to include Variable Valve Timing as well as other minor updates.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: Land Rover also offered a supercharged version of the 4.2 L as that company's high-performance engine. Land Rover's version is not the same as the Jaguar's version but it was adapted from it.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The AJ41 version features an bore and stroke. This engine replaced the BMW M62 engine used in 2003-2005 Range Rover models.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: Aston Martin hand-assembles a special version of the AJ-V8 for the 2005 V8 Vantage known as AJ37. This unit displaced and produces at 7,000 rpm and at 5,000 rpm. This engine is unique to Aston Martin and features race-style dry-sump lubrication, which enables it to be mounted low to lower the centre of gravity. The firing order is the same as the other AJ-V8 engines although the cylinder numbering is different (AJ37 = 1-5-4-2-6-3-7-8 vs. AJ26 = 1-2-7-3-4-5-6-8). The engine is assembled by hand at the AM facility in Cologne, Germany, which also builds the V12 for the DB9 and Vanquish. The cylinder block, cylinder heads, crankshaft, connecting rods, pistons, camshafts, inlet and exhaust manifolds, lubrication system and engine management are all unique to the Aston Martin version.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: In May 2008, Aston Martin released a new design that used pressed cylinder liners instead of cast-in liners. This allowed for thinner liners, and a higher capacity of for the V8 Vantage. Power output increased to (an 11% increase on the previous 4.3-litre unit) and peak torque to (a 15% increase). The Aston Martin V8 Vantage S features the same 4.7-litre V8 engine found in the base Vantage, but with improved intake airflow, new mufflers, and new programming that keeps the exhaust system's bypass valves open longer. The engine in the V8 Vantage S now develops at 7,300 rpm and torque of at 5,000 rpm representing an increase of and respectively. This engine is also used in the bespoke Aston Martin DB10 concept car for the 2015 James Bond film Spectre.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: An all new direct injection 5.0 L engine family was introduced in 2009 (all new engine block). Now featuring: spray-guided direct-injection, continuously variable intake and exhaust camshaft timing. The naturally aspirated engines also feature cam profile switching and variable track length inlet manifold. Supercharged engines make use of a sixth-generation TVS (Twin Vortices Series) supercharger. The 2010 model year engine conforms to EU5 and ULEV2 emissions regulations.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The Bowler Nemesis and David Brown Speedback Silverstone Edition also use a variant of this engine producing .


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The AJ126 V6 utilizes a AJ133 V8 engine block with the rear two cylinder bores blanked, and reduced bore sizes on the remaining six cylinders. While the engine block is the same size as the V8, the cylinder heads are shortened versions of the V8 heads. It is made on the same production line as the AJ133.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The AJ126 is a 90° petrol V6, having a bore and stroke of with a 10.5:1 compression ratio. It is supercharged and liquid cooled featuring direct fuel injection, four overhead camshafts and four valves per cylinder. There are two versions differing in power produced, a standard version making at 6,500 rpm and between 3,500-5,000 rpm and a high-performance variant making at 6,500 rpm and between 3,500-5,000 rpm. A special Jaguar F-Type 400 Sport model made and .


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The main structural components of the engine are all manufactured from aluminum alloy. The engine is built around a very stiff, lightweight, enclosed V, deep skirt cylinder block. A structural windage tray is bolted to the bottom of the cylinder block to further improve the block stiffness, minimize NVH (noise, vibration and harshness) and help reduce oil foaming. To further enhance the stiffness of the lower engine structure, a heavily ribbed sump body is installed. The sump body also helps to reduce engine noise.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The engine uses a Bosch high pressure direct injection fuel system with fuel pressure provided by two, cam driven high pressure pumps which are driven by a dedicated camshaft. The high pressure pumps supply the fuel rails which in turn supply the three injectors for that bank with fuel at a controlled pressure.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The four camshafts incorporate VCT (variable camshaft timing). VCT allows the timing of the intake and exhaust valves to be adjusted independently of each other. The VCT system is controlled by the Bosch ECM (engine control module) using information from CMP (camshaft position) sensors. The crankshaft features offset journals and a counterweight in place of the deleted pistons and rods.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The supercharger is located in the 'vee' of the engine and is driven from the crankshaft by a dedicated secondary drive belt.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The engine meets EU5 emission regulations in Europe and Rest of World (ROW) and ULEV 70 emission regulations in North American Specification (NAS) markets.


title: Jaguar AJ-V8 engine

text: The direct fuel injection system, advanced piston and combustion chamber design and the supercharger provide improved fuel consumption and emissions.


title: Robert Alda

text: Robert Alda (born Alfonso Giuseppe Giovanni Roberto D'Abruzzo; February 26, 1914 – May 3, 1986) was an Italian-American theatrical and film actor, a singer, and a dancer. He was the father of actors Alan and Antony Alda. Alda was featured in a number of Broadway productions, then moved to Italy during the early 1960s. He appeared in many European films over the next two decades, occasionally returning to the U.S. for film appearances such as "The Girl Who Knew Too Much" (1969).


title: Robert Alda

text: Alda, an American of Italian descent, was born Alfonso Giuseppe Giovanni Roberto D'Abruzzo in New York City, the son of Frances (née Tumillo) and Antonio D'Abruzzo, a barber born in Sant'Agata de' Goti, Benevento, Campania, Italy. (D'Abruzzo is a toponymic surname.) He graduated from Stuyvesant High School in New York in 1930.


title: Robert Alda

text: He began his performing career as a singer and dancer in vaudeville after winning a talent contest, and moved on to burlesque.


title: Robert Alda

text: Alda is known for portraying George Gershwin in the biographical film "Rhapsody in Blue" (1945) as well as the talent agent in the Douglas Sirk classic "Imitation of Life" (1959). On Broadway, he originated the role of Sky Masterson in "Guys and Dolls" (1950), for which he won a Tony Award, and starred in "What Makes Sammy Run?" (1964). He was also the host of the DuMont TV version of the game show "What's Your Bid?" (May–June 1953).


title: Robert Alda

text: Alda made two guest appearances with his son Alan on "M*A*S*H", in the episodes "The Consultant" (January 1975) and "Lend a Hand" (February 1980). The latter episode also featured Antony Alda (1956–2009), his younger son by his second wife.


title: Robert Alda

text: Alda's first wife, and mother of actor Alan Alda, Joan Browne, was a homemaker and former beauty pageant winner. They divorced in 1946. Alda was married to his second wife and mother of Antony, Flora Marino, an Italian actress whom he met in Rome, until his death.


title: Lake Constance

text: Lake Constance (, ) refers to three bodies of water on the Rhine at the northern foot of the Alps: Upper Lake Constance ("Obersee"), Lower Lake Constance ("Untersee"), and a connecting stretch of the Rhine, called the Lake Rhine ("Seerhein"). These waterbodies lie within the Lake Constance Basin () in the Alpine Foreland through which the Rhine flows.


title: Lake Constance

text: The lake is situated where Germany, Switzerland, and Austria meet. Its shorelines lie in the German states of Baden-Württemberg and Bavaria, the Swiss cantons of St. Gallen, Thurgau, and Schaffhausen, and the Austrian state of Vorarlberg. The actual location of the border is disputed.


title: Lake Constance

text: The Alpine Rhine forms in its original course the Austro-Swiss border and flows into the lake from the south. The High Rhine flows westbound out of the lake and forms (with the exception of the Canton of Schaffhausen) the German-Swiss border as far as to the city of Basel.


title: Lake Constance

text: The most populous towns on the Upper Lake are Constance (), Friedrichshafen, Bregenz, Lindau (Bodensee), Überlingen and Kreuzlingen. The largest town on the Lower Lake is Radolfzell am Bodensee. The largest islands are Reichenau in the Lower Lake, and Lindau and Mainau in the Upper Lake.


title: Lake Constance

text: While in English and the Romance languages, the lake is named after the city of Constance, the German name derives from the village of Bodman (municipality of Bodman-Ludwigshafen), in the northwesternmost corner of the lake.


title: Lake Constance

text: Lake Constance is the third largest freshwater lake by surface area in Central and Western Europe (and the second largest in volume), after Lake Geneva and (in surface area) Lake Balaton.


title: Lake Constance

text: It is long, and, nearly at its widest point. It covers about , and is above sea level. Its greatest depth is , exactly in the middle of the Upper Lake. Its volume is about .


title: Lake Constance

text: The lake has two parts: the main east section, called Obersee or "Upper Lake", covers about , including its northwestern arm, the Überlinger See (), and the much smaller west section, called Untersee or "Lower Lake", with an area of about .


title: Lake Constance

text: The connection between these two lakes is the Seerhein (lit.: "Lake Rhine"). Geographically, it is sometimes not considered to be part of the lake, but a river.


title: Lake Constance

text: The Lower Lake Constance is loosely divided into three sections around the Island of Reichenau: The two German parts, the Gnadensee (lit.: "Lake Mercy") north of the island and north of the peninsula of Mettnau (the Markelfinger Winkel), and the Zeller See, south of Radolfzell and to the northwest of the Reichenau island, and the mainly Swiss Rheinsee (lit.: "Rhine Lake") – not to be mistaken for the "Seerhein" at its start – to the south of the island and with its southwestern arm leading to its effluent in Stein am Rhein.


title: Lake Constance

text: The river water of the regulated Alpine Rhine flows into the lake in the southeast near Bregenz, Austria, then through the Upper Lake Constance hardly targeting the "Überlinger See", into the "Seerhein" in the town of Konstanz, then through the "Rheinsee" virtually without feeding both German parts of the Lower Lake, and finally feeds the start of the High Rhine in Swiss town Stein am Rhein.


title: Lake Constance

text: The culminating point of the lake's drainage basin is the Swiss peak Piz Russein of the Tödi massif of the Glarus Alps at above sea level. It starts with the creek "Aua da Russein" (lit.: "Water of the Russein").


title: Lake Constance

text: Car ferries link Romanshorn, Switzerland, to Friedrichshafen, and Konstanz to Meersburg, all in Germany.


title: Lake Constance

text: Lake Constance was formed by the Rhine Glacier during the ice age and is a "Zungenbecken" or tongue lake. After the end of the last glacial period, about 10,000 years ago, the Obersee and Untersee still formed a single lake. The downward erosion of the High Rhine caused the lake level to gradually sink and a sill, the "Konstanzer Schwelle", to emerge.


title: Lake Constance

text: The Rhine, the Bregenzer Ach, and the Dornbirner Ach carry sediments from the Alps to the lake, thus gradually decreasing the depth and reducing the extension of the lake in the southeast.


title: Lake Constance

text: In antiquity the two lakes had different names; later, for reasons which are unknown, they came to have the same name.


title: Lake Constance

text: In the 19th century, there were five different local time zones around Lake Constance. Constance, belonging to the Grand Duchy of Baden, adhered to Karlsruhe time, Friedrichshafen used the time of the Duchy of Württemberg, in Lindau, the Bavarian Munich time was observed, and Bregenz used Prague time, while the Swiss shore used Berne time. One would have needed to travel only to visit five time zones. Given the amount of trade and traffic over Lake Constance, this led to serious confusion. Public clocks in harbors used three different clock faces, depending on the destinations offered by the boat companies. In 1892, all German territories used CET, the Austrian railways had already introduced CET the previous year and Switzerland followed in 1894. Because traffic timetables had not been yet updated, CET became the sole valid time around and on Lake Constance in 1895.


title: Lake Constance

text: The Roman geographer Pomponius Mela was the first to mention the lakes around 43 AD, calling the upper lake "Lacus Venetus" and the lower lake "Lacus Acronius", the Rhine passing through both. Around 75 AD, The naturalist Pliny the Elder called them both "Lacus Raetiae Brigantinus" after the main Roman town on the lake, "Brigantium" (later Bregenz). This name is associated with the Celtic Brigantii who lived here, although it is not clear whether the place was named after the tribe or the inhabitants of the region were named after their main settlement. Ammianus Marcellinus later used the form "Lacus Brigantiae".


title: Lake Constance

text: The current German name of "Bodensee" derives from the place name Bodman, which probably originally derived from the Old High German "bodamon" which meant "on the soils", indicating a place on level terrain by the lake. This place, situated at the west end of Lake Überlingen ("Überlinger See"), had a more supraregional character for a certain period in the early Middle Ages as a Frankish imperial palace ("Königspfalz"), Alamannian ducal seat and mint, which is why the name may have been transferred to the lake ("lake, by which Bodman is situated" = "Bodmansee"). From 833/834 AD, in Latin sources, the name appears in its Latinised form "lacus potamicus". Therefore, the name actually derived from the Bodman "Pfalz" (Latinized as "Potamum") was wrongly assumed by monastic scholars like Walahfrid Strabo to be derived from the Greek word "potamos" for "river" and meant "river lake". They may also have been influenced by the fact that the Rhine flowed through the lake.


title: Lake Constance

text: Wolfram von Eschenbach describes it in Middle High German as the "Bodemensee" or "Bodemsee" which has finally evolved into the present German name, "Bodensee". The name may be linked to that of the Bodanrück, the hill range between Lake Überlingen and the Lower Lake, and the history of the House of Bodman.


title: Lake Constance

text: The German name of the lake, "Bodensee", has been adopted by many other languages, for example: Dutch: "Bodenmeer", Danish: "Bodensøen", Norwegian: "Bodensjøen", Swedish: "Bodensjön", Finnish: "Bodenjärvi", Russian: "Боденское озеро", Polish: "Jezioro Bodeńskie", Czech: "Bodamské jezero", Slovak: "Bodamské jazero", Hungarian: "Bodeni-tó", Croatian: "Bodensko jezero", Albanian: "Liqeni i Bodenit".


title: Lake Constance

text: After the Council of Constance in the 15th century, the alternative name "Lacus Constantinus" was used in the (Roman Catholic) Romance language area. This name, which had been attested as early as 1187 in the form "Lacus Constantiensis", came from the town of Konstanz at the outflow of the Rhine from the Obersee, whose original name, Constantia, was in turn derived from the Roman emperor, Constantius Chlorus (around 300 AD). Hence the French: "Lac de Constance", Italian: "Lago di Costanza", Portuguese: "Lago de Constança", Spanish: "Lago de Constanza", Romanian: "Lacul Constanța", Greek: "Λίμνη της Κωνσταντίας – Limni tis Konstantias". The Arabic, بحيرة كونستانس "buħaira Konstans" and the Turkish, "Konstanz gölü", probably go back to the French form of the name. Even in Romance-influenced English the name "Lake Constance" gained a foothold and was then exported into other languages such as Hebrew: ימת קונסטנץ "yamat Konstanz" and Swahili: "Ziwa la Konstanz". In many languages both forms exist in parallel e.g. Romansh: "Lai da Constanza" and "Lai Bodan", Esperanto: "Konstanca Lago" and "Bodenlago".


title: Lake Constance

text: The poetic name, "Swabian Sea", was adopted by authors of the early modern era and the Enlightenment from ancient authors, possibly Tacitus. However, this assumption was based on an error (similar to that of the Teutoburg Forest and the Taunus): the Romans sometimes used the name "Mare Suebicum" for the Baltic Sea, not Lake Constance. In times when the Romans had located the so-called "Suebi", then an Elbe Germanic tribe near a sea, this was understandable. The authors of the Early Modern Period overlooked this and adopted the name for the largest lake in the middle of the former Duchy of Swabia, which also included parts of today's Switzerland. Today the name Swabian Sea ("Schwäbisches Meer") is only used jocularly as a hyperbolic term for Lake Constance.


title: Lake Constance

text: No Paleolithic finds have been made in the immediate vicinity of the lake, because the region of Lake Constance was long covered by the Rhine Glacier. The discovery of stone tools (microliths) indicate that hunters and gatherers of the Mesolithic period (Middle Stone Age, 8,000–5,500 BC) frequented the area without settling, however. Only hunting camps have been confirmed. The earliest Neolithic farmers, who belonged to the Linear Pottery culture, also left no traces behind, because the Alpine foreland lay away from the routes along which they had spread during the 6th millennium BC. This changed only in the middle and late Neolithic when shore settlements were established, the so-called pile dwelling and wetland settlements, which have now been uncovered mainly on Lake Überlingen, the Constance Hopper and on the Obersee. At Unteruhldingen, a pile dwelling village has been reconstructed, and now forms an open air museum.


title: Lake Constance

text: In 2015, a 20 km line of about 170 man-made dated in the neolithic period or early bronze age were discovered on the south-west shore of the lake between Bottighofen and Romanshorn.


title: Lake Constance

text: Grave finds from Singen am Hohentwiel date to the beginning of the Early Bronze Age and shore settlements were repeatedly built during the Neolithic Period and the Bronze Age (up to 800 BC). During the following Iron Age the settlement history is interrupted. The settlement of the shore of Lake Constance during the Hallstatt period is attested by grave mounds, which today are usually found in forests where they have been protected from the destruction by agriculture. Since the late Hallstatt period, the peoples living on Lake Constance are referred to as the Celts. During the La Tène period from 450 BC, the population density decreases, as can be deduced partly due from the fact that no more grave mounds were built. For the first time, written reports on Lake Constance have survived. Thus, we learn that the Helvetians settled by the lake in the south, the Rhaetians in the area of the Alpine Rhine Valley and the Vindelici in the north-east. The most important places on the lake were Bregenz (Celtic "Brigantion") and today's Constance.


title: Lake Constance

text: In the course of the Roman Alpine campaign of 16/15 BC, the Lake Constance region was integrated into the Roman Empire. During the campaign, there was also supposed to have been a battle on Lake Constance. The geographer, Pomponius Mela, makes the first mention in 43 AD of Lake Constance as two lakes – the "Lacus Venetus" (Upper Lake) and the "Lacus Acronius" (Untersee) – with the Rhine flowing through both. Pliny the Elder referred to Lake Constance as "Lacus Brigantinus" for the first time. The most important Roman site was Bregenz, which soon became subject to Roman municipal law and later became the seat of the Prefect of the Lake Constance fleet. The Romans were also in Lindau, but settled only on the hills around Lindau as the lakeshore was swampy. Other Roman towns were "Constantia" (Constance) and "Arbor Felix" (Arbon).


title: Lake Constance

text: After the borders of the Roman Empire were drawn back to the Rhine boundary in the 3rd century BC, the Alemanni gradually settled on the north shore of Lake Constance and, later, on the south bank as well. After the introduction of Christianity, the cultural significance of the region grew as a result of the founding of Reichenau Abbey and the Bishopric of Constance. Under the rule of the Hohenstaufens, Imperial Diets ("Reichstage") were held by Lake Constance. In Constance, too, a treaty was drawn up between the Hohenstaufen emperor and the Lombard League. Lake Constance also played an important role as a trading post for goods being traded between German and Italian states.


title: Lake Constance

text: During the Thirty Years' War, there were various conflicts over the control of the region during the Lake War (1632–1648).


title: Lake Constance

text: After the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802), which also affected the region and during which Austrian and French flotillas operated on Lake Constance, there was a reorganisation of state relationships.


title: Lake Constance

text: Lake Constance is located in the foothills of the Alps. The shore length of both main lakes is long. Of this, are located in Germany (Baden-Württemberg , Bavaria ), run through Austria and through Switzerland. If the upper and lower lakes are combined, Lake Constance has a total area of , the third largest lake in Central Europe by area after Lake Balaton () and Lake Geneva (). It is also the second largest by water volume () after Lake Geneva () and extends for over between Bregenz and Stein am Rhein. Its catchment area is around , and reaching as far south as Lago di Lei in Italy.


title: Lake Constance

text: The area of the Obersee, or Upper Lake, is . It extends from Bregenz to Bodman-Ludwigshafen for over and is wide between Friedrichshafen and Romanshorn. At its deepest point between Fischbach and Uttwil, it is deep.


title: Lake Constance

text: The three small bays on the Vorarlberg shore have their own names: the Bay of Bregenz, off Hard and Fußach is the Bay of Fussach and, west of that is the Wetterwinkel. Farther west, now in Switzerland, is the Bay of Rorschach. To the north, on the Bavarian side, is the Bay of Reutin. The railway embankment from the mainland to the island of Lindau and the motorway bridge over the lake border the so-called Little Lake ("Kleiner See"), which is located between the Lindau village of Aeschach and the island.


title: Lake Constance

text: The northwestern, finger-shaped arm of the Obersee is called Überlinger See (or Überlingersee in Swiss Standard German), or Lake Überlingen. It is sometimes regarded as a separate lake, the boundary between Lake Überlingen and the rest of the Upper Lake runs approximately along the line between the southeast tip of Bodanrück (the "Hörnle", which belongs to the town of Konstanz) and Meersburg. The Constance Hopper lies between the German and Swiss shores east of Konstanz.


title: Lake Constance

text: The Untersee, or Lower Lake, which is separated from the Obersee and from its north-west arm, the Überlinger See, by the large peninsula of Bodanrück, has an area of . It is strongly characterised and divided into different areas by end moraines, various glacial snouts and medial moraines. These various areas of the lake have their own names. North of Reichenau Island is the Gnadensee. West of the island of Reichenau, between the peninsula of Höri and the peninsula of Mettnau is the Zeller See (or Zellersee in Swiss Standard German), or Lake Zell. North of the peninsula and swamp land Mettnau lies the lake part Markelfinger Winkel. The drumlins of the southern Bodanrück continue along the bed of these northern parts of the lake. South of the Reichenau, from Gottlieben to Eschenz, stretches the "Rheinsee" (lit.: "Rhine Lake") with strong Rhine currents in places. Previously this lake part was named Lake Bernang after the village of Berlingen. On most of the maps the name of the "Rheinsee" is not shown, because this place is best suited for the name of the Untersee.


title: Lake Constance

text: Like any glacial lake, Lake Constance will also silt up by sedimentation. This process can best be observed at the mouths of the larger rivers, especially that of the Alpine Rhine. The silting up process is accelerated by ever-increasing erosion by the Rhine and the associated reduction in the level of the lake.


title: Lake Constance

text: The main tributary of Lake Constance is the Alpine Rhine. The Alpine Rhine and the Seerhein do not mix greatly with the waters of the lake and flow through the lakes along courses that change relatively little. There are also numerous smaller tributaries (236 in all). The most important tributaries of the Obersee are (counterclockwise) the Dornbirner Ach, Bregenzer Ach, Leiblach, Argen, Schussen, Rotach, Seefelder Aach, Stockacher Aach, Salmsacher Aach, the Aach near Arbon, Steinach, Goldach and the Old Rhine. The outflow of the Obersee is the Seerhein, which in turn is the main tributary of the Untersee. The most important tributary of the Untersee is the Radolfzeller Aach.


title: Lake Constance

text: Because the Alpine Rhine brings with it drift from the mountains and deposits this material as sediment, the Bay of Bregenz will silt up in a few centuries time. The silting up of the entire Lake Constance is estimated to take another ten to twenty thousand years.


title: Lake Constance

text: The outflow of the Untersee is the High Rhine with the Rhine Falls at Schaffhausen. Both the average precipitation of 0.45 km³/a and evaporation which averages 0.29 km³/a cause a net change in the level of Lake Constance that is less when compared to the influence of the inflows and outflows. Further quantities of lake water are extracted by municipal waterworks around the lake and the water company of Bodensee-Wasserversorgung.


title: Lake Constance

text: By far the largest is the island of Reichenau in the Untersee, which belongs to the municipality of Reichenau. The former abbey of Reichenau is a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its three early and highly medieval churches. The island is also known for its intensive cultivation of fruit and vegetables.


title: Lake Constance

text: The island of Lindau is located in the east of the Obersee, and is the second largest island. On it is the old town and main railway station of Lindau.


title: Lake Constance

text: The third largest island is Mainau in the southeast of Lake Überlingen. The owners, the family of Bernadotte, have set up the island as a tourist attraction and created botanical gardens and wildlife enclosures.


title: Lake Constance

text: Relatively large, but uninhabited and inaccessible because of their status as nature reserves, are two islands off the Wollmatinger Ried: the Triboldingerbohl which has an area of and Mittler or Langbohl which is just in area.