title: Earth science

text: Hydrology is the study of the hydrosphere and the movement of water on Earth. It emphasizes the study of how humans use and interact with freshwater supplies. Study of water's movement is closely related to geomorphology and other branches of Earth science. Applied hydrology involves engineering to maintain aquatic environments and distribute water supplies. Subdisciplines of hydrology include oceanography, hydrogeology, ecohydrology, and glaciology. Oceanography is the study of oceans. Hydrogeology is the study of groundwater. It includes the mapping of groundwater supplies and the analysis of groundwater contaminants. Applied hydrogeology seeks to prevent contamination of groundwater and mineral springs and make it available as drinking water. The earliest exploitation of groundwater resources dates back to 3000 BC, and hydrogeology as a science was developed by hydrologists beginning in the 17th century. Ecohydrology is the study of ecological systems in the hydrosphere. It can be divided into the physical study of aquatic ecosystems and the biological study of aquatic organisms. Ecohydrology includes the effects that organisms and aquatic ecosystems have on one another as well as how these ecoystems are affected by humans. Glaciology is the study of the cryosphere, including glaciers and coverage of the Earth by ice and snow. Concerns of glaciology include access to glacial freshwater, mitigation of glacial hazards, obtaining resources that exist beneath frozen land, and addressing the effects of climate change on the cryosphere.


title: Earth science

text: Ecology is the study of the biosphere. This includes the study of nature and of how living things interact with the Earth and one another. It considers how living things use resources such as oxygen, water, and nutrients from the Earth to sustain themselves. It also considers how humans and other living creatures cause changes to nature.


title: Earth science

text: Physical geography is the study of Earth's systems and how they interact with one another as part of a single self-contained system. It incorporates astronomy, mathematical geography, meteorology, climatology, geology, geomorphology, biology, biogeography, pedology, and soils geography. Physical geography is distinct from human geography, which studies the human populations on Earth, though it does include human effects on the environment.


title: Earth science

text: Methodologies vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied. Studies typically fall into one of three categories: observational, experimental, or theoretical. Earth scientists often conduct sophisticated computer analysis or visit an interesting location to study earth phenomena (e.g. Antarctica or hot spot island chains).


title: Earth science

text: A foundational idea in Earth science is the notion of uniformitarianism, which states that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are readily observed." In other words, any geologic processes at work in the present have operated in the same ways throughout geologic time. This enables those who study Earth history to apply knowledge of how the Earth's processes operate in the present to gain insight into how the planet has evolved and changed throughout long history.


title: Earth science

text: Earth science generally recognizes four spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere; these correspond to rocks, water, air and life. Also included by some are the cryosphere (corresponding to ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere and the pedosphere (corresponding to soil) as an active and intermixed sphere.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Sparkling wine is a wine with significant levels of carbon dioxide in it, making it fizzy. While the phrase commonly refers to champagne, European Union countries legally reserve that term for products exclusively produced in the Champagne region of France. Sparkling wine is usually either white or rosé, but there are examples of red sparkling wines such as the Italian Brachetto, Bonarda and Lambrusco, and the Australian sparkling Shiraz. The sweetness of sparkling wine can range from very dry "brut" styles to sweeter "doux" varieties (French for 'hard' and 'soft', respectively).


title: Sparkling wine

text: The sparkling quality of these wines comes from its carbon dioxide content and may be the result of natural fermentation, either in a bottle, as with the traditional method, in a large tank designed to withstand the pressures involved (as in the Charmat process), or as a result of simple carbon dioxide injection in some cheaper sparkling wines.


title: Sparkling wine

text: In European Union countries, the word "champagne" is reserved by law only for sparkling wine from the Champagne region of France. The French terms "Mousseux" and "Crémant" refer to sparkling wine not made in the Champagne region, such as Blanquette de Limoux produced in Southern France. Sparkling wines are produced around the world, and are often referred to by their local name or region, such as Prosecco, Franciacorta, Trento DOC, Oltrepò Pavese Metodo Classico and Asti from Italy (the generic Italian term for sparkling wine being "spumante"), Espumante from Portugal, Cava from Spain, and Cap Classique from South Africa. Sparkling wines have been produced in Central and Eastern Europe since the early 19th-century. "Champagne" was further popularised in the region, late in the century, when József Törley started production in Hungary using French methods, learned as an apprentice in Reims. Törley has since become one of the largest European producers of sparkling wine. The United States is a significant producer of sparkling wine today, with producers in numerous states. Recently, production of sparkling wine was restarted by United Kingdom winemakers after a long hiatus.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Effervescence has been observed in wine throughout history and has been noted by Ancient Greek and Roman writers, but the cause of this mysterious appearance of bubbles was not understood. Over time it has been attributed to phases of the moon as well as both good and evil spirits.


title: Sparkling wine

text: The tendency of still wine from the Champagne region to lightly sparkle was noted in the Middle Ages but this was considered a wine fault and was disdained in early Champagne winemaking although it was the pride of other historic sparkling wine production areas like Limoux. Dom Pérignon was originally charged by his superiors at the Abbey of Hautvillers to get rid of the bubbles since the pressure in the bottles caused many of them to burst in the cellar. Later, when deliberate sparkling wine production increased in the early 18th century, cellar workers would still have to wear a heavy iron mask that resembled a baseball catcher's mask to prevent injury from spontaneously bursting bottles. The disturbance caused by one bottle's disintegration could cause a chain reaction, with it being routine for cellars to lose 20–90% of their bottles to instability. The mysterious circumstance surrounding the then unknown process of fermentation and carbonic gas caused some critics to call the sparkling creations "The Devil's Wine".


title: Sparkling wine

text: The British were the first to see the tendency of wines from Champagne to sparkle as a desirable trait and tried to understand why it produced bubbles. Wine was often transported to England in wooden wine barrels where merchant houses would then bottle the wine for sale. During the 17th century, English glass production used coal-fueled ovens and produced stronger, more durable glass bottles than the wood-fired French glass. The English also rediscovered the use of cork stoppers, once used by the Romans but forgotten for centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. During the cold winters of the Champagne region, temperatures would drop so low that the fermentation process was prematurely halted—leaving some residual sugar and dormant yeast. When the wine was shipped to and bottled in England, the fermentation process would restart when the weather warmed and the cork-stoppered wine would begin to build pressure from carbon dioxide gas. When the wine was opened, it would be bubbly. In 1662, the English scientist Christopher Merret presented a paper detailing how the presence of sugar in a wine led to it eventually sparkling and that by adding sugar to a wine before bottling it, nearly any wine could be made to sparkle. This is one of the first known accounts of understanding the process of sparkling wine and even suggests that British merchants were producing "sparkling Champagne" before the French Champenois were deliberately making it.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Fully sparkling wines, such as Champagne, are generally sold with of pressure in the bottle. This is more than twice the pressure found in an automobile tire. European Union regulations define a sparkling wine as any wine with an excess of 3 atmospheres in pressure. These include German "Sekt", Spanish "Espumoso", Italian "Spumante" and French "Crémant" or "Mousseux" wines. Semi-sparkling wines are defined as those with between 1 and 2.5 atmospheres of pressures and include German "spritzig", Italian "frizzante" and French "pétillant" wines. The amount of pressure in the wine is determined by the amount of sugar added during the tirage stage at the beginning of the secondary fermentation with more sugar producing an increased amount of carbon dioxide gas and thus pressure in the wine.


title: Sparkling wine

text: While the majority of sparkling wines are white or rosé, Australia, Italy and Moldova each have a sizable production of red sparkling wines. Of these, Italy has the longest tradition in red sparkling wine-making, particularly along the Apennine side of the Po Valley. Notable wines include Brachetto and Lambrusco. Also very well known and with rich tradition are Gutturnio, Bonarda and sparkling Barbera; in central Italy, lesser known Red Vernaccia produces semi-sweet sparkling reds. In Australia, red sparkling wines are often made from the Shiraz grape.


title: Sparkling wine

text: The viticultural and winemaking practices of making sparkling wine have many similarities to the production of still wine with some noted divergence. At the vineyard, grapes are harvested early when there is still high acid levels. In areas like Australia, winemakers aim to harvest the grapes at 17 to 20° brix (the sugar content of a solution). Unlike still wine production, high sugar levels are not ideal and grapes destined for sparkling wine production may be harvested at higher yields. Care is taken to avoid tannins and other phenolic compounds with many premium producers still choosing to harvest by hand rather than risk mechanical harvesting which may split the berries and encourage maceration between the skins and juice. The press house is often close by the vineyard to where the grapes can be quickly pressed and separated from their skins. Red wine grapes like Pinot noir can be used in the production of white sparkling wines because their juice is initially clear and is only later tinted red through exposure to the color pigments in grape skins. While some skin exposure may be desirable in the production of rosé sparkling wines and some "blanc de noirs" (white of blacks), most sparkling wine producers take extended precautions to limit the amount of skin contact.


title: Sparkling wine

text: The primary fermentation of sparkling wine begins like most other wines, though winemakers may choose to use specially cultivated sparkling wine yeasts. The wines may go through malolactic fermentation, though producers wishing to make fruitier, simpler wines will usually forgo this step. After fermentation the base wines are then blended to form a "cuvée". While there are examples of varietal sparkling wines, such as "blanc de blancs" (white of whites) made from 100% Chardonnay, most sparkling wines are blends of several grape varieties, vineyards and vintages. Producers with wide access to grapes will use wines from several hundred base wines to create a blend that reflect the "house style" of their non-vintage wine. It is through the initiation of a secondary fermentation that distinguishes sparkling wine production and gives the wine its characteristic bubbles. One of the by-products of fermentation is the creation of carbon dioxide gas. While this is able to be released during the first fermentation, efforts are taken during the second fermentation to retain the gas and have it dissolve into the wine. This creates high pressure within the wine bottle (on average around 5 atmospheres) and wine producers take care to package the wine in strong glass bottles. When the wine is opened and poured into a glass, the gas is released and the wine becomes sparkling.


title: Sparkling wine

text: There are several methods used to carry out this secondary fermentation. The most well known is the "traditional" or ""champagne method"" where the base "cuvée" is bottled with a mixture of sugar and yeast. The introduction of a fresh yeast and food source (the sugar) triggers the fermentation process in the bottle that the wine will eventually be sold in. Through the process of riddling and eventually disgorgement, the dead yeast cells (called lees) are removed from the wine while still maintaining the dissolved carbon dioxide gas. A dosage mixture of fresh wine and some sugar syrup is used to adjust the sweetness level of the wine after it has been disgorged.


title: Sparkling wine

text: In the "methode ancestrale" (ancestral method), the disgorgement step is skipped and the wine is sold with the lees still present as sediment in the wine. In the transfer method, after the wines have gone through the traditional method including riddling and disgorgement, the bottles are emptied into a large tank where they are then transferred to small and large format wine bottles such as 3 litre "jeroboam" and small split sizes used on airlines. Numerous quality producers worldwide use the "Traditional" method to make their sparkling wines.


title: Sparkling wine

text: The "Charmat method" takes place in stainless steel fermentation tanks that are pressurized. The fresh yeast and sugar mixture is added to the wine which rapidly stimulates fermentation in the pressurized environment. The wine is then cooled, clarified, and bottled using a counter pressure filler. The process of carbon injection (or carbonation), the method used to make soda pop fizzy, does not involve initiating a secondary fermentation but rather injecting carbon dioxide gas directly into the wine. This method produces large bubbles that quickly dissipate and is generally only used in the cheapest sparkling wines.


title: Sparkling wine

text: An initial burst of effervescence occurs when the sparkling wine contacts the dry glass on pouring. These bubbles form on imperfections in the glass that facilitate nucleation.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Nucleations are needed to stimulate the formation of bubbles because carbon dioxide has first to diffuse from the wine solution before it can rise out of the glass and into the air. A poured glass of sparkling wine will lose its bubbliness and carbon dioxide gas much more quickly than an open bottle alone would. The frothiness or "mousse" of the wine, along with the average size and consistency of the bubbles, can vary depending on the quality of the wine and the type of glass used.


title: Sparkling wine

text: According to the wine academic, Graham Harding, the average bottle of champagne contains enough carbon dioxide to potentially produce 49 million bubbles. Wine expert Tom Stevenson puts the number at 250 million. The bubbles initially form at 20 micrometers in diameter and expand as they gain buoyancy and rise to the surface. When they reach the surface they are approximately 1 millimeter in size. It is speculated that the bubbles in sparkling wine may speed up alcohol intoxication by helping the alcohol to reach the bloodstream faster. A study conducted at the University of Surrey in the United Kingdom gave subjects equal amounts of flat and sparkling champagne which contained the same levels of alcohol. After 5 minutes following consumption, the group that had the sparkling wine had 54 milligrams of alcohol in their blood while the group that had the same sparkling wine, only flat, had 39 milligrams.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Putting a spoon in an open bottle of sparkling wine to keep it bubbly is a myth. A proper stopper is much more effective.


title: Sparkling wine

text: The amount of sugar (dosage) added after the second fermentation and aging varies and will dictate the sweetness level of the sparkling wine. Wines produced within the European Union must include the sweetness level on the wine label. For wines produced outside the EU, the sweetness level is not required but if it is included on the label the terms used must conform to EU guidelines.


title: Sparkling wine

text: The most well-known example of sparkling wine is that of Champagne from the Champagne wine region of France. On average, Champagne is responsible for about 8% of worldwide sparkling wine production with many other regions emulating the "Champagne style" in both grapes used (generally Chardonnay, Pinot noir and Pinot Meunier) and production methods—sometimes referred to as the "Champagne method". French sparkling wines made according to the Champagne method of fermentation in the bottle, but sometimes use different grape varieties, are known as "Crémants" and are governed under their own "Appellation d'origine contrôlée" (AOC) regulations. Another style of sparkling wine found in France are those made according to the "methode ancestrale" which skips the process of disgorgement and produces wines with slight sweetness and still containing the particles of dead yeast matter in the form of lees in the bottle. The regions of Gaillac, Limoux and Clairette de Die are the most well-known producers of "methode ancestrale" wines.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Champagne is produced at the far extreme of viticultural circumstances, where the grape struggles to ripen in a long drawn out growing season. Cool climate weather limits the varieties of grape, and the types of wine that can be made, but it is in this region that sparkling wine has found its standard bearer. The limestone–chalk soil produces grapes that have a certain balance of acidity, extract and richness that is difficult to replicate in other parts of the world. The Champenois vigorously defend use of the term "Champagne" to relate the specific wine produced in the Champagne wine region. This includes objection to the term "Champagne style" to refer to sparkling wines produced outside the Champagne region. Since 1985, use of the term "methode champenoise" has been banned in all wines produced or sold in the European Union.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Blending is the hallmark of Champagne wine, with most Champagnes being the assembled product of several vineyards and vintages. In Champagne there are over 19,000 vineyard owners, only 5,000 of which are owned by Champagne producers. The rest sell their grapes to the various Champagne houses, "négociants" and co-operatives. The grapes, most commonly Chardonnay, Pinot noir and Pinot meunier, are used to make several base wines that are assembled together to make Champagne. Each grape adds its own unique imprint to the result. Chardonnay is prized for its finesse and aging ability. Pinot noir adds body and fruit while Pinot meunier contributes substantially to the aroma, adding fruit and floral notes. The majority of Champagnes produced are non-vintage (or rather, multi-vintage) blends. Vintage Champagne, often a house's most prestigious and expensive wine, is also produced, but only in years when the producers feel that the grapes have the complexity and richness to warrant it.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Sparkling wines designated Crémant ("creamy") were originally named because their lower carbon dioxide pressures were thought to give them a creamy rather than fizzy mouth-feel. Though they may have full pressures today, they are still produced using the traditional method, and have to fulfill strict production criteria. In France, there are eight appellations for sparkling wine which include the designation Crémant in their name:


title: Sparkling wine

text: French appellation laws dictate that a Crémant must be harvested by hand with yields not exceeding a set amount for their AOC. The wines must also be aged for a minimum of one year. The Loire Valley is France's largest producer of sparkling wines outside of the Champagne region. The majority of these Crémant de Loire are produced around the city of Saumur and are a blend of the Chardonnay, Chenin blanc and Cabernet franc. AOC laws do allow cuvées with Sauvignon blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot noir, Gamay, Côt, Pineau d'aunis and Grolleau but those grapes are rarely used in a significant amount. In Burgundy, AOC laws require that Crémant de Bourgogne be composed of at least thirty percent Pinot noir, Chardonnay, Pinot blanc or Pinot gris. Aligoté is often used to fill out the remaining parts of the blend. The Languedoc wine Crémant de Limoux is produced in the forty one villages around the village of Limoux in the south of France. The wine is composed primarily of the indigenous grape Mauzac with some Chenin blanc and Chardonnay. The wine must spend a minimum of nine months aging on its lees. The sparkling Blanquette de Limoux is composed predominately of Mauzac and is aged for nine months.


title: Sparkling wine

text: As noted above, the designation Crémant was previously used for sparkling wines from the Champagne region which were produced with slightly less carbon dioxide and somewhat lower bottle pressure (typically 2–3 atmospheres instead of 5–6). These wines were rare in comparison to regular, full-pressure Champagne. The Crémant designation was also used for sparkling wines from the Loire valley, in the form of Crémant de Saumur and Crémant de Vouvray, without being defined as separate appellations. In 1975, Crémant de Loire was given formal recognition as an AOC, and was followed by Crémant de Bourgogne (1975) and Crémant d'Alsace (1976). When in the late 1980s lobbying by Champagne producers led to being forbidden within the European Union as a designation for the traditional method, the term Crémant was given its present definition. This meant that the use of "Crémant" in the Champagne region was discontinued and additional French Crémant AOCs were created from 1990, starting with Bordeaux and Limoux.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Since the designation Crémant is not reserved exclusively for French use (as a result of it replacing ), it may also be used by producers in other EU countries which fulfill the production criteria. Although such usage is rare, for example in Luxembourg, Crémant de Luxembourg is a designation within the "Moselle Luxembourgeoise" appellation, rather than a separate appellation, but otherwise follows the same rules as French Crémant.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Sula Vineyards produce "Sula Brut Crémant de Nashik" (up To 80% Chenin Blanc, the remainder Riesling and Viognier) and "Sula Brut Tropicale Crémant de Nashik" (60% Chenin Blanc, 40% Shiraz, Viognier) in India, which they differentiate from their "Méthode Classique" and "Méthode Traditionnelle" products.


title: Sparkling wine

text: There are also some other French appellations for sparkling wines, which do not carry the name Crémant. Some of these are exclusively sparkling wine appellations, and some are appellations allowing both still and sparkling wine to be made. The term "Mousseux" is French for "sparkling" and can refer to a sparkling wine made using methods other than the such as the Charmat method, while "Crémant" can only be used for wines that have been made using the .


title: Sparkling wine

text: Cava is the name of a type of Spanish (mostly in Catalonia but also in other regions such as Valencia, La Rioja, Aragon, Extremadura) white or pink sparkling wine produced mainly in the Penedès region in Catalonia, 40 km to the south west of Barcelona, with the "méthode champenoise" but grape varieties different from grapes used in Champagne making. Cava is a Greek term that was used to refer to a "high end" table wine or wine cellar, and comes from the Latin word "cava" which means cave in English. Caves were used in the early days of Cava production for the preservation or aging of wine. Today Cavas have become integrated with Catalan and also Spanish family traditions and is often consumed at any kind of celebrations (baptism, marriages, banquets, dinners and parties). The sparkling wine of Cava was created in 1872 by Josep Raventós. The vineyards of Penedès were devastated by the phylloxera plague, and the predominantly red vines were being replaced by large numbers of vines producing white grapes. After seeing the success of the Champagne region, Raventós decided to create the dry sparkling wine that has become the reason for the region's continued success. In the past the wine was referred to as "Spanish Champagne" (no longer permitted under EU law), or colloquially as "champaña" in Spanish or "xampany" in Catalan.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Cava is produced in varying levels of dryness of the wine which are: brut nature, brut (extra dry), sec (in Catalan) seco (dry), semisec (in Catalan) semiseco (medium) and dolç (in Catalan) dulce (sweet). Under Spanish "denominación de origen" laws, Cava can be produced in six wine regions and must be made according to the "Traditional Method" with second fermentation in the bottle and uses a selection of the grapes Macabeu, Parellada, Xarel·lo, Chardonnay, Pinot noir, and Subirat. Despite being a traditional Champagne grape, Chardonnay was not used in the production of Cava until the 1980s.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Espumante () is the Portuguese version of a sparkling wine. Unlike Cava, which is produced solely in northern climates, Espumante is not only produced in the northern wet region of Vinho Verde, but also throughout Portugal all the way to the southern region of the Alentejo, known for its extreme temperatures and arid climate.


title: Sparkling wine

text: While Spain has one regulating body, DOC Cava, spread across several different political regions, quality Espumante is produced solely in DOC Bairrada, located just south of Vinho Verde. In order for a wine to be certified as a quality Espumante from DOC Bairrada, it must be made in the traditional champagne (indicating the year of harvest) and stamped with the VEQPRD (Vinho Espumante de Qualidade Produzido em Região Determinada) certification.


title: Sparkling wine

text: VFQPRD is a regional sparkling wine made in the traditional champagne, charmat or transfer method in one of the following determined regions: Douro, Ribatejo, Minho, Alentejo or Estremadura.


title: Sparkling wine

text: VQPRD is a sparkling wine that can be made by injecting the wine with gas in the traditional champagne, charmat, transfer method anywhere in Portugal.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Top-quality Espumantes can be found in Bairrada region and in Távora-Varosa sub region – Murganheira is an example of high-quality Espumante from this region.


title: Sparkling wine

text: According to etymological sources, the term "spumante" was not used in a wine context until 1908, more than 40 years following the first Italian sparkling wine using the "méthode champenoise" produced by Carlo Gancia which was then sold as "Moscato Champagne".


title: Sparkling wine

text: Sparkling wines are made throughout Italy but the Italian sparkling wines most widely seen on the world market are the Prosecco from Veneto, Franciacorta from Lombardy, Asti from Piedmont and Lambrusco from Emilia. The Trento DOC is also famous. Though Franciacorta wines are made according to the traditional method, most Italian sparkling wines, in particular Asti and Prosecco, are made with the Charmat method.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Asti is a slightly sweet wine made from the Moscato grape in the province of Asti. The wine is noted for its low alcohol levels around 8% and fresh, grapey flavors. Moscato d'Asti is a "frizzante" style slightly sparkling version of Asti; it is sweeter and contains even less alcohol, typically around 5.5%.


title: Sparkling wine

text: The Franciacorta region, located northwest of Brescia, is home to the largest segment of Italian sparkling wine production. Made predominately from Chardonnay and Pinot bianco, sparkling wine labeled under the Franciacorta DOCG is permitted to include no more than 15% Pinot nero. Both vintage and non-vintage Franciacorta sparkling wines are made which require 30 and 18 months, respectively, of aging on the lees. Franciacorta Satèn, a "Blanc de blancs", is produced with the reduced 4.5 atmospheres of pressure instead of 6 for an expression of softness.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Trento DOC is an appellation for white and rosé sparkling wines made according to the méthode traditionnelle. Chardonnay, Pinot noir, Pinot blanc and Pinot Meunier grapes are used. There is a maximum vine yield of 150 q.l. per hectare for all varietals, and a maximum grape yield of 70%. The wines must rest for a minimum of 15 months on their lees for non-vintage, 24 months for vintage, and 36 for riserva. Minimum alcohol content must be of 11.5%, or 12% for riserva. Trento DOC wines are distinguished by their straw-yellow color.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Prosecco is made in both fully sparkling ("spumante") and lightly sparkling ("frizzante") styles. The wine is produced in the cool hills around the town of Valdobbiadene and are generally dry but sweeter examples are produced.


title: Sparkling wine

text: v.f.q.p.r.d. (Vini Frizzanti di Qualità Prodotti in Regioni Determinate): Quality "Vini frizzanti" made within defined regions are generally labeled as such.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Sekt is a German term for some sparkling wine. The majority of Sekt produced (around 95%) is made by the Charmat method with the remaining premium Sekt being made according to the "méthode traditionnelle". Cheap sparkling wine made with injection must not be called Sekt, but rather "Schaumwein" (German for sparkling wine, literally "foam wine"), while semi-sparkling wine is called "Perlwein". According to CJEU (Court of Justice of the European Union) regulation, Sekt and the Term „Qualitätsschaumwein“ (German for quality sparkling wine) are the same. Quality sparkling wine is defined by means of precise specifications, including at least 10 per cent alcohol content and pressure in the bottle, among other things. For quality sparkling wines PSR (produced in specified regions), additional geographical regions (storage sparkling wine) and vintage specifications (vintage sparkling wine) are permitted. Ultimately, you can't make something out of nothing. Around 90 percent of Sekt is made at least partially from imported wines from Italy, Spain and France. Sekt labeled as "Deutscher Sekt" is made exclusively from German grapes, and "Sekt b.A." ("bestimmter Anbaugebiete", in parallel to "Qualitätswein b.A.") only from grapes from one of the 13 quality wine regions in Germany.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Some of the premium wines are often made using the Riesling, Pinot blanc, Pinot gris and Pinot noir grapes, with much of it drunk locally rather than exported. These Sekts are usually vintage dated with the village and vineyards that the grapes are from. Premium Sekt b.A. produced in smaller lots is often referred to as "Winzersekt" (winegrower's Sekt), since it is typically produced by a producer which has vineyards of his own, rather than by the large Sekt-producing companies ("Sektkellereien") which buy grapes or base wine on a large scale for their production. In Austria, the corresponding term is "Hauersekt".


title: Sparkling wine

text: German production of sparkling wines dates back to 1826, when G. C. Kessler & Co. was founded in Esslingen am Neckar by Georg Christian Kessler (1787–1842), who had previously worked at the Champagne house Veuve Clicquot from 1807 to 1826. The names used by the German producers for their sparkling wines in the 19th century were "Mousseux", "Sect" or "Champagne" (or "Champagner"), although "Sekt" already appears as a term and spelling in 1805 (see Weltsekttag) and from the late 18th century onwards begins to appear in technical manuals published for the use of wine merchants, vintners and oenophiles in general. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles forbade Germany the use of this name, long before European Union regulations prohibited its use outside the Champagne region. Sekt was initially an informal German name for sparkling wine, coined in Berlin 1825, but was in common use by the 1890s. Germany long attempted to have the name Sekt reserved for sparkling wine from countries with German as an official language, but these regulations were annulled by the European Court of Justice in 1975. Another legal decision in the 1970s abolished the large producers' monopoly on Sekt production, allowing winemaking cooperatives and individual winegrowers to produce and sell their own sparkling wines. Together, these two decision produced the situation of the name Sekt being possible to apply to sparkling wines of varying quality level.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Sekt typically comes with a "muselet" (safety cage) to hold the cork in place despite its considerable pressure. It also comes with a "Schaumwein" tax, which since 2005 has been , corresponding to €1.02 per bottle. This tax was famously introduced by Emperor Wilhelm II in 1902 to fund the expansion of the Imperial Navy.


title: Sparkling wine

text: In Austria, Sekt is often made in the "méthode champenoise" with the Welschriesling and Grüner Veltliner grapes giving the wine a golden hue color. Sparkling rosé are made from the Blaufränkisch grape. Austria's history of producing sparkling wine dates back to the Austro-Hungarian empire. Most Austrian Sekt producers are based in Vienna and source their grapes from the Weinviertel region in Lower Austria. Like its German counterpart, Austrian Sekt can be made trocken (dry) or halbtrocken (medium dry).


title: Sparkling wine

text: The first Austrian producer of sparkling wine was Robert Alwin Schlumberger, who presented his first sparkling wine in 1846 under the name "Vöslauer weißer Schaumwein" (White sparkling wine of Vöslau). It was produced from Blauer Portugieser grapes growing in vineyards in Bad Vöslau which Schlumberger bought in 1843, and the sparkling wine was an immediate success. Stuttgart-born Schlumberger had worked in the Champagne house Ruinart before he moved to Vienna in 1842.


title: Sparkling wine

text: The first production facility outside France where sparkling wine was produced following the original French recipe was founded in 1825 in Pressburg (today Bratislava) by Johann Fischer and Michael Schönbauer, both Bratislava burghers. The company, later renamed "Hubert J.E." after J.E. Hubert of the Hubert family, which bought the company from Johann Fischer in 1877, continues to produce sekt until today.


title: Sparkling wine

text: The Hungarian equivalent for sparkling wine is . The beginning of significant sparkling wine production in Hungary is dated back to the first half of the 19th century. The first wineries of sparkling wine were founded near Pozsony (today Bratislava, Slovakia) by Johann Fischer and Dr. Michael Schönbauer in 1825 (the first in Central-Europe) and Esch és Társa in 1835. A couple of decades later the main producers moved to the Buda Hills and Budafok nearby the capital creating a new center of production, the so-called "Hungarian Champagne" still existing nowadays. At the end of the 19th century the two most important wineries were József Törley és Társa moving from Reims, France to Budafok in 1882 and Louis és César-François founded in 1886. After the Soviet era the Hungarian wine sector was reborn. New and old wineries are seeking for the forgotten roots. Most of the Hungarian sparkling wines are made by the charmat and transvasée methods and a small but steadily growing amount by the traditional, method. The sorts of grape used during production can be international like Chardonnay, Pinot noir, Riesling, Muscat Ottonel, Muscat Lunel or natives like Olaszrizling, Kékfrankos, Furmint, Királyleányka, Hárslevelű, Kéknyelű and Juhfark.


title: Sparkling wine

text: In the Soviet Union, sparkling wine was produced under the name Soviet Champagne, or Sovetskoye Shampanskoye. Most of this variety is sweet. This designation continued to be used for sparkling wine produced in several countries formerly part of the Soviet Union, including Georgia, Armenia, Belarus, Moldova, Russia and Ukraine. Most likely, the name has stuck since Sovetskoye Shampanskoye was one of the few products or brands of the Soviet era which were seen as luxurious. Often the names have been altered to fit the exact country, e.g. Georgian Champagne. Nowadays, it is more common to encounter Sovetskoye Shampanskoye produced in a dry or semi-dry style. The products have some international popularity, thus Russian made dry and semi-dry versions can be found in the European markets and Moldovan made semi-sweet version from Muscat grapes has been regularly available in the U.S.


title: Sparkling wine

text: In Romania, sparkling wine is mostly made in Panciu. The same traditional method is used in Azuga, where the mountain climate is perfect for the second fermentation of white and rose sparkling wines in passively cooled above-ground cellars. Grapes used (obviously not grown in this climate) are Chardonnay and a mix of Chardonnay and a Romanian variety called Fetească Regală. Rhein Azuga Cellars, now owned by Halewood International, was established in 1892 and still uses the same methods and even tools from that era. In 2006, they have become once again official supplier to the Royal House of Romania, after having this honor between 1920 and 1947. Their Rhein Extra, still produced in the same building, was served at the coronation of King Ferdinand I at Alba Iulia in October 1922.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Commercial production of bottle fermented sparkling wines from grapes grown in England started in the 1960s, although there has been a longer history of sparkling wines made in the UK from imported grapes. In the 1980s, some English winemakers started to grow the grape varieties as used in Champagne – Chardonnay, Pinot noir and Pinot Meunier – and in the ensuing decades availability of English sparkling wines made from these varieties increased. Today, there are over 100 vineyards in England producing sparkling wines with Nyetimber, Ridgeview and Chapel Down being some of the largest producers. In 2010, Chardonnay and Pinot noir were the two most commonly planted grape varieties in English vineyards. Along with Pinot Meunier, the three varieties combined accounted for around 40% of vines planted, which appears to reflect a significant growth in interest in English sparkling wines. Other varietals used are Auxerrois, Seyval blanc, Müller-Thurgau, Reichensteiner, and Bacchus. To put that in context, the current yield for all types of English wine averages to around 2 million bottles annually.


title: Sparkling wine

text: In Ukraine, sparkling wine (, ) is mostly being produced in the south of the country, particularly in Bessarabia, Prychornomoria and Crimea. Those regions are located around the 46th parallel north, just as Champagne in France, which allows the production of the highest quality wine. Transcarpathia is also an important wine-making region in Ukraine. The varietal diversity of grapes in Ukraine is represented by the international and autochthonous varieties. The most renowned autochthonous variety is Telti Kuruk, cultivated on the Shabo terroir. The most widely planted selected variety is Odeskyi Chornyi (Alibernet) and Sukholymanskyi Bilyi, while Saperavi, Aligote, Rkatsiteli, Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, and Riesling are the most popular international varieties. One of the most popular Ukrainian sparkling wine manufacturers is Artwinery, which is the largest manufacturer in Eastern Europe of sparkling wines created according to the traditional (Champenoise) method. Another famous Ukrainian winery, Shabo, has a sparkling wine house near its terroir that covers a total area of 1.4 hectares and ensures quality at all stages of production.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Sparkling wines produced in the United States can be made in both the méthode traditionnelle and the charmat method. Lower cost sparkling wines, such as André, often employ the latter method with more premium sparkling wines utilizing the former. The history of producing quality sparkling wine in California can be traced to the Russian River Valley of Sonoma County where, in 1892, the Korbel brothers (emigrated from Bohemia in 1852) began producing sparkling wine according to the méthode champenoise. The first wines produced were made from Riesling, Muscatel, Traminer and Chasselas grapes. Partly aided by foreign influence, the overall quality of Californian sparkling wine increased with the introduction of the more traditional sparkling wine grapes of Chardonnay, Pinot noir, Pinot Meunier and Pinot blanc into production. US AVA requirements and wine laws do not regulate sugar levels and sweetness of wine though most producers tend to follow European standards with Brut wine having less than 1.5% sugar up to Doux having more than 5%. As the sparkling wine industry in California grew, foreign investments from some of the Champagne region's most noted champagne houses came to set up wineries in the area. These include Moët et Chandon's Domaine Chandon, Louis Roederer's Roederer Estate, and Taittinger's Domaine Carneros.


title: Sparkling wine

text: While many top American sparkling wine producers utilize the traditional methods of production, there are distinct differences in their wine making techniques that have a considerable effect on the taste of the wines. In Champagne, the cuvée blend will rarely have less than 30 wines and sometimes as many as 60 that are taken from grapes spanning 4–6 years of different vintages. In California, cuvees are typically derived from around 20 wines taken from 1 to 2 years worth of vintages. Champagne laws require that the wine spend a minimum of 15 months on the lees for non-vintage and minimum 3 years for vintage Champagne. It is not uncommon for a premium Champagne to age for 7 years or more prior to release. In the US, there are no minimum requirements, and aging length can vary from 8 months to 6 years. Another distinct difference for Californian sparkling wines is the favorable Californian climate which allows a vintage wine to be produced nearly every year.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Current US regulations ban the use of the term "champagne" on any wines not produced in Champagne except if the label was in use before 2006. No new labels including the term "champagne" will be approved by the US Government for wines produced outside of the Champagne region of France after 2006. Those "grandfathered labels" can only use the term on a wine label if there appears next to that name the appellation of "the actual place of origin".


title: Sparkling wine

text: The growth of the Finger Lakes wine industry in New York State and the success of Riesling wines from the region has resulted in an increasing number of producers making sparkling wines from primarily or 100% Riesling. Finger Lakes producers such as Glenora and Casa Larga are also producing sparkling wine from other grapes such as the traditional Chardonnay and Pinot noir.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Canada's sparkling wine producers are found in Southern Ontario, British Columbia, Quebec and Nova Scotia, where growing conditions mirror that of Champagne, Provence and Languedoc of France. In particular, Ontario's appellations are emerging as strong producers of dry sparkling wines as their cooler climate conditions are very conducive to producing excellent, flavourful and not-too-ripe grapes.


title: Sparkling wine

text: While traditionally aimed at the domestic market, Canadian sparkling wines have recently gained prominence internationally. In 2011, L'Acadie Vineyards won a silver medal at an international competition for sparkling wines in France and in 2012, Benjamin Bridge winery's 2004 Brut Reserve placed higher than a Louis Roederer 2004 Cristal (wine) champagne at a blind tasting held with noted critics, bringing attention to the country's wine industry. In Ontario, wineries recognized for their sparkling wines include Henry of Pelham Winery, Jackson-Triggs and Inniskillin.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Ontario, and in particular the Niagara Peninsula, is the largest wine growing region in Canada. Approximately 26 of the Niagara Peninsula wineries produce some sparkling wine, where annual production averages about 55,000 cases (500,000 litres). Sparkling wine is largely produced in the Traditional Method (65%), and a smaller proportion is produced in the Charmat method (35%). The Niagara Peninsula region's micro-climate is well suited for the growth of Chardonnay, Riesling, Vidal Blanc, Pinot Noir and Gamay grapes, which are the prominent varietals for Ontario sparkling wine. Ontario sparkling wines are often noted for having a character and aroma comparable to that of traditional Champagne, including biscuit, subtle yeast and palate cleansing bubbles.


title: Sparkling wine

text: An emerging sparkling wine-focused region in Ontario is Prince Edward County, Ontario. The county is noted for its Prince Edward County Wine and is the fourth and newest Designated Viticultural Area (DVA) in the Province. Like the Niagara Peninsula, Prince Edward County's terroir and micro-climate are well suited for cool climate grapes where wineries, such as The Hinterland Wine Company, specialize in the production of sparkling wines.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Sparkling icewine in Ontario was first crafted by Canadian wine writer Konrad Ejbich in his home cellar in Toronto. Unique to Ontario and generally referred to as Icewine Dosage, this sparkling wine is produced by topping a Traditional Method dry sparkling wine with a dosage of Icewine, which is slightly off-dry with a hint of Icewine.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Australian sparkling wine production has come a long way in a very short period of time, according to Wine Australia's 2014-2015 annual report with several notable French Champagne houses investing in production.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Tasmania is a centre of Australian sparkling wine production. Wine commentator James Halliday states "the clear majority of the best sparkling wines are now solely sourced from Tasmania", and Tyson Stelzer says "Tasmania confidently holds its place as Australia's sparkling capital" with both the traditional grape varieties and method of secondary fermentation being employed.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Whilst most sparkling wine is produced from Chardonnay, Pinot noir and possibly Pinot Meuniere, an Australian speciality is sparkling Shiraz, a red sparkling wine produced from Shiraz grapes. Most sparkling Shiraz is traditionally somewhat sweet, but some producers make it dry, full-bodied and tannic.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Chile produces around 12 million bottles of sparkling wine per annum of which only around 1.6 million bottles are exported to overseas markets. Although sparkling wines have been made since 1879, they have not yet established a significant place in Chile's wine portfolio. In recent years, the Pais grape variety has been creatively employed on its own or in blends, to make modern wines that have received favorable reviews. A rise in consumer demand and an ever-broadening selection of cool climate grapes has led to an increase in fresh and delightful sparkling wines ranging from bone dry extra brut to off-dry demi-secs, from blanc de blanc to blanc de noir to sparkling rosé. Valdivieso produce 60% of all sparkling wine in Chile. Most is inexpensive tank method fizz, but 20% is very good quality Champagne method from Pinot and Chardonnay. There is also a product made from a blend of sparkling Pinot wine and fresh handpicked strawberry pulp.


title: Sparkling wine

text: Méthode Cap Classique or MCC is any sparkling wine made by the classic method of undergoing second fermentation in the bottle. There are quality standards that all producers adhere to voluntarily, apart from the minimum time on the lees (nine months) and the bars of pressure, which are mandatory in order to use MCC on the label. Traditional Champagne varieties such as Chardonnay and Pinot noir are mostly used for MCC production, however the use of other varieties are becoming increasingly popular and local MCC labels are seen with the likes of Sauvignon blanc and Chenin blanc. Sparkling wine is also made according to the Charmat method and red sparkling Pinotage can also be found. Methode Cap Classique tends to be very fruity due to the high temperatures of the South African Wine lands. The quality of MCC in South Africa can be compared to the wines produced in Champagne.


title: Macarthur FC

text: Macarthur Football Club is an Australian professional soccer club based in South Western Sydney, New South Wales. It competes in Australia's premier soccer competition, the A-League, under licence from Australian Professional Leagues (APL). On 13 December 2018, it was announced that the club would be accepted into the A-League as part of the new expansion process.


title: Macarthur FC

text: The club's origins are in the merging of two separate bids during the league's expansion process in 2018, United for Macarthur and South West Sydney FC. The two entities joined forces on 20 August 2018 to create Macarthur South West United Football Club, which later that year was chosen by the FFA to join the league in the 2020–21 A-League season. Club was founded by Chairman Gino Marra and football operations Director Sam Krslovic


title: Macarthur FC

text: On 15 May 2019, the club founded by Gino Marra & Sam Krslovic announced the club's name, logo and colours. They were officially unveiled at a gala held by the club at the Campbelltown Catholic Club. The club was called Macarthur FC and nicknamed the Bulls. Also announced as their inaugural manager was Ante Milicic.


title: Macarthur FC

text: On 18 February 2020, Lang Walker sold his 50% ownership stake in the club to a consortium of two local Sydney businessmen. Michael Gerace, who owns Sydney Trucks and Machinery, and Roy Mammone, a Sydney property developer, bought the 50% stake for an undisclosed fee in excess of $7 million. The other 50% is owned by Gino Marra Club Chairman and Sam Krslovic.


title: Macarthur FC

text: On 30 December 2020, the club played its first ever match in the A-League, recording a 1–0 victory playing away to Western Sydney Wanderers.


title: Macarthur FC

text: On 1 October 2022, Macarthur FC won the Australia Cup for the first time in their history, beating Sydney United 58 2–0 in the final. The game was played at Commbank Stadium in front of 16,461 fans.


title: Macarthur FC

text: The logo depicts a black and gold ochre bull which is contained in a crest where the inner border is black and the outer gold ochre with the club's name written in the aforementioned colours above the bull and three federation stars at the bottom. The bull makes reference to the region where a runaway herd of cattle was discovered in its past. The federation stars symbolise the soccer community in Australia, the National Premier Leagues and the A-League. The logo features mainly black and white with the addition of gold ochre to highlight the Dharawal heritage of the area.


title: Macarthur FC

text: Macarthur FC has a rivalry with the Western Sydney Wanderers. The rivalry is largely based on geography, with both teams based in Greater Western Sydney. The two clubs first met in the opening round of the 2020–21 A-League season on 30 December 2020, with Macarthur winning the match 1–0 after a goal scored by Mark Milligan. On 6 February 2021, in the following derby, Macarthur drew 2–2 at home with goals by Aleksandar Jovanovic and Aleksandar Šušnjar.


title: Deep Rising

text: Deep Rising is a 1998 American action horror film written and directed by Stephen Sommers and starring Treat Williams, Famke Janssen and Anthony Heald. It was distributed by Hollywood Pictures and Cinergi Pictures and released on February 2, 1998. While the film was a critical and box office failure, it has been regarded as a cult classic.


title: Deep Rising

text: Amidst a storm, Captain John Finnegan and his crew, Joey Pantucci and Leila, are hired by mercenaries Hanover, Mulligan, Mason, Billy, T-Ray, Mamooli, and Vivo to pilot their boat across the South China Sea to an undisclosed rendezvous point. Meanwhile, the "Argonautica", a luxury cruise ship built and owned by Simon Canton, is undertaking its maiden voyage when a saboteur disables the ship's navigation and communication systems. A large object rises from beneath and rams the vessel, leaving it dead in the water, and the panicking passengers are attacked and slaughtered by unseen creatures.


title: Deep Rising

text: Finnegan's boat collides with a speedboat shaken loose during the collision, at which point the mercenaries take over and reveal they intend to rob the "Argonautica"'s passengers and vault, before sinking the ship with torpedoes stowed aboard the boat. The group boards the ship, leaving Leila and Billy behind to repair the boat, where they are both killed by the creatures. The group reaches the ballroom only to find blood and no sign of the passengers. Finnegan and Joey go to the ship's workshop to scavenge parts to repair the boat. Meanwhile, T-Ray goes off to investigate strange noises and is torn to shreds by the creature. Mamooli contacts Hanover, but is dragged off by the creature; as Joey and Finnegan flee, they run into Trillian, a passenger who was imprisoned for stealing. Meanwhile, Hanover's group reaches the vault and Vivo opens it, only to be mistakenly killed by Canton, who was hiding inside the vault along with Captain Atherton and three other passengers. Mason and Mulligan panic and accidentally kill the passengers.


title: Deep Rising

text: Canton and Atherton explain to the mercenaries that the ship has been attacked by unknown creatures that killed everyone else on board. Under questioning, Canton is found to be the saboteur, having hired the mercenaries to sink the unprofitable ship so that he could collect on the insurance. The group is attacked by creatures resembling giant spike-covered tentacles, which eat Atherton. Canton theorizes that the creatures are an extreme evolution of the Ottoia, which drain their victims of their bodily fluids and then eject the carcasses. The survivors flee, but Mason is grabbed and kills himself by detonating a grenade. Mulligan elects to stay behind in the crew's galley until a rescue party can arrive. While arguing with the others, a creature slips in through the range hood; Mulligan scares it off but is ambushed and devoured by another.


title: Deep Rising

text: In a running battle, the survivors find themselves being herded towards the bow of the ship, where they find a "feeding ground" full of bloody skeletal remains. Attempting to rid himself of any witnesses to his insurance scam, Canton misleads the others to the bow while he moves towards an exit route. The creatures break through the hull, flooding the lower decks and separating the survivors. Hanover wounds Joey in an attempt to slow the creatures, but Joey escapes. Joey later finds Hanover being devoured by one of the creatures. As an act of mercy, he leaves Hanover a gun, but Hanover wastes his only shot trying to kill Joey and is consumed.


title: Deep Rising

text: Finnegan and Trillian spot an island and return to Finnegan's boat, but — having lost the engine parts — find it useless as a means of escape. Joey returns and begins improvised repairs, and Finnegan sets the boat's autopilot to crash into the "Argonautica" and detonate the torpedoes. Trillian returns to the cruise ship and locates a jet ski with the fuel they can use to reach the island, but Canton arrives armed with a flare gun. Canton asks Trillian to join him or hand over the keys, but she flees and he chases her. Finnegan pursues Canton to the ballroom on the main deck, saving Trillian. The creatures smash through the main deck and are revealed to be tentacles of a vast deep-sea monster — the Octalus— rather than individual entities. The Octalus grabs hold of Finnegan, who shoots it in the eye, blinding it and freeing himself, and he and Trillian escape on a jet ski. Canton flees the "Argonautica" by jumping onto Finnegan's boat, but he breaks his leg doing so. Crippled, he is unable to disable the autopilot and dies as the boat crashes into the "Argonautica", detonating the missiles and destroying both ships and the Octalus.


title: Deep Rising

text: Finnegan and Trillian reach the island, where they find and reunite with Joey, whom they thought had died. As the three are catching their breath, a loud roar echoes from the forest; the camera pulls back, revealing the island to have an active volcano in the distance and something comes crashing through the trees towards the beach. Finnegan is then heard asking "Now what?" to Joey and Trillian.


title: Deep Rising

text: Stephen Sommers began writing the script to "Deep Rising", then called "Tentacle", when he worked at Hollywood Pictures in the mid-1990s. Claire Forlani was originally cast as Trillian St. James, but dropped out after just three days, due to creative differences with Sommers, and Famke Janssen was subsequently cast. Janssen almost did not get the part because the producers felt she was too recognizable from "GoldenEye", but they relented. Harrison Ford turned down the role of John Finnegan, which later went to Treat Williams, and the film's budget was later downsized.


title: Deep Rising

text: Filming for "Deep Rising" began on June 12, 1996, and lasted until October 18 of that year. The film was originally set for release in the fall of 1997, but was delayed until the following February 1998. Industrial Light and Magic was responsible for the film's special effects while Rob Bottin who had previously worked on "The Thing" and on Paul Verhoven's "RoboCop" was hired as the special makeup effects designer.


title: Deep Rising

text: The exterior shots of the cruise ship "Argonautica" was created by CGI, and is an original design not based on any existing vessel. Two models of the cruise ship were created, a model for shots of the "Argonautica" on the ocean, and a model for the sinking of "Argonautica".


title: Deep Rising

text: On its opening weekend the film made $4,737,793 (42% of its total gross), ranking #8. It ended with a total intake of $11.2 million.


title: Deep Rising

text: Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 30%, with an average rating of 4.2 out of 10, based on 33 reviews. The website's "Critics Consensus" for the film reads, "Its fleeting glimpses of creature feature mayhem are certainly dumb fun, but "Deep Rising" cribs from far too many better movies to stand on its own." "Chicago Sun-Times" critic Roger Ebert included the film in his most hated list. Ebert called the film "essentially an "Alien" clone with a fresh paint job". "Variety" Leonard Klady said the film "is an old-fashioned B-movie with A-budget effects, but the quality sheen can't disguise the cheap-thrills hokum."


title: Deep Rising

text: Ty Burr, writing for "Entertainment Weekly" called the film "a tightly written, often howlingly funny "Aliens" knockoff that, in its portrayal of tough men and tougher women under pressure, favorably recalls the work of Howard Hawks", giving it a grade of "B−". Bloody Disgusting wrote, "Excellent cast, State-of-art special effects, and terrific acting, this is a movie that should not be missed."


title: Deep Rising

text: It has gone on to become a cult classic. Later Director Stephen Sommers said: "It didn’t do a ton of business, but it has a very fervent following."


title: Deep Rising

text: "Deep Rising" was released on DVD and VHS on October 19, 1998, both of which are now out of print. It was released 2-Disc Special Edition on DVD and Blu-ray on May 29, 2007. It was released on Blu-ray as a double feature with "The Puppet Masters" from Mill Creek Entertainment on October 9, 2012. Kino Lorber re-released the film on DVD and Blu-ray with new special features on August 21, 2018.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Frank Sinatra had many close relationships throughout his life. He was married four times and had at least six other notable relationships in between. He had three verified children, as well as more than one of questionable paternity.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Frank Sinatra met Nancy Barbato (March 25, 1917 – July 13, 2018) in the summer of 1934, and they married on February 4, 1939, in Jersey City, New Jersey, Barbato's home town. The wedding was held at Our Lady of Sorrows Church at 93 Clerk Street, after which the newlyweds lived in an apartment house at 137 Bergen Avenue. Their first child, Nancy Sinatra, was born on June 8, 1940, and their son, Francis Wayne Sinatra, known as Frank Sinatra Jr., was born on January 10, 1944. Both were born at the Margaret Hague Hospital in Jersey City.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Following the family's move to Hollywood, Los Angeles, California, Sinatra began engaging in extra-marital affairs, the first known with Marilyn Maxwell. These affairs also became public knowledge and caused great embarrassment to Nancy Barbato Sinatra, who considered calling off their marriage then and had an abortion when she became pregnant in 1946. A third child, Christina Sinatra, known as "Tina", was born on June 20, 1948.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: The couple announced their separation on Valentine's Day, February 14, 1950, with Sinatra's additional extra-marital affair with Ava Gardner compounding his transgressions and becoming public knowledge. After originally just seeking a legal separation, Frank and Nancy Sinatra decided some months later to file for divorce, and this divorce became final on October 29, 1951. Frank Sinatra's affair and relationship with Gardner had become more serious, and she later became his second wife.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Less widely known were Sinatra's continuing visits, his long, confiding late-night phone calls, and the convivial family dinners on birthdays, holidays and other occasions. "Throughout the many years after they split, my grandfather came to visit whenever his crazy life would allow it," Mrs. Sinatra's granddaughter A. J. Lambert wrote in a 2015 remembrance in "Vanity Fair". "I can remember times when she would be on the phone with her ex-husband, and the next thing I knew some eggplant was coming out of the freezer to thaw so that she could make him some sandwiches when he showed up." She remained profoundly private, uttering barely a word in public about her life with Sinatra, though their mutual feelings were clear, her granddaughter recalled, to those who knew them best.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Nancy Barbato Sinatra died in 2018 at the age of 101. She never remarried and had outlived not only her ex-husband but also her son Frank Jr., who died in 2016.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Biographer Kitty Kelley claims that Sinatra had first seen photographs of Ava Gardner in a magazine and had sworn that he would marry her. Ruth Rosenthal, a friend of Gardner's, stated that Gardner initially detested him upon meeting him at MGM, finding him to be "conceited, arrogant and overpowering". Their similarities, however, from vices like smoking, drinking hard liquor and cursing, to their volatile tempers and love of violent sports, soon became apparent. Sinatra separated from Nancy on Valentine's Day 1950, after he confessed to his passionate affair with Gardner, and she subsequently locked him out of the house and hired a lawyer. Although Nancy initially refused to divorce him, Sinatra was eventually granted a divorce in Nevada in October 1951, and subsequently obtained a marriage license in Pennsylvania, marrying Gardner in a small ceremony on November 7, 1951. Following a turbulent marriage, with many well-publicized fights and altercations and an abortion in November 1952, the couple formally announced their separation October 29, 1953 through MGM.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Gardner filed for divorce in June 1954, at a time when she was dating matador Luis Miguel Dominguín, but the divorce was not settled until July 1957. Sinatra blamed Peter Lawford for the split, who had dated Gardner before, and it took six years for Sinatra to forgive him. He was inconsolable in the fall of 1953 after the split, and according to Kelley, on November 18, Jimmy Van Heusen found him in the elevator of his 57th Street apartment with his wrists slashed. Sinatra took responsibility for Gardner's business affairs long after the split, and was still dealing with her finances in 1976. When she fell into ill health in later years, Sinatra paid $50,000 towards her medical bills. Gardner's power in Hollywood helped Sinatra get cast in "From Here to Eternity" (1953) and his subsequent Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor helped revitalize Sinatra's film career.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Sinatra married actress Mia Farrow on July 19, 1966, when she was 21 and he was 50. At the time, Sinatra was enjoying a wave of renewed popularity as the song "Strangers in the Night" returned him to the top of the "Billboard" charts only seventeen days later. They met on the set of Sinatra's film, "Von Ryan's Express". She agreed to appear in his 1968 film, "The Detective", but when she reneged as her filming schedule for "Rosemary's Baby" overran, Sinatra served her divorce papers in front of the cast and crew. They were divorced in Mexico in August 1968. In an interview for the November 2013 issue of "Vanity Fair", Farrow said that she and Sinatra "never really split up" and answered "possibly" when asked if her son Ronan might be Sinatra's.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: On July 11, 1976, Sinatra married Barbara Blakeley Marx (1927-2017) (formerly married to Zeppo Marx, the straight man in the Marx brothers' act), who converted to Catholicism to marry him. She remained his wife until his death, although her relations with Sinatra's children were consistently portrayed as stormy, something Nancy Sinatra confirmed when she publicly claimed that Barbara had not bothered to call Frank's children even when the end was near, although they were close by, and the children missed the opportunity to be at their father's bedside when he died.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: In 2021, someone vandalised Sinatra's grave marker, attempting to chisel away the word "husband". The damaged marker was replaced with a new one with the words, "Sleep warm, poppa", the same words that his daughter Tina had buried with him.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Sinatra had numerous extra-marital affairs, the first of which was with blonde starlet Alora Gooding from October 1940 while in Hollywood, his "first big love away from home", according to Nick Sevano. Next followed Rita Maritt, a 16-year-old Long Island debutante; the daughter of an oil baron; and Mary Lou Watts, a wealthy socialite. Gossip magazines published details of affairs with the likes of Lana Turner and Marilyn Maxwell.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Summers and Swan claimed that Turner had gushed of a "very serious affair" between the two, and that they had only faked splitting up their relationship to oblige to MGM's concerns. Turner later denied the claims in her , saying that "the closest things to dates Frank and I enjoyed were a few box lunches at MGM".


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Sinatra and Judy Garland remained good friends until her death in 1969, but on only two occasions were the two legendary singers romantically involved. The first was in 1949, when Garland was recovering from a nervous breakdown and the two went on a romantic rendezvous in the Hamptons (Garland was still married to director Vincente Minnelli). The second was during one of Garland's many separations from her third husband Sid Luft in 1955. Sinatra had just come off his messy separation from Ava Gardner and was spotted in Garland's company until Luft found out.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Sinatra was very close to Lauren Bacall. According to Kelley, her husband Humphrey Bogart believed that Sinatra was in love with Bacall and failed to attend the Sands on Bacall's 32nd birthday out of jealousy, though the two men were on good terms. Sinatra and Bacall were frequently seen together in public throughout 1957, and on March 11, 1958, they reportedly became engaged, though Sinatra denied intending to marry her.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Sinatra was also engaged to India-born South African actress and dancer Juliet Prowse for a short while from fall 1961 to early 1962, before Sinatra broke the engagement late that year because Prowse refused to give up her career. The two first met on the set of the 1960 film "Can-Can".


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Sinatra met Marilyn Monroe in 1954 (while he was still married to Ava Gardner, although some sources say that Sinatra and Monroe first met several years earlier) and was a friend of Monroe's second husband Joe DiMaggio, and after DiMaggio and Monroe divorced, he joined his friend DiMaggio and the writer James Bacon on a raid set up by DiMaggio himself in pursuit of his ex-wife (Monroe) and her lover Hal Schaefer, and instead of raiding their apartment, they raided the apartment of another woman, whose name was Florence Kotz. In summer of 1961, Sinatra saw Monroe again and began an affair with her, and Monroe talked about marrying Sinatra, but Sinatra broke off the affair in fall of 1961 (around the same time he saw Juliet Prowse).


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Sinatra was romantically involved with Angie Dickinson off and on for ten years from around 1954 to 1964. "We had an incredible 'like' for each other" and "a very comfortable relationship", stated Dickinson in 1999, adding that if they'd had "a burning love affair" then the romance might not have lasted as long. The two remained friends until Sinatra's death in 1998


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Sinatra had three children with his first wife, Nancy Barbato: Nancy Sinatra (born June 8, 1940), Frank Sinatra Jr. (January 10, 1944 – March 16, 2016), and Christina "Tina" Sinatra (born June 20, 1948). Although Sinatra did not remain faithful to his wife, he was by many accounts a devoted father.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: On December 8, 1963, Frank Sinatra Jr. was kidnapped. Sinatra paid the kidnappers' $240,000 ransom demand (even offering $1,000,000, although the kidnappers bizarrely turned down this offer), and his son was released unharmed on December 10. (In 2022 terms, the demand would be the equivalent of $2.32 million, and the amount Sinatra offered would be equivalent to $9.68 million.) Because the kidnappers demanded that Sinatra call them only from pay phones, Sinatra carried a roll of dimes with him throughout the ordeal, and this became a lifelong habit. The kidnappers were subsequently apprehended and convicted. A 2003 movie called "Stealing Sinatra" was made about the incident. The radio program "This American Life" interviewed one of the kidnappers, Barry Keenan, in the 2002 episode "Plan B".


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Julie Sinatra (born Julie Ann Maria Lyma on February 10, 1943) claims to be Sinatra's daughter through an unacknowledged affair that he had with a showgirl, Dorothy Bunocelli, in the 1940s. She legally changed her last name to Sinatra in 2000. Awarded $100,000 by the Sinatra estate in 2002, elements of her story concerning her mother's trip to Cuba with Sinatra have been disputed.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Actress Eva Bartok claimed that her daughter Deana's biological father was actually Frank Sinatra, with whom she had a brief affair in 1956.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: In an interview for the November 2013 issue of "Vanity Fair", Mia Farrow said that she and Sinatra "never really split up" and answered "possibly" when asked if her son Ronan Farrow might be Sinatra's.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: In his spare time, Sinatra enjoyed listening to classical music, and would attend concerts when he could. He also liked opera, particularly Luciano Pavarotti, and told himself, "I'm just a wop baritone. This guy can really sing". In return, music critic Henry Pleasants said that he had rarely interviewed an opera singer who did not have a collection of Sinatra's recordings. Jo-Caroll Dennison commented that Sinatra had "great inner strength", and that his energy and drive was "enormous". A workaholic, he reportedly only slept for four hours a night on average. Rojek considers him to have been an "overtly sexual performer, caressing the microphone and standing in a suggestive manner". Impeccable with his dress and cleanliness, while with the Tommy Dorsey band he developed the nickname "Lady Macbeth", because of frequent showering and switching his outfits. He enjoyed golf, and would often play with golf champion Ken Venturi at the course in Palm Springs, where he lived.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Throughout his life, Sinatra had mood swings and bouts of mild to severe depression, admitting to an interviewer in the 1950s that "I have an over-acute capacity for sadness as well as elation". Avoiding solitude and unglamorous surroundings at all costs, he struggled with the conflicting need "to get away from it all, but not too far away." Anthony Quinn once stated that he had a "cruel streak in his personality", but that he still loved him as he was "what all men are and not one man in a million ever is". Sinatra's mood swings often developed into violence, directed at people he felt had crossed him, particularly journalists who gave him scathing reviews, publicists and photographers. He received negative press for fights with Lee Mortimer in 1947, photographer Eddie Schisser in Houston in 1950, and Judy Garland's publicist Jim Byron in 1954, whom he reportedly referred to as a "fucking parasite". Yet Sinatra was known for his generosity, particularly after his comeback. When Lee J. Cobb nearly died from a heart attack in June 1955, Sinatra flooded him with "books, flowers, delicacies", paid his hospital bills, and visited him daily, telling him that his finest acting was yet to come. In another instance, after a heated argument with manager Bobby Burns, rather than apologize, Sinatra bought him a brand-new Cadillac.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: In a 1963 interview with "Playboy" magazine, Sinatra stated that his belief in God was similar to Albert Schweitzer, Bertrand Russell and Albert Einstein in that he had a "respect for life – in any form", but did not believe in "a personal God to whom I look for comfort or for a natural on the next roll of the dice". According to Kelley, he was critical of the church on numerous occasions, and had thought it hypocritical in Hoboken that Italians had to attend a different church from the Irish and Germans. Though turned off by organized religion at times, however, Sinatra had a deep faith that became public when he turned to the Catholic Church for healing after his mother died in a plane crash late in his career. He died as a practicing Catholic and had a Catholic burial.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: In 1960, Sinatra bought a share in the Cal Neva Lodge & Casino, straddling the border between Nevada and California on the shores of Lake Tahoe. Though it only opened between June and September, Sinatra built the Celebrity Room theater, which attracted the likes of the other Rat Pack members, Red Skelton, Marilyn Monroe, Victor Borge, Joe E. Lewis, Lucille Ball, Lena Horne, Juliet Prowse, the McGuire Sisters and others. By 1962 he reportedly held a 50% share in the hotel. Sinatra's gambling license was temporarily stripped by the Nevada Gaming Control Board in 1963 after mobster Sam Giancana was spotted on the premises. Due to ongoing pressure from the FBI and Nevada Gaming Commission and mobster control of casinos, and trouble with the Mafia, Sinatra agreed to give up his share in Cal Neva and the Sands.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: Sinatra became the stereotype of the "tough working-class Italian American", something which he embraced. He commented that he would "probably have ended in a life of crime" if it had not been for his interest in music. According to one writer, Eddie Fisher once remarked that Sinatra "wanted to be a hood" and had once told him that "I'd rather be a don of the Mafia than president of the United States". However, Peter Lawford had said that Sinatra only referred to them as the "boys" or "the Outfit", rather than the "Mafia".


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: In Sinatra's early days, mafia boss Willie Moretti helped him for kickbacks and was reported to have intervened in releasing him from his contract with Tommy Dorsey. Sinatra was present at the Mafia Havana Conference in 1946, and one newspaper published the headline "Shame, Sinatra" regarding his connection with Lucky Luciano. Kelley claims that Phyllis McGuire referred to Sam Giancana and Sinatra as the "best of friends", saying that they would often play golf together in Nevada and visit each other. She also quotes Jo-Carrol Silvers in saying that both Sinatra and her husband Phil Silvers "adored Bugsy Siegel so much", and would boast to friends about him and how many people he had killed. She also claimed that Silvers had told her that "like Bugsy, Frank had a Mafia Redneck mentality", with their shared love of high-living and grandiose plans in Las Vegas. Kelley claims that Sinatra and mobster Joseph Fischetti had been good friends from 1938 onward, and acted like "Sicilian brothers". She also states that Sinatra and Hank Sanicola were financial partners in the gossip magazine "Hollywood Night Life" with Mickey Cohen, a West Coast mobster; she claims that Sinatra funded $15,000 into the magazine to "get back at Hollywood".


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: The FBI kept records amounting to 2,403 pages on Sinatra, becoming a natural target with his alleged Mafia ties, his ardent New Deal politics, and his friendship with John F. Kennedy. They kept him under surveillance for almost five decades beginning in the 1940s. The documents include accounts of Sinatra as the target of death threats and extortion schemes. The FBI documented that Sinatra was losing esteem with the Mafia as he grew closer to President Kennedy, whose brother Bobby was leading a crackdown on organized crime. They wiretapped Giancana's conversations, and found that Giancana no longer trusted Sinatra after he had been spotted with Kennedy. Their purported friendship finally came to an end in 1963 following the Nevada Gaming Commission's investigation into the casinos. According to Kelley, Giancana blamed Sinatra for the ordeal. However, it was acknowledged that Sinatra and Kennedy's friendship started becoming strained after Kennedy took office, in part because the Kennedy Administration, which included Bobby Kennedy as Attorney General, was very anti-Mafia. It was also acknowledged that their friendship also came to an end in 1962 after Sinatra's recent meeting with mobster Sam Giancana convinced Kennedy to cancel a visit to Sinatra's home while he visited Palm Springs home and instead stay at the home of Bing Crosby, who was more willing to distance himself from the Mafia in public, despite also having mob ties.


title: Personal life of Frank Sinatra

text: The FBI's secret dossier on Sinatra was released in 1998 in response to Freedom of Information Act requests. Sinatra frequently denied personal and professional links with organized crime figures such as Bugsy Siegel, Carlo Gambino, Sam Giancana, Lucky Luciano, and Joseph Fischetti, despite the many connections and anecdotes reported. He vehemently declared that "any report that I fraternised with goons or racketeers is a vicious lie". In January 1967, he stood before a Las Vegas grand jury investigating mobster influence in the casinos and denied any financial exploits with Giancana.


title: Flag of Sri Lanka

text: The flag of Sri Lanka (; ), also called the "Sinha" Flag or Lion Flag, consists of a golden lion holding a "kastane" sword in its right fore-paw in a maroon background with four gold bo leaves, one in each corner. This is bordered by gold, and to its left are two vertical stripes of equal size in teal and orange, with the orange stripe closest to the lion. The lion and the maroon background represent the Sinhalese, while the saffron border and four bo leaves represent concepts of "mettā", "karuṇā", "muditā" and "upekshā" respectively. The stripes represent the country's two largest minorities, with the orange representing the Tamils living in Sri Lanka – both the Sri Lankan Tamils and the Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka – and the green stripe representing the Sri Lankan Moors (Muslims of Sri Lanka). The golden yellow border represents the other minority communities of the country.


title: Flag of Sri Lanka

text: The symbol of a lion in Sri Lankan heraldry dates back to 486 BC, when Vijaya, the first King of Sri Lanka, arrived on the island from India and brought with him a standard depicting a lion. The symbol appears to have influenced subsequent monarchs, being used extensively by them and becoming a symbol of freedom and hope. As depicted on a mural in Cave no. 2 at Dambulla Viharaya, King Dutugemunu on his campaign against Ellalan- an invading South Indian ruler- in 162 BC is depicted with a banner containing a lion figure carrying a sword in its right forepaw, a symbol of the Sun and one of the Moon. This flag was known as the only ancient representation of the lion flag of the Sinhalese but in 1957, the lion figure on it was defaced by a vandal.


title: Flag of Sri Lanka

text: This basic design continued to be in use until 1815, when the Kandyan Convention ended the reign of the country's last native monarch, Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, replacing his royal standard (used as the Flag of the Kingdom of Kandy) with the Union Flag as the nation's accepted flag. The government of British Ceylon later established its own flag, while Sri Vikrama Rajasinha's standard was taken to England and kept at the Royal Hospital Chelsea.


title: Flag of Sri Lanka

text: As the independence movement in Sri Lanka gained strength in the early 20th century, E. W. Perera and D. R. Wijewardena discovered the original Lioness Flag in Chelsea. A photo of it was published in "Dinamina", in a special edition marking a century since the loss of self-rule and Sri Lankan independence. The flag provoked much interest from the public who, for the first time since the fall of the Kandyan Kingdom, had seen its actual design.


title: Flag of Sri Lanka

text: Member of Parliament for Batticaloa, Mudaliyar A. Sinnalebbe, suggested in Parliament on January 16, 1948, that the Lion Flag should be accepted as the national flag. In 1948, the flag was adopted as the national flag of the Dominion of Ceylon, undergoing two changes: one in 1953 and a redesign in 1972. A notable feature of 1972's adaptation of the Kandyan standard was the replacement of the four spearheads at the flag's corners by four bo leaves, a design choice made under the direction of Nissanka Wijeyeratne, Permanent Secretary to the Ministry of Cultural Affairs and Chairman of the National Emblem and Flag Design Committee.


title: Flag of Sri Lanka

text: The national flag of Sri Lanka represents the country and its heritage as a rallying device. Most symbols in the flag have been given distinctive meanings.


title: Flag of Sri Lanka

text: The colors of the national flag are specified in the document "SLS 1: 2020: Specification for the National Flag of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka".


title: Krishan Kumar (actor)

text: Krishan Kumar Dua is an Indian actor and producer. He is best known for "Bewafa Sanam" (1995) and owning the largest music producing company in India, T-Series.


title: Krishan Kumar (actor)

text: He was born Krishan Kumar Dua in a Punjabi family, the son of fruit seller Chandrabhan who had migrated to Delhi after the partition of India. He was the younger brother of Gulshan Kumar, founder of Super Cassettes Industries/T-Series. Kumar has a daughter, Tishaa Kumar, with actress Tanya Singh - the daughter of composer of Ajit Singh and sister of actress Nattasha Singh.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: The Argentine Air Force (, or simply FAA) is the air force of Argentina and branch of the Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic. In 2018, it had 13,837 military and 6,900 civilian personnel.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: The Air Force's history began with the establishment of the Army Aviation Service's "Escuela de Aviación Militar" ('Military Aviation School') on 10 August 1912.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: Throughout the years following World War I, the Argentine Air Force received various aircraft from France and Italy. In 1922, the "Escuela Militar de Aviación" was temporarily disbanded, resulting in the formation of "Grupo 1 de Aviación" ('Aviation Group One') as an operational unit. During 1925, the "Escuela Militar de Aviación" was reopened, and the "Grupo 3 de Observación" ('Observation Group Three') created, with "Grupo 1 de Aviación" becoming known as "Grupo 1 de Observación" shortly after.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: In 1927, the "" ('General Aeronautics Authority') was created to coordinate the country's military aviation. In that same year, the Fábrica Militar de Aviones (lit. 'Military Aircraft Factory', FMA), which would play a crucial role in the country's aviation industry, was founded in Córdoba. Despite that, throughout the 1930s, Argentina acquired various aircraft from the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: By 1938–39, Argentina's air power consisted of roughly 3,200 personnel (including about 200 officers) and maintained approximately 230 aircraft. Roughly 150 of these were operated by the army and included Dewoitine D.21 and Curtiss P-36 Hawk fighters; Breguet 19 reconnaissance planes; Northrop A-17 and Martin B-10 bombers, North American NA-16 trainers, Focke-Wulf Fw 58 as multi-role planes, Junkers Ju 52, and Fairchild 82 transports; Approximately 80 out of the 230 aircraft present were operated by the navy and included the Supermarine Southampton, Supermarine Walrus, Fairey Seal, Fairey III, Vought O2U Corsair, Consolidated P2Y, Curtiss T-32 Condor II, Douglas Dolphin, and Grumman J2F Duck.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: The first step towards establishing the Air Force as a separate branch of the Armed Forces was taken during the 11th of February 1944 to establish the Aeronautical Command-in-Chief ("Comando en Jefe de Aeronáutica") directly under the mandate of the Department of War. This later became the Argentine Air Force by decree on the 4th of January 1945, which also created the ("Secretaría de Aeronáutica").


title: Argentine Air Force

text: At the end of World War II, the Air Force began a process of modernization. This 'golden age' (roughly 1945–1955) was ushered in by the availability of foreign currency in Argentina, an abundance of now-unemployed aerospace engineers from Germany, Italy, and France, and the British provision of latest-generation engines alongside other aircraft parts. In his first term, President Juan Perón brought teams of European engineers to the FMA, nowadays the "Instituto Aerotécnico" ('Aerotechnical Institute'), or I.Ae., to promote aircraft technological development. The count totaled to around 750 workers, including two teams of German designers (led by Kurt Tank) and the French engineer Émile Dewoitine.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: In 1947, the Air Force acquisitioned 100 Gloster Meteor jet fighters. These aircraft were paid for by the United States to partially pay back its debt to Argentina, which had provided them with raw materials during World War II. This purchase caused the Argentine air force to become the first in Latin America equipped with jet-propelled combat fighters. In addition, several Avro Lincoln and Avro Lancaster bombers were also acquired.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: The Air Force, with former Luftwaffe officers as consultants and with the European teams that Perón had brought, also began to develop its own aircraft, e.g., the I.Ae. 27 Pulqui I and the I.Ae. 33 Pulqui II. These manufactures gave Argentina the positions of the first country in Latin America and the sixth in the world to develop jet fighter technology on its own. Other Argentina-developed, twin-engine aircraft included the I.Ae. 35 Huanquero, the I. Ae 22 DL advanced trainer, the I.Ae 24 Calquín bomber, the trainer, the bi-motor combat fighter I.Ae. 30 Ñancú, and the assault glider I.Ae. 25 Mañque, as well as rockets and planes for civilian use (like the FMA 20 El Boyero).


title: Argentine Air Force

text: The Argentine Air Force came into active operation for the first time on June 16, 1955 during the bombing of the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires. Government loyalist Gloster Meteors fought rebel planes and attempted a failed assassination of the President in a coup d'état. The plan failed, and the rebels bombed the city and the House of Government). In the following September coup, the Air Force supported Perón's government by initiating combat operations and transporting troops and arms with a meager five aircraft defecting to the other side. After the "Revolución Libertadora" succeeded and the coup took place, previously mentioned operations ceased and most Air Force workers left the country, including engineer Kurt Tank who left to work in India. Despite claims that the Argentine Air Force "baptisme by fire" took place during the Malvinas War (1982), this was actually the first time it entered combat.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: During 1952, the Air Force started supplying the Antarctic scientific bases using ski-equipped Douglas C-47s. Previously, President Juan Perón had created the Antarctic Task Forces (FATA, "Fuerzas de Tareas Antárticas") to fulfill this purpose. In 1970, the Air Force began operating C-130 Hercules aircraft into Antarctica. The Fokker F-28 Fellowship presidential aircraft is reported to be the first jet to have landed there, in 1973. Since the 1970s, DHC-6 Twin Otters have also been deployed, with the Air Force launching Operation Transantar on October 1973. This resulted in the first trans-Antarctic three-continent flight in history when a Hercules C-130 flew between Río Gallegos; Marambio Base; Christchurch, New Zealand and Canberra, Australia.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: In the 1960s, new aircraft were incorporated, including the F-86F Sabre jet fighter and the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk mainly used for ground-attack. During the 1970s, the Air Force re-equipped itself with Mirage III interceptors, IAI Dagger multi-role fighters, and C-130 Hercules cargo planes. A counter-insurgency airplane, the Pucará, was also manufactured and used in substantial numbers. The Air Force also had an important role in the 1976 coup which lead to a military dictatorship that lasted until 1983.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: The Falklands War was the first war fought by the Argentine Air Force against an external enemy. Some operational aircraft were obsolete. However, the airforce came close to winning the war for Argentina. During the war, the Air Force division of the Military Junta was called the "Fuerza Aérea Sur" (FAS, 'Southern Air Force'), and led by Ernesto Crespo.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: Air engagements began on May 1, 1982 with the UK's Royal Air Force initiating Operation Black Buck, in which an Avro Vulcan XM607 bomber attacked military air bases on the islands. The Task Force then sent Sea Harriers to attack positions at Stanley and Goose Green, where the first Argentine casualties occurred.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: The Argentine Air Force reacted by sending multiple IAI Dagger, A-4 Skyhawk attack aircraft, and Mirage III interceptors into the fray. The Mirage III went into combat with the Harriers on Bourbon Island, with one Mirage lost to a Harrier. On May 21, the Battle of San Carlos ("Bomb Alley") began once the Air Force attacked a detachment of British ships involved in the landing in the San Carlos Water. The Dagger and Skyhawk aircraft sank three British ships (HMS "Coventry", a Type 42 destroyer; and two frigates, HMS "Antelope" and HMS "Ardent").


title: Argentine Air Force

text: On June 8, the Air Force carried out an operation in Bluff Cove. The British were using the landing ships RFA "Sir Galahad" and RFA "Sir Tristram" to position the 5th Infantry Brigade for an assault on Port Stanley. As these ships were unloading and therefore vulnerable, they were attacked by nine A-4 Skyhawks in two waves, while five Daggers attacked the escorting frigate and four more conducted a decoy mission over the north of the islands to draw off British Sea Harriers. The Skyhawks destroyed the landing craft "Foxtrot 4", damaged the "Sir Galahad" so badly that it was subsequently scuttled and also severely damaged the "Sir Tristram," although she survived and was later rebuilt. Fire and explosions on the ships resulted in 56 deaths and 150 wounded; the worst single loss of life for the British in the war. After their attack, three A-4s from the second wave were shot down by Sea Harriers, killing all three pilots. All the explosive ordinance deployed by the Daggers failed to explode.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: On June 13, the A-4 Skyhawks of the Argentinian Air Force renewed their attacks in two formations of four aircraft each and launched an attack against enemy troops and helicopters. On June 14, 1982, the Argentine command surrendered, returning control of the Falklands, Georgia, and the South Sandwich Islands to the United Kingdom. The Argentine Air Force suffered 55 dead and 47 wounded, with 505 combat departures and 62 aircraft losses, as listed below:


title: Argentine Air Force

text: After the war, the UK imposed an arms embargo on Argentina. The United States, however, sold Argentina 36 A-4AR Fighting hawks, a refurbished and upgraded version of the A-4 Skyhawks. Other equipment purchased by Argentina were: 23 US Army surplus OV-1 Mohawks, 22 Ex-Israeli IAI Dagger, 2 C-130B, and 1 Lockheed L-100-30.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: Argentina started the development of brand new aircraft, including the FMA IA-63 Pampa, the combat fighter FMA SAIA 90, and the subsequent transformation of the Condor missile into a medium-range ballistic missile. Of these, only the Pampa was successfully developed.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: The Argentine Air Force has been involved in United Nations peacekeeping missions, sending a contingent to Cyprus in 1994 and deploying Bell 212 helicopters to Haiti during 2005.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: In early 2005, seventeen brigadiers, including the Chief of Staff, Brigadier General Carlos Rohde, were fired by President Néstor Kirchner following a scandal involving drug trafficking through Ezeiza International Airport. Kirchner cited failures in the security systems of the Argentine airports, which were overseen by the National Aeronautic Police, then a branch of the Air Force (predecessor of the today independent Airport Security Police), and cover-ups of the scandal.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: budgetary constraints continued, leading to the disbanding of the Boeing 707 transport squadron and maintenance problems for half of the C-130 Hercules fleet.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: In August 2010 a contract was signed for two Mi-17E helicopters, plus an option on a further three, to support Antarctic bases.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: The FAA has been seeking to replace its ageing force with more capable and more serviceable modern aircraft. The acquisition of Spanish Mirage F1Ms, IAI Kfir Block 60s and Saab Gripen E/Fs were considered, but as of February 2015, all of those deals appear to have stalled; The Mirage F1 deal was scrapped by the Spanish government in March 2014 after pressure from the UK to not assist in FAA modernization over tensions between the countries over the Falkland Islands. The UK has also managed to veto the sale of Gripen E/Fs, as 30% of the Gripen's parts are manufactured there. The deal with Israel has reportedly stalled for technical and political reasons. China has allegedly offered JF-17/FC-1's and Chengdu J-10's to Argentina. The two countries have formed a working group to look into the transfer of 14 aircraft. Russia had also offered to lease 12 Su-24 strike aircraft to the FAA, but Jane's reported that the Su-24 would not be very useful to the FAA and that "it would appear that any proposed transfer of such aircraft is likely the result of Russia playing political games with the UK over the continuing crisis in Ukraine." All Mirages were officially decommissioned on 30 November 2015. The A-4s were grounded for lack of spares; in any case only 4–5 were airworthy with the rest in storage at Villa Reynolds. When Barack Obama visited in March 2016, Air Force One was accompanied by US Air Force F-16s because Argentina could only offer Pucarás and Pampas for air defense.


title: Argentine Air Force

text: As of July 2019, the Argentine Air Force and government selected the KAI FA-50 as its interim fighter. With this act being the first step in modernizing the fighter force and replacing the Mirage 3, Dagger, and Mirage 5 fighters that have also been retired. It was also anticipated that obtaining FA-50 would help mitigate the retirement of the Martin A-4AR Fightinghawk fleet, as they were ageing and becoming difficult to maintain. As of 2020, it is reported that as few as six of the Fightinghawk aircraft remain operational. While no specific numbers of aircraft to purchase were given, the media reported that up to 10 FA-50s were considered. Despite elections coming in October 2019, the deal had been expected to go through. An Argentine delegation first visited the Republic of Korea Air Force in September 2016. At that time an FAA pilot was able to test fly the TA-50 Golden Eagle operational trainer variant of the FA-50.