title: Stuyvesant High School

text: In 1997, the eastern end of the mathematics floor was dedicated to Richard Rothenberg, the math department chairman who had died from a sudden heart attack earlier that year. Sculptor Madeleine Segall-Marx was commissioned to create the Rothenberg Memorial in his honor. She created a mathematics wall entitled "Celebration", consisting of 50 wooden boxes—one for each year of his life—behind a glass wall, featuring mathematical concepts and reflections on Rothenberg.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: In 2006, Robert Ira Lewy of the class of 1960 made a gift worth $1 million to found the Dr. Robert Ira Lewy M.D. Multimedia Center. and donated his personal library in 2007. In late 2010, the school library merged with the New York Public Library (NYPL) network in a four-year pilot program, in which all students of the school received a student library card so they could check books out of the school library or any other public library in the NYPL system.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: An escalator collapse at Stuyvesant High School on September 13, 2018 injured 10 people, including 8 students.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: During construction, the Battery Park City Authority, the Percent for Art Program of the City of New York, the Department of Cultural Affairs, and the New York City Board of Education commissioned "Mnemonics", an artwork by public artists Kristin Jones and Andrew Ginzel. Four hundred hollow glass blocks were dispersed randomly from the basement to the tenth floor of the new Stuyvesant High School building. Each block contains relics providing evidence of geographical, natural, cultural, and social worlds, from antiquity to the present time.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: The blocks are set into the hallway walls and scattered throughout the building. Each block is inscribed with a brief description of its contents or context. The items displayed include a section of the Great Wall of China, fragments of the Mayan pyramids, leaves from the sacred Bo tree, water from the Nile and Ganges Rivers, a Revolutionary War button, pieces of the 15th Street Stuyvesant building, a report card of a student who studied in the old building, and fragments of monuments from around the world, various chemical compounds, and memorabilia from each of the 88 years' history of the 15th Street building. Empty blocks were also installed to be filled with items chosen by each of the graduating classes up through 2080. The installation received the Award for Excellence in Design from the Art Commission of the City of New York.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: The New York City Subway's Chambers Street station, served by the , is located nearby, as well as the Chambers Street–World Trade Center station served by the . Additionally, New York City Bus's and routes stop near Stuyvesant. Students residing a certain distance from the school are provided full-fare or half-fare student MetroCards for public transportation at the start of each term, based on how far away the student resides from the school.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: Stuyvesant has a total enrollment of over 3,000 students and is open to residents of New York City entering ninth or tenth grade. Enrollment is based solely on performance on the three-hour Specialized High Schools Admissions Test, which is administered annually. Approximately 28,000 students took the test in 2017. The list of schools using the SHSAT has since grown to include eight of New York's nine specialized high schools. The test score necessary for admission to Stuyvesant has consistently been higher than that needed for admission to the other schools using the test. Admission is currently based on an individual's score on the examination and the pre-submitted ranking of Stuyvesant among the other specialized schools. Ninth- and rising tenth–grade students are also eligible to take the test for enrollment, but far fewer students are admitted that way. The test covers math (word problems and computation) and verbal (reading comprehension) skills. Former Mayor John Lindsay and community activist group Association of Community Organizations for Reform Now (ACORN) have argued that the exam may be biased against African and Hispanic Americans, while attempts to eliminate the exam have been criticized as discriminatory against Asian Americans.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: For most of the 20th century, the student body at Stuyvesant was heavily Jewish. A significant influx of Asian students began in the 1970s; by 2019, 74% of the students in attendance were Asian-American (53% from families with low incomes). In the 2013 academic year, the student body was 72.43% Asian, 21.44% Caucasian, 1.03% African American, 2.34% Hispanic, and 3% unknown/other. The paucity of Black and Hispanic students at Stuyvesant has often been an issue for some city administrators. In 1971, Mayor John Lindsay argued that the test was culturally biased against black and Hispanic students and sought to implement an affirmative action program. However, protests by parents forced the plan to be scrapped and led to the passage of the Hecht-Calandra Act, which preserved admissions by examination only. A small number of students judged to be economically disadvantaged and who come within a few points of the cut-off score were given an extra chance to pass the test.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: Community activist group ACORN published two reports in 1996, titled "Secret Apartheid" and "Secret Apartheid II". In these reports, ACORN called the SHSAT "permanently suspect" and described it as a "product of an institutional racism," saying that black and Hispanic students did not have access to proper test preparation materials. Along with Schools Chancellor Rudy Crew, they began an initiative for more diversity in the city's gifted and specialized schools, in particular demanding the SHSAT be suspended altogether until the Board of Education was able to show all children have had access to appropriate materials to prepare themselves. Students published several editorials in response to ACORN's claims, stating the admissions system at the school was based on student merit, not race.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: A number of students take preparatory courses offered by private companies such as The Princeton Review and Kaplan in order to perform better on the SHSAT, often leaving those unable to afford such classes at a disadvantage. To bridge this gap and boost minority admissions, the Board of Education started the Math Science Institute in 1995, a free program to prepare students for the admissions test. Students attend preparatory classes through the program, now known as the Specialized High School Institute (also known as DREAM), at several schools around the city from the summer after sixth grade until the eighth-grade exam. Despite the implementation of these free programs for improving underprivileged children's enrollment, black and Hispanic enrollment continued to decline. After further expansion of those free test prep programs, there was still no increase in percentages to the attendance of black and Hispanic children. , fewer than 1% of freshman openings were given to black students, while over 66% were given to Asian-American students, most of whom were from similar socioeconomic backgrounds.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: The New York City Department of Education reported in 2003 that public per student spending at Stuyvesant is slightly lower than the city average. Stuyvesant also receives private contributions.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: The college-preparatory curriculum at Stuyvesant mostly includes four years of English, history, and laboratory-based sciences. The sciences courses include requisite biology, chemistry, and physics classes. Students also take four years of mathematics. Students also take three years of a single foreign language; a semester each of introductory art, music, health, and technical drawing; one semester of computer science; and two lab-based technology courses. Several exemptions from technology education exist for seniors. Stuyvesant offers students a broad selection of elective courses. Some of the more notable offerings include astronomy, New York City history, Women's Voices, and the mathematics of financial markets. Most students complete the New York City Regents courses by junior year and take calculus during their senior year. However, the school offers math courses through differential equations for the more advanced students. A year of technical drawing was formerly required; students learned how to draft by hand in its first semester and how to draft using a computer in the second. Now, students take a one-semester compacted version of the former drafting course, as well as a semester of introductory computer science. For the class of 2015, the one-semester computer science course was replaced with a two-semester course.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: As a specialized high school, Stuyvesant offers a wide range of Advanced Placement (AP) courses. These courses focus on math, science, history, English, or foreign languages. This gives students various opportunities to earn college credit. AP computer science students can also take three additional computer programming courses after the completion of the AP course: systems level programming, computer graphics, and software development. In addition, there is a one-year computer networking class which can earn students Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA) certification.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: Stuyvesant's foreign language offerings include Mandarin Chinese, French, German, Japanese, Latin, and Spanish. In 2005, the school also started offering courses in Arabic after the school's Muslim Student Association had raised funds to support the course. Stuyvesant's biology and geo-science department offers courses in molecular biology, human physiology, medical ethics, medical and veterinary diagnosis, human disease, anthropology and sociobiology, vertebrate zoology, laboratory techniques, medical human genetics, botany, the molecular basis of cancer, nutrition science, and psychology. The chemistry and physics departments include classes in organic chemistry, physical chemistry, astronomy, engineering mechanics, and electronics.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: Although Stuyvesant is primarily known for its math and science focus, the school also has a comprehensive humanities program. The English Department offers students courses in British and classical literature, Shakespearean literature, science fiction, philosophy, existentialism, debate, acting, journalism, creative writing, and poetry. The Social Studies core requires two years of global history (or one year of global followed by one year of European history), one year of American history, as well as a semester each of economics and government. Humanities electives include American foreign policy; civil and criminal law, prejudice and persecution, and race, ethnicity and gender issues.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: In 2004, Stuyvesant entered into an agreement with City College of New York in which the college funds advanced after-school courses that are taken for college credit but taught by Stuyvesant teachers. Some of these courses include physical chemistry, linear algebra, advanced Euclidean geometry, and women's history.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: Prior to the 2005 revision of the SAT, Stuyvesant graduates had an average score of 1408 out of 1600 (685 in the verbal section of the test, 723 in the math section). In 2010, the average score on the SAT for Stuyvesant students was 2087 out of 2400, while the class of 2013 had an average SAT score of 2096. , Stuyvesant students' average SAT score was 1490 of 1600 points. Stuyvesant also administers more Advanced Placement exams than any other high school in the world, as well as the highest number of students who reach the AP courses' "mastery level". , there are 31 AP classes offered, with a little more than half of all students taking at least one AP class, and about 98% of students pass their AP tests.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: Stuyvesant fields 32 varsity teams, including the swimming, golf, bowling, volleyball, soccer, basketball, gymnastics, wrestling, fencing, baseball/softball, American handball, tennis, track/cross country, cricket, football, and lacrosse teams. In addition, Stuyvesant has ultimate teams for the boys' varsity, boys' junior varsity, and girls' varsity divisions.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: In September 2007, the Stuyvesant football team was given a home field at Pier 40, located north of the school at Houston Street and West Street. In 2008, the baseball team was granted use of the pier after construction and delivery of an artificial turf pitching mound that met Public Schools Athletic League specifications. Stuyvesant also has its own swimming pool, but it does not contain its own running track or tennis court. Unlike most American high schools, most sports teams at Stuyvesant are individually known by different names. Only the football, cheerleading, girls' table tennis, baseball, girls' handball, and boys' lacrosse teams retain the traditional Pegleg monikers.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: The student body of Stuyvesant is represented by the Stuyvesant Student Union, a student government. It comprises a group of students (elected each year for each grade) who serve the student body in two important areas: improving student life by promoting and managing extracurricular activities (clubs and publications), by organizing out-of-school activity such as city excursions or fundraisers; and providing a voice to the student body in all discussion of school policy with the administration.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: Stuyvesant allows students to join clubs, publications, and teams under a system similar to that of many colleges. , the school had 150 student clubs.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: "The Spectator" is Stuyvesant's official in-school newspaper, which is published biweekly and is independent from the school. There are over 250 students who help with publication. At the beginning of the fall and spring terms, there are recruitments, but interested students may join at any time.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: Founded in 1915, "The Spectator" is one of Stuyvesant's oldest publications. It has a long-standing connection with its older namesake, Columbia University's "Columbia Daily Spectator", and has been recognized by the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism's Columbia Scholastic Press Association.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: "The Voice" was founded in the 1973–1974 academic year as an independent publication only loosely sanctioned by school officials. It had the appearance of a magazine and gained a large readership. "The Voice" attracted a considerable amount of controversy and a First Amendment lawsuit, after which the administration forced it to go off-campus and to turn commercial in 1975–1976.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: At the beginning of the 1975–1976 academic year, "The Voice" decided to publish the results of a confidential random survey measuring the "sexual attitudes, preferences, knowledge and experience" of the students. The administration refused to permit "The Voice" to distribute the questionnaire, and the Board of Education refused to intervene, believing that "irreparable psychological damage" would be occasioned on some of the students receiving it. The editor-in-chief of "The Voice", Jeff Trachtman, brought a First Amendment challenge to this decision in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York in front of Judge Constance Baker Motley.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: Motley, relying on the relatively recent Supreme Court precedent "Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District" (holding that "undifferentiated fear or apprehension of disturbance is not enough to overcome the right to freedom of expression"), ordered the Board of Education to come up with an arrangement permitting the distribution of the survey to the juniors and seniors. However, Motley's ruling was overturned on appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. Judge J. Edward Lumbard, joined by Judge Murray Gurfein and over an impassioned dissent by Judge Walter R. Mansfield, held that the distribution of the questionnaires was properly disallowed by the administration since there was the basis for the belief that it might "result in significant emotional harm to a number of students throughout the Stuyvesant population." The Supreme Court denied certiorari review.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: The annual theater competition known as SING! pits seniors, juniors, and "soph-frosh" (freshmen and sophomores working together) against each other in a contest to put on the best performance. SING! started in 1947 at Midwood High School in Brooklyn and has expanded to many New York City high schools since then. SING! at Stuyvesant started as a small event in 1973, and since then, has grown to a school-wide event; in 2005, nearly 1,000 students participated. The entire production is written, directed, produced, and funded by students. Their involvement ranges from being members of the production's casts, choruses, or costume and tech crews to Step, Hip-Hop, Swing, Modern, Belly, Flow, Tap or Latin dance groups. SING! begins in late January to February and culminates in final performances on three nights in March/April. Scoring is done on each night's performances and the winner is determined by the overall total.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: Stuyvesant has produced many notable alumni, including four Nobel laureates. In 2017, Stuyvesant was ranked 71st in national rankings by "U.S. News & World Report", and 21st among STEM high schools. According to a September 2002 high school ranking by "Worth" magazine, 3.67% of Stuyvesant students went on to attend Harvard, Yale, and Princeton universities, ranking it as the 9th top public high school in the United States and 120th among all schools, public or private. In December 2007, "The Wall Street Journal" studied the freshman classes at eight selective colleges and reported that Stuyvesant sent 67 students to these schools, comprising 9.9% of its 674 seniors. In recent years, the Stuyvesant Spectator has reported on college admissions of the graduating classes, with Class of 2021 having 133 students offered admission to Ivy League institutions.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: Stuyvesant, along with other similar schools, has regularly been excluded from "Newsweek"'s annual list of the Top 100 Public High Schools. The May 8, 2008, issue states the reason as being, "because so many of their students score well above average on the SAT and ACT." "U.S. News & World Report", however, included Stuyvesant on its list of "Best High Schools" published in December 2009, ranking 31st. In its 2010 progress report, the New York City Department of Education assigned it an "A", the highest possible grade.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: Stuyvesant has contributed to the education of several Nobel laureates, winner of the Fields Medal, and other accomplished alumni. In recent years, it has had the second highest number of National Merit Scholarship semi-finalists, behind Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology in Alexandria, Virginia. From 2002 to 2010, Stuyvesant has produced 103 semi-finalists and 13 finalists on the Intel Science Talent Search, the second most of any secondary school in the United States behind the Bronx High School of Science. In 2014, Stuyvesant had 11 semifinalists for the Intel Search, the highest number of any school in the U.S.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: In the 2010s, exam schools, including Stuyvesant, have been the subject of studies questioning their academic effectiveness. A study by Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Duke University economists compared high school outcomes for Stuyvesant students who barely passed the SHSAT score required for admission, to those of applicants just below that score, using the latter as a natural control group of peers who attended other schools. The study found no discernible average difference in the two groups' later performance on New York state exams.


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: Notable scientists among Stuyvesant alumni include mathematicians Nathan Mantel (1935), Bertram Kostant (1945) and


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: Paul Cohen (1950), string theorist Brian Greene (1980), physicist Lisa Randall (1980), and genomic researcher Eric Lander (1974). Other prominent alumni include civil rights leader Bob Moses, "MAD Magazine" editor Nick Meglin (1953), entertainers such as songwriter and Steely Dan founder Walter Becker, Thelonious Monk (1935), and actors Lucy Liu (1986), Tim Robbins (1976), and James Cagney (1918), comedian Paul Reiser (1973), playwright Arthur M. Jolly (1987), sports anchor Mike Greenberg (1985), and basketball player and bookmaker Jack Molinas (1949). In business, government and politics, former United States Attorney General Eric Holder (1969) is a Stuyvesant alumnus, as are Senior Advisor to President Obama David Axelrod (1972), former adviser to President Clinton Dick Morris (1964), and founder of 5W Public Relations Ronn Torossian (1992).


title: Stuyvesant High School

text: Pulitzer Prize-winning author Frank McCourt taught English at Stuyvesant before the publication of his memoirs "Angela's Ashes", "'Tis", and "Teacher Man". "Teacher Man" third section, titled "Coming Alive in Room 205", concerns McCourt's time at Stuyvesant, and mentions a number of students and faculty. Former New York City Council member Eva Moskowitz (1982) graduated from the school, as did the creator of the BitTorrent protocol, Bram Cohen (1993). A notable Olympic medalist from the school was foil fencer Albert Axelrod. Economist Thomas Sowell was also a student of Stuyvesant High School, but dropped out at age 17 because of financial difficulties and problems in his home. Russian journalist Vladimir Pozner Jr., known in the West for his appearances on Nightline, U.S.–Soviet Space Bridge and Phil Donahue, was also a student of Stuyvesant High School.


title: 111th United States Congress

text: The 111th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government from January 3, 2009, until January 3, 2011. It began during the last weeks of the George W. Bush administration, with the remainder spanning the first two years of Barack Obama's presidency. It was composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The apportionment of seats in the House was based on the 2000 U.S. Census.


title: 111th United States Congress

text: In the November 2008 elections, the Democratic Party increased its majorities in both chambers (including – when factoring in the two Democratic caucusing independents – a brief filibuster-proof 60-40 supermajority in the Senate), and with Barack Obama being sworn in as President on January 20, 2009, this gave a Democrats an overall federal government trifecta for the first time since the 103rd Congress in 1993.


title: 111th United States Congress

text: However, the Senate supermajority only lasted for a period of 72 working days while the Senate was actually in session. A new delegate seat was created for the Northern Mariana Islands. The 111th Congress had the most long-serving members in history: at the start of the 111th Congress, the average member of the House had served 10.3 years, while the average Senator had served 13.4 years. The Democratic Party would not simultaneously control both the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate again until more than a decade later, during the 117th Congress.


title: 111th United States Congress

text: At the encouragement of the Obama administration, Congress devoted significant time considering health care reform. In March 2010, Obama signed the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act into law, the first comprehensive health care reform legislation in decades, along with further amendments in the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010. Other major reform proposals during the health care debate included:


title: 111th United States Congress

text: In this Congress, Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring reelection in 2010; Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring reelection in 2012; and Class 2 meant their term began in this Congress, requiring reelection in 2014.


title: 111th United States Congress

text: Four of the changes are associated with the 2008 presidential election and appointments to the Obama Administration, one senator changed parties, one election was disputed, two senators died, one senator resigned, and three appointed senators served only until special elections were held during this Congress.


title: 111th United States Congress

text: Five changes are associated with appointments to the Obama Administration, four directly and one indirectly. Two representatives changed parties, one died, and five resigned. House vacancies are only filled by elections. State laws regulate when (and if) there will be special elections.


title: Molly Yeh

text: Molly Yeh (born May 22, 1989) is an American cookbook author and blogger who is the host of the Food Network cooking show "Girl Meets Farm."


title: Molly Yeh

text: Yeh was born and raised in Glenview, Illinois, to Jody (née Shinbrod) and clarinetist John Bruce Yeh. Her mother is Jewish and her father is Chinese. She has an older sister, Jenna, who is a chef, as well as a younger half sister, Mia.


title: Molly Yeh

text: and the Midwest Young Artists Conservatory, where she was a member of two percussion ensembles—The Rattan Trio and Beat 3-- which won consecutive gold medals (2004 and 2005) in the junior division of the Fischoff National Chamber Music Competition. She kept journals from a young age which turned into her blog in 2009.


title: Molly Yeh

text: After high school, she moved to New York City to attend the Juilliard School, where she was editorial assistant and writer at The Juilliard Journal and in 2011 earned a Bachelor of Music degree in percussion.


title: Molly Yeh

text: In October 2016, Yeh published her first book, "Molly on the Range: Recipes and Stories from An Unlikely Life on a Farm" (Rodale Books), for which she won the Judges' Choice IACP Cookbook Award in 2017. In June 2018, it was announced that Yeh would be hosting a cooking show on Food Network. The series, "Girl Meets Farm", debuted on June 24, 2018. Her eleventh season of "Girl Meets Farm" launched on September 4, 2022. Also in November 2018, she was a co-host on "From the Top", a podcast showcasing young classical musicians. Yeh had previously appeared on the show twice as a teenager, in 2004 and 2007. In 2021 she hosted the show Ben and Jerry's Clash of the Cones. She took over as host of Spring Baking Championship for its eighth season, premiering February 28, 2022. Molly Yeh has also made a restaurant in East Grand Forks, MN, called Bernie's.


title: Molly Yeh

text: In 2014, Yeh married fellow Juilliard music major Nick Hagen and moved to East Grand Forks, Minnesota where Hagen is a fifth-generation farmer.


title: Molly Yeh

text: In November 2018, Yeh announced that she and her husband were expecting their first child. On March 30, 2019, Yeh gave birth to a daughter, Bernadette Rosemary Yeh Hagen, named after her husband's great-great-grandfather Bernt (who started the Hagen farm) and her own great-great-grandfather, Bernard. In September 2021, Yeh announced she and her husband were expecting their second child in February 2022. Their second daughter, Ira Dorothy Yeh Hagen, was born on February 20, 2022.


title: Federico Castelluccio

text: Federico Castelluccio (; ; born April 29, 1964) is an Italian-American actor and painter. He is best known for his role as Furio Giunta on the HBO series "The Sopranos".


title: Federico Castelluccio

text: Born in Naples, Italy, Castelluccio moved with his family to Paterson, New Jersey, when he was three years old. In 1982, Castelluccio was awarded a full scholarship to the School of Visual Arts in New York City, where he earned a BFA in painting and media arts. Prior to winning the scholarship, he received an opportunity to create a painting for actor George Burns.


title: Federico Castelluccio

text: Castelluccio began his career as an actor in 1986. Some of his film credits include "Made" with Jon Favreau, "Fire" with Paul Campbell and "18 Shades of Dust" with Danny Aiello. In television, his credits include "NYPD Blue" and his best known role, in the HBO hit series "The Sopranos", as the Neapolitan enforcer Furio Giunta.


title: Federico Castelluccio

text: He also appeared in "A Guide to Recognizing Your Saints" which debuted in 2006 at the Sundance Film Festival and received two awards, one for best dramatic directing and another for best dramatic ensemble, headed by Robert Downey Jr., Chazz Palminteri, and Rosario Dawson.


title: Federico Castelluccio

text: Other film projects include the biographical "El Cantante"; "Aftermath", a crime thriller; and "The Obscure Brother", filmed in southern Italy, a short film that he executive produced and acted in; 2003's "La Araña"; the 2008 comedy "Capers"; "Lucky Days"; and the 2009 "Forget Me Not". In television, Castelluccio played the lead role in "Dragon Dynasty", a telefilm that aired on the Sci-Fi Channel. He also appeared in the episode of "Kenny Vs. Spenny" titled "Who Can Produce The Best Commercial".


title: Federico Castelluccio

text: In 2014, Castelluccio starred in the short film "Eulogy" directed by Don Capria. The film won "Best Ensemble" in the 2015 Queens World Film Festival.


title: Federico Castelluccio

text: In 2016, Castelluccio directed the feature film "The Brooklyn Banker". In 2017, Castelluccio directed the TV pilot "Outcall".


title: Federico Castelluccio

text: During the fourth season of "Celebrity Apprentice", Castelluccio was asked by Donald Trump to judge which celebrity designed the best hat. Castelluccio eventually chose La Toya Jackson. She was awarded $25,000 for her charity, the AIDS Project Los Angeles.


title: Federico Castelluccio

text: Castelluccio discovered a 17th-century painting by Italian baroque painter Guercino at a Frankfurt gallery and subsequently purchased it at auction in 2014 after it had been incorrectly identified as an 18th-century painting. He purchased the painting for approximately $68,000. After restoration, insurance, shipping, and other expenses, his total costs came to $140,000. The work's actual value was subsequently placed at approximately $10 million.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The CIE 1931 color spaces are the first defined quantitative links between distributions of wavelengths in the electromagnetic visible spectrum, and physiologically perceived colors in human color vision. The mathematical relationships that define these color spaces are essential tools for color management, important when dealing with color inks, illuminated displays, and recording devices such as digital cameras. The system was designed in 1931 by the ""Commission Internationale de l'éclairage"", known in English as the International Commission on Illumination.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The CIE 1931 RGB color space and CIE 1931 XYZ color space were created by the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) in 1931. They resulted from a series of experiments done in the late 1920s by William David Wright using ten observers and John Guild using seven observers. The experimental results were combined into the specification of the CIE RGB color space, from which the CIE XYZ color space was derived.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The human eye with normal vision has three kinds of cone cells that sense light, having peaks of spectral sensitivity in short ("S", – ), middle ("M", – ), and long ("L", – ) wavelengths. These cone cells underlie human color perception in conditions of medium and high brightness; in very dim light color vision diminishes, and the low-brightness, monochromatic "night vision" receptors, denominated "rod cells", become effective. Thus, three parameters corresponding to levels of stimulus of the three kinds of cone cells, in principle describe any human color sensation. Weighting a total light power spectrum by the individual spectral sensitivities of the three kinds of cone cells renders three effective values of stimulus; these three values compose a tristimulus specification of the objective color of the light spectrum. The three parameters, denoted "S", "M", and "L", are indicated using a 3-dimensional space denominated the "LMS color space", which is one of many color spaces devised to quantify human color vision.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: A color space maps a range of physically produced colors from mixed light, pigments, etc. to an objective description of color sensations registered in the human eye, typically in terms of tristimulus values, but not usually in the LMS color space defined by the spectral sensitivities of the cone cells. The tristimulus values associated with a color space can be conceptualized as amounts of three primary colors in a tri-chromatic, additive color model. In some color spaces, including the LMS and XYZ spaces, the primary colors used are not real colors in the sense that they cannot be generated in any light spectrum.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The CIE XYZ color space encompasses all color sensations that are visible to a person with average eyesight. That is why CIE XYZ (Tristimulus values) is a device-invariant representation of color. It serves as a standard reference against which many other color spaces are defined. A set of color-matching functions, like the spectral sensitivity curves of the LMS color space, but not restricted to non-negative sensitivities, associates physically produced light spectra with specific tristimulus values.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: Consider two light sources composed of different mixtures of various wavelengths. Such light sources may appear to be the same color; this effect is called "metamerism." Such light sources have the same apparent color to an observer when they produce the same tristimulus values, regardless of the spectral power distributions of the sources.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: Most wavelengths stimulate two or all three kinds of cone cell because the spectral sensitivity curves of the three kinds overlap. Certain tristimulus values are thus physically impossible: e.g. LMS tristimulus values that are non-zero for the M component and zero for both the L and S components. Furthermore pure spectral colors would, in any normal trichromatic additive color space, e.g., the RGB color spaces, imply negative values for at least one of the three primaries because the chromaticity would be outside the color triangle defined by the primary colors. To avoid these negative RGB values, and to have one component that describes the perceived brightness, "imaginary" primary colors and corresponding color-matching functions were formulated. The CIE 1931 color space defines the resulting tristimulus values, in which they are denoted by "X", "Y", and "Z". In XYZ space, all combinations of non-negative coordinates are meaningful, but many, such as the primary locations [1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0], and [0, 0, 1], correspond to imaginary colors outside the space of possible LMS coordinates; imaginary colors do not correspond to any spectral distribution of wavelengths and therefore have no physical reality.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: In the CIE 1931 model, "Y" is the luminance, "Z" is quasi-equal to blue (of CIE RGB), and "X" is a mix of the three CIE RGB curves chosen to be nonnegative (see ). Setting "Y" as luminance has the useful result that for any given "Y" value, the XZ plane will contain all possible chromaticities at that luminance.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The unit of the tristimulus values , , and is often arbitrarily chosen so that or is the brightest white that a color display supports. In this case, the Y value is known as the relative luminance. The corresponding whitepoint values for and can then be inferred using the standard illuminants.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: Since the XYZ values are defined much earlier than the characterization of cone cells in the 1950s (by Ragnar Granit), the physiological meaning of these values are known only much later. The Hunt-Pointer-Estevez matrix from the 1980s relates XYZ with LMS. When inverted, it shows how the three cone responses add up to XYZ functions:


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: In other words, the Z value is solely made up of the S cone response, the Y value a mix of L and M responses, and X value a mix of all three. This fact makes XYZ values analogous to, but different from, the LMS cone responses of the human eye.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: Due to the distribution of cones in the eye, the tristimulus values depend on the observer's field of view. To eliminate this variable, the CIE defined a color-mapping function called the standard (colorimetric) observer, to represent an average human's chromatic response within a 2° arc inside the fovea. This angle was chosen owing to the belief that the color-sensitive cones resided within a 2° arc of the fovea. Thus the "CIE 1931 Standard Observer" function is also known as the "CIE 1931 2° Standard Observer". A more modern but less-used alternative is the "CIE 1964 10° Standard Observer", which is derived from the work of Stiles and Burch, and Speranskaya.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: For the 10° experiments, the observers were instructed to ignore the central 2° spot. The 1964 Supplementary Standard Observer function is recommended when dealing with more than about a 4° field of view. Both standard observer functions are discretized at wavelength intervals from to and distributed by the CIE. All corresponding values have been calculated from experimentally obtained data using interpolation. The standard observer is characterized by three "color matching functions".


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: There is also a -interval dataset of CIE 1931 and CIE 1964 provided by Wyszecki 1982. A CIE publication in 1986 appears also to have a 1 nm dataset, probably using the same data. Like the regular dataset, this dataset is also derived from interpolation.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The derivation of the CIE standard observer from color matching experiments is given below, after the description of the CIE RGB space.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The CIE's color matching functions formula_2, formula_3 and formula_4 are the numerical description of the chromatic response of the "observer" (described above). They can be thought of as the spectral sensitivity curves of three linear light detectors yielding the CIE tristimulus values "X", "Y" and "Z". Collectively, these three functions describe the CIE standard observer.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: Table lookup can become impractical for some computational tasks. Instead of referring to the published table, the CIE XYZ color matching functions can be approximated by a sum of Gaussian functions, as follows:


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: That is, "g"("x") resembles a bell curve with its peak at , a spread/standard deviation of "σ" to the left of the mean, and spread of "σ" to the right of the mean. With the wavelength "λ" measured in nanometers, we then approximate the 1931 color matching functions: List of colors


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: It is also possible to use fewer gaussian functions, with one gaussian for each "lobe". CIE 1964 fits well with a one-lobe function.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The CIE XYZ color matching functions are nonnegative, and lead to nonnegative XYZ coordinates for all real colors (that is, for nonnegative light spectra). Other observers, such as for the CIE RGB space or other RGB color spaces, are defined by other sets of three color-matching functions, not generally nonnegative, and lead to tristimulus values in those other spaces, which may include negative coordinates for some real colors.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The tristimulus values for a color with a spectral radiance "L" are given in terms of the standard observer by:


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: where formula_8 is the wavelength of the equivalent monochromatic light (measured in nanometers), and customary limits of the integral are formula_9.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The reflective and transmissive cases are very similar to the emissive case, with a few differences. The spectral radiance "L" is replaced by the spectral reflectance (or transmittance) "S(λ)" of the object being measured, multiplied by the spectral power distribution of the illuminant "I(λ)".


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: "K" is a scaling factor (usually 1 or 100), and formula_8 is the wavelength of the equivalent monochromatic light (measured in nanometers), and the standard limits of the integral are formula_9.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: Since the human eye has three types of color sensors that respond to different ranges of wavelengths, a full plot of all visible colors is a three-dimensional figure. However, the concept of color can be divided into two parts: brightness and chromaticity. For example, the color white is a bright color, while the color grey is considered to be a less bright version of that same white. In other words, the chromaticity of white and grey are the same while their brightness differs.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The CIE XYZ color space was deliberately designed so that the "Y" parameter is also a measure of the luminance of a color. The chromaticity is then specified by the two derived parameters "x" and "y", two of the three normalized values being functions of all three tristimulus values "X", "Y", and "Z":


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The derived color space specified by "x", "y", and "Y" is known as the CIE xyY color space and is widely used to specify colors in practice.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The "X" and "Z" tristimulus values can be calculated back from the chromaticity values "x" and "y" and the "Y" tristimulus value:


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The figure on the right shows the related chromaticity diagram. The outer curved boundary is the "spectral locus", with wavelengths shown in nanometers. Note that the chromaticity diagram is a tool to specify how the human eye will experience light with a given spectrum. It cannot specify colors of objects (or printing inks), since the chromaticity observed while looking at an object depends on the light source as well.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: When two or more colors are additively mixed, the x and y chromaticity coordinates of the resulting color (x,y) may be calculated from the chromaticities of the mixture components (x,y; x,y; …; x,y) and their corresponding luminances (L, L, …, L) with the following formulas:


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: These formulas can be derived from the previously presented definitions of x and y chromaticity coordinates by taking advantage of the fact that the tristimulus values X, Y, and Z of the individual mixture components are directly additive. In place of the luminance values (L, L, etc.) one can alternatively use any other photometric quantity that is directly proportional to the tristimulus value Y (naturally meaning that Y itself can also be used as well).


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: As already mentioned, when two colors are mixed, the resulting color x, y will lie on the straight line segment that connects these colors on the CIE xy chromaticity diagram. To calculate the mixing ratio of the component colors x,y and x,y that results in a certain x,y on this line segment, one can use the formula


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: where L is the luminance of color x,y and L the luminance of color x,y. Note that because y is unambiguously determined by x and vice versa, knowing just one or the other of them is enough for calculating the mixing ratio. Also note that, in accordance with the remarks concerning the formulas for x and y, the mixing ratio L/L may well be expressed in terms of other photometric quantities than luminance.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The CIE RGB color space is one of many RGB color spaces, distinguished by a particular set of monochromatic (single-wavelength) primary colors.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: In the 1920s, two independent experiments on human color perception were conducted by W. David Wright with ten observers, and John Guild with seven observers. Their results laid the foundation for the trichromatic CIE XYZ color space specification.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The experiments were conducted by using a circular split screen (a bipartite field) 2 degrees in diameter, which is the angular size of the human fovea. On one side a "test" color was projected while on the other an observer-adjustable color was projected. The adjustable color was a mixture of three "primary" colors, each with fixed chromaticity, but with adjustable brightness.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The observer would alter the brightness of each of the three primary beams until a match to the test color was observed. Because the RGB-gamut does not cover the whole color spectrum, not all test colors could be matched using this technique. When this was the case, a variable amount of one of the primaries could be added to the test color, and a match with the remaining two primaries was carried out with the variable color spot. For these cases, the amount of the primary added to the test color was considered to be a negative value. In this way, the entire range of human color perception could be covered. When the test colors were monochromatic, a plot could be made of the amount of each primary used as a function of the wavelength of the test color. These three functions are called the "color matching functions" for that particular experiment.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: Although Wright and Guild's experiments were carried out using various primaries at various intensities, and although they used a number of different observers, all of their results were summarized by the standardized CIE RGB color matching functions formula_18, formula_19, and formula_20, obtained using three monochromatic primaries at standardized wavelengths of (red), (green) and (blue). The color matching functions are the amounts of primaries needed to match the monochromatic test primary. These functions are shown in the plot on the right (CIE 1931). Note that formula_18 and formula_19 are zero at , formula_18 and formula_20 are zero at and formula_19 and formula_20 are zero at , since in these cases the test color is one of the primaries. The primaries with wavelengths and were chosen because they are easily reproducible monochromatic lines of a mercury vapor discharge. The wavelength, which in 1931 was difficult to reproduce as a monochromatic beam, was chosen because the eye's perception of color is rather unchanging at this wavelength, and therefore small errors in wavelength of this primary would have little effect on the results.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The color matching functions and primaries were settled upon by a CIE special commission after considerable deliberation. The cut-offs at the short- and long-wavelength side of the diagram are chosen somewhat arbitrarily; the human eye can actually see light with wavelengths up to about , but with a sensitivity that is many thousand times lower than for green light. These color matching functions define what is known as the "1931 CIE standard observer". Note that rather than specify the brightness of each primary, the curves are normalized to have constant area beneath them. This area is fixed to a particular value by specifying that


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The resulting normalized color matching functions are then scaled in the r:g:b ratio of 1:4.5907:0.0601 for source luminance and 72.0962:1.3791:1 for source radiance to reproduce the true color matching functions. By proposing that the primaries be standardized, the CIE established an international system of objective color notation.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: These are all inner products and can be thought of as a projection of an infinite-dimensional spectrum to a three-dimensional color.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: One might ask: "Why is it possible that Wright and Guild's results can be summarized using different primaries and different intensities from those actually used?" One might also ask: "What about the case when the test colors being matched are not monochromatic?" The answer to both of these questions lies in the (near) linearity of human color perception. This linearity is expressed in Grassmann's laws of color.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The CIE RGB space can be used to define chromaticity in the usual way: The chromaticity coordinates are "r", "g" and "b" where:


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: Having developed an RGB model of human vision using the CIE RGB matching functions, the members of the special commission wished to develop another color space that would relate to the CIE RGB color space. It was assumed that Grassmann's law held, and the new space would be related to the CIE RGB space by a linear transformation. The new space would be defined in terms of three new color matching functions


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: formula_2, formula_3, and formula_4 as described above. The new color space would be chosen to have the following desirable properties:


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: In geometrical terms, choosing the new color space amounts to choosing a new triangle in "rg" chromaticity space. In the figure above-right, the "rg" chromaticity coordinates are shown on the two axes in black, along with the gamut of the 1931 standard observer. Shown in red are the CIE "xy" chromaticity axes which were determined by the above requirements. The requirement that the XYZ coordinates be non-negative means that the triangle formed by C, C, C must encompass the entire gamut of the standard observer. The line connecting C and C is fixed by the requirement that the formula_3 function be equal to the luminance function. This line is the line of zero luminance, and is called the alychne. The requirement that the formula_4 function be zero above means that the line connecting C and C must be tangent to the gamut in the region of K. This defines the location of point C. The requirement that the equal energy point be defined by puts a restriction on the line joining C and C, and finally, the requirement that the gamut fill the space puts a second restriction on this line to be very close to the gamut in the green region, which specifies the location of C and C. The above described transformation is a linear transformation from the CIE RGB space to XYZ space. The standardized transformation settled upon by the CIE special commission was as follows:


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The numbers in the conversion matrix below are exact, with the number of digits specified in CIE standards.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The above matrix is balanced for the equi-energy stimulus: it has coordinates (1,1,1) in both RGB and XYZ coordinates.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: While the above matrix is exactly specified in standards, the inverse is left unspecified so that it can be approximated to machine precision to reduce round-trip rounding errors. Its values can be computed precisely using rational numbers:


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: The integrals of the XYZ color matching functions must all be equal by requirement 3 above, and this is set by the integral of the photopic luminous efficiency function by requirement 2 above. The tabulated sensitivity curves have a certain amount of arbitrariness in them. The shapes of the individual "X", "Y" and "Z" sensitivity curves can be measured with a reasonable accuracy. However, the overall luminosity curve (which in fact is a weighted sum of these three curves) is subjective, since it involves asking a test person whether two light sources have the same brightness, even if they are in completely different colors. Along the same lines, the relative magnitudes of the "X", "Y", and "Z" curves are arbitrary. Furthermore, one could define a valid color space with an "X" sensitivity curve that has twice the amplitude. This new color space would have a different shape. The sensitivity curves in the CIE 1931 and 1964 XYZ color spaces are scaled to have equal areas under the curves.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: A few other XYZ-style color-matching functions have been available. These functions imply their own XYZ-like and xyY-like color spaces.


title: CIE 1931 color space

text: According to Konica Minolta, the older CIE 1931 CMF exhibits metamerism failure (failure to predict when colors appear the same) for wide color gamut displays containing narrowband emitters like OLED, whereas the 2015 XYZ CMF is not affected. Older Sony manuals recommend using the Judd-Vos correction by applying an offset to the white point depending on the display technology used.


title: Rashid bin Mohammed Al Maktoum

text: Rashid bin Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum (; 12 November 1981 – 19 September 2015) was the eldest son of United Arab Emirates Vice President and Prime Minister and Dubai Ruler Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum and Sheikha Hind bint Maktoum bin Juma Al Maktoum. He died at age 33 of a heart attack.


title: Rashid bin Mohammed Al Maktoum

text: Rashid was one of Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum's many children. He was born on 12 November 1981. Rashid was educated in Dubai at the Rashid School for Boys. He then attended Sandhurst Military Academy in the United Kingdom and graduated in 2002.


title: Rashid bin Mohammed Al Maktoum

text: Rashid was overlooked from the position of Crown Prince of Dubai. In a confidential memo sent from the U.S. consulate in Dubai back to Washington – published by WikiLeaks – acting consul general David Williams wrote: "It is alleged that Rashid killed an assistant in the Ruler's office, thereby forfeiting his opportunity to be heir." His father Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum appointed his younger brother Hamdan crown prince in 2008.


title: Rashid bin Mohammed Al Maktoum

text: Rashid was a well-known sports figure in the UAE. He participated in a number of International and local Equestrian Endurance competitions winning a number of laurels. His greatest achievement was winning two gold medals in the 2006 Asian Games 120 km Endurance individual mixed as well as 120 km Endurance Team Mixed events. He owned Zabeel Racing, the Dubai stables where his horses were trained. Rashid led the individual owners list an unprecedented five times with over 428 wins. He was also a football fan; his favourite club was Manchester United.


title: Rashid bin Mohammed Al Maktoum

text: In January 2006 Rashid was appointed president of the UAE Olympic Committee but he later resigned from his position. He also served as president of Dubai Cultural and Sports Club.


title: Rashid bin Mohammed Al Maktoum

text: According to the United Arab Emirates state news agency WAM, Rashid died of a heart attack on the morning of 19 September 2015. He was 33 years old. Yemeni media claimed Rashid was killed by Houthi forces in Marib province of Yemen. Other sources claimed that he was a drug user. A three-day mourning period was declared in Dubai upon his death, and the United Arab Emirates flags were flown at half mast. Funeral prayers were held after Maghrib prayers at Zabeel Mosque. His burial took place on the same day in Bur Dubai's Umm Hurair cemetery.


title: Direct Action Day

text: Direct Action Day (16 August 1946), also known as the 1946 Calcutta Killings, was a day of nationwide communal riots. It led to large-scale violence between Muslims and Hindus in the city of Calcutta (now known as Kolkata) in the Bengal province of British India. The day also marked the start of what is known as "The Week of the Long Knives". While there is a certain degree of consensus on the magnitude of the killings (although no precise casualty figures are available), including their short-term consequences, controversy remains regarding the exact sequence of events, the various actors' responsibility and the long-term political consequences.


title: Direct Action Day

text: Controversy still rages about the respective responsibilities of the two main communities, the Hindus and the Muslims, in addition to individual leaders' roles in the carnage. The dominant British view tends to blame both communities equally and to single out the calculations of the leaders and the savagery of the followers for whom were criminal elements. In the Congress’ version of the events, the blame tends to be squarely laid on the Muslim League and in particular on the Chief Minister of Bengal, Suhrawardy. The view from the Muslim League, which is partly upheld in Bangladesh, the successor state to East Pakistan, is that Congress and the Hindus in fact used the opportunity offered by Direct Action Day to teach the Muslims in Calcutta a lesson and to kill them in great numbers. Thus, the riots opened the way to a partition of Bengal between a Hindu-dominated Western Bengal including Calcutta and a Muslim-dominated Eastern Bengal (now Bangladesh).


title: Direct Action Day

text: The All-India Muslim League and the Indian National Congress were the two largest political parties in the Constituent Assembly of India in the 1940s. The Muslim League had demanded since its 1940 Lahore Resolution for the Muslim-majority areas of India in the northwest and the east to be constituted as 'independent states'. The 1946 Cabinet Mission to India for planning of the transfer of power from the British Raj to the Indian leadership proposed a three-tier structure: a centre, groups of provinces and provinces. The "groups of provinces" were meant to accommodate the Muslim League's demand. Both the Muslim League and the Congress in principle accepted the Cabinet Mission's plan. However, the Muslim League suspected the Congress's acceptance to be insincere.


title: Direct Action Day

text: Consequently, in July 1946, the Muslim League withdrew its agreement to the plan and announced a general strike ("hartal") on 16 August, terming it Direct Action Day, to assert its demand for a separate homeland for Muslims in certain northwestern and eastern provinces in colonial India. Calling for Direct Action Day, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the leader of the All India Muslim League, said that he wanted 'either a divided India or a destroyed India'.


title: Direct Action Day

text: Against a backdrop of communal tension, the protest triggered massive riots in Calcutta. More than 4,000 people died and 100,000 residents were left homeless in Calcutta within 72 hours. The violence sparked off further religious riots in the surrounding regions of Noakhali, Bihar, United Provinces (modern Uttar Pradesh), Punjab and the North Western Frontier Province. The events sowed the seeds for the eventual Partition of India.


title: Direct Action Day

text: In 1946, the Indian independence movement against the British Raj had reached a pivotal stage. British Prime Minister Clement Attlee sent a three-member Cabinet Mission to India aimed at discussing and finalizing plans for the transfer of power from the British Raj to the Indian leadership. After holding talks with the representatives of the Indian National Congress and the All India Muslim League—the two largest political parties in the Constituent Assembly of India—on 16 May 1946, the Mission proposed a plan of composition of the new Dominion of India and its government.


title: Direct Action Day

text: The Muslim League demand for 'autonomous and sovereign' states in the northwest and the east was accommodated by creating a new tier of 'groups of provinces' between the provincial layer and the central government. The central government was expected to handle the subjects of defence, external affairs and communications. All other powers would be relegated to the 'groups'.


title: Direct Action Day

text: Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the one time Congressman and now the leader of the Muslim League, had accepted the Cabinet Mission Plan of 16 June, as had the central presidium of the Congress. On 10 July, however, Jawaharlal Nehru, the Congress President, held a press conference in Bombay declaring that although the Congress had agreed to participate in the Constituent Assembly, it reserved the right to modify the Cabinet Mission Plan as it saw fit. Fearing Hindu domination in the central government, the Muslim League politicians pressed Jinnah to revert to "his earlier unbending stance". Jinnah rejected the British Cabinet Mission plan for transfer of power to an interim government which would combine both the Muslim League and the Indian National Congress, and decided to boycott the Constituent Assembly. In July 1946, Jinnah held a press conference at his home in Bombay. He proclaimed that the Muslim league was "preparing to launch a struggle" and that they "have chalked out a plan". He said that if the Muslims were not granted a separate Pakistan then they would launch "direct action". When asked to be specific, Jinnah retorted: "Go to the Congress and ask them their plans. When they take you into their confidence I will take you into mine. Why do you expect me alone to sit with folded hands? I also am going to make trouble."


title: Direct Action Day

text: The next day, Jinnah announced 16 August 1946 would be "Direct Action Day" and warned Congress, "We do not want war. If you want war we accept your offer unhesitatingly. We will either have a divided India or a destroyed India."


title: Direct Action Day

text: In his book "The Great Divide", H V Hodson recounted, "The Working Committee followed up by calling on Muslims throughout India to observe 16th August as 'Direct Action Day'. On that day, meetings would be held all over the country to explain the League's resolution. These meetings and processions passed off–as was manifestly the central League leaders' intention–without more than commonplace and limited disturbances, with one vast and tragic exception ... What happened was more than anyone could have foreseen."


title: Direct Action Day

text: In "Muslim Societies: Historical and Comparative Aspects", edited by Sato Tsugitaka, Nakazato Nariaki writes:


title: Direct Action Day

text: Since the 11–14 February 1946 riots in Calcutta, communal tension had been high. Hindu and Muslim newspapers whipped up public sentiment with inflammatory and highly partisan reporting that heightened antagonism between the two communities.


title: Direct Action Day

text: Following Jinnah's declaration of 16 August as the Direct Action Day, acting on the advice of R.L. Walker, the then Chief Secretary of Bengal, the Muslim League Chief Minister of Bengal, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, requested Governor of Bengal Sir Frederick Burrows to declare a public holiday on that day. Governor Burrows agreed. Walker made this proposal with the hope that the risk of conflicts, especially those related to picketing, would be minimized if government offices, commercial houses and shops remained closed throughout Calcutta on 16 August. The Bengal Congress protested against the declaration of a public holiday, arguing that a holiday would enable 'the idle folks' to successfully enforce "hartals" in areas where the Muslim League leadership was uncertain. Congress accused the League government of "having indulged in 'communal politics' for a narrow goal". Congress leaders thought that if a public holiday was observed, its own supporters would have no choice but to close down their offices and shops, and thus be compelled against their will to lend a hand in the Muslim League's "hartal". On 14 August, Kiron Shankar Roy, a leader of the Congress Party in the Bengal Legislative Assembly, called on Hindu shopkeepers to not observe the public holiday, and keep their businesses open in defiance of the "hartal". In essence, there was an element of pride involved in that the monopolistic position that the Congress had hitherto enjoyed in imposing and enforcing hartals, strikes, etc. was being challenged. However, the League went ahead with the declaration, and Muslim newspapers published the programme for the day.


title: Direct Action Day

text: The "Star of India", an influential local Muslim newspaper, edited by Raghib Ahsan Muslim League MLA from Calcutta published detailed programme for the day. The programme called for complete "hartal" and general strike in all spheres of civic, commercial and industrial life except essential services. The notice proclaimed that processions would start from multiple parts of Calcutta, Howrah, Hooghly, Metiabruz and 24 Parganas, and would converge at the foot of the Ochterlony Monument (now known as Shaheed Minar) where a joint mass rally presided over by Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy would be held. The Muslim League branches were advised to depute three workers in every mosque in every ward to explain the League's action plan before "Juma" prayers. Moreover, special prayers were arranged in every mosque on Friday after "Juma" prayers for the freedom of Muslim India. The notice drew divine inspiration from the Quran, emphasizing on the coincidence of Direct Action Day with the holy month of "Ramzaan", claiming that the upcoming protests were an allegory of Prophet Muhammad's conflict with heathenism and subsequent conquest of Mecca and establishment of the kingdom of Heaven in Arabia.


title: Direct Action Day

text: Hindu public opinion was mobilized around the "Akhand Hindusthan" (United India) slogan. Certain Congress leaders in Bengal imbibed a strong sense of Hindu identity, especially in view of the perceived threat from the possibility of marginalizing themselves into minority against the onslaught of the Pakistan movement. Such mobilization along communal lines was partly successful due to a concerted propaganda campaign which resulted in a 'legitimization of communal solidarities'.


title: Direct Action Day

text: On the other hand, following the protests against the British after INA trials, the British administration decided to give more importance to protests against the government, rather than management of communal violence within the Indian populace, according to their "Emergency Action Scheme". Frederick Burrows, the Governor of Bengal, rationalized the declaration of "public holiday" in his report to Lord Wavell —


title: Direct Action Day

text: Suhrawardy put forth a great deal of effort to bring reluctant British officials around to calling the army in from Sealdah Rest Camp. Unfortunately, British officials did not send the army out until 1.45 am on 17 August.


title: Direct Action Day

text: Troubles started on the morning of 16 August. Even before 10 o'clock Police Headquarters at Lalbazar had reported that there was excitement throughout the city, that shops were being forced to close, and that there were many reports of brawls, stabbing and throwing of stones and brickbats. These were mainly concentrated in the North-central parts of the city like Rajabazar, Kelabagan, College Street, Harrison Road, Colootolla and Burrazar. Several of these areas had also been rocked by communal riots in December 1910. In these areas the Hindus were in a majority and were also in a superior and powerful economic position. The trouble had assumed the communal character which it was to retain throughout. The League's rally began at Ochterlony Monument at noon exactly. The gathering was considered as the 'largest ever Muslim assembly in Bengal' at that time.


title: Direct Action Day

text: The meeting began around 2 pm though processions of Muslims from all parts of Calcutta had started assembling since the midday prayers. A large number of the participants were reported to have been armed with iron bars and "lathis" (bamboo sticks). The numbers attending were estimated by a Central Intelligence Officer's reporter at 30,000 and by a Special Branch Inspector of Calcutta Police at 500,000. The latter figure is impossibly high and the "Star of India" reporter put it at about 100,000. The main speakers were Khawaja Nazimuddin and Chief Minister Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy. Khwaja Nazimuddin in his speech preached peacefulness and restraint but spoilt the effect and flared up the tensions by stating that till 11 o'clock that morning all the injured persons were Muslims, and the Muslim community had only retaliated in self-defence.


title: Direct Action Day

text: The Special Branch of Calcutta Police had sent only one shorthand reporter to the meeting, with the result that no transcript of the Chief Minister's speech is available. But the Central Intelligence Officer and a reporter, who Frederick Burrows believed was reliable, deputed by the military authorities agree on one statement (not reported at all by the Calcutta Police). The version in the former's report was—"He [the Chief Minister] had seen to police and military arrangements who would not interfere". The version of the latter's was—"He had been able to restrain the military and the police". However, the police did not receive any specific order to "hold back". So, whatever Suhrawardy may have meant to convey by this, the impression of such a statement on a largely uneducated audience is construed by some to be an open invitation to disorder indeed, many of the listeners are reported to have started attacking Hindus and looting Hindu shops as soon as they left the meeting. Subsequently, there were reports of lorries (trucks) that came down Harrison Road in Calcutta, carrying hardline Muslim gangsters armed with brickbats and bottles as weapons and attacking Hindu-owned shops.


title: Direct Action Day

text: A 6 pm curfew was imposed in the parts of the city where there had been rioting. At 8 pm forces were deployed to secure main routes and conduct patrols from those arteries, thereby freeing up police for work in the slums and the other underdeveloped sections.


title: Direct Action Day

text: On 17 August, Syed Abdullah Farooqui, the President of Garden Reach Textile Workers' Union, along with Elian Mistry, a hardline Muslim hooligan, led a huge armed mob into the mill compound of Kesoram Cotton Mills in the Lichubagan area of Metiabruz . The mill workers, among whom were a substantial number of Odias, used to stay in the mill compound itself. On 25 August, four survivors lodged a complaint at the Metiabruz police station against Farooqui. Bishwanath Das, a Minister in the Government of Orissa, visited Lichubagan to investigate into the killings of the Oriya labourers of Kesoram Cotton Mills. Some sources estimate that the death toll was 10,000 or more. Many authors claim that Hindus were the primary victims.


title: Direct Action Day

text: The worst of the killing took place during the day on 17 August. By late afternoon, soldiers brought the worst areas under control and the military expanded its hold overnight. In the slums and other areas, however, which were still outside military control, lawlessness and rioting escalated hourly. In the morning of 18 August, "Buses and taxis were charging about loaded with Sikhs and Hindus armed with swords, iron bars and firearms."


title: Direct Action Day

text: Skirmishes between the communities continued for almost a week. Finally, on 21 August, Bengal was put under Viceroy's rule. 5 battalions of British troops, supported by 4 battalions of Indians and Gurkhas, were deployed in the city. Lord Wavell alleged that more troops ought to have been called in earlier, and there is no indication that more British troops were not available. The rioting reduced on 22 August.


title: Direct Action Day

text: Violence in Calcutta, between 1945 and 1946, passed by stages from Indian versus European to Hindu versus Muslim. Indian Christians and Europeans were generally free from molestation as the tempo of Hindu-Muslim violence quickened. The decline of anti-European feelings as communal Hindu-Muslim tensions increased during this period is evident from the casualty numbers. During the riots of November 1945, casualty of Europeans and Christians were 46; in the riots of the 10–14 February 1946, 35; from 15 February to 15 August, only 3; during the Calcutta riots from 15 August 1946 to 17 September 1946, none.


title: Direct Action Day

text: Kolkata had a Hindu population of 2,952,142, Muslim population of 1,099,562, Sikh population of 12,852 as per 1946 year before partition and after independence Muslims population came down to just 601,817 due to the migration of 5 lakhs Muslims from Kolkata to East Pakistan after the riot. The 1951 Census of India recorded that 27% of Kolkata's population was East Bengali refugees mainly Hindu Bengalis and they contributed the economic growth of Kolkata in various fields just after settlement. Millions of Bengali Hindus from East Pakistan had taken refuge mainly in the city and a number of estimations shows that around 3.2 lakhs Hindus from East Pakistan had immigrated to Kolkata alone during 1946–1950 period. The first census after partition shows that in Kolkata from 1941 to 1951 the number of Hindus increased while the number of Muslims decreased, causing the ratio of Hindus to Muslims in the city to rise from 3:1 in 1941 to 7:1 in 1951. According to 2011 census, Kolkata city have a Hindu population of (76.51%); 3,440,290, Muslim population of (20.6%); 926,414, Sikh population of (0.31%); 13,849 out of 4,496,694 people.


title: Direct Action Day

text: During the riots, thousands began fleeing Calcutta. For several days the Howrah Bridge over the Hooghly River was crowded with evacuees headed for the Howrah station to escape the mayhem in Calcutta. Many of them would not escape the violence that spread out into the region outside Calcutta. Lord Wavell claimed during his meeting on 27 August 1946 that Mahatma Gandhi had told him, "If India wants bloodbath she shall have it ... if a bloodbath was necessary, it would come about in spite of non-violence".


title: Direct Action Day

text: There was criticism of Suhrawardy, Chief Minister in charge of the Home Portfolio in Calcutta, for being partisan and of Sir Frederick John Burrows, the British Governor of Bengal, for not having taken control of the situation. The Chief Minister spent a great deal of time in the Control Room in the Police Headquarters at Lalbazar, often attended by some of his supporters. Short of a direct order from the Governor, there was no way of preventing the Chief Minister from visiting the Control Room whenever he liked; and Governor Burrows was not prepared to give such an order, as it would clearly have indicated complete lack of faith in him.


title: Direct Action Day

text: Prominent Muslim League leaders spent a great deal of time in police control rooms directing operations and the role of Suhrawardy in obstructing police duties is documented.


title: Direct Action Day

text: Both the British and Congress blamed Jinnah for calling the Direct Action Day and the Muslim League was seen responsible for stirring up the Muslim nationalist sentiment.


title: Direct Action Day

text: There are several views on the exact cause of the Direct Action Day riots. The Hindu press blamed the Suhrawardy Government and the Muslim League. According to the authorities, riots were instigated by members of the Muslim League and its affiliate Volunteer Corps, in the city in order to enforce the declaration by the Muslim League that Muslims were to 'suspend all business' to support their demand for an independent Pakistan. However, supporters of the Muslim League believed that the Congress Party was behind the violence in an effort to weaken the fragile Muslim League government in Bengal. Historian Joya Chatterji allocates much of the responsibility to Suhrawardy, for setting up the confrontation and failing to stop the rioting, but points out that Hindu leaders were also culpable. Members of the Indian National Congress, including Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru responded negatively to the riots and expressed shock. The riots would lead to further rioting and pogroms between Hindus and Sikhs and Muslims.


title: Direct Action Day

text: The Direct Action Day riots sparked off several riots between Muslims and Hindus/Sikhs in Noakhali, Bihar, and Punjab in that year.


title: Direct Action Day

text: An important sequel to Direct Action Day was the massacre in Noakhali and Tippera districts in October 1946. News of the Great Calcutta Riot touched off the Noakhali–Tippera riot in reaction. However, the violence was different in nature from Calcutta.


title: Direct Action Day

text: Rioting in the districts began on 10 October 1946 in the area of northern Noakhali district under Ramganj police station. The violence unleashed was described as "the organized fury of the Muslim mob". It soon engulfed the neighbouring police stations of Raipur, Lakshmipur, Begumganj and Sandip in Noakhali, and Faridganj, Hajiganj, Chandpur, Laksham and Chudagram in Tippera. The disruption caused by the widespread violence was extensive, making it difficult to accurately establish the number of casualties. Official estimates put the number of dead between 200 and 300. After the riots were stopped in Noakhali, the Muslim League claimed that only 500 Hindus were killed in the mayhem, but the survivors opined that more than 50,000 Hindus were killed. According to Francis Tuker, who at the time of the disturbances was General Officer Commanding-in-Chief, Eastern Command, India, the Hindu press intentionally and grossly exaggerated reports of disorder. The neutral and widely accepted death toll figure is around 5000.


title: Direct Action Day

text: According to Governor Burrows, "the immediate occasion for the outbreak of the disturbances was the looting of a Bazar [market] in Ramganj police station following the holding of a mass meeting." This included attacks on the place of business of Surendra Nath Bose and Rajendra Lal Roy Choudhury, the erstwhile president of the Noakhali Bar and a prominent Hindu Mahasabha leader.


title: Direct Action Day

text: A devastating riot rocked Bihar towards the end of 1946. Between 30 October and 7 November, a large-scale massacre in Bihar brought Partition closer to inevitability. Severe violence broke out in Chhapra and Saran district, between 25 and 28 October. Very soon Patna, Munger and Bhagalpur also became the sites of serious violence. Begun as a reprisal for the Noakhali riot, whose death toll had been greatly overstated in immediate reports, it was difficult for authorities to deal with because it was spread out over a large area of scattered villages, and the number of casualties was impossible to establish accurately: "According to a subsequent statement in the British Parliament, the death-toll amounted to 5,000. "The Statesman"'s estimate was between 7,500 and 10,000; the Congress party admitted to 2,000; Jinnah claimed about 30,000." However, By 3 November, the official estimate put the figure of death at only 445.


title: Direct Action Day

text: Some of the worst rioting also took place in Garhmukteshwar in United Provinces where a massacre occurred in November 1946, in which "Hindu pilgrims, at the annual religious fair, set upon and exterminated Muslims, not only on the festival grounds but in the adjacent town" while the police did little or nothing; the deaths were estimated at between 1,000 and 2,000.


title: General Electric F110

text: The General Electric F110 is an afterburning turbofan jet engine produced by GE Aviation. The engine is derived from the General Electric F101 and shares its core design, and primarily powers tactical fighter aircraft. The F118 is a non-afterburning variant of the F110. The engine is also license-built in Eskisehir, Turkey by TUSAŞ Engine Industries (TEI).


title: General Electric F110

text: The F110 emerged from an intersection of efforts in the 1970s by General Electric to reenter the U.S. fighter engine market and the U.S. Air Force's desire to address the reliability, longevity, and maintenance issues with the Pratt & Whitney F100 engines that powered its F-15s and F-16s. In 1975, General Electric used its own funds to begin developing the F101X, a derivative of its F101 engine for the B-1 bomber; the F101X would inherit much of the core design while having a smaller fan so that its thermodynamic cycle and thrust was better suited for a fighter engine. The cancellation of the B-1A by the Carter Administration (in lieu of the Advanced Technology Bomber which became the B-2) meant a loss of business for General Electric, and provided further impetus to provide the F101X for the fighter engine market. The engine attracted the interest of the Air Force's Engine Model Derivative Program (EMDP), and in 1979 began funding it as the F101 Derivative Fighter Engine, or F101 DFE. The Air Force saw the F101 DFE as a potential alternative to the F100 and also a way to coerce better performance from Pratt & Whitney in addressing issues with the F100.


title: General Electric F110

text: Following the completion of ground tests in 1980, the F101 DFE was first fitted on an F-16 for flight testing, where it showed considerable improvement in performance and operability over the existing F100. In 1982, the Air Force began the full-scale development of the F101 DFE as an option to compete with the F100 for application in future F-15 and F-16 production; the engine was eventually designated the F110-GE-100. The threat by the F110 has been cited as a reason for Pratt & Whitney to more quickly rectify the issues affecting the F100 and developing the improved F100-PW-220 variant. Seeking to drive unit costs down and improve contractor performance, the Air Force implemented the Alternative Fighter Engine (AFE) competition between the F100 and F110 in 1983 in what was nicknamed "The Great Engine War", where the engine contract would be awarded through competition. The Air Force would buy both engines starting in 1984, with contracts being competed every fiscal year and the percentages of F100 versus F110 would vary based on contract; the competitions eventually ended in 1992.


title: General Electric F110

text: The F101 DFE was also tested in the F-14B prototype in 1981, and the aircraft saw considerable performance improvement over the existing Pratt & Whitney TF30. Although further testing was halted by the Navy in 1982, it would use the results of the Air Force's AFE evaluation to choose the powerplant for future F-14s. The F101 DFE was eventually chosen and was designated the F110-GE-400.


title: General Electric F110

text: The F110-GE-100/400 is a low-bypass axial-flow afterburning turbofan. It has a 3-stage fan driven by a two-stage low-pressure turbine and a 9-stage compressor driven by a one-stage high-pressure turbine. In contrast to the ambitious performance goals for the F100 of high thrust and low weight, the F110 placed a greater emphasis on balancing between reliability, operability, and performance. The engine has an electronic and hydromechanical control system that was much more forgiving of rapid throttle inputs. The -100/400 had an uninstalled thrust of in intermediate power and in afterburner.


title: General Electric F110

text: In the mid-1980s, the Air Force sought greater power for its tactical fighters and began Improved Performance Engine (IPE) programs for the F100 and F110, with the goal of achieving thrust in the class, while retaining the durability achieved in the F100-PW-220 and F110-GE-100. The result would be the Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-229 and General Electric F110-GE-129. Compared to the -100, the -129 incorporated component improvements, including a full authority digital engine control (FADEC), that allowed maximum thrust to be achieved in a wider range of conditions and across larger portions of the flight envelope, while retaining 80% commonality. The -129 was first fielded in 1992.


title: General Electric F110

text: A non-afterburning variant of the F110, designated the F118, would power the B-2 stealth bomber and the re-engined U-2S reconnaissance aircraft. A variant of the F110-GE-100 fitted with a 3-dimensional axisymmetric thrust vectoring nozzle, referred by General Electric as the Axisymmetric Vectoring Exhaust Nozzle (AVEN), was tested on a specially modified F-16 called the NF-16D VISTA under the Multi-Axis Thrust-Vectoring (MATV) program.


title: General Electric F110

text: The F110 would see the development of a further enhanced variant starting in 2000 with the F110-GE-132, initially referred to as the F110-GE-129EFE (Enhanced Fighter Engine). The -132 incorporates an improved fan that is more efficient and can increase maximum airflow, composite fan duct, durability improvements to the hot section, radial augmentor (or afterburner), and control system improvements. The engine leveraged research performed under the Integrated High Performance Turbine Engine Technology (IHPTET) program. The -132 produces in afterburner but can also be tuned to run at -129 thrust levels to increase inspection intervals; the older -129 can be upgraded to the -132 configuration. The F110-GE-132 was selected to power the F-16E/F Block 60 for the United Arab Emirates. Engine flight tests began in 2003, and first delivery was in 2005.


title: General Electric F110

text: The F-14A entered service with the United States Navy in 1973 powered by Pratt & Whitney TF30s. By the end of the decade, following numerous problems with the original engine (and similar problems with the F100 on the F-15 and F-16), the DoD began procuring the upgraded TF30-P-414As. While these engines solved the serviceability problems, the fuel consumption and thrust was comparable to the initial model—considerably less than what the F-14 had been designed for.


title: General Electric F110

text: After reviewing the results of the Air Force's AFE evaluation, the Navy would choose the F101 DFE to re-engine the F-14 in 1984, with the variant designated the F110-GE-400; the primary difference between the -400 and the Air Force's F110-GE-100 is length — the -400 had a tailpipe extension to suit the F-14 airframe, which was fitted downstream of the augmentor (afterburner section). The engine produced of uninstalled thrust with afterburner; installed thrust is with afterburner at sea level, which rose to at Mach 0.9. This provided a significant increase over the TF30's maximum uninstalled thrust of 20,900 lbf (93 kN). These upgraded jets were initially known as F-14A+ before being re-designated as the F-14B, as were production aircraft powered by the F110. The same engine also powered the final variant of the aircraft, the F-14D. Proposed upgraded variants of the F-14, such as the ST-21, were to be powered by the F110-GE-429, the naval variant of the F110-GE-129 IPE.


title: General Electric F110

text: The F-16 Fighting Falcon entered service powered by the Pratt & Whitney F100 afterburning turbofan. Seeking a way to drive unit costs down, the USAF implemented the Alternative Fighter Engine (AFE) program in 1984, under which the engine contract would be awarded through competition. The F110 currently powers 86% of the USAF F-16C/Ds (June 2005). The F110-GE-100 provides around more thrust than the F100-PW-200 but requires more airflow, which led to the increase in the area of the engine intake; the F-16C/D Block 30/32s were the first to be built with a common engine bay, able to accept both engines, with Block 30s having the bigger inlet (known as "Big Mouth") and Block 32s retaining the standard inlet.


title: General Electric F110

text: The F-16 Block 30 and 40 were powered by the F110-GE-100, while the Block 50 was powered by the F110-GE-129 IPE. The United Arab Emirates' F-16E/F Block 60 is powered by the F110-GE-132, as was the proposed Lockheed Martin-Tata F-21, initially designated F-16IN and based on the Block 60, for the Indian Air Force MMRCA competition. Derivatives of the F-16, the Mitsubishi F-2 and the General Dynamics F-16XL, are powered by the -129 IPE.


title: General Electric F110

text: Although the Air Force chose the Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-229 as the IPE for the F-15E Strike Eagle, a pair of F110-GE-129s were mounted on one aircraft for flight testing. South Korea would choose the -129 to power 40 F-15K fighters, the first time production F-15s were powered by a General Electric engine. The engines were manufactured through a joint licensing agreement with Samsung Techwin Company. It has also been chosen by the Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) to power its F-15SG.


title: General Electric F110

text: The F-15E would be further developed into the Advanced Eagle with a new fly-by-wire control system that incorporates the F110-GE-129's FADEC. The Advanced Eagle would be the basis for Saudi Arabia's F-15SA, Qatar's F-15QA, and the U.S. Air Force F-15EX.


title: Ēostre

text: By way of linguistic reconstruction, the matter of a goddess called in the Proto-Germanic language has been examined in detail since the foundation of Germanic philology in the 19th century by scholar Jacob Grimm and others. As the Germanic languages descend from Proto-Indo-European (PIE), historical linguists have traced the name to a Proto-Indo-European goddess of the dawn *', from which may descend the Common Germanic divinity at the origin of the Old English and the Old High German . Additionally, scholars have linked the goddess's name to a variety of Germanic personal names, a series of location names (toponyms) in England, and, discovered in 1958, over 150 inscriptions from the 2nd century CE referring to the '.


title: Ēostre

text: Theories connecting with records of Germanic Easter customs, including hares and eggs, have been proposed. Whether or not the goddess was an invention of Bede has been a debate among some scholars, particularly prior to the discovery of the " and further developments in Indo-European studies. Ēostre and Ostara are sometimes referenced in modern popular culture and are venerated in some forms of Germanic neopaganism.


title: Ēostre

text: The theonyms (Old English) and *"Ôstara" (Old High German) are cognates – linguistic siblings stemming from a common origin. They derive from the Proto-Germanic theonym , itself a descendant of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *"h₂ews-reh₂"- (cf. Baltic *"auš(t)ra" 'dawn, morning'), extended from the PIE root *"", meaning 'to shine, glow (red)'. The modern English "east" also derives from this root, via the Proto-Germanic adverb *"aust(e)raz" ('east, eastwards'), from an earlier PIE *"h₂ews-tero-" ('east, towards the dawn').


title: Ēostre

text: According to linguist Guus Kroonen, the Germanic and Baltic languages replaced the old formation *"h₂éws-os", the name of the PIE dawn-goddess, with a form in "-reh₂"-, likewise found in the Lithuanian deity "Aušrinė". In Anglo-Saxon England, her springtime festival gave its name to a month (Northumbrian: "", West Saxon: "Eastermonað"), the equivalent of April, then to the Christian feast of "Easter" that eventually displaced it. In southern Medieval Germany, the festival "Ôstarûn" similarly gave its name to the month "Ôstarmânôth", and to the modern feast of "Ostern" ('Easter'), suggesting that a goddess named *"Ôstara" was also worshipped there. The name of the month survived into 18th-century German as "Ostermonat". An Old Saxon equivalent of the spring goddess named *"Āsteron" may also be reconstructed from the term "asteronhus", which is translated by most scholars as 'Easter-house' (cf. Medieval Flemish "Paeshuys" 'Easter-house'). Frankish historian Einhard also writes in his "Vita Karoli Magni" (early 9th c. AD) that after Charlemagne defeated and converted the continental Saxons to Christianity, he gave Germanic names to the Latin months of the year, which included the Easter-month "Ostarmanoth".


title: Ēostre

text: The Old English is therefore a distant cognate of numerous other dawn goddesses attested among Indo-European-speaking peoples, including Uṣás, Ēṓs, and Aurōra. In the words of the "Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture", "a Proto-Indo-European goddess of the dawn is supported both by the evidence of cognate names and the similarity of mythic representation of the dawn goddess among various Indo-European groups. [...] All of this evidence permits us to posit a Proto-Indo-European *" 'goddess of dawn' who was characterized as a 'reluctant' bringer of light for which she is punished. In three of the Indo-European stocks, Baltic, Greek and Indo-Iranian, the existence of a Proto-Indo-European 'goddess of the dawn' is given additional linguistic support in that she is designated the 'daughter of heaven'."


title: Ēostre

text: Additionally, scholars have linked the goddess's name to a variety of Germanic personal names, a series of location names (toponyms) in England, and, discovered in 1958, over 150 inscriptions from the 2nd century CE referring to the ".


title: Ēostre

text: A cluster of place names in England contain and a variety of English and continental Germanic names include the element *, an early Old English word reconstructed by linguists and potentially an earlier form of the goddess name . The Council of Austerfield called by King Aldfrith of Northumbria shortly before 704 convened at a place described in contemporary records both as and , which have led to the site's being identified with Austerfield near Bawtry in South Yorkshire. Such locations also include Eastry (, 788 CE) in Kent, Eastrea (, 966 CE) in Cambridgeshire, and Eastrington (, 959 CE) in the East Riding of Yorkshire.


title: Ēostre

text: The element * also appears in the Old English name , a name borne by Bede's monastery abbot in Wearmouth–Jarrow and which appears an additional three times in the Durham. The name also appears in the , and is likely the ancestor of the Middle English name . Various continental Germanic names include the element, including "Austrechild", "Austrighysel", "Austrovald", and "Ostrulf".


title: Ēostre

text: In 1958, over 150 Romano-Germanic votive inscriptions to the , a triad of goddesses, were discovered near Morken-Harff, Germany. Most of these inscriptions are in an incomplete state, yet many are at least reasonably legible. Some of these inscriptions refer to the , evidently the name of a social group. The name of these goddesses certainly derives from the root "austri"-, which, if Germanic, would be cognate with the Old English "Eostre".


title: Ēostre

text: In chapter 15 (, "The English months") of his 8th-century work (""The Reckoning of Time""), Bede describes the indigenous month names of the English people. After describing the worship of the goddess Rheda during the Anglo-Saxon month of , Bede writes about "", the month of the goddess Ēostre:


title: Ēostre

text: Before the discovery of the "matronae Austriahenae" in 1958, scholarship on this topic frequently raised the question of whether Bede invented the deity.


title: Ēostre

text: In 1892, Charles J. Billson noted that scholars before his writing were divided about the existence of Bede's account of Ēostre, stating that "among authorities who have no doubt as to her existence are W. Grimm, Wackernagel, Sinrock , and Wolf. On the other hand, Weinhold rejects the idea on philological grounds, and so do Heinrich Leo and Hermann Oesre. Kuhn says, 'The Anglo-Saxon looks like an invention of Bede;' and Mannhardt also dismisses her as an etymological ." Billson wrote that "the whole question turns ... upon Bede's credibility", and that "one is inclined to agree with Grimm, that it would be uncritical to saddle this eminent Father of the Church, who keeps Heathendom at arms' length and tells us less of than he knows, with the invention of this goddess." Billson pointed out that the Christianization of England started at the end of the 6th century, and, by the 7th, was completed. Billson argued that, as Bede was born in 672, Bede must have had opportunities to learn the names of the native goddesses of the Anglo-Saxons, "who were hardly extinct in his lifetime."


title: Ēostre

text: According to philologist Rudolf Simek in 1984, despite expressions of doubts, Bede's account of should not be disregarded. Simek opined that a "spring-like fertility goddess" must be assumed rather than a "goddess of sunrise" regardless of the name, reasoning that "otherwise the Germanic goddesses (and matrons) are mostly connected with prosperity and growth". Simek pointed to a comparison with the goddess Rheda, also attested by Bede.


title: Ēostre

text: In 2011 Philip A. Shaw wrote that the subject has seen "a lengthy history of arguments for and against Bede's goddess , with some scholars taking fairly extreme positions on either side" and that some theories against the goddess have gained popular cultural prominence. Shaw noted that "much of this debate, however, was conducted in ignorance of a key piece of evidence, as it was not discovered until 1958. This evidence is furnished by over 150 Romano-Germanic votive inscriptions to deities named the , found near Morken-Harff and datable to around 150–250 AD". Most of these inscriptions are in an incomplete state, yet most are complete enough for reasonable clarity of the inscriptions. As early as 1966 scholars have linked these names etymologically with and an element found in Germanic personal names. Shaw argued against a functional interpretation of the available evidence and concluded that "the etymological connections of her name suggests that her worshippers saw her geographical and social relationship with them as more central than any functions she may have had".


title: Ēostre

text: In his 1835 , Jacob Grimm cites comparative evidence to reconstruct a potential continental Germanic goddess whose name would have been preserved in the Old High German name of Easter, *. Addressing skepticism towards goddesses mentioned by Bede, Grimm comments that "there is nothing improbable in them, nay the first of them is justified by clear traces in the vocabularies of Germanic tribes." Specifically regarding , Grimm continues that:


title: Ēostre

text: We Germans to this day call April , and is found as early as Eginhart (). The great Christian festival, which usually falls in April or the end of March, bears in the oldest of OHG remains the name ... it is mostly found in the plural, because two days ... were kept at Easter. This , like the [Anglo-Saxon] , must in heathen religion have denoted a higher being, whose worship was so firmly rooted, that the Christian teachers tolerated the name, and applied it to one of their own grandest anniversaries.