title: Greece–Turkey relations

text: The region is considered the end-point for east–west pipelines. In 2007, the countries inaugurated the Greek-Turkish natural gas pipeline giving Caspian gas its first direct Western outlet. The Caspian Sea is one of the oldest oil-producing regions: it's estimated to have 48 billion barrels of oil in proven and probable reserves. Its estimated it has 292 trillion cubic feet of natural gas. The opening up of these fields is recent after more than 20 years of negotiation following the 2018 A Convention on the legal status of the Caspian Sea. Outside of the Caspian Sea nations, there are other suppliers that wish to leverage the geographical positioning of the nations. Most recently, in May 2022, Greece signed a deal with Turkey's rival the UAE for the distribution of its liquefied natural gas.


title: Greece–Turkey relations

text: The treaty of Lausanne provided for the protection of the Greek Orthodox Christian minority in Turkey and the Muslim minority in Greece.


title: Greece–Turkey relations

text: Minorities in both countries since have been affected by the state of relations of the nations. They are used as a point of leverage, using the principle of reciprocity. For example, Turkey would put pressure on the Greek minority in Turkey when the Cyprus issue escalated in the 1960s. Turkey put the election of Muftis by the Muslim Turkish minority in Greece as a precondition for opening the Halki Seminary which was closed in 1971. Greece in 1972 as a reaction, closed the Turkish school in Rhodes. Turkey in recent years has used its cultural heritage, such as the Sumela Monastery, in order to achieve specific political ends.


title: Greece–Turkey relations

text: In recent years, the election of Muftis in Greece and the reopening of the Halki Seminary in Turkey have been most prominent. Issues around political authority and pre-conditions contribute to the stalemate.


title: Greece–Turkey relations

text: Former Greek prime minister George Papandreou has said the respective nations would benefit if they treated the minorities as citizens not foreigners.


title: Greece–Turkey relations

text: Turkey has become a transit country for people entering Europe. In 2015, the route that passes from Turkey to Greece and then through the Balkan countries became the most used route for migrants escaping conflicts and war in the Middle East and North Africa, with irregular migration from further East continuing. Turkey assumed the role of guardian of the Schengen Area, protecting it from irregular migration. This, combined with the migrant crisis – has resulted in it being a key issue between Turkey and the EU. People moving across the border of both nations are a common sight and frequent cause of incidents.


title: Greece–Turkey relations

text: In 2016, there was an EU-Turkey deal on migrant crisis. There was some success with the four-year agreement extended to 2022, but there have been several incidents and in 2019 the Greek government warned that a new migrant crisis similar to the previous one would repeat.


title: Greece–Turkey relations

text: During the 2010 trial for an alleged plot to stage a military coup dating back to 2003, named Sledgehammer, the conspirators were accused of planning attacks on mosques, triggering a conflict with Greece by shooting down one of Turkey's own warplanes and then accusing Greeks of this and planting bombs in Istanbul to pave the way for a military takeover.


title: Greece–Turkey relations

text: Greece over the years has arrested on many occasions members of the DHKP-C who planned attacks in Turkey. Turkey has accused Greece of supporting terrorists such as the DHKP-C.


title: Greece–Turkey relations

text: Turkey has seen a slide to authoritarianism resulting in Turkish refugees becoming more common, like politician Leyla Birlik accused of insulting the president. This is especially since the failed 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, where 995 people applied for asylum (including military personnel) immediately after More than 1,800 Turkish citizens requested asylum in Greece in 2017, including those who plotted the assassination Sometimes, this causes tensions between the nations in other areas.


title: Pantherinae

text: Pantherinae is a subfamily within the family Felidae; it was named and first described by Reginald Innes Pocock in 1917 as only including the "Panthera" species. The Pantherinae genetically diverged from a common ancestor between and .


title: Pantherinae

text: Pantherinae species are characterised by an imperfectly ossified hyoid bone with elastic tendons that enable their larynx to be mobile.


title: Pantherinae

text: They have a flat rhinarium that only barely reaches the dorsal side of the nose. The area between the nostrils is narrow, and not extended sidewards as in the Felinae.


title: Pantherinae

text: The "Panthera" species have a single, rounded, vocal fold with a thick mucosal lining, a large vocalis muscle, and a large cricothyroid muscle with long and narrow membranes. A vocal fold that is longer than enables all but the snow leopard among them to roar, as it has shorter vocal folds of that provide a lower resistance to airflow; this distinction was one reason it was proposed to be retained in the genus "Uncia".


title: Pantherinae

text: Pocock originally defined the Pantherinae as comprising the genera "Panthera" and "Uncia". Today, "Uncia" has been subsumed to "Panthera", and the genus "Neofelis" is also included.


title: Pantherinae

text: The following table shows the extant taxa within the Pantherinae, grouped according to the traditional phenotypical classification. Estimated genetic divergence times of the genotypical pantherine lineage are indicated in million years ago (mya), based on analysis of autosomal, xDNA, yDNA and mtDNA gene segments; and estimates based on analysis of biparental nuclear genomes.


title: Pantherinae

text: The Felidae originated in Central Asia in the Late Miocene; the subfamily Pantherinae diverged from the Felidae between and . Several fossil "Panthera" species were described:


title: Pantherinae

text: Results of a DNA-based study indicate that the tiger ("Panthera tigris") branched off first, followed by the jaguar ("P. onca"), the lion ("P. leo"), then the leopard ("P. pardus") and snow leopard ("P. uncia").


title: Pantherinae

text: "Felis pamiri", formerly referred to as "Metailurus", is now considered a probable relative of extant Pantherinae.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: Leishmaniasis is a wide array of clinical manifestations caused by parasites of the trypanosome genus "Leishmania". It is generally spread through the bite of phlebotomine sandflies, "Phlebotomus" and "Lutzomyia", and occurs most frequently in the tropics and sub-tropics of Africa, Asia, the Americas, and southern Europe. The disease can present in three main ways: cutaneous, mucocutaneous, or visceral. The cutaneous form presents with skin ulcers, while the mucocutaneous form presents with ulcers of the skin, mouth, and nose. The visceral form starts with skin ulcers and later presents with fever, low red blood cell count, and enlarged spleen and liver.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: Infections in humans are caused by more than 20 species of "Leishmania". Risk factors include poverty, malnutrition, deforestation, and urbanization. All three types can be diagnosed by seeing the parasites under microscopy. Additionally, visceral disease can be diagnosed by blood tests.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: Leishmaniasis can be partly prevented by sleeping under nets treated with insecticide. Other measures include spraying insecticides to kill sandflies and treating people with the disease early to prevent further spread. The treatment needed is determined by where the disease is acquired, the species of "Leishmania", and the type of infection. Some possible medications used for visceral disease include liposomal amphotericin B, a combination of pentavalent antimonials and paromomycin, and miltefosine. For cutaneous disease, paromomycin, fluconazole, or pentamidine may be effective.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: About 4 to 12 million people are currently infected in some 98 countries. About 2 million new cases and between 20 and 50 thousand deaths occur each year. About 200 million people in Asia, Africa, South and Central America, and southern Europe live in areas where the disease is common. The World Health Organization has obtained discounts on some medications to treat the disease. It is classified as a neglected tropical disease. The disease may occur in a number of other animals, including dogs and rodents.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: The symptoms of leishmaniasis are skin sores which erupt weeks to months after the person is bitten by infected sand flies.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: Leishmaniasis is considered one of the classic causes of a markedly enlarged (and therefore palpable) spleen; the organ, which is not normally felt during examination of the abdomen, may even become larger than the liver in severe cases.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: Leishmaniasis is transmitted by the bite of infected female phlebotomine sandflies which can transmit the protozoa "Leishmania". (1) The sandflies inject the infective stage, metacyclic promastigotes, during blood meals. (2) Metacyclic promastigotes in the puncture wound are phagocytized by macrophages, and (3) transform into amastigotes. (4) Amastigotes multiply in infected cells and affect different tissues, depending in part on the host, and in part on which "Leishmania" species is involved. These differing tissue specificities cause the differing clinical manifestations of the various forms of leishmaniasis. (5,6) Sandflies become infected during blood meals on infected hosts when they ingest macrophages infected with amastigotes. (7) In the sandfly's midgut, the parasites differentiate into promastigotes, (8) which multiply, differentiate into metacyclic promastigotes, and migrate to the proboscis.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: The genomes of three "Leishmania" species ("L. major", "L. infantum", and "L. braziliensis") have been sequenced, and this has provided much information about the biology of the parasite. For example, in "Leishmania", protein-coding genes are understood to be organized as large polycistronic units in a head-to-head or tail-to-tail manner; RNA polymerase II transcribes long polycistronic messages in the absence of defined RNA pol II promoters, and "Leishmania" has unique features with respect to the regulation of gene expression in response to changes in the environment. The new knowledge from these studies may help identify new targets for urgently needed drugs and aid the development of vaccines.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: Although most of the literature mentions only one genus transmitting "Leishmania" to humans ("Lutzomyia") in the New World, a 2003 study by Galati suggested a new classification for New World sand flies, elevating several subgenera to the genus level. Elsewhere in the world, the genus "Phlebotomus" is considered the vector of leishmaniasis.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: Some cases of infection of non-human animals of human-infecting species of Leishmania have been observed. In one study, "L. major" was identified in twelve out of ninety-one wild western lowland gorilla fecal samples and in a study of fifty-two captive non-human primates under zoo captivity in a leishmaniasis endemic area, eight (all three chimpanzees, three golden lion tamarins, a tufted capuchin, and an Angolan talapoin), were found to be infected with L. infantum and capable of infecting "Lutzomyia longipalpis" sand flies, although "parasite loads in infected sand flies observed in this study were considered low".


title: Leishmaniasis

text: Visceral disease is usually caused by "Leishmania donovani", "L. infantum", or "L. chagasi", but occasionally these species may cause other forms of disease. The cutaneous form of the disease is caused by more than 15 species of "Leishmania".


title: Leishmaniasis

text: Risk factors include malnutrition, deforestation, lack of sanitation, suppressed immune system and urbanization.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: Leishmaniasis is diagnosed in the hematology laboratory by direct visualization of the amastigotes (Leishman–Donovan bodies). Buffy-coat preparations of peripheral blood or aspirates from marrow, spleen, lymph nodes, or skin lesions should be spread on a slide to make a thin smear and stained with Leishman stain or Giemsa stain (pH 7.2) for 20 minutes. Amastigotes are seen within blood and spleen monocytes or, less commonly, in circulating neutrophils and in aspirated tissue macrophages. They are small, round bodies 2–4 μm in diameter with indistinct cytoplasm, a nucleus, and a small, rod-shaped kinetoplast. Occasionally, amastigotes may be seen lying free between cells. However, the retrieval of tissue samples is often painful for the patient and identification of the infected cells can be difficult. So, other indirect immunological methods of diagnosis are developed, including enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, antigen-coated dipsticks, and direct agglutination test. Although these tests are readily available, they are not the standard diagnostic tests due to their insufficient sensitivity and specificity.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: Several different polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests are available for the detection of "Leishmania" DNA. With this assay, a specific and sensitive diagnostic procedure is finally possible. The most sensitive PCR tests use minicircle kinetoplast DNA found in the parasite. Kinetoplast DNA contains sequences for mitochondrial proteins in its maxicircles(~25-50 per parasite), and guide RNA in its minicircles(~10'000 per parasite) of the kinetoplast. With this specific method, one can still detect Leishmania even with a very low parasite load. When needing to diagnose a specific species of Leishmania, as opposed to only detection, other PCR methods have been superior.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: Most forms of the disease are transmitted only from nonhuman animals, but some can be spread between humans. Infections in humans are caused by about 21 of 30 species that infect mammals; the different species look the same, but they can be differentiated by isoenzyme analysis, DNA sequence analysis, or monoclonal antibodies.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: The treatment is determined by where the disease is acquired, the species of "Leishmania", and the type of infection.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: For visceral leishmaniasis in India, South America, and the Mediterranean, liposomal amphotericin B is the recommended treatment and is often used as a single dose. Rates of cure with a single dose of amphotericin have been reported as 95%. In India, almost all infections are resistant to pentavalent antimonials. In Africa, a combination of pentavalent antimonials and paromomycin is recommended. These, however, can have significant side effects. Miltefosine, an oral medication, is effective against both visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis. Side effects are generally mild, though it can cause birth defects if taken within 3 months of getting pregnant. It does not appear to work for "L. major" or "L. braziliensis".


title: Leishmaniasis

text: The evidence around the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis is poor. A number of topical treatments may be used for cutaneous leishmaniasis. Which treatments are effective depends on the strain, with topical paromomycin effective for "L. major", "L. tropica", "L. mexicana", "L. panamensis", and "L. braziliensis". Pentamidine is effective for "L. guyanensis". Oral fluconazole or itraconazole appears effective in "L. major" and "L. tropica". There is limited evidence to support the use of heat therapy in cutaneous leishmaniasis as of 2015.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: There are no studies determining the effect of oral nutritional supplements on visceral leishmaniasis being treated with anti-leishmanial drug therapy.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: Out of 200 countries and territories reporting to WHO, 97 countries and territories are endemic for leishmaniasis. The settings in which leishmaniasis is found range from rainforests in Central and South America to deserts in western Asia and the Middle East. It affects as many as 12 million people worldwide, with 1.5–2.0 million new cases each year. The visceral form of leishmaniasis has an estimated incidence of 500,000 new


title: Leishmaniasis

text: cases. In 2014, more than 90% of new cases reported to WHO occurred in six countries: Brazil, Ethiopia, India, Somalia, South Sudan and Sudan. As of 2010, it caused about 52,000 deaths, down from 87,000 in 1990.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: Different types of the disease occur in different regions of the world. Cutaneous disease is most common in Afghanistan, Algeria, Brazil, Colombia, and Iran, while mucocutaneous disease is most common in Bolivia, Brazil, and Peru, and visceral disease is most common in Bangladesh, Brazil, Ethiopia, India, and Sudan.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: Leishmaniasis is found through much of the Americas from northern Argentina to South Texas, though not in Uruguay or Chile, and has recently been shown to be spreading to North Texas and Oklahoma, and further expansion to the north may be facilitated by climate change as more habitat becomes suitable for vector and reservoir species for leishmaniasis. Leishmaniasis is also known as "papalomoyo", "papa lo moyo," "úlcera de los chicleros", and "chiclera" in Latin America.<ref name="http://almanaqueept.net/"></ref> During 2004, an estimated 3,400 troops from the Colombian army, operating in the jungles near the south of the country (in particular around the Meta and Guaviare departments), were infected with leishmaniasis. Allegedly, a contributing factor was that many of the affected soldiers did not use the officially provided insect repellent because of its disturbing odor. Nearly 13,000 cases of the disease were recorded in all of Colombia throughout 2004, and about 360 new instances of the disease among soldiers had been reported in February 2005.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: The disease is found across much of Asia, and in the Middle East. Within Afghanistan, leishmaniasis occurs commonly in Kabul, partly due to bad sanitation and waste left uncollected in streets, allowing parasite-spreading sand flies an environment they find favorable. In Kabul, the number of people infected was estimated to be at least 200,000, and in three other towns (Herat, Kandahar, and Mazar-i-Sharif) about 70,000 more occurred, according to WHO figures from 2002. Kabul is estimated as the largest center of cutaneous leishmaniasis in the world, with around 67,500 cases as of 2004. Africa, in particular the East and North, is also home to cases of leishmaniasis. Leishmaniasis is considered endemic also in some parts of southern parts of western Europe and spreading towards north in recent years. For example, an outbreak of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis was reported from Madrid, Spain, between 2010 and 2012.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: Leishmaniasis is mostly a disease of the developing world, and is rarely known in the developed world outside a small number of cases, mostly in instances where troops are stationed away from their home countries. Leishmaniasis has been reported by U.S. troops stationed in Saudi Arabia and Iraq since the Gulf War of 1990, including visceral leishmaniasis.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: In September 2005, the disease was contracted by at least four Dutch marines who were stationed in Mazar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan, and subsequently repatriated for treatment.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: Descriptions of conspicuous lesions similar to cutaneous leishmaniasis appear on tablets from King Ashurbanipal from the seventh century BCE, some of which may have derived from even earlier texts from 1500 to 2500 BCE. Persian physicians, including Avicenna in the 10th century CE, gave detailed descriptions of what was called "balkh" sore. In 1756, Alexander Russell, after examining a Turkish patient, gave one of the most detailed clinical descriptions of the disease. Physicians in the Indian subcontinent would describe it as "kala-azar" (pronounced "kālā āzār", the Urdu, Hindi, and Hindustani phrase for "black fever", "kālā" meaning black and "āzār" meaning fever or disease). In the Americas, evidence of the cutaneous form of the disease in Ecuador and Peru appears in pre-Inca pottery depicting skin lesions and deformed faces dating back to the first century CE. Some 15th- and 16th-century texts from the Inca period and from Spanish colonials mention "valley sickness", "Andean sickness", or "white leprosy", which are likely to be the cutaneous form.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: It remains unclear who first discovered the organism. David Douglas Cunningham, Surgeon Major of the British Indian army, may have seen it in 1885 without being able to relate it to the disease. Peter Borovsky, a Russian military surgeon working in Tashkent, conducted research into the etiology of "oriental sore", locally known as "sart" sore, and in 1898 published the first accurate description of the causative agent, correctly described the parasite's relation to host tissues and correctly referred it to the protozoa. However, because his results were published in Russian in a journal with low circulation, his results were not internationally acknowledged during his lifetime. In 1901, William Boog Leishman identified certain organisms in smears taken from the spleen of a patient who had died from "dum-dum fever" (Dum Dum is an area close to Calcutta) and proposed them to be trypanosomes, found for the first time in India. A few months later, Captain Charles Donovan (1863–1951) confirmed the finding of what became known as Leishman-Donovan bodies in smears taken from people in Madras in southern India. But it was Ronald Ross who proposed that Leishman-Donovan bodies were the intracellular stages of a new parasite, which he named "Leishmania donovani". The link with the disease "kala-azar" was first suggested by Charles Donovan, and was conclusively demonstrated by Charles Bentley's discovery of "L. donovani" in patients with "kala-azar". Transmission by the sandfly was hypothesized by Lionel Napier and Ernest Struthers at the School of Tropical Medicine at Calcutta and later proven by his colleagues. The disease became a major problem for Allied troops fighting in Sicily during the Second World War; research by Leonard Goodwin then showed pentostam was an effective treatment.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: The Institute for OneWorld Health has reintroduced the drug paromomycin for treatment of leishmaniasis, results with which led to its approval as an orphan drug. The Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative is also actively facilitating the search for novel therapeutics. A treatment with paromomycin will cost about US$10. The drug had originally been identified in the 1960s, but had been abandoned because it would not be profitable, as the disease mostly affects poor people. The Indian government approved paromomycin for sale in August 2006.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: By 2012 the World Health Organization had successfully negotiated with the manufacturers to achieve a reduced cost for liposomal amphotericin B, to US$18 a vial, but a number of vials are needed for treatment and it must be kept at a stable, cool temperature.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: As of 2017, no leishmaniasis vaccine for humans was available. Research to produce a human vaccine is ongoing.


title: Leishmaniasis

text: Currently some effective leishmaniasis vaccines for dogs exist. There is also consideration that public health practices can control or eliminate leishmaniasis without a vaccine.


title: GQ

text: GQ (formerly Gentlemen's Quarterly and Apparel Arts) is an American international monthly men's magazine based in New York City and founded in 1931. The publication focuses on fashion, style, and culture for men, though articles on food, movies, fitness, sex, music, travel, celebrities' sports, technology, and books are also featured.


title: GQ

text: "Gentlemen's Quarterly" was launched in 1931 in the United States as "Apparel Arts". It was a men's fashion magazine for the clothing trade, aimed primarily at wholesale buyers and retail sellers. Initially it had a very limited print run and was aimed solely at industry insiders to enable them to give advice to their customers. The popularity of the magazine among retail customers, who often took the magazine from the retailers, spurred the creation of "Esquire" magazine in 1933.


title: GQ

text: "Apparel Arts" continued until 1957 when it was transformed into a quarterly magazine for men, which was published for many years by Esquire Inc. Apparel was dropped from the logo in 1958 with the spring issue after nine issues, and the name "Gentlemen's Quarterly" was established.


title: GQ

text: "Gentlemen's Quarterly" was re-branded as "GQ" in 1967. The rate of publication was increased from quarterly to monthly in 1970. In 1979 Condé Nast bought the publication, and editor Art Cooper changed the course of the magazine, introducing articles beyond fashion and establishing "GQ" as a general men's magazine in competition with "Esquire".


title: GQ

text: Subsequently, international editions were launched as regional adaptations of the U.S. editorial formula. Jim Nelson was named editor-in-chief of "GQ" in February 2003; during his tenure, he worked as both a writer and an editor of several National Magazine Award-nominated pieces, and the magazine became more oriented towards younger readers and those who prefer a more casual style.


title: GQ

text: Nonnie Moore was hired by "GQ" as fashion editor in 1984, having served in the same position at "Mademoiselle" and "Harper's Bazaar". Jim Moore, the magazine's fashion director at the time of her death in 2009, described the choice as unusual, observing that "She was not from men's wear, so people said she was an odd choice, but she was actually the perfect choice". Jim Moore also noted that she changed the publication's more casual look: "She helped dress up the pages, as well as dress up the men, while making the mix more exciting and varied and approachable for men."


title: GQ

text: "GQ" has been closely associated with metrosexuality. The writer Mark Simpson coined the term in an article for British newspaper "The Independent" about his visit to a "GQ" exhibition in London: "The promotion of metrosexuality was left to the men's style press, magazines such as "The Face", "GQ", "Esquire", "Arena" and "FHM", the new media which took off in the Eighties and is still growing ... They filled their magazines with images of narcissistic young men sporting fashionable clothes and accessories.


title: GQ

text: And they persuaded other young men to study them with a mixture of envy and desire." The magazine has expanded its coverage beyond lifestyle issues. For example, in 2003, journalist Sabrina Erdely wrote an eight-page feature story in "GQ" on famous con man Steve Comisar. "GQ" has been called the "holy text of woke capital" by "The Spectator".


title: GQ

text: In 2018, writing for "GQ", Rachel Kaadzi Ghansah won the Pulitzer Prize for Feature Writing for her article about Dylann Roof, who had shot nine African-Americans in a church in Charleston.


title: GQ

text: "GQ" (U.S.) first named their Men of the Year in 1996, featuring the award recipients in a special issue of the magazine. British "GQ" launched its annual Men of the Year awards in 2009 and "GQ" India launched its version the following year. Spanish "GQ" launched its Men of the Year awards in 2011 and "GQ" Australia launched its version in 2007.


title: GQ

text: In 2010, "GQ" magazine had three adult members of the television show "Glee" (Dianna Agron, Lea Michele and Cory Monteith) partake in a photoshoot. The sexualization of the actresses in the photos caused controversy among parents of teens who watch the show "Glee". The Parents Television Council was the first to react to the photo spread when it was leaked prior to GQ's planned publishing date. Their President Tim Winter stated, "By authorizing this kind of near-pornographic display, the creators of the program have established their intentions on the show's directions. And it isn't good for families". The photoshoot was published as planned and Dianna Agron went on to state that the photos did push the envelope, that they did not represent who she is any more than other magazine photo shoots, but that she was a 24-year-old adult in the photo shoot, and wondered why the concerned parents allowed their eight year old daughters to read any racy issue of the adult magazine "GQ".


title: GQ

text: "GQ"s September 2009 U.S. magazine published, in its "backstory" section, an article by Scott Anderson, "None Dare Call It Conspiracy". Before "GQ" published the article, an internal email from a Condé Nast lawyer referred to it as "Vladimir Putin's Dark Rise to Power". The article reported Anderson's investigation of the 1999 Russian apartment bombings, and included interviews with Mikhail Trepashkin who investigated the bombings while he was a colonel in Russia's Federal Security Service.


title: GQ

text: The story, including Trepashkin's own findings, contradicted the Russian Government's official explanation of the bombings and criticized Vladimir Putin, the President of Russia.


title: GQ

text: Condé Nast's management tried to keep the story out of Russia. It ordered executives and editors not to distribute that issue in Russia or show it to "Russian government officials, journalists or advertisers". Management decided not to publish the story on "GQ"s website or in Condé Nast's foreign magazines, not to publicize the story, and asked Anderson not to syndicate the story "to any publications that appear in Russia".


title: GQ

text: The day after the magazine's publication in the United States, bloggers published the original English text and a translation into Russian on the internet.


title: GQ

text: On April 19, 2018, the editors of "GQ" published an article titled "21 Books You Don't Have to Read" in which the editors compiled a list of works they think are overrated and should be passed over, including "Catcher in the Rye", "The Alchemist", "Blood Meridian", "A Farewell to Arms", "The Old Man and the Sea", "The Lord of the Rings", and "Catch-22". The article generated a backlash among Internet commentators.


title: GQ

text: The magazine reported an average worldwide paid circulation of 934,000 in the first half of 2019, down 1.1% from 944,549 in 2016 and 2.6% from 958,926 in 2015.


title: GQ

text: According to the Audit Bureau of Circulations (UK), "British GQ" had an average circulation of 103,087 during the first half of 2019, down 6.3% from 110,063 during the second half of 2018, and down 10.3% from 114,867 during the second half of 2013.


title: Salty liquorice

text: Salty liquorice, salmiak liquorice or salmiac liquorice, is a variety of liquorice flavoured with the ingredient "salmiak salt" (sal ammoniac; ammonium chloride), and is a common confection found in the Nordic countries, Benelux, and northern Germany. Salmiak salt gives salty liquorice an astringent, salty taste, akin to that of tannins—a characteristic of red wines, which adds bitterness and astringency to the flavour. Consuming salmiak liquorice can stimulate either a savoury or non-savoury palate and response. Anise oil can also be an additional main ingredient in salty liquorice. Extra-salty liquorice is additionally coated with salmiak salt or salmiak powder, or sometimes table salt.


title: Salty liquorice

text: Salty liquorice candy and pastilles are almost always black or very dark brown and can range from soft candy to hard pastille variety, and sometimes hard brittle. The other colours used are white and variants of grey. Salty liquorice or salmiak is also used as a flavouring in other products, such as ice creams, syrups, chewing gum, snus and alcoholic beverages.


title: Salty liquorice

text: Sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride) has a history of being used as a cough medicine, as it works as an expectorant. Finnish author speculates that salty liquorice has its origins in pharmacy stores that manufactured their own cough medicine. Where and when ammonium chloride and liquorice were first combined to produce salty liquorice is unclear, but by the 1930s it was produced in Finland, Norway, Denmark, Sweden and the Netherlands as a pastille.


title: Salty liquorice

text: Different languages often refer to salty liquorice as either "salmiak liquorice" (Swedish: "Salmiaklakrits"; Danish: "Salmiaklakrids"), or simply "salt liquorice" (Swedish: "Saltlakrits"; Danish: "Saltlakrids"). The Dutch refer to it as "" or "dubbelzoute drop" (double salted liquorice). In Germany, they are commonly known as salt liquorice ("Salzlakritz") candy and salmiak pastilles ("Salmiakpastillen") or simply Salmiak, in contrast to sweet liquorice ("Süßlakritz") candy. A traditional shape for salty liquorice pastilles is a black diamond-shaped lozenge. In Finnish, it is known as "salmiakki".


title: Salty liquorice

text: The strength of the confectionery depends on the amount of food grade ammonium chloride (salmiak salt) used, which varies by country and what's considered a safe amount. In Sweden, for example, the most popular types of salty liquorice contain an average of 7% of ammonium chloride. In 2012, there was a European Union proposal to limit the amount to 0.3%, which was met with wide opposition. Although the European Union now regulates the use of ammonium chloride to 0.3% in most foodstuffs, there is no specific restriction for it in liquorice or ice cream. At a level of up to 7.99% ammonium chloride, salmiak pastilles are considered a "traditionally-applied medicine to assist expectoration in the airways".


title: Salty liquorice

text: An antibacterial effect can be attributed to the neutralization of the slightly acidic ammonium chloride (pH about 5.5) by the relatively alkaline saliva (pH about 7), whereby ammonia is released, which has a disinfecting effect:


title: Salty liquorice

text: Before implementation of the current European Union community-wide list of permitted flavouring substances used in food, national food legislation in Germany required that a content from above 2% ammonium chloride (salmiak salt) in salty liquorice, was required to carry the label "Adult Liquorice - Not Children's Liquorice" ("Erwachsenenlakritz - Kein Kinderlakritz") on packaging in Germany. When the ingredient content of ammonium chloride (salmiak salt) was between 4.49% and 7.99%, the declaration "extra strong" ("extra stark") was also required on packaging. More than 7.99% of ammonium chloride (salmiak salt) was not permitted in Germany at that point in time. Since then, the upper limit on ammonium chloride has been lifted.


title: Salty liquorice

text: In addition to being used in candy, salmiak is also used to flavour vodka, chocolate, distilled rye brandy, ice cream, cola drinks, snus, and meat.


title: Hakama

text: There are two types of : divided and undivided . The type have divided legs, similar to trousers. Both of these types appear similar. A "mountain" or "field" type of was traditionally worn by field or forest workers. They are looser in the waist and narrower in the leg.


title: Hakama

text: , especially those for martial arts, may have seven deep pleats, two on the back and five on the front. Although they appear balanced, the arrangement of the front pleats (three to the right, two to the left) is asymmetrical, and as such is an example of asymmetry in Japanese aesthetics.


title: Hakama

text: Historically, a boy would start wearing his first pair of from the age of five, as commemorated in ; a similar practice to this, called "breeching", was seen in Europe up until the Victorian age, where boys would from then on start to wear breeches instead of dresses, as a recognition of coming of age.


title: Hakama

text: While used to be a required part of menswear, nowadays typical Japanese men usually wear only on extremely formal occasions and at tea ceremonies, weddings, and funerals. are also regularly worn by practitioners of a variety of martial arts, such as kendo, iaido, taidō, aikido, jōdō, ryū-te, and kyūdō. Sumo wrestlers, who do not wear in the context of their sport, are, however, required to wear traditional Japanese dress whenever they appear in public. As are one of the most important parts of traditional male formal dress, sumo wrestlers are often seen wearing when attending appropriately formal functions.


title: Hakama

text: In addition to martial artists, are also part of the everyday wear of Shinto , priests who maintain and perform services at shrines.


title: Hakama

text: The most formal type of men's , , are made of stiff, striped silk, usually black and white, or black and navy blue. These are worn with black kimono (kimono with one, three, or five family crests on the back, chest, and shoulders), white (divided-toe socks), white (under-kimono) and various types of footwear. In cooler weather, a (long jacket) with a white (-fastener) completes the outfit.


title: Hakama

text: Traditionally made of silk, are sometimes made with blends. is woven with a dense warp. Traditionally, the weft is woven wet, and beaten firmly into place to make it denser. The silk strands are not twisted, and are treated in lye. These techniques makes the cloth glossy and the pattern very small-scale and precise.


title: Hakama

text: Both and are simultaneously worn with the courtly attire of . The are red under-pants, with closed crotch, tied off on the wearer's left. The , white and with an open fly, is then worn over the , tied off on the right. These designs can be traced to the Nara period.


title: Hakama

text: traditionally formed part of a complete outfit called a . Worn by samurai and courtiers during the Edo period, the outfit included a formal kimono, , and a sleeveless jacket with exaggerated shoulders called a .


title: Hakama

text: Samurai visiting the and other high-ranking at court were sometimes required to wear very long called (). These resemble normal in every way except their remarkable length in both the back and front, forming a train one or two feet long and impeding the ability to walk normally, thus helping to prevent a surprise attack or assassination attempt. are now only worn particularly in Noh plays (including ), kabuki plays and Shinto rituals.


title: Hakama

text: Some during the Sengoku period had the hems made narrower than the body in imitation of the ballooning trousers worn by the Portuguese. This style carried on into the Edo period and became called . In addition to the taper, they had a secured band of cloth—looking rather like a pants cuff—sewn around each leg's hem, so the ballooning fabric would not open out like regular . This variety of was also commonly known as .


title: Hakama

text: , also called , are a type of that are meant to be worn blousing over the leg and exposing the foot. To accomplish this, they are somewhat longer than normal , and a cord is run through the hem and drawn tight, creating a "ballooning" effect. To allow for the body required, more formal featured six panels rather than four. Technically, this cord around the ankle makes a type of (tied) . The earliest form of were cut like normal (albeit a bit longer) and have a cord running through the hem of each leg. These cords were pulled tight and tied off at the ankle. This was the form commonly worn during the Heian period. were worn by court nobles with various types of leisure or semi-formal wear.


title: Hakama

text: While men's can be worn on both formal and informal occasions, women rarely wear , except at graduation ceremonies and for traditional Japanese sports such as kyūdō, some branches of aikido and kendo. Women do not wear at tea ceremony. The image of women in kimono and are culturally associated with school teachers. Just as university professors in Western countries don their academic caps and gowns when their students graduate, many female school teachers in Japan attend annual graduation ceremonies in traditional kimono with .


title: Hakama

text: While formal men's are made of striped fabric, women's formal are either a solid color or dyed with graduating hues. for young women are sometimes sparsely decorated with embroidered flowers such as cherry blossoms. Women typically wear just below the bust line, while men wear them at the waist.


title: Hakama

text: have traditionally been worn as school wear. Before the advent of school uniforms in Japan, students wore everyday clothes, which included for men. In the Meiji period (1868–1912) and Taishō period (1912–1926), Western-style wear was adopted for school uniforms, initially for both male and female uniforms. However, at the time, Western women's dress was fairly cumbersome.


title: Hakama

text: Utako Shimoda (1854–1936), a women's activist, educator and dress reformer, found traditional kimono to be too restrictive, preventing women and girls from moving and taking part in physical activities, harming their health. While Western dress was being adopted at the time, she also believed corsets to be restrictive and harmful to women's health. Shimoda had worked as a lady-in-waiting to Empress Shōken from 1871-1879. She adapted the clothing worn by ladies-in-waiting at the Japanese imperial court to make a uniform for her Jissen Women's School. During the Meiji period and Taishō period, other women's schools also adopted the . It became standard wear for high schools in Japan, and is still worn for graduation ceremonies.


title: Hakama

text: The image of women in is also culturally associated with school teachers. Just as university professors in Western countries don their academic caps and gowns when their students graduate, many female school teachers in Japan attend annual graduation ceremonies in traditional kimono with .


title: Hakama

text: There are many ways for men to tie . First, the is tied in a special knot (an "under- knot") at the rear. Starting with the front, the ties are brought around the waist and crossed over the top of the knot of the . The ties are brought to the front and crossed below the waist, then tied at the back, under the knot of the . The is then tucked behind the , the is adjusted, and the rear ties brought to the front and tied in a variety of ways. The most formal method results in a knot that resembles two bow-ties in a cross shape.


title: Hakama

text: The method of tying the ties is also different, with women's being tied in a simpler knot or a bow. As with men's , the front ties are first brought to the back, then to the front, then tied at the back in a knot. Then the back are brought around to the front. At this point, they may be tied with a bow at the left hip, just in front of the opening, with the ends of the ties at equal lengths. For more secure fastening, the ties may be wrapped once at center front, then tied inside at the back.


title: Hakama

text: Like all types of traditional Japanese clothing, it is important to fold and store correctly to prevent damage and prolong the life of the garment, especially those made of silk. With this is particularly important, since have so many pleats which can easily lose their creases; re-creasing the pleats may require specialist attention in extreme cases.


title: Hakama

text: Various martial arts traditions in which practitioners wear them have prescribed methods of folding the . This is often considered an important part of etiquette.


title: Hakama

text: In some martial arts it is also an old tradition that the highest ranking student has the responsibility to fold the teacher's as a token of respect.


title: TON 618

text: TON 618 (short for Tonantzintla 618) is a hyperluminous, broad-absorption-line, radio-loud quasar and Lyman-alpha blob located near the border of the constellations Canes Venatici and Coma Berenices, with the projected comoving distance of approximately 18.2 billion light-years from Earth. It possesses one of the most massive black holes ever found, at 66 billion .


title: TON 618

text: Because quasars were not recognized until 1963, the nature of this object was unknown when it was first noted in a 1957 survey of faint blue stars (mainly white dwarfs) that lie away from the plane of the Milky Way. On photographic plates taken with the 0.7 m Schmidt telescope at the Tonantzintla Observatory in Mexico, it appeared "decidedly violet" and was listed by the Mexican astronomers Braulio Iriarte and Enrique Chavira as entry number 618 in the Tonantzintla Catalogue.


title: TON 618

text: In 1970, a radio survey at Bologna in Italy discovered radio emission from TON 618, indicating that it was a quasar. Marie-Helene Ulrich then obtained optical spectra of TON 618 at the McDonald Observatory which showed emission lines typical of a quasar. From the high redshift of the lines Ulrich deduced that TON 618 was very distant, and hence was one of the most luminous quasars known.


title: TON 618

text: As a quasar, TON 618 is believed to be the active galactic nucleus at the center of a galaxy, the engine of which is a supermassive black hole feeding on intensely hot gas and matter in an accretion disc. The light originating from the quasar is estimated to be 10.8 billion years old. Due to the brilliance of the central quasar, the surrounding galaxy is outshone by it and hence is not visible from Earth. With an absolute magnitude of −30.7, it shines with a luminosity of watts, or as brilliantly as 140 trillion times that of the Sun, making it one of the brightest objects in the known Universe.


title: TON 618

text: Like other quasars, TON 618 has a spectrum containing emission lines from cooler gas much further out than the accretion disc, in the broad-line region. The size of the broad-line region can be calculated from the brightness of the quasar radiation that is lighting it up. Shemmer and coauthors used both N and C emission lines in order to calculate the widths of the H spectral line of at least 29 quasars, including TON 618, as a direct measurement of their accretion rates and hence the mass of the central black hole.


title: TON 618

text: The emission lines in the spectrum of TON 618 have been found to be unusually wide, indicating that the gas is travelling very fast; the full width half maxima of TON 618 has been the largest of the 29 quasars, with hints of 10,500 km/s speeds of infalling material by a direct measure of the H line, indication of a very strong gravitational force. From this measure, the mass of the central black hole of TON 618 is at least 66 billion solar masses. This is considered one of the highest masses ever recorded for such an object; higher than the mass of all stars in the Milky Way galaxy combined, which is 64 billion solar masses, and 15,300 times more massive than Sagittarius A*, the Milky Way's central black hole. With such high mass, TON 618 may fall into a proposed new classification of ultramassive black holes. A black hole of this mass has a Schwarzschild radius of 1,300 AU (about 390 billion km in diameter) which is more than 40 times the distance from Neptune to the Sun.


title: TON 618

text: The nature of TON 618 as a Lyman-alpha emitter has been well documented since at least the 1980s. Lyman-alpha emitters are characterized by their significant emission of the Lyman-alpha line, a special wavelength emitted by neutral hydrogen (121.567 nm wavelength, in the vacuum ultraviolet). Such objects, however, have proven to be very difficult to study due to the nature of the Lyman-alpha line being strongly absorbed by air in the Earth's atmosphere, making identified Lyman-alpha emitters only limited to objects in the distant universe due to their high redshift. TON 618, with its luminous emission of Lyman-alpha radiation along with its high redshift, has made it one of the most important objects in the study of the Lyman-alpha forest.


title: TON 618

text: Observations made by the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) in 2021 revealed the apparent source of the Lyman-alpha radiation of TON 618: an enormous cloud of gas surrounding the quasar and its host galaxy. This would make it a Lyman-alpha blob (LAB), one of the largest such objects yet known.


title: TON 618

text: LABs are huge collections of gases, or nebulae, that are also classified as Lyman-alpha emitters. These enormous, galaxy-sized clouds are some of the largest nebulae known to exist, with some identified LABs in the 2000s reaching sizes of at least hundreds of thousands of light-years across.


title: TON 618

text: In the case of TON 618, the enormous Lyman-alpha nebula surrounding it has the diameter of at least , twice the size of the Milky Way. The nebula consists of two parts: an inner molecular outflow and an extensive cold molecular gas in its circumgalactic medium, each having the mass of 50 billion , with both of them being aligned to the radio jet produced by the central quasar. The extreme radiation from TON 618 excites the hydrogen in the nebula so much that causes it to glow brightly in the Lyman-alpha line, consistent with the observations of other LABs driven by their inner galaxies. Since both quasars and LABs are precursors of modern-day galaxies, the observation on TON 618 and its enormous LAB gave insight to the processes that drive the evolution of massive galaxies, in particular probing their ionization and early development.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: Invasion of Privacy is the debut studio album by American rapper Cardi B. It was released on April 6, 2018, by Atlantic Records. Primarily a hip hop record, "Invasion of Privacy" also includes trap, Latin trap and R&B. It features production from 30 Roc, Andrew Watt, Benny Blanco, Boi-1da, Craig Kallman, Cubeatz, DJ Mustard, Frank Dukes, J. White Did It, Keyz, Murda Beatz, Needlz, Tainy, and Vinylz, among others. The album features guest appearances by Migos, Chance the Rapper, Kehlani, SZA, 21 Savage, J Balvin, Bad Bunny, and YG.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: The album debuted atop the US "Billboard" 200, earning 255,000 album-equivalent units in its first week, with 103,000 coming from pure album sales. It has been certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It produced five singles—"Bodak Yellow", "Bartier Cardi" featuring 21 Savage, "Be Careful", "I Like It" with Bad Bunny and J Balvin, and "Ring" featuring Kehlani. Both Diamond-certified singles "Bodak Yellow" and "I Like It" reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100, making her the first female rapper to achieve multiple chart-toppers. Upon release, the album set multiple streaming records, including being the first album by a female artist to debut with more than 100 million streams on Apple Music, while she became the first female artist to chart thirteen songs simultaneously on the Hot 100. It also became the first album in music history to have all its tracks certified platinum or higher by the RIAA. It was the top female rap album of the 2010s, according to the "Billboard" 200 decade-end chart. It broke the record for longest-charting album by a female rapper on the "Billboard" 200, surpassing "The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill", and has spent three full years on the chart. In December 2019, it was the most-streamed female rap album on Spotify and Apple Music, and most-viewed female rap album on YouTube. According to The Recording Academy, it is the best-selling female rap album of the 2010s.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: "Invasion of Privacy" was met with critical acclaim. A number of music publications included it among their lists of best albums of the year, with "Rolling Stone" and "Time" listing it at number one. Several publications ranked it among the best albums of the 2010s (decade) as well, with "Rolling Stone" placing it 34th. Among its accolades, it won Best Rap Album at the 61st Annual Grammy Awards, with Cardi B becoming the first female rapper to win the category as a solo artist. It was also nominated for Album of the Year, with "I Like It" being nominated for Record of the Year and "Be Careful" for Best Rap Performance. It became the first female rap album in fifteen years to be nominated for Album of the Year. "Bodak Yellow" was nominated for Best Rap Song and Best Rap Performance for the previous ceremony. At the 2019 BET Awards, "Invasion of Privacy" won the BET Award for Album of the Year.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: The album was made available for streaming and digital download on April 5, 2018, but was not available on any physical format upon its initial release. The album was eventually released on vinyl on December 7, 2018, and its CD release—initially scheduled for September 28, 2018—was released on February 22, 2019.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: Prior to the release of the album, "Bodak Yellow" reached number one on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, while several collaborations also reached the top 10. Those singles set multiple chart records, including making her the first female rapper to land her first three entries in the top 10 of the Hot 100, and the first female artist to achieve the same on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. With her collaboration with Bruno Mars, "Finesse (Remix)", she became the first woman to have five top 10 singles simultaneously on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. In March 2018, Cardi announced at the iHeartRadio Music Awards that the album will be released in April. She announced the release date and the title posting the album artwork in her social media pages.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: "Invasion of Privacy" was recorded from 2017 until early 2018. It features production from 30 Roc, Allen Ritter, Andrew Watt, Ayo, Benny Blanco, Boi-1da, Cassius Jay, Cheeze Beatz, Craig Kallman, Cubeatz, DJ Mustard, DJ Official, DJ SwanQo, Frank Dukes, Invincible, J. White, Keyz, Klenard Raphael, Murda Beatz, Matt Allen, Needlz, NES, Nonstop Da Hitman, Scribz Riley, Tainy and Vinylz, among others.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: Primarily a hip hop album, "Invasion of Privacy" also comprises trap, Latin music and R&B, while its lyrical themes include fame, success, wealth, sex, and feminism, as well as Cardi B's past. The album opens with "Get Up 10", which speaks about Cardi B's rise to fame. It is followed by a trap song "Drip", which features a guest appearance by Migos, and speaks about jewelry, wealth, and Cardi B and Migos' status. The third track "Bickenhead" has a feminist theme; its title refers to women who work hard for money.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: A hip hop and trap song "Bodak Yellow" follows, on which Cardi B confronts her enemies and makes statements such as "I don't dance now, I make money moves", referring to her past, as she used to work as a stripper before rising to fame. On the fourth track "Be Careful", Cardi B performs the hook using a softly sung vocal style over a "laidback" beat. The song also comprises "flickering" hi-hats and "slick" synths. Lyrically, "Be Careful" is a song about infidelity, where the protagonist warns her cheating partner and asks him to treat her better. During an interview, Cardi B stated that she drew inspiration from past relationships, while denying that the song was directed at her fiancé Offset.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: The sixth track "Best Life" features a guest appearance by Chance the Rapper; the lyrics discuss the power of God and positive thinking. It's followed by "I Like It", a bilingual (English and Spanish) latin trap song featuring Bad Bunny and J Balvin. "Invasion of Privacy" also contains two R&B mid-tempo songs–"Ring" (featuring Kehlani) and "Thru Your Phone"–which both lyrically show Cardi B's emotional vulnerability.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: "Ring" is followed by three hip hop and trap songs: "Money Bag", "Bartier Cardi" (featuring 21 Savage), and "She Bad" (with YG). On "Bartier Cardi", Cardi B raps about her attraction to diamonds, sports cars and sex, while 21 Savage raps about a similar theme from a male perspective.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: Prior to the release of "Invasion of Privacy", Cardi B promoted its lead single "Bodak Yellow" in several live performances, including at the BET Awards 2017 afterparty on June 25, 2017, during the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards pre-show on August 27, at the 2017 BET Hip Hop Awards on October 6, and on "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" on October 18.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: While accepting her iHeartRadio Music Award for Best New Artist at the 2018 iHeartRadio Music Awards on March 11, 2018, Cardi B revealed that "Invasion of Privacy" would be released in April 2018. On March 26, 2018, she revealed both the official artwork and title for the album. The album was made available for streaming on April 5, 2018, through Atlantic Records, and was released for digital download worldwide the following day.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: On April 7, 2018, Cardi B performed the first three singles on "Saturday Night Live". On April 9, she co-hosted "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon", becoming the first person ever to co-host the show. Cardi B also performed during the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival on April 15 and April 20, 2018. She also performed at the Broccoli City Festival 2018 on April 28, 2018; she was also supposed to perform at the Wireless Festival in July, however, the performance was cancelled due to her pregnancy. Her summer tour in support of the album, which would run from May 4 until July 29, 2018, in the United States, Norway and Ireland, and all performances until September were also cancelled.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: Cardi B was also originally scheduled to be the opening act on Bruno Mars's 24K Magic World Tour in North America during September and October 2018, however, she withdrew as she just had her daughter, Kulture.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: The album's lead single, "Bodak Yellow", was released on June 16, 2017. It topped the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart for three weeks. Cardi B became the first female rapper to have a song certified Diamond by the RIAA when "Bodak Yellow" received the certification in March 2021.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: "Bartier Cardi" was released on December 22, 2017, as the second single and features rapper 21 Savage. It peaked at number 14 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and was certified triple platinum by the RIAA.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: "Be Careful" was released as the third single on March 30, 2018. It peaked at number 11 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and was certified triple platinum by the RIAA.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: "Drip" featuring Migos was released as a promotional single on April 4, 2018, despite being released to Australian radio on April 6, 2018. It peaked at number 21 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. The song has been certified platinum by the RIAA.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: "I Like It", with Bad Bunny and J Balvin, debuted at number eight on the Hot 100 following the album's release. It was distributed to urban contemporary and contemporary hit radio as the album's fourth single on May 25, 2018, and several days later, the song's music video premiered on Cardi B's YouTube channel. After being released as a single, it topped the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, making Cardi the first female rapper with multiple number one singles on the chart's history. The single has been certified Diamond by the RIAA, becoming the second song from the album to receive this certification, following "Bodak Yellow, and making Cardi B the first female rapper with three Diamond songs. "I Like It" and "Bodak Yellow" made Cardi B the only female rapper to have two videos on her YouTube channel with more than 1 billion views.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: "Ring", featuring Kehlani, impacted US urban contemporary radio on August 28, 2018, as the fifth single. Previously, it had entered at number 28 on the Hot 100 as an album track following the album's release. The single has been certified double platinum by the RIAA.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: "Invasion of Privacy" received widespread acclaim from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 84, based on 24 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". Ben Beaumont-Thomas of "The Guardian" gave "Invasion of Privacy" four out of five stars, and called it "a magnificent debut that fuses vulnerability, sexual voraciousness, paranoia, and party music" and wrote that the album "shows the rapper is capable of far more than punchy put-downs". For "Exclaim!", Erin Lowers scored the album a 9 out of 10, noting that her softer singles add "a new dimension" to her artistry, and adding that the release "feels like her 'Lemonade' moment, one that magnifies her insecurities for public consumption."


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: Maeve McDermott of "USA Today" gave the album another positive review, stating that "at 13 tracks, "Invasion of Privacy" isn't overstuffed with endless filler tracks like many releases by Cardi's rap peers. Leave it to Cardi, marketing queen, to know that fans get exhausted when performers overstay their welcome in attempts to rack up streaming numbers. The hip hop star likely doesn't have to worry about that, considering her album seems destined for charts success, if "Bodak Yellow"'s record-breaking last year was any indication." Jem Aswad of "Variety" called it "one of the most powerful debuts of this millennium" and praised its opening number "Get Up 10" as an "empowering opening autobiographical testimonial," though he also felt "in a couple of cases the featured artists run off with the song so completely that it feels like Cardi is a guest on her own album." Eleanor Halls of "GQ" wrote: ""Invasion of Privacy" proves "Bodak Yellow" was far from a summer one-hit wonder. These money moves are played for the long game."


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: Rob Sheffield of "Rolling Stone" described the album as "lavishly emotional, intimately personal, wildly funny," and concluded ""Invasion" proves she's here to stay." For "Pitchfork", Sheldon Pearce awarded the album "Best New Music", writing that "Cardi B's remarkable debut places her, without a doubt, in the pantheon of great rappers. It is both brazen and vulnerable, filled with wild amounts of personality, style, and craft". Jon Caramanica of "The New York Times" noted, "she is more versatile than most rappers or pop stars of any stripe," adding, "[it] is also, notably, a hip-hop album that doesn't sound like any of its temporal peers."


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: Chris Richards of "The Washington Post" commented: "She seems to be telling one long story here — about self-empowerment, beating the odds, transcendence — but the force of Cardi's narrative resides in the sound of her voice as much as it does in her words. You can hear it during the album's grand finale, "I Do," when she asks, "My little 15 minutes lasted long as hell, huh?" What a victory speech. Close your eyes and you might feel the confetti falling on your shoulders, too." Carrie Battan of "The New Yorker" complimented "Invasion of Privacy" by saying "[it] is as studious as it is bombastic."


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: "Time" magazine named "Invasion of Privacy" the best album of 2018, stating, "Cardi's debut doesn't just earn her a seat at hip-hop's table—it marks her as a singular voice."


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: A number of music publications included "Invasion of Privacy" among their top 10 albums of the year lists, with "Rolling Stone" and "Time" listing it at number one. In 2019, "Rolling Stone" and "Pitchfork" listed the album as one of the greatest albums of the decade, placing it at number 34 and 73, respectively. In 2022, "Rolling Stone" ranked the album at number 20 on its list of "100 Best Debut Albums of All Time".


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: "Invasion of Privacy" was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on the day of its release due to a technicality that incorporates the track-equivalent units moved by its previously released singles "Bodak Yellow" and "Bartier Cardi". It was certified double platinum on October 3, 2018, and triple platinum on April 3, 2019, following its physical release on CD.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: On December 20, 2018, all thirteen tracks were certified gold or higher by the RIAA, making her the first female artist to achieve such feat, and third overall. On March 24, 2022, "Invasion of Privacy" became the first album to have all of its tracks certified platinum or higher by the RIAA.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: On April 13, 2018, Apple Music announced that "Invasion of Privacy" set a new record for the most streamed album by a female artist in a single week with over a hundred million streams. The album debuted at number one on the US "Billboard" 200 chart, moving 255,000 album-equivalent units with 103,000 coming from pure album sales in its first week. It achieved the largest on-demand audio streaming week ever for an album by a woman with 202.6 million streams. At the time of its release, it became the second biggest first-week sales of 2018. Cardi B became the fifth female rapper to top the chart. On the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart dated April 21, Cardi B listed 13 songs, with 12 of them being songs from "Invasion of Privacy", thus surpassing Beyoncé for the most simultaneous songs on the chart by a solo female artist. The record was later broken by Billie Eilish in 2019 when 12 tracks from her album "When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go?" and two additional singles charted on the Hot 100 in a single week. In its second week, the album fell to number two on the chart, earning an additional 129,000 units, dropping forty-nine percent from the first week. In its third week, the album remained at number two with over 91,000 units, dropping thirty percent from the previous week. It has spent twenty one consecutive weeks within the top ten on the chart, which is the most weeks for a female rap album— including eight non-consecutive weeks within the top five. It also spent twenty two consecutive weeks within the top ten on the Top R&B/Hip Hop chart. As of July 6, 2018, "Invasion of Privacy" is the best-performing female album of 2018 and the third overall in the United States. The album remained the largest female debut of 2018 in the country until September 2018, with the release of Carrie Underwood's "Cry Pretty". In the US, "Invasion of Privacy" was the fourth best selling album of 2018 with 2,060,000 album-equivalent units, the best selling for a female artist that year.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: In December 2019, it became the most-streamed album by a female rapper ever in Spotify. In January 2020, it became the longest-charting debut album by a female rapper on the "Billboard" 200, surpassing Lauryn Hill's "The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill" (1998). In August 2020, it became the longest-charting album by a female rapper, surpassing 124 weeks. It surpassed 150 weeks in the chart in February 2021.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: "Invasion of Privacy" also debuted atop the Canadian Albums Chart, moving 12,000 album-equivalent units. It was certified Platinum by Music Canada for shipments of 80,000 copies. The album was a commercial success internationally as well, peaking within the top ten on charts in Australia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Flanders, Iceland, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: It was the third most streamed album of 2018 in Apple Music globally, being the highest for a female artist. It was the tenth most streamed album in Canada on the streaming service. It was also the fifth most streamed album in that platform ever, being the highest for a female artist. In Spotify, it was the fourth most streamed album of the year in the United States, also being the highest for a female artist, with Cardi being the most streamed female artist. In 2020, Spotify's RapCaviar announced Cardi B and Drake as the top performers on the playlist since its creation.


title: Invasion of Privacy (album)

text: "Spin" staff credited the album for opening "the table to a new generation of pop artists remaking American music in their own image and accents. And Cardi will remain front-and-center." The magazine further added that "Invasion of Privacy" is an "invitation into [her] world of blood, sweat, and tears... it's a rebuke to much of what passes for chart-focused rap, where the artist's persona is crafted for maximum exposure. Instead, Cardi B recognized that POC artists no longer need to pander or soften themselves in order to become household names." In 2019, "Consequence of Sound" editors wrote "her authenticity and charisma are constants that reinforce her standing as one of the most formidable hip-hop artists of the decade," and "NME" stated that the album secured "her crown as the new Queen of Rap." In a book excerpt published in "Jezebel" of "The Motherlode" (2021) by Clover Hope, the author wrote that "Invasion of Privacy" was "the best rap debut in years and belongs in the canon along with Lil' Kim's "Hard Core" and Lauryn Hill's "The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill"," and stated that the album "jump-started a new era for women rappers in which success felt much more tangible" as Cardi B "multiplied the wealth of talent and resurrected the idea that numerous women who controlled their own stories could dominate rap at once... Never again would there only be one."


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: Glacier National Park is an American national park located in northwestern Montana, on the Canada–United States border, adjacent to the Canadian provinces of Alberta and British Columbia. The park encompasses more than and includes parts of two mountain ranges (sub-ranges of the Rocky Mountains), more than 130 named lakes, more than 1,000 different species of plants, and hundreds of species of animals. This vast pristine ecosystem is the centerpiece of what has been referred to as the "Crown of the Continent Ecosystem," a region of protected land encompassing .


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: The region that became Glacier National Park was first inhabited by Native Americans. Upon the arrival of European explorers, it was dominated by the Blackfeet in the east and the Flathead in the western regions. Under pressure, the Blackfeet ceded the mountainous parts of their treaty lands in 1895 to the federal government; it later became part of the park. Soon after the establishment of the park on May 11, 1910, a number of hotels and chalets were constructed by the Great Northern Railway. These historic hotels and chalets are listed as National Historic Landmarks and a total of 350 locations are on the National Register of Historic Places. By 1932 work was completed on the Going-to-the-Sun Road, later designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark, which provided greater accessibility for automobiles into the heart of the park.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: Glacier National Park's mountains began forming years ago when ancient rocks were forced eastward up and over much younger rock strata. Known as the Lewis Overthrust, these sedimentary rocks are considered to have some of the finest examples of early life fossils on Earth. The current shapes of the Lewis and Livingston mountain ranges and positioning and size of the lakes show the telltale evidence of massive glacial action, which carved U-shaped valleys and left behind moraines that impounded water, creating lakes. Of the estimated 150 glaciers over 25 acres in size which existed in the park in the mid-19th century during the late Little Ice Age, only 25 active glaciers remained by 2010. Scientists studying the glaciers in the park have estimated that all the active glaciers may disappear by 2030 if current climate patterns persist.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: Glacier National Park has almost all its original native plant and animal species. Large mammals such as grizzly bears, moose, and mountain goats, as well as rare or endangered species like wolverines and Canadian lynxes, inhabit the park. Hundreds of species of birds, more than a dozen fish species, and a few reptiles and amphibian species have been documented. The park has numerous ecosystems ranging from prairie to tundra. The easternmost forests of western redcedar and hemlock grow in the southwest portion of the park. Forest fires are common in the park. There has been a fire every year of the park's existence except 1964. 64 fires occurred in 1936, the most on record. In 2003, six fires burned approximately 136,000 acres (550 km), more than 13% of the park.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: Glacier National Park borders Waterton Lakes National Park in Canada—the two parks are known as the Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park and were designated as the world's first International Peace Park in 1932. Both parks were designated by the United Nations as Biosphere Reserves in 1976, and in 1995 as World Heritage Sites. In April 2017, the joint park received a provisional Gold Tier designation as Waterton-Glacier International Dark Sky Park through the International Dark Sky Association, the first transboundary dark sky park.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: According to archeological evidence, Native Americans first arrived in the Glacier area some 10,000 years ago. The earliest occupants with lineage to current tribes were the Flathead (Salish) and Kootenai, Shoshone, and Cheyenne. The Blackfeet lived on the eastern slopes of what later became the park, as well as the Great Plains immediately to the east. The park region provided the Blackfeet shelter from the harsh winter winds of the plains, allowing them to supplement their traditional bison hunts with other game meat. Today, the Blackfeet Indian Reservation borders the park in the east, while the Flathead Indian Reservation is located west and south of the park. When the Blackfeet Reservation was first established in 1855 by the Lame Bull Treaty, it included the eastern area of the current park up to the Continental Divide. To the Blackfeet, the mountains of this area, especially Chief Mountain and the region in the southeast at Two Medicine, were considered the "Backbone of the World" and were frequented during vision quests. In 1895 Chief White Calf of the Blackfeet authorized the sale of the mountain area, some , to the U.S. government for , with the understanding that they would maintain usage rights to the land for hunting as long as the ceded stripe will be "public land of the United States". This established the current boundary between the park and the reservation.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: While exploring the Marias River in 1806, the Lewis and Clark Expedition came within of the area that is now the park. A series of explorations after 1850 helped to shape the understanding of the area that later became the park. In 1885 George Bird Grinnell hired the noted explorer (and later well-regarded author) James Willard Schultz to guide him on a hunting expedition into what would later become the park. After several more trips to the region, Grinnell became so inspired by the scenery that he spent the next two decades working to establish a national park. In 1901 Grinnell wrote a description of the region in which he referred to it as the "Crown of the Continent." His efforts to protect the land made him the premier contributor to this cause. A few years after Grinnell first visited, Henry L. Stimson and two companions, including a Blackfoot, climbed the steep east face of Chief Mountain in 1892.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: In 1891, the Great Northern Railway crossed the Continental Divide at Marias Pass , which is along the southern boundary of the park. In an effort to stimulate the use of the railroad, the Great Northern soon advertised the splendors of the region to the public. The company lobbied the United States Congress. In 1897 the park was designated as a forest preserve. Under the forest designation, mining was still allowed but was not commercially successful. Meanwhile, proponents of protecting the region kept up their efforts. In 1910, under the influence of the Boone and Crockett Club, and spearheaded by George Bird Grinnell and Louis W. Hill, president of the Great Northern, a bill was introduced into the U.S. Congress which designated the region a national park. This bill was signed into law by President William Howard Taft in 1910. In 1910 Grinnell wrote, "This Park, the country owes to the Boone and Crockett Club, whose members discovered the region, suggested it being set aside, caused the bill to be introduced into congress and awakened interest in it all over the country".


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: From May until August 1910, the forest reserve supervisor, Fremont Nathan Haines, managed the park's resources as the first acting superintendent. In August 1910, William Logan was appointed the park's first superintendent. While the forest reserve designation confirmed the traditional usage rights of the Blackfeet, the enabling legislation of the national park does not mention the guarantees to the Native Americans. The United States government's position was that with the special designation as a National Park the mountains ceded their multi-purpose "public land status" and the former rights ceased to exist as the Court of Claims confirmed it in 1935. Some Blackfeet held that their traditional usage rights still exist "de jure". In the 1890s, armed standoffs were avoided narrowly several times.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: The Great Northern Railway, under the supervision of president Louis W. Hill, built a number of hotels and chalets throughout the park in the 1910s to promote tourism. These buildings, constructed and operated by a Great Northern subsidiary called the Glacier Park Company, were modeled on Swiss architecture as part of Hill's plan to portray Glacier as "America's Switzerland". Hill was especially interested in sponsoring artists to come to the park, building tourist lodges that displayed their work. His hotels in the park never made a profit but they attracted thousands of visitors who came via the Great Northern. Vacationers commonly took pack trips on horseback between the lodges or utilized the seasonal stagecoach routes to gain access to the Many Glacier areas in the northeast.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: The chalets, built between 1910 and 1913, included Belton, St. Mary, Going-to-the-Sun, Many Glacier, Two Medicine, Sperry, Granite Park, Cut Bank, and Gunsight Lake. The railway also built Glacier Park Lodge, adjacent to the park on its east side, and the Many Glacier Hotel on the east shore of Swiftcurrent Lake. Louis Hill personally selected the sites for all of these buildings, choosing each for their dramatic scenic backdrops and views. Another developer, John Lewis, built the Lewis Glacier Hotel on Lake McDonald in 1913–1914. The Great Northern Railway bought the hotel in 1930 and it was later renamed Lake McDonald Lodge. Some of the chalets were in remote backcountry locations accessible only by trail. Today, only Sperry, Granite Park, and Belton Chalets are still in operation, while a building formerly belonging to Two Medicine Chalet is now Two Medicine Store. The surviving chalet and hotel buildings within the park are now designated as National Historic Landmarks. In total, 350 buildings and structures within the park are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, including ranger stations, backcountry patrol cabins, fire lookouts, and concession facilities. In 2017, Sperry Chalet closed early for the season due to the Sprague Fire which subsequently burned the entire interior portions of the structure, leaving only the stone exterior standing. Due to damage, the chalet was closed indefinitely and while the exterior stonework was stabilized in the fall of 2017. The rebuilding process was expected to last during the summers of 2018 and 2019, and is scheduled to reopen in July 2020.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: After the park was well established and visitors began to rely more on automobiles, work was begun on the long Going-to-the-Sun Road, completed in 1932. Also known simply as the Sun Road, the road bisects the park and is the only route that ventures deep into the park, going over the Continental Divide at Logan Pass, at the midway point. The Sun Road is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places and in 1985 was designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark. Another route, along the southern boundary between the park and National Forests, is US Route 2, which crosses the Continental Divide at Marias Pass and connects the towns of West Glacier and East Glacier.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), a New Deal relief agency for young men, played a major role between 1933 and 1942 in developing both Glacier National Park and Yellowstone National Park. CCC projects included reforestation, campground development, trail construction, fire hazard reduction, and fire-fighting work. The increase in motor vehicle traffic through the park during the 1930s resulted in the construction of new concession facilities at Swiftcurrent and Rising Sun, both designed for automobile-based tourism. These early auto camps are now also listed on the National Register.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: Glacier National Park is managed by the National Park Service, with the park's headquarters in West Glacier, Montana. Visitation to Glacier National Park averaged about visitors in 2019, which surpassed its 2017 peak of . Glacier has had at least 2 million annual visitors consistently since 2012, but has broken annual attendance records from 2014 to 2018.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: Glacier National Park finished with a $13.803 million budget in 2016, with a planned budget of $13.777 million for 2017. In anticipation of the 100th anniversary of the park in 2010, major reconstruction of the Going-to-the-Sun Road was completed. The Federal Highway Administration managed the reconstruction project in cooperation with the National Park Service. Some rehabilitation of major structures such as visitor centers and historic hotels, as well as improvements in wastewater treatment facilities and campgrounds, are expected to be completed by the anniversary date. The National Park Service is engaged in fishery studies for Lake McDonald to assess status and develop protection programs to enhance native fish populations. The restoration of park trails, education and youth programs, park improvements and many community programs have been planned and are ongoing.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: The National Park Service mandate is to "...  preserve and protect natural and cultural resources". The Organic Act of August 25, 1916 established the National Park Service as a federal agency. One major section of the Act has often been summarized as the "Mission", "...  to promote and regulate the use of the  ... national parks  ... which purpose is to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wildlife therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations." In keeping with this mandate, hunting is illegal in the park, as are mining, logging, and the removal of natural or cultural resources. Additionally, oil and gas exploration and extraction are not permitted. These restrictions, however, caused a lot of conflict with the adjoining Blackfeet Indian Reservation. When they sold the land to the United States government, it was with the stipulation of being able to maintain their usage rights of the area, many of which (such as hunting) had come into conflict with these regulations.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: In 1974, a wilderness study was submitted to Congress which identified 95% of the area of the park as qualifying for wilderness designation. Unlike a few other parks, Glacier National Park has yet to be protected as wilderness, but National Park Service policy requires that identified areas listed in the report be managed as wilderness until Congress renders a full decision. Ninety-three percent of Glacier National Park is managed as wilderness, even though it has not been officially designated.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: The park is bordered on the north by Waterton Lakes National Park in Alberta, and the Flathead Provincial Forest and Akamina-Kishinena Provincial Park in British Columbia. To the west, the north fork of the Flathead River forms the western boundary, while its middle fork is part of the southern boundary. The Blackfeet Indian Reservation provides most of the eastern boundary. The Lewis and Clark and the Flathead National Forests form the southern and western boundary. The remote Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex is located in the two forests immediately to the south.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: The park contains over 700 lakes, but only 131 have been named as of 2016. Lake McDonald on the western side of the park is the longest at and the deepest at . Numerous smaller lakes, known as tarns, are located in cirques formed by glacial erosion. Some of these lakes, like Avalanche Lake and Cracker Lake, are colored an opaque turquoise by suspended glacial silt, which also causes a number of streams to run milky white. Glacier National Park lakes remain cold year-round, with temperatures rarely above at their surface. Cold water lakes such as these support little plankton growth, ensuring that the lake waters are remarkably clear. However, the lack of plankton lowers the rate of pollution filtration, so pollutants tend to linger longer. Consequently, the lakes are considered environmental bellwethers as they can be quickly affected by even minor increases in pollutants.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: Two hundred waterfalls are scattered throughout the park. However, during drier times of the year, many of these are reduced to a trickle. The largest falls include those in the Two Medicine region, McDonald Falls in the McDonald Valley, and Swiftcurrent Falls in the Many Glacier area, which is easily observable and close to the Many Glacier Hotel. One of the tallest waterfalls is Bird Woman Falls, which drops from a hanging valley beneath the north slope of Mount Oberlin.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: The rocks found in the park are primarily sedimentary rocks of the Belt Supergroup. They were deposited in shallow seas over 1.6 billion to 800 million years ago. During the formation of the Rocky Mountains 170 million years ago, one region of rocks now known as the Lewis Overthrust was forced eastward . This overthrust was several miles (kilometers) thick and hundreds of miles (kilometers) long. This resulted in older rocks being displaced over newer ones, so the overlying Proterozoic rocks are between 1.4 and 1.5 billion years older than Cretaceous age rocks they now rest on.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: One of the most dramatic evidences of this overthrust is visible in the form of Chief Mountain, an isolated peak on the edge of the eastern boundary of the park rising above the Great Plains. There are six mountains in the park over in elevation, with Mount Cleveland at being the tallest. Appropriately named Triple Divide Peak sends waters towards the Pacific Ocean, Hudson Bay, and Gulf of Mexico watersheds. This peak can effectively be considered to be the apex of the North American continent, although the mountain is only above sea level.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: The rocks in Glacier National Park are the best preserved Proterozoic sedimentary rocks in the world, with some of the world's most fruitful sources for records of early life. Sedimentary rocks of similar age located in other regions have been greatly altered by mountain building and other metamorphic changes; consequently, fossils are less common and more difficult to observe. The rocks in the park preserve such features as millimeter-scale lamination, ripple marks, mud cracks, salt-crystal casts, raindrop impressions, oolites, and other sedimentary bedding characteristics. Six fossilized species of stromatolites, early organisms consisting of primarily blue-green algae, have been documented and dated at about 1 billion years. The discovery of the Appekunny Formation, a well-preserved rock stratum in the park, pushed back the established date for the origination of animal life a full billion years. This rock formation has bedding structures which are believed to be the remains of the earliest identified metazoan (animal) life on Earth.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: Glacier National Park is dominated by mountains which were carved into their present shapes by the huge glaciers of the last ice age. These glaciers have largely disappeared over the last 12,000 years. Evidence of widespread glacial action is found throughout the park in the form of U-shaped valleys, cirques, arêtes, and large outflow lakes radiating like fingers from the base of the highest peaks. Since the end of the ice ages, various warming and cooling trends have occurred. The last recent cooling trend was during the Little Ice Age, which took place approximately between 1550 and 1850. During the Little Ice Age, the glaciers in the park expanded and advanced, although to nowhere near as great an extent as they had during the Ice Age.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: During the middle of the 20th century, examining the maps and photographs from the previous century provided clear evidence that the 150 glaciers known to have existed in the park a hundred years earlier had greatly retreated and disappeared altogether in many cases. Repeat photography of the glaciers, such as the pictures taken of Grinnell Glacier between 1938 and 2015 as shown, help to provide visual confirmation of the extent of glacier retreat.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: In the 1980s, the U.S. Geological Survey began a more systematic study of the remaining glaciers, which has continued to the present day. By 2010, 37 glaciers remained, but only 25 of them were at least in area and therefore still considered active. Based on the warming trend of the early 2000s, scientists had estimated that the park's remaining glaciers would melt by 2020; however, a later estimate stated that the glaciers may be gone by 2030. This glacier retreat follows a worldwide pattern that has accelerated even more since 1980. Without a major climatic change in which cooler and moister weather returns and persists, the mass balance, which is the accumulation rate versus the ablation (melting) rate of glaciers, will continue to be negative and the glaciers have been projected to disappear, leaving behind only barren rock eventually.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: After the end of the Little Ice Age in 1850, the glaciers in the park retreated moderately until the 1910s. Between 1917 and 1941, the retreat rate accelerated and was as high as per year for some glaciers. A slight cooling trend from the 1940s until 1979 helped to slow the rate of retreat and, in a few cases, even advanced the glaciers over ten meters. However, during the 1980s, the glaciers in the park began a steady period of loss of glacial ice, which continues as of 2010. In 1850, the glaciers in the region near Blackfoot and Jackson Glaciers covered , but by 1979, the same region of the park had glacier ice covering only . Between 1850 and 1979, 73% of the glacial ice had melted away. At the time the park was created, Jackson Glacier was part of Blackfoot Glacier, but the two have separated into individual glaciers since.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: It is unknown how glacial retreat may affect the park's ecosystems beyond the broad concept of creating new problems over time, and intensifying or exacerbating existing challenges. There is concern over negative impacts, such as the loss of habitat for plant and animal species that are dependent on cold water. Less glacial melt reduces stream level flow during the dry summer and fall seasons, and lowers water table levels overall, increasing the risk of forest fires. The loss of glaciers will also reduce the aesthetic appeal that glaciers provide to visitors. Relative to the unpredictability of emerging science, misinformation began to circulate in the news media and on social media in early to mid-2019, claiming that Montana Park had discreetly removed or changed placards, movies, brochures, and other literature warning that the park's glaciers would be gone by 2020. Apparently, the event was triggered when the Park Service began updating their on-site placards to reflect the latest scientific findings. The "gone by 2020" date on one placard was replaced with, "When they will completely disappear, however, depends on how and when we act.” Another placard states, "Some glaciers melt faster than others, but one thing is consistent: the glaciers in the park are shrinking.”


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: As the park spans the Continental Divide, and has more than in elevation variance, many climates and microclimates are found in the park. As with other alpine systems, average temperature usually drops as elevation increases. The western side of the park, in the Pacific watershed, has a milder and wetter climate, due to its lower elevation. Precipitation is greatest during the winter and spring, averaging per month. Snowfall can occur at any time of the year, even in the summer, and especially at higher altitudes. The winter can bring prolonged cold waves, especially on the eastern side of the Continental Divide, which has a higher elevation overall. Snowfalls are significant over the course of the winter, with the largest accumulation occurring in the west. During the tourist season, daytime high temperatures average , and nighttime lows usually drop into the range. Temperatures in the high country may be much cooler. In the lower western valleys, daytime highs in the summer may reach .


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: Rapid temperature changes have been noted in the region. In Browning, Montana, just east of the park in the Blackfeet Reservation, a world record temperature drop of in only 24 hours occurred on the night of January 23–24, 1916, when thermometers plunged from .


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: Glacier National Park has a highly regarded global climate change research program. Based in West Glacier, with the main headquarters in Bozeman, Montana, the U.S. Geological Survey has performed scientific research on specific climate change studies since 1992. In addition to the study of the retreating glaciers, research performed includes forest modeling studies in which fire ecology and habitat alterations are analyzed. Additionally, changes in alpine vegetation patterns are documented, watershed studies in which stream flow rates and temperatures are recorded frequently at fixed gauging stations, and atmospheric research in which UV-B radiation, ozone, and other atmospheric gases are analyzed over time. The research compiled contributes to a broader understanding of climate changes in the park. The data collected, when compared to other facilities scattered around the world, help to correlate these climatic changes on a global scale.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: Glacier is considered to have excellent air and water quality. No major areas of dense human population exist anywhere near the region and industrial effects are minimized due to a scarcity of factories and other potential contributors of pollutants. However, the sterile and cold lakes found throughout the park are easily contaminated by airborne pollutants that fall whenever it rains or snows, and some evidence of these pollutants has been found in park waters. Wildfires could also impact the quality of water. However, the pollution level is currently viewed as negligible, and the park lakes and waterways have a water quality rating of A-1, the highest rating given by the state of Montana.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: Glacier is part of a large preserved ecosystem collectively known as the "Crown of the Continent Ecosystem", all of which is a primarily untouched wilderness of a pristine quality. Virtually all the plants and animals which existed at the time European explorers first entered the region are present in the park today.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: A total of over 1,132 plant species have been identified parkwide. The predominantly coniferous forest is home to various species of trees such as the Engelmann spruce, Douglas fir, subalpine fir, limber pine and western larch, which is a deciduous conifer, producing cones but losing its needles each fall. Cottonwood and aspen are the more common deciduous trees and are found at lower elevations, usually along lakes and streams. The timberline on the eastern side of the park is almost lower than on the western side of the Continental Divide, due to exposure to the colder winds and weather of the Great Plains. West of the Continental Divide, the forest receives more moisture and is more protected from the winter, resulting in a more densely populated forest with taller trees. Above the forested valleys and mountain slopes, alpine tundra conditions prevail, with grasses and small plants eking out an existence in a region that enjoys as little as three months without snow cover. Thirty species of plants are found only in the park and surrounding national forests. Beargrass, a tall flowering plant, is commonly found near moisture sources, and is relatively widespread during July and August. Wildflowers such as monkeyflower, glacier lily, fireweed, balsamroot and Indian paintbrush are also common.


title: Glacier National Park (U.S.)

text: The forested sections fall into three major climatic zones. The west and northwest are dominated by spruce and fir and the southwest by red cedar and hemlock; the areas east of the Continental Divide are a combination of mixed pine, spruce, fir and prairie zones. The cedar-hemlock groves along the Lake McDonald valley are the easternmost examples of this Pacific climatic ecosystem.