title: Ellen White (footballer)

text: In May 2019, White announced she was joining Manchester City, signing on 1 July on a two-year deal. At the start of the 2019–20 season, White suffered a knee injury requiring surgery causing her to miss the 2019 Women's International Champions Cup and the first three months of the season. White's first appearance for Manchester City was in their Champions League defeat to Atlético Madrid. White's first goal for the club was against her former club Birmingham City in the League Cup. On 7 November 2020 White became the second player in WSL history to reach fifty goals after she scored a brace in Manchester City's 8–1 victory over Bristol City. On 7 February 2021 she became the all-time record goal scorer in the WSL, having scored 55 times to Vivianne Miedema's 54. On 22 May 2021, White signed a two-year contract with Manchester City, keeping her there until 2023; White announced her retirement on 22 August 2022 after winning the Euros with England. Earlier in the month she had not returned to training with the other Lionesses in the Manchester City squad after the Euro break, citing "personal reasons" at the time.


title: Ellen White (footballer)

text: White played for England at under-17, under-19, under-20 and under-23 levels. She made her senior England debut in March 2010 at home to Austria, scoring in the final minute as England won 3–0.


title: Ellen White (footballer)

text: After being selected in England's 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup squad, White scored in a 2–0 group stage win over Japan, who ultimately won the trophy. White was recognised for her form over 2011, being voted the England Women's Player of the Year.


title: Ellen White (footballer)

text: White was selected for England's UEFA Women's Euro 2013 Squad. However, after scoring England's only goal in the friendly defeat to Sweden leading into the tournament, White was left frustrated by lack of service throughout the tournament as England failed to progress from the group stage.


title: Ellen White (footballer)

text: Just months after returning from an anterior cruciate ligament injury, White was called up for pre-World Cup friendlies in April 2015. White also made the final squad for England's 2015 Women's World Cup team, after scoring three in qualification, netting two in an 8–0 win over Turkey and another in a 6–0 win over Belarus. White failed to score in the finals, however, which saw England finish thirdtheir best world cup performance.


title: Ellen White (footballer)

text: White scored in England's opening match of the 2017 Women's Euros in a 6–0 win over Scotland. This followed two goals in qualifying, in two different 7–0 victories over Serbia. England finished top of group D, but were knocked out in the semi-finals by the eventual tournament champions Netherlands.


title: Ellen White (footballer)

text: White scored twice in the 2018 SheBelieves Cup, both coming in England's match against Germany. White was joint top scorer in the competition which saw England finish second. In the 2019 edition England won the tournament for the first time, with White scoring once against Brazil.


title: Ellen White (footballer)

text: At the 2019 Women's World Cup, White scored in England's opening game against Scotland, before scoring twice in England's final group stage game against Japan. She scored her fourth of the tournament in the round of 16 match against Cameroon, and later scored her fifth in a 3–0 quarter final win over Norway. In the semi-final match against the USA, White scored the equaliser before having a second goal disallowed by video assistant referee (VAR). She also won a penalty for England; however, the penalty was not converted and England were beaten by the holders – losing 2–1. Her performance during the tournament has been compared with that of Harry Kane's World Cup performance due to their similar goal scoring record. England finished in fourth place, losing to Sweden 2–1 in the third place play-off; although, White had a goal ruled out for handball by VAR. White ended the tournament as joint top goalscorer with six goals, with that, she became England women's all-time top World Cup goalscorer and was awarded the Bronze Bootas she recorded fewer assists than Silver and Golden Boot winners Alex Morgan and Megan Rapinoe respectively.


title: Ellen White (footballer)

text: On her return to the national team following a three month long injury, White scored in a 2–1 defeat to Germany at Wembley Stadium. The game attracted a record crowd for a Lioness's game of 77,768.


title: Ellen White (footballer)

text: During England's first game of 2021, and first in 11 months, White scored a hat-trick in a 6–0 thrashing of Northern Ireland.


title: Ellen White (footballer)

text: White made her 100th cap for England against Austria on 27 November 2021 and scored the only goal in a 1–0 win, continuing England's one hundred percent winning run in qualification for the 2023 FIFA World Cup. The following game, White became England's all time record goals scorer, scoring a hat-trick in a 20–0 defeat of Latvia. The game was a multi-record breaking game as four players scored a hat-trick for the first time in an England game and was the largest victory for both men's and women's senior England sides, surpassing the women's team's 2005 13–0 win against Hungary and the men's 1882 13–0 win against Ireland.


title: Ellen White (footballer)

text: In June 2022 White was included in the England squad for the UEFA Women's Euro 2022. White started all six games and scored two goals in an 8–0 victory over Norway, a record win for a game in either the men's or women's European Championships. England won the tournament beating Germany 2–1 in the final, England's first major tournament trophy since the men's World Cup in 1966.


title: Ellen White (footballer)

text: Following the win, White appeared on the cover of "OK!" with fellow Lionesses Lucy Bronze and Keira Walsh; the three were interviewed about the state of women's football. A month after the tournament, White announced her retirement from football on 22 August 2022, departing as England's top female goal scorer and second overall goal scorer with 52 international goals (behind Wayne Rooney's 53 and ahead of Harry Kane's 50). In a letter shared on Twitter, White wrote that "this is my time to say goodbye to football and watch the next generation shine", adding that it had been an honour to play football for England and that her dreams had come true by winning the European title. England manager Sarina Wiegman paid tribute to White after the announcement, saying that "the game will miss her greatly."


title: Ellen White (footballer)

text: In June 2012, White was named in the 18-woman Great Britain squad for the 2012 London Olympics, where Team GB finished the tournament as quarter-finalists after finishing top of their group.


title: Ellen White (footballer)

text: After being selected for the 2020 Tokyo Olympics, White scored twice as Team GB played a warm up match against New Zealand. She scored three times during the group stage including a brace in GB's Group E opener against Chile, in addition to a hat-trick against Australia in the quarter final, which Team GB lost 4–3 in extra time after the score was 2–2 at the end of the 90 minutes.


title: Ellen White (footballer)

text: White is married to Callum Convery. White comes from a family of West Ham United supporters who, alongside her husband, regularly attend her matches. On 14 December 2022, White announced via social media that she was pregnant with her first child.


title: Ellen White (footballer)

text: In 2016, White was awarded the title of Honorary Freewoman of the Parish of Aylesbury by Aylesbury Town Council.


title: Ashram

text: The Sanskrit noun is a thematic nominal derivative from the root 'toil' (< PIE *"ḱremh") with the prefix 'towards.' An ashram is a place where one strives towards a goal in a disciplined manner. Such a goal could be ascetic, spiritual, yogic or any other.


title: Ashram

text: An ashram would traditionally, but not necessarily in contemporary times, be located far from human habitation, in forests or mountainous regions, amidst refreshing natural surroundings conducive to spiritual instruction and meditation. The residents of an ashram regularly performed spiritual and physical exercises, such as the various forms of yoga. Other sacrifices and penances, such as yajnas, were also performed. Many ashrams also served as gurukulas, residential schools for children under the guru-shishya tradition.


title: Ashram

text: Sometimes, the goal of a pilgrimage to the ashram was not tranquility, but instruction in some art, especially warfare. In the "Ramayana", the princes of ancient Ayodhya, Rama and Lakshmana, go to Vishvamitra's ashram to protect his yajnas from being defiled by emissary-demons of Ravana. After they prove their mettle, the princes receive martial instruction from the sage, especially in the use of divine weapons. In the "Mahabharata", Krishna, in his youth, goes to the ashram of Sandipani to gain knowledge of both intellectual and spiritual matters.


title: Ashram

text: Boarding schools, especially in the tribal areas of Maharashtra and elsewhere in India, are called "ashram shala" or ashram schools. One such school is the Lok Biradari Prakalp Ashram Shala.


title: Ashram

text: A number of ashrams have been established outside India. Typically, these ashrams are connected to Indian lineages, focus on imparting Yoga-related teachings, often in residential retreats, and are headed by spiritual teachers (Indians or Western).


title: Ferdinand Kingsley

text: Ferdinand James M. Kingsley (born 13 February 1988) is a British actor. He is known for portraying the roles of Hamza Bey in the film "Dracula Untold" (2014), Mr. Francatelli in the television series "Victoria" (2016–2019), Irving Thalberg in the film "Mank" (2020), and Hob Gadling in Netflix's adaptation of "The Sandman" (2022).


title: Ferdinand Kingsley

text: Ferdinand James M. Kingsley was born on 13 February 1988 in Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, the son of actor Ben Kingsley and theatre director Alison Sutcliffe. His paternal grandfather, Rahimtulla Harji Bhanji (1914–1968), was a Kenyan-born medical doctor from the Indian city of Jamnagar, being of Khoja Gujarati descent. His great-grandfather was an extremely successful spice trader who had moved from India to Zanzibar, where his grandfather lived until moving to England at the age of 14. Kingsley's paternal grandmother was English; she was born out of wedlock, and "would loath to speak of her background". His other great-grandfather was believed by the family to have been of either German-Jewish or Russian-Jewish descent, while his great-grandmother was English and worked in the garment district of East London.


title: Ferdinand Kingsley

text: Kingsley's theatre credits include "Troilus and Cressida", and "Little Eyolf" for the Royal Shakespeare Company. He played Rosencrantz in the National Theatre's 2010–11 production of "Hamlet", for which he received a commendation at the 2010 Ian Charleson Awards, and Phaeax in "Welcome to Thebes".


title: Ferdinand Kingsley

text: In the film "The Last Legion" he played Young Ambrosinus in flashbacks to the younger days of the character Ambrosinus, played by his father Ben Kingsley. He took the part of Albert Aurier in the BBC production "Vincent Van Gogh: Painted With Words". He plays Bushy in "Richard II", which is part of the BBC's Shakespeare season to be aired in Summer 2012.


title: Ferdinand Kingsley

text: He played both Jesus and God the Father in the August 2012 production of the "York Mystery Plays". In 2013, Kingsley played the part of murdered Jewish anarchist Joshua Bloom in the BBC period crime drama "Ripper Street", and filmed prominent roles in "Agatha Christie's Poirot: Elephants Can Remember", the BBC feature film "The Whale" as Obed Hendricks, and Universal Pictures' 2014 feature "Dracula Untold" as Hamza Bey. In Spring 2013, Kingsley starred in the short film "Dance in Colour" by The Crookes. In 2016, Kingsley starred in ITV's drama "Victoria" as Italian British cook Charles Elmé Francatelli.


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: A harmonic series (also overtone series) is the sequence of harmonics, musical tones, or pure tones whose frequency is an integer multiple of a "fundamental frequency".


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: Pitched musical instruments are often based on an acoustic resonator such as a string or a column of air, which oscillates at numerous modes simultaneously. At the frequencies of each vibrating mode, waves travel in both directions along the string or air column, reinforcing and canceling each other to form standing waves. Interaction with the surrounding air causes audible sound waves, which travel away from the instrument. Because of the typical spacing of the resonances, these frequencies are mostly limited to integer multiples, or harmonics, of the lowest frequency, and such multiples form the harmonic series.


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: The musical pitch of a note is usually perceived as the lowest partial present (the fundamental frequency), which may be the one created by vibration over the full length of the string or air column, or a higher harmonic chosen by the player. The musical timbre of a steady tone from such an instrument is strongly affected by the relative strength of each harmonic.


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: A "complex tone" (the sound of a note with a timbre particular to the instrument playing the note) "can be described as a combination of many simple periodic waves (i.e., sine waves) or "partials," each with its own frequency of vibration, amplitude, and phase". (See also, Fourier analysis.)


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: A partial is any of the sine waves (or "simple tones", as Ellis calls them when translating Helmholtz) of which a complex tone is composed, not necessarily with an integer multiple of the lowest harmonic.


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: A harmonic is any member of the harmonic series, an ideal set of frequencies that are positive integer multiples of a common fundamental frequency. The fundamental is a harmonic because it is one times itself. A harmonic partial is any real partial component of a complex tone that matches (or nearly matches) an ideal harmonic.


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: An inharmonic partial is any partial that does not match an ideal harmonic. "Inharmonicity" is a measure of the deviation of a partial from the closest ideal harmonic, typically measured in cents for each partial.


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: Many pitched acoustic instruments are designed to have partials that are close to being whole-number ratios with very low inharmonicity; therefore, in music theory, and in instrument design, it is convenient, although not strictly accurate, to speak of the partials in those instruments' sounds as "harmonics", even though they may have some degree of inharmonicity. The piano, one of the most important instruments of western tradition, contains a certain degree of inharmonicity among the frequencies generated by each string. Other pitched instruments, especially certain percussion instruments, such as marimba, vibraphone, tubular bells, timpani, and singing bowls contain mostly inharmonic partials, yet may give the ear a good sense of pitch because of a few strong partials that resemble harmonics. Unpitched, or indefinite-pitched instruments, such as cymbals and tam-tams make sounds (produce spectra) that are rich in inharmonic partials and may give no impression of implying any particular pitch.


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: An overtone is any partial above the lowest partial. The term overtone does not imply harmonicity or inharmonicity and has no other special meaning other than to exclude the fundamental. It is mostly the relative strength of the different overtones that give an instrument its particular timbre, tone color, or character. When writing or speaking of overtones and partials numerically, care must be taken to designate each correctly to avoid any confusion of one for the other, so the second overtone may not be the third partial, because it is the second sound in a series.


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: Some electronic instruments, such as synthesizers, can play a pure frequency with no overtones (a sine wave). Synthesizers can also combine pure frequencies into more complex tones, such as to simulate other instruments. Certain flutes and ocarinas are very nearly without overtones.


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: One of the simplest cases to visualise is a vibrating string, as in the illustration; the string has fixed points at each end, and each harmonic mode divides it into an integer number (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) of equal-sized sections resonating at increasingly higher frequencies. Similar arguments apply to vibrating air columns in wind instruments (for example, "the French horn was originally a valveless instrument that could play only the notes of the harmonic series"), although these are complicated by having the possibility of anti-nodes (that is, the air column is closed at one end and open at the other), conical as opposed to cylindrical bores, or end-openings that run the gamut from no flare, cone flare, or exponentially shaped flares (such as in various bells).


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: In most pitched musical instruments, the fundamental (first harmonic) is accompanied by other, higher-frequency harmonics. Thus shorter-wavelength, higher-frequency waves occur with varying prominence and give each instrument its characteristic tone quality. The fact that a string is fixed at each end means that the longest allowed wavelength on the string (which gives the fundamental frequency) is twice the length of the string (one round trip, with a half cycle fitting between the nodes at the two ends). Other allowed wavelengths are reciprocal multiples (e.g. , , times) that of the fundamental.


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: Theoretically, these shorter wavelengths correspond to vibrations at frequencies that are integer multiples of (e.g. 2, 3, 4 times) the fundamental frequency. Physical characteristics of the vibrating medium and/or the resonator it vibrates against often alter these frequencies. (See inharmonicity and stretched tuning for alterations specific to wire-stringed instruments and certain electric pianos.) However, those alterations are small, and except for precise, highly specialized tuning, it is reasonable to think of the frequencies of the harmonic series as integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: The harmonic series is an arithmetic progression ("f", 2"f", 3"f", 4"f", 5"f", ...). In terms of frequency (measured in cycles per second, or hertz, where "f" is the fundamental frequency), the difference between consecutive harmonics is therefore constant and equal to the fundamental. But because human ears respond to sound nonlinearly, higher harmonics are perceived as "closer together" than lower ones. On the other hand, the octave series is a geometric progression (2"f", 4"f", 8"f", 16"f", ...), and people perceive these distances as "the same" in the sense of musical interval. In terms of what one hears, each octave in the harmonic series is divided into increasingly "smaller" and more numerous intervals.


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: The second harmonic, whose frequency is twice the fundamental, sounds an octave higher; the third harmonic, three times the frequency of the fundamental, sounds a perfect fifth above the second harmonic. The fourth harmonic vibrates at four times the frequency of the fundamental and sounds a perfect fourth above the third harmonic (two octaves above the fundamental). Double the harmonic number means double the frequency (which sounds an octave higher).


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: Marin Mersenne wrote: "The order of the Consonances is natural, and ... the way we count them, starting from unity up to the number six and beyond is founded in nature." However, to quote Carl Dahlhaus, "the interval-distance of the natural-tone-row [overtones] [...], counting up to 20, includes everything from the octave to the quarter tone, (and) useful and useless musical tones. The natural-tone-row [harmonic series] justifies everything, that means, nothing."


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: If the harmonics are octave displaced and compressed into the span of one octave, some of them are approximated by the notes of what the West has adopted as the chromatic scale based on the fundamental tone. The Western chromatic scale has been modified into twelve equal semitones, which is slightly out of tune with many of the harmonics, especially the 7th, 11th, and 13th harmonics. In the late 1930s, composer Paul Hindemith ranked musical intervals according to their relative dissonance based on these and similar harmonic relationships.


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: Below is a comparison between the first 31 harmonics and the intervals of 12-tone equal temperament (12TET), octave displaced and compressed into the span of one octave. Tinted fields highlight differences greater than 5 cents ( of a semitone), which is the human ear's "just noticeable difference" for notes played one after the other (smaller differences are noticeable with notes played simultaneously).


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: The frequencies of the harmonic series, being integer multiples of the fundamental frequency, are naturally related to each other by whole-numbered ratios and small whole-numbered ratios are likely the basis of the consonance of musical intervals (see just intonation). This objective structure is augmented by psychoacoustic phenomena. For example, a perfect fifth, say 200 and 300 Hz (cycles per second), causes a listener to perceive a combination tone of 100 Hz (the difference between 300 Hz and 200 Hz); that is, an octave below the lower (actual sounding) note. This 100 Hz first-order combination tone then interacts with both notes of the interval to produce second-order combination tones of 200 (300 − 100) and 100 (200 − 100) Hz and all further nth-order combination tones are all the same, being formed from various subtraction of 100, 200, and 300. When one contrasts this with a dissonant interval such as a tritone (not tempered) with a frequency ratio of 7:5 one gets, for example, 700 − 500 = 200 (1st order combination tone) and 500 − 200 = 300 (2nd order). The rest of the combination tones are octaves of 100 Hz so the 7:5 interval actually contains four notes: 100 Hz (and its octaves), 300 Hz, 500 Hz and 700 Hz. Note that the lowest combination tone (100 Hz) is a seventeenth (two octaves and a major third) below the lower (actual sounding) note of the tritone. All the intervals succumb to similar analysis as has been demonstrated by Paul Hindemith in his book "The Craft of Musical Composition", although he rejected the use of harmonics from the seventh and beyond.


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: The Mixolydian mode is consonant with the first 10 harmonics of the harmonic series (the 11th harmonic, a tritone, is not in the Mixolydian mode). The Ionian mode is consonant with only the first 6 harmonics of the series (the seventh harmonic, a minor seventh, is not in the Ionian mode).


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: The relative amplitudes (strengths) of the various harmonics primarily determine the timbre of different instruments and sounds, though onset transients, formants, noises, and inharmonicities also play a role. For example, the clarinet and saxophone have similar mouthpieces and reeds, and both produce sound through resonance of air inside a chamber whose mouthpiece end is considered closed. Because the clarinet's resonator is cylindrical, the "even"-numbered harmonics are less present. The saxophone's resonator is conical, which allows the even-numbered harmonics to sound more strongly and thus produces a more complex tone. The inharmonic ringing of the instrument's metal resonator is even more prominent in the sounds of brass instruments.


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: Human ears tend to group phase-coherent, harmonically-related frequency components into a single sensation. Rather than perceiving the individual partials–harmonic and inharmonic, of a musical tone, humans perceive them together as a tone color or timbre, and the overall pitch is heard as the fundamental of the harmonic series being experienced. If a sound is heard that is made up of even just a few simultaneous sine tones, and if the intervals among those tones form part of a harmonic series, the brain tends to group this input into a sensation of the pitch of the fundamental of that series, even if the fundamental is not present.


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: Variations in the frequency of harmonics can also affect the "perceived" fundamental pitch. These variations, most clearly documented in the piano and other stringed instruments but also apparent in brass instruments, are caused by a combination of metal stiffness and the interaction of the vibrating air or string with the resonating body of the instrument.


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: David Cope (1997) suggests the concept of interval strength, in which an interval's strength, consonance, or stability (see consonance and dissonance) is determined by its approximation to a lower and stronger, or higher and weaker, position in the harmonic series. See also: Lipps–Meyer law.


title: Harmonic series (music)

text: Thus, an equal-tempered perfect fifth () is stronger than an equal-tempered minor third (), since they approximate a just perfect fifth () and just minor third (), respectively. The just minor third appears between harmonics 5 and 6 while the just fifth appears lower, between harmonics 2 and 3.


title: Bell Biv DeVoe

text: Bell Biv DeVoe, also known as BBD, is an American music group from Boston, Massachusetts, formed from members of New Edition, consisting of Ricky Bell, Michael Bivins and Ronnie DeVoe.


title: Bell Biv DeVoe

text: The band is best known for their debut album, the multi-platinum selling "Poison", a key work in the new jack swing movement of the 1990s that combined elements of traditional soul and R&B with hip hop. Two singles from the album, "Poison" and "Do Me!", both reached number 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1990. The band released three more albums, though none had the success of their debut. Their most recent album "Three Stripes" came out in 2017.


title: Bell Biv DeVoe

text: Despite only producing four albums of original material in a 31-year span, the group has continuously toured and performed live, both as an act on their own and on several New Edition reunion tours.


title: Bell Biv DeVoe

text: The trio of Ricky Bell, Michael Bivins, and Ronnie DeVoe has their origins as founders of the Boston-based quintet New Edition, which had gained notice of famed producer Maurice Starr at a talent show in 1981, and as children had several hits with songs like "Candy Girl" and "Cool It Now".


title: Bell Biv DeVoe

text: Throughout the 1980s, the line-up changed and the group matured and sought to branch out in new musical directions. During a hiatus in 1989, and at the suggestion of producers Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis, the three decided to form a new group, and were signed by MCA Records. With help from Public Enemy producers Eric Sadler, Hank and Keith Shocklee and several others, Bell Biv Devoe released its debut album "Poison" in 1990, an album credited as pioneering the "new jack swing" sound of the early 1990s, combining hip-hop, funk, soul, and pop music. This fusion of styles helped to expose them to a fan base which preferred a harder edged sound. "Poison" reached number 1 on "Billboard"s R&B/Hip-Hop chart, and its title track, along with its second single, "Do Me!", both reached number 3 on "Billboard"s Hot 100 chart. Shortly thereafter, Richard Wolf and Epic Mazur were responsible for the remix of "Do Me!" (which hit number six on the dance charts). "Poison" also spawned the singles "B.B.D. (I Thought It Was Me)?", "When Will I See You Smile Again?" and "She's Dope!" "Poison" sold over four million copies, and was followed up by a remix album titled "WBBD-Bootcity".


title: Bell Biv DeVoe

text: Bell Biv DeVoe released "Hootie Mack" in 1993 on MCA Records, and the more hardcore rap/R&B influenced "BBD" in 2001 on Biv 10 Records. Neither album was as successful as "Poison", though "Hootie Mack" did reach Gold success. Despite the fact that the group has only released four albums, the members of Bell Biv Devoe continue to perform together as a group. They also participated in several New Edition reunions, and continue to perform with them on tour as part of the group. On May 30, 2013, Bell Biv DeVoe performed their hit song "Poison" for Boston Strong, a benefit concert to raise money for victims of the Boston Marathon bombing.


title: Bell Biv DeVoe

text: In 2016, BBD released their first track in 15 years, "Run," along with an accompanying music video. It was the first single off the album "Three Stripes", which was released January 27, 2017.


title: Bell Biv DeVoe

text: In 1991, the group received the award for Best R&B/Urban Contemporary Album of the Year, Group, Band or Duo for "Poison" at the Soul Train Music Awards.


title: Siddharth Nigam

text: Siddharth Nigam is an Indian actor who works in Indian television and films. He is known for his role as young Sahir and Samar in "Dhoom 3", young Mauryan prince Ashoka in Colors TV's "Chakravartin Ashoka Samrat", Prince Bindusara in StarPlus's "Chandra Nandini" and Aladdin in Sony SAB's "Aladdin – Naam Toh Suna Hoga".


title: Siddharth Nigam

text: Nigam was brought up in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh. He has an elder brother, Abhishek Nigam, who is also an actor and their mother runs an NGO and a beauty parlour.


title: Siddharth Nigam

text: He completed his tenth class studies at Khelgaon Public School, where he practiced for gymnastics. Nigam has won a gold medal in parallel bar and a silver medal in high bar at 58th National School Games, Pune. Later he moved to Mumbai from Allahabad. In 2021, Nigam pursued a degree from Thakur College in Kandivali, Mumbai.


title: Siddharth Nigam

text: Nigam started his acting career in 2011 by appearing in a Bournvita advertisement. After watching him in advertisement, makers of the film "Dhoom 3" called him for an audition to play the Young Sahir/Samar. The film was directed by Vijay Krishna Acharya, and it was released on 20 December 2013. Taran Adarsh of the entertainment portal Bollywood Hungama reviewed, "Siddharth Nigam is a talent to watch out for, he's superb!". Writing for India Today Suhani Singh said, "He lights up the screen with his self-assured performance and charming presence".


title: Siddharth Nigam

text: After his successful debut in film, he debuted on television with the role of Young Rudra in the mythological drama series "". The show aired on 15 December 2014 on Life Ok television.


title: Siddharth Nigam

text: In February 2015, Nigam was seen in the historical drama series "Chakravartin Ashoka Samrat" where he played the lead role of Young Ashoka.


title: Siddharth Nigam

text: On 15 February 2015, Nigam appeared as a guest in a special Mahashivratri episode on "Comedy Nights with Kapil". In 2016, he was seen in "Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa 9" as a contestant and later as Young Shivaji in "Peshwa Bajirao." In 2017, he portrayed the character of Bindusara, the son of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya in "Chandra Nandini," along with his brother Abhishek, who played Bhadraketu.


title: Siddharth Nigam

text: From 2018 to 2021, he played Aladdin in Sony SAB's "Aladdin—Naam Toh Suna Hoga". He was last seen as Shivaay in Sony SAB's Hero – Gayab Mode On. Nigam will next star in a film named "The Shoonyah: Chapter 1 - Blow of The War Horns".


title: Siddharth Nigam

text: In August 2022, Nigam was selected as one of the "Cultural Ambassador of India" along with 74 others at the 75th Anniversary of Indian Independence.


title: Bark at the Moon

text: Bark at the Moon is the third solo studio album by British heavy metal vocalist Ozzy Osbourne, originally released in December 1983. The album marks Ozzy's change to a synth infused pop-metal sound, with both its "sonic production, and in Ozzy's imaging".


title: Bark at the Moon

text: A commercial success, "Bark at the Moon" peaked at number 19 on the "Billboard" album chart and within several weeks of release was certified gold for over 500,000 sales in the United States. To date, it has sold over 3,000,000 copies in the United States. In the UK, it was the third of four Osbourne albums to attain silver certification (60,000 units sold) by the British Phonographic Industry, achieving this in January 1984. The album was remastered on CD in 1995 and again (with a different mix) in 2002. This is Osbourne's first album to feature guitarist Jake E. Lee and only studio album to feature drummer Tommy Aldridge.


title: Bark at the Moon

text: "Bark at the Moon" is the only Ozzy Osbourne album on which the songwriting is credited entirely to Osbourne. However, guitarist Jake E. Lee maintains that he composed a significant amount of the album's music but was cheated out of his writing and publishing claims by Osbourne's wife and manager, Sharon. Lee claims that after he had composed the songs and completed recording his parts in the studio, he was presented with a contract which stated that he would have no claim to any writing or publishing relating to the album. The contract also stated that Lee could not mention this publicly. Lee claims he signed the contract because he had no legal representation and because Sharon threatened to fire him and have another guitarist re-record his parts if he refused.


title: Bark at the Moon

text: Osbourne himself admitted several years later in the liner notes to "The Ozzman Cometh" that Lee had been involved in the album's writing to at least some degree, stating that the album's title track was in fact co-written by the guitarist. Osbourne's bassist at the time, Bob Daisley, has mirrored Lee's account of the album's production, stating that he co-wrote most of the music with Lee and wrote the vast majority of the lyrics. Daisley has stated that he accepted a buyout from Osbourne in exchange for a writing credit. Osbourne's former drummer Lee Kerslake, who also played with Daisley in "Uriah Heep" after leaving Osbourne's band, stated that Daisley had been hired by Sharon Osbourne to write the "Bark at the Moon" album for "$50–60,000 or whatever it is. He was offered the chance to write with Ozzy. Words, music – write the album."


title: Bark at the Moon

text: Some European pressings identified the track "Centre of Eternity" as "Forever". On tours for the album, Osbourne referred to it as "Forever". This can be heard on bootleg recordings of tours promoting the album. The title track was released as the album's first single with an accompanying music video, the first Osbourne had made. In the early 1980s infancy of the music video medium, the video was highly anticipated due to his outrageous image. The decision to release the ballad "So Tired" as the album's second single was unpopular with many longtime fans. The track "Spiders in the Night" was originally included only on the European, Australian, New Zealand and Greek releases, but was included on the 1995 CD reissue and the 2002 reissue, listed simply as "Spiders."


title: Bark at the Moon

text: Composed by Daisley, the lyrics to the song "Now You See It (Now You Don't)" were a pointed rebuke aimed at Osbourne's wife and manager Sharon, who had fired him from the band in 1981. Daisley stated many years later that he was surprised the Osbourne camp allowed the lyrics on the album.


title: Bark at the Moon

text: Shortly after "Bark at the Moon"'s 1983 release, a Canadian man named James Jollimore murdered a woman and her two children after allegedly listening to the album. The media and Christian groups began to infer that the music was Satanic and had influenced Jollimore to commit the act. The timing was particularly inopportune for Osbourne, who was, at the time, facing allegations that his song "Suicide Solution" had influenced a fan to commit suicide.


title: Bark at the Moon

text: "Bark at the Moon" is Osbourne's third solo album after parting ways with Black Sabbath in 1979, and his only studio album to feature drummer Tommy Aldridge, who was a fixture of his live band in the early 1980s. Aldridge departed after the recording of the album and was briefly replaced by Carmine Appice, but returned mid-tour after Appice was removed by the Osbournes. When asked why Aldridge was brought back, Osbourne told "Hit Parader" magazine in early 1984 "For health reasons. He [Appice] was making me sick." Nonetheless, Appice did appear in the popular music video for the "Bark at the Moon" single.


title: Bark at the Moon

text: "Bark at the Moon" was re-issued again in 2002, although this release featured alternate mixes of many of the songs.


title: Saline water

text: Saline water (more commonly known as salt water) is water that contains a high concentration of dissolved salts (mainly sodium chloride). On the United States Geological Survey (USGS) salinity scale, saline water is saltier than brackish water, but less salty than brine. The salt concentration is usually expressed in parts per thousand (permille, ‰) and parts per million (ppm). The USGS salinity scale defines three levels of saline water. The salt concentration in slightly saline water is 1,000 to 3,000 ppm (0.1–0.3%); in moderately saline water is 3,000 to 10,000 ppm (0.3–1%); and in highly saline water is 10,000 to 35,000 ppm (1–3.5%). Seawater has a salinity of roughly 35,000 ppm, equivalent to 35 grams of salt per one liter (or kilogram) of water. The saturation level is only nominally dependent on the temperature of the water. At one liter of water can dissolve about 357 grams of salt, a concentration of 26.3% w/w. At boiling () the amount that can be dissolved in one liter of water increases to about 391 grams, a concentration of 28.1% w/w.


title: Saline water

text: At , saturated sodium chloride brine is about 28% salt by weight. At , brine can only hold about 26% salt. At 20 °C one liter of water can dissolve about 357 grams of salt, a concentration of 26.3%.


title: Saline water

text: The thermal conductivity of seawater (3.5% dissolved salt by weight) is 0.6 W/mK at . The thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature.


title: Saline water

text: Density "ρ" of brine at various concentrations and temperatures from can be approximated with a linear equation:


title: Saline water

text: About four percent of hydrogen gas produced worldwide is created by electrolysis. The majority of this hydrogen produced through electrolysis is a side product in the production of chlorine.


title: Vinod Raj (Tamil actor)

text: Vinod Raj (1937 – 31 December 2017) was an Indian actor, who worked on Tamil films. He is the father of Indian actor Vikram.


title: Vinod Raj (Tamil actor)

text: Vinod Raj did not experience much personal success as an actor and often appeared in minor supporting roles in films and in television serials. He is best known for his appearance as Trisha's father in "Ghilli" (2004) and for his role alongside his son in Susi Ganesan's "Kanthaswamy" (2009).


title: Vinod Raj (Tamil actor)

text: Vinod Raj was born as John Victor and was a native of Paramakudi, before running away from home to start a career in films. He was married to Rajeshwari, a sub-collector whose brother, Thyagarajan was an established director-actor in the Tamil film industry; with his son, actor Prashanth, being his nephew. Vinod's son Kennedy, who works with the stage name of Vikram, went from being a struggling actor to one of the leading actors in Tamil cinema after the release of "Sethu" (1999). Vikram is used as a screen name as he disliked his original name, Kennedy; the name Vikram was composed by taking "Vi" from his father's name, "K" from Kennedy, "Ra" from his mother's name and "ram" from his sun sign, Aries. Vikram's son, Dhruv, is also an actor, marking the third generation of actors in the family. Vinod's younger son, Arvind lives in Dubai, U.A.E. Vinod also has a daughter Anitha, who is a teacher.


title: Vinod Raj (Tamil actor)

text: Vinod Raj died on 31 December 2017 following a heart attack at his home in Mahalingapuram, Chennai. He was laid to rest at Kilpauk cemetery.


title: Environmental engineering

text: Environmental engineering is a professional engineering discipline that encompasses broad scientific topics like chemistry, biology, ecology, geology, hydraulics, hydrology, microbiology, and mathematics to create solutions that will protect and also improve the health of living organisms and improve the quality of the environment. Environmental engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering and chemical engineering. While on the part of civil engineering, the Environmental Engineering is focused mainly on Sanitary Engineering.


title: Environmental engineering

text: Environmental engineering is the application of scientific and engineering principles to improve and maintain the environment to:


title: Environmental engineering

text: Environmental engineers devise solutions for wastewater management, water and air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, and public health. They design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems, and design plans to prevent waterborne diseases and improve sanitation in urban, rural and recreational areas. They evaluate hazardous-waste management systems to evaluate the severity of such hazards, advise on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps. They implement environmental engineering law, as in assessing the environmental impact of proposed construction projects.


title: Environmental engineering

text: Environmental engineers study the effect of technological advances on the environment, addressing local and worldwide environmental issues such as acid rain, global warming, ozone depletion, water pollution and air pollution from automobile exhausts and industrial sources.


title: Environmental engineering

text: Most jurisdictions impose licensing and registration requirements for qualified environmental engineers.


title: Environmental engineering

text: The word environmental has its root in the late 14th-century French word environ (verb), meaning to encircle or to encompass. The word environment was used by Carlyle in 1827 to refer to the aggregate of conditions in which a person or thing lives. The meaning shifted again in 1956 when it was used in the ecological sense, where Ecology is the branch of science dealing with the relationship of living things to their environment.


title: Environmental engineering

text: The second part of the phrase environmental engineer originates from Latin roots and was used in the 14th century French as engignour, meaning a constructor of military engines such as trebuchets, harquebuses, longbows, cannons, catapults, ballistas, stirrups, armour as well as other deadly or bellicose contraptions. The word engineer was not used to reference public works until the 16th century; and it likely entered the popular vernacular as meaning a contriver of public works during John Smeaton's time.


title: Environmental engineering

text: Environmental engineering is a name for work that has been done since early civilizations, as people learned to modify and control the environmental conditions to meet needs. As people recognized that their health was related to the quality of their environment, they built systems to improve it. The ancient Indus Valley Civilization (3300 B.C.E. to 1300 B.C.E.) had advanced control over their water resources. The public work structures found at various sites in the area include wells, public baths, water storage tanks, a drinking water system, and a city-wide sewage collection system. They also had an early canal irrigation system enabling large-scale agriculture.


title: Environmental engineering

text: From 4000 to 2000 B.C.E., many civilizations had drainage systems and some had sanitation facilities, including the Mesopotamian Empire, Mohenjo-Daro, Egypt, Crete, and the Orkney Islands in Scotland. The Greeks also had aqueducts and sewer systems that used rain and wastewater to irrigate and fertilize fields.


title: Environmental engineering

text: The first aqueduct in Rome was constructed in 312 B.C.E., and from there, they continued to construct aqueducts for irrigation and safe urban water supply during droughts. They also built an underground sewer system as early as the 7th century B.C.E. that fed into the Tiber River, draining marshes to create farmland as well as removing sewage from the city.


title: Environmental engineering

text: Very little change was seen from the fall of Rome until the 19th century, where improvements saw increasing efforts focused on public health. Modern environmental engineering began in London in the mid-19th century when Joseph Bazalgette designed the first major sewerage system following the Great Stink. The city's sewer system conveyed raw sewage to the River Thames, which also supplied the majority of the city's drinking water, leading to an outbreak of cholera. The introduction of drinking water treatment and sewage treatment in industrialized countries reduced waterborne diseases from leading causes of death to rarities.


title: Environmental engineering

text: The field emerged as a separate academic discipline during the middle of the 20th century in response to widespread public concern about water and air pollution and other environmental degradation. As society and technology grew more complex, they increasingly produced unintended effects on the natural environment. One example is the widespread application of the pesticide DDT to control agricultural pests in the years following World War II. The story of DDT as vividly told in Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring" (1962) is considered to be the birth of the modern environmental movement, which led to the modern field of "environmental engineering."


title: Environmental engineering

text: Many universities offer environmental engineering programs through either the department of civil engineering or chemical engineering and also including electronic projects to develop and balance the environmental


title: Environmental engineering

text: conditions. Environmental engineers in a civil engineering program often focus on hydrology, water resources management, bioremediation, and water and wastewater treatment plant design. Environmental engineers in a chemical engineering program tend to focus on environmental chemistry, advanced air and water treatment technologies, and separation processes. Some subdivisions of environmental engineering include natural resources engineering and agricultural engineering.


title: Environmental engineering

text: Consider a man made chemical that we wish to find the fate of in relation to time, position, some phase of matter, or flow of a liquid. We represent the measured change in concentration as a function of all the rates of change that effect that clump of chemical matter.


title: Environmental engineering

text: Meaning that for some control volume, the change in concentration versus change in linear independent time is equal to the sum of whatever changes are occurring in (+) and out(-) of that control volume. This is allowed for a few different reasons:


title: Environmental engineering

text: Although differential equations can be intimidating, this formula for a change in the concentration for a control volume per time is very versatile even without calculus. Take for instance the common scenario of a tank containing a volume with a contaminant of a certain concentration. Given that there is a first order reaction -kC taking place and that the tank is in steady state the effluent concentration becomes an expression of the initial concentration, the reaction constant k, and the hydraulic retention time (HRT) which is equal to the quotient of the volume of the tank by the flow.


title: Environmental engineering

text: Environmental engineers evaluate the water balance within a watershed and determine the available water supply, the water needed for various needs in that watershed, the seasonal cycles of water movement through the watershed and they develop systems to store, treat, and convey water for various uses.


title: Environmental engineering

text: Water is treated to achieve water quality objectives for the end uses. In the case of a potable water supply, water is treated to minimize the risk of infectious disease transmission, the risk of non-infectious illness, and to create a palatable water flavor. Water distribution systems are designed and built to provide adequate water pressure and flow rates to meet various end-user needs such as domestic use, fire suppression, and irrigation.


title: Environmental engineering

text: There are numerous wastewater treatment technologies. A wastewater treatment train can consist of a primary clarifier system to remove solid and floating materials, a secondary treatment system consisting of an aeration basin followed by flocculation and sedimentation or an activated sludge system and a secondary clarifier, a tertiary biological nitrogen removal system, and a final disinfection process. The aeration basin/activated sludge system removes organic material by growing bacteria (activated sludge). The secondary clarifier removes the activated sludge from the water. The tertiary system, although not always included due to costs, is becoming more prevalent to remove nitrogen and phosphorus and to disinfect the water before discharge to a surface water stream or ocean outfall.


title: Environmental engineering

text: Scientists have developed air pollution dispersion models to evaluate the concentration of a pollutant at a receptor or the impact on overall air quality from vehicle exhausts and industrial flue gas stack emissions. To some extent, this field overlaps the desire to decrease carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions from combustion processes.


title: Environmental engineering

text: Environmental engineers apply scientific and engineering principles to evaluate if there are likely to be any adverse impacts to water quality, air quality, habitat quality, flora and fauna, agricultural capacity, traffic, ecology, and noise. If impacts are expected, they then develop mitigation measures to limit or prevent such impacts. An example of a mitigation measure would be the creation of wetlands in a nearby location to mitigate the filling in of wetlands necessary for a road development if it is not possible to reroute the road.


title: Environmental engineering

text: In the United States, the practice of environmental assessment was formally initiated on January 1, 1970, the effective date of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). Since that time, more than 100 developing and developed nations either have planned specific analogous laws or have adopted procedure used elsewhere. NEPA is applicable to all federal agencies in the United States.


title: Environmental engineering

text: The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is one of the many agencies that work with environmental engineers to solve key issues. An important component of EPA's mission is to protect and improve air, water, and overall environmental quality in order to avoid or mitigate the consequences of harmful effects.


title: Shawty (slang)

text: Shawty, shorty, shauty " or shortie" is a part of the African American Vernacular Language used as a term of endearment but also frequently heard as a catcall. After the 1990s, the term has largely referred to a young and attractive woman. Some people consider this term condescending and pejorative. It was particularly popular in hip hop from the 2000s. "Shawty" is a Southern or rather African American variant of "shorty", and can also refer to someone of a short height compared to a taller person, a newcomer, a child, or a good friend.


title: T-95

text: T-95 is the common informal designation of the Russian fourth-generation main battle tank internally designated as the Object 195, that was under development at Uralvagonzavod from 1988 until its cancelation in 2010. Little about the tank is publicly known. The work from the Object 195 was used in the Object 148, later type classified as the T-14 Armata, which began production in 2016.


title: T-95

text: Around 1988, Nizhni-Tagil was ordered to work on a new main battle tank. Requirements were developed from the Sovershenstvovanie-88 (Improvement-88) study. The chassis derives from the Object 187, but is longer.


title: T-95

text: The project was first reported in 1995 It was due to be introduced in 2009, but was repeatedly delayed.


title: T-95

text: Work on the Object 195 was curtailed by lack of funding until 2000–2001. The prototype tank was announced by the Russian Minister of Defense Igor Sergeyev in 2000. In July 2008 the Russian government announced that the Russian armed forces would start receiving new-generation tanks superior to the T-90 after 2010. Head of the Federal Service for Defence Contracts Sergei Mayev said the T-90 would remain the "backbone" of Russian armor until 2025, and that T-72s and T-80s would not be modernized, but instead be phased out by "new-generation tanks" entering service after 2010.


title: T-95

text: The Object 195 was canceled in April 2010. The reasons for its cancelation have not been publicly known as of 2018. The Russian government terminated its involvement in the project in May 2010 and withdrew all funding.


title: T-95

text: In May 2010, deputy defense minister and chief of armaments Vladimir Popovkin announced that a number of programs for development of new armor and artillery weapons would be canceled. The main victim is the Object 195 program. Popovkin said the military will focus on modernization of the T-90 instead. The reason given for this was the fact that the T-95 was already obsolete, as it had been in development for almost two decades, but some sources speculated it had more to do with the recent reduction in Russia's military budget, requiring substantial cuts across the board.


title: T-95

text: Popovkin confirmed this decision in a June 2010 Interview, stating that Russia would no longer fund and was not going to buy the T-95, but that Uralvagonzavod might continue to work on the tank without government support. In early July 2010, as reported by "Ural Information Bureau" : the Minister of Industry and Science, Sverdlovsk region, Alexander Petrov said that Uralvagonzavod would soon finalize a T-95 prototype, entirely independently. However without state funding or export permits, the company would be unable to proceed to production.


title: T-95

text: In July 2010 at the Russian Defence Expo in Nizhny Tagil, the Director of the Federal Service for Military-Technical Cooperation of the Russian Federation, Konstantin Biryulin, announced that the Russian state monopoly Federal Service for Defense Contracts was unveiling the prototype of the Object 195 in a private showing to selected VIP guests, though the tank has yet to be seen by journalists or confirmed publicly by any of the participants.


title: T-95

text: Most information about this tank was speculative. The design was presumably a significant departure from the Soviet-era tanks then in service. It was expected to have a new hydropneumatic suspension with adaptive features, and the entire crew was going to be placed in a sealed compartment inside the hull, isolated from other tank components. The T-95 was armed with a 152 mm 2A83 main gun.


title: Jimmy Akingbola

text: In 1996, Akingbola started at the Academy of Live and Recorded Arts (ALRA) in Wandsworth, London. He completed their three-year, full-time acting diploma.


title: Jimmy Akingbola

text: Akingbola started his career on stage at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre in "The Nativity" for Bill Alexander. He continued in a production of "Baby Doll" at the Royal National Theatre. Next he appeared in "Naked Justice" by playwright John Mortimer at the West Yorkshire Playhouse, opposite Leslie Phillips.


title: Jimmy Akingbola

text: Akingbola played Elvis in the poignant play "Behzti" at the Birmingham Rep in December 2004. He worked with rapper and actor Riz Ahmed in the hit play "Prayer Room". Akingbola earned four-star reviews for his performance as Bunce.


title: Jimmy Akingbola

text: Akingbola acted in the production of Roxanne Silbert's play "People Next Door," in which he gave a memorable performance alongside actor Fraser Ayres’ character as his best friend Marco.


title: Jimmy Akingbola

text: Akingbola won his first award (TMA Theatre Award for Best Supporting Actor) for the role of Christopher in "Blue/Orange", first produced at the Sheffield Crucible Theatre; the production then went on a national tour. He played opposite Roger Lloyd-Pack and Shaun Evans in Joe Penhall's award-winning play, which was directed by Kathy Burke.


title: Jimmy Akingbola

text: Akingbola later went on to star in "The Cut" at the Donmar Warehouse opposite Ian McKellen, directed by Michael Grandage. Additional roles include Akingbola playing anti-hero Jimmy Porter in the John Osborne play of "Look Back in Anger" at the Jermyn Street Theatre in July 2008; he was the first black actor to play the role. The same year he played the title role of "Othello" for the company Frantic Assembly, which received a TMA Award.


title: Jimmy Akingbola

text: Akingbola's television roles started with the black BBC sitcom "The Crouches" playing the witty character of Dennis Dutton. He has since played roles in "Stupid", "The Bill", "The Royal", "The South Bank Show", "Roger Roger", "Holby City", "Doctors", "New Tricks", "Comedy Lab", and "Longford". Akingbola secured his first permanent major television role appearing in BBC's police drama series "HolbyBlue", starring alongside Kacey Ainsworth and Tim Pigott-Smith, as PC Neil Parker alongside his on screen colleague PC Kelly Cooper, played by Chloe Howman. In 2009, he played Dean Collier in "New Tricks" ("Blood Is Thicker Than Water", S6:E7). Akingbola returned to show his comedy talent in 2010, starring in the BBC2 hit series "Rev." where he played the popular character "Mick", alongside Tom Hollander and Olivia Colman. For his role as Mick, Akingbola was nominated for "Best TV Comedy Performance" at the Black International Film Festival and Music Video & Screen Awards. Akingbola also played the roles of Malick in "Holby City" and PC Johnson in "Silk", both on BBC One in 2011.


title: Jimmy Akingbola

text: In 2014, Akingbola played blind geography teacher Dr Dalton in episode 2 of the second series of BBC One sitcom "Big School".


title: Jimmy Akingbola

text: In March 2020, Akingbola played Koji, an asylum seeker, in the first series of the ITV sitcom "Kate & Koji" but wasn't available for the filming of series two so Okorie Chukwu took on the role. In the same year, he played Carter in "Most Dangerous Game" for Quibi. He will next reprise his role of Valentine in series 3 of "In the Long Run" with Idris Elba and will follow that with "Ted Lasso" for Apple TV+.


title: Jimmy Akingbola

text: Akingbola is the voice in several popular computer games for electronics game brands including EA, Disney, PlayStation and Funcom. Games titles include; Dead Space 2, Pirates of the Caribbean, Gangs of London, Age of Conan, The Secret World, Dirt 2, James Bond: Golden Eye, Brink and Dirty Bomb.


title: Jimmy Akingbola

text: Akingbola works with BBC Radio as a regular voice over contributor to several shows including BBC World Service, BBC Radio 4 and 7.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: The Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle (AMPV) is a U.S. Army program to replace the M113 armored personnel carrier and family of vehicles. AMPV is a sub-project of the Next Generation Combat Vehicle program.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: In 2014, the U.S. Army selected BAE Systems' proposal of a turretless variant of the Bradley Fighting Vehicle to replace over 2,800 M113s in service.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: , five variants of the AMPV are planned: M1283 General Purpose (522 planned), M1284 Medical Evacuation Vehicle (790 planned), M1285 Medical Treatment Vehicle (216 planned), M1286 Mission Command (993 planned), and M1287 Mortar Carrier Vehicle (386 planned). the program was scheduled to deliver 2,897 vehicles at a total cost of $10.723 billion, or $3.7 million per vehicle.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: The first AMPV prototype was rolled out in December 2016, and the first production vehicles began rolling out in September 2020.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: The M113 has been in service since the early 1960s and while able to take on various roles, has proven too vulnerable for combat. In the 1980s, the M2 Bradley replaced the M113 in the front-line transport role, moving it to rear-area roles. In the Iraq War, urban warfare tactics still defeated the M113, leading it to be almost entirely replaced in active service by MRAP vehicles. MRAPs were useful on the roads of Iraq, but have less payload capacity and poorer off-road performance. The AMPV aims to find a vehicle more versatile and mobile against a wide range of adversaries while having off-road mobility comparable to Bradleys and M1 Abrams tanks.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: Some reports suggested that the AMPV program was being favored over the Ground Combat Vehicle program. While procurement of the AMPV fleet would cost over $5 billion, the Government Accountability Office estimates the GCV fleet would cost $37 billion. In April 2013, the Congressional Budget Office said the AMPV would be a better buy because analysts have asserted that the vehicles the GCV is slated to replace should not be first. The GCV Infantry Fighting Vehicle was to replace 61 M2 Bradley infantry fighting vehicles in each armored combat brigade, making up 18 percent of the 346 armored combat vehicles in each armored brigade.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: A 24 September 2013 Congressional Research Service report suggested that given budgetary constraints, the GCV program may be unrealistic, and that one potential discussion could focus on a decision by the Army to replace the GCV with the AMPV as their number one ground combat vehicle acquisition priority. The Army FY 2015 budget proposal suggests cancelling the GCV program and moving funds to the AMPV as the service's priority vehicle program.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: In order to keep development costs down, the Army is requiring the vehicle be a commercial off-the-shelf design that can be incrementally improved. The vehicle would have new technologies including electronics, networking, and communications gear added onto the platform as they become available later. If the AMPV can incorporate newer satellite communications as they are developed, they could be linked to other ground vehicles that would normally require a complete subsystems overhaul for new gear after a certain number of years. The operational maintenance cost requirement of the AMPV is up to $90 per mile, compared to $58 per mile for the M113.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: On 21 March 2013, the Army issued a draft request for proposals (RFP) for the AMPV. The RFP proposed a $1.46 billion contract for design and development phases. The engineering and manufacturing development (EMD) phase would build 29 prototypes over four years from 2014 through 2017 for $388 million. Low-rate initial production (LRIP) would be from 2018 to 2020 at $1.08 billion for 289 production models. After 2020, the Army planned to buy another 2,618 vehicles over ten years for a total of 2,907 AMPVs. Cost per vehicle is not to exceed $1.8 million, totalling $4.7 billion for the entire fleet. As with the revised GCV program, one development contract will be awarded to one company.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: On 1 October 2013, the Army released a new draft RFP, delaying the start of the program by one year and raising the development costs by several hundred million dollars. The new document said the Army planned to award a five-year EMD contract in May 2014 to one contractor, which will manufacture 29 vehicles for government testing, followed by a three-year LRIP contract starting in 2020. The EMD phase was extended from FY 2015 to FY 2019, and raised the cost to build 29 prototypes to $458 million.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: Expenditures for three years of LRIP for 289 vehicles were $244 million the first year, $479 million the second year, and $505 million the third year, totaling an increase to $1.2 billion for low-rate production. The AMPV will cost $1.68 billion before full-rate production begins, an increase from $1.46 billion previously. The new draft did not change the total number of vehicles desired and does not include an average unit manufacturing cost. Congress approved $116 million for the program in the Army's FY 2014 budget.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: The AMPV has a relatively long production schedule for a non-developmental vehicle of 13 years: 3 years for low-rate production and 10 years for full-rate production. The production plan was partly based on budgetary constraints, but also to be able to speed up production in the event of war or another contingency. 33 percent of an Armored Brigade Combat Team (ABCT) is made up of M113s, which are not used in combat operations because they are less mobile and poorly protected than other combat vehicles in an ABCT. Full-rate production should build just under 300 AMPV vehicles per year, but the ability is there to quickly increase production if an ABCT needed to deploy to combat. Letting industry build as fast as possible regularly only to stop it later is seen as irresponsible.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: On 26 November 2013, the Army released the official AMPV EMD phase RFP. Despite sequestration budget cuts, the program is maintaining its previously stated goal of 2,907 vehicles at $1.8 million each built over 13 years. A 5-year EMD contract was to be awarded to one manufacturer in May 2014 to produce 29 vehicles for testing, which will be followed by a 3-year LRIP contract in 2020. Although the October draft RFP raised the cost of the EMD phase to $458 million, the official November RFP lowered it to $436 million.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: Annual expenditures for the EMD phase are $70 million in FY 2015, $174 million in FY 2016, $114 million in FY 2017, $64 million in FY 2018, and $14 million in FY 2019. The RFP also contains an Optional Exchange Vehicle (OEV) program to exchange up to 78 vehicles during the EMD phase for AMPVs. 39 Bradley vehicles of versions previous to the current M2A3/M3A3 configurations and 39 M113s not including the M113 AMEV can be exchanged by the government to the contractor for credit.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: On 14 February 2014, General Dynamics filed a protest with the Army Materiel Command on grounds that AMPV requirements had been written to favor a chassis based on the BAE Systems Bradley Fighting Vehicle, making it more difficult for their Stryker designs or other foreign designs to compete in the program. They cite the option of using excess Bradleys as optional exchange vehicles, which is difficult for a competitor not offering the chassis, the Army not providing performance data on Bradley components outside of BAE, which they could use to develop a tracked offering, and mobility requirements that exclude wheeled vehicles, which call for a vehicle that can go 100 percent of places the M113 is able to including very soft ground.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: BAE said the Army's changed mobility requirements from a zero turning radius to a larger turning radius that could accommodate a wheeled design and that requirements do not specify a Bradley-based vehicle because a pure Bradley solution would not meet them; the AMPV's survivability requirements are higher than that of an M2 equipped with the Bradley Urban Survival Kit (BUSK) III. Navistar Defense also offered its MaxxPro MRAP to fulfill part of the AMPV role. The idea is to replace the M113 sooner with the more survivable mine-resistant MaxxPro until the AMPV can be fielded in 2020.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: The Army Materiel Command denied General Dynamics' protest in April 2014. Their response was that although BAE had an advantage being the manufacturers of the Bradley and M113, the government was not required to neutralize that and that does not constitute preferential treatment. Regarding OEVs, the Army Materiel Command clarified that they may not specifically be used for conversion but could still be exchanged for foreign sales or be scrapped, which would be less cost-effective. General Dynamics could have gone to the Government Accountability Office with its protest, or simply withdraw from the competition.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: On 14 April 2014, General Dynamics released a statement saying they wouldn't file a protest with the GAO, but would still be engaged in talks with Congress and the Department of Defense. The company may believe it has a better chance of gaining support through Congress, which favors a strategy of buying a mix of both Stryker and Bradley vehicles, and would be less likely to act if the dispute was brought to the GAO to avoid affecting the outcome of the protest. AMPV proposals were due by 28 May 2014.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: General Dynamics also favors the mixed Bradley/Stryker AMPV acquisition idea, saying a combination fleet would match missions with Bradley and Double V-hull (DVH) Stryker strengths to quickly provide enhanced survivability and lower logistics costs. The Stryker M1135 NBC Reconnaissance Vehicle is already organic within ABCTs, and the M1133 Medical Evacuation Vehicle deployed with an ABCT to Iraq in 2009.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: Using the wheeled Stryker for to perform some AMPV missions would offset costs associated with maintaining tracked vehicles; a company analysis concluded that a mixed fleet would save billions of dollars through lower life-cycle costs compared to one fleet of either solution. The Stryker family of vehicles already includes all AMPV versions, except medical treatment, so "up-front" availability of those vehicles would shorten development timelines and allow the M113 to be replaced quicker.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: On 1 May 2014, the House Armed Services Committee Tactical Air and Land Forces Subcommittee passed its markup of the FY 2015 budget. Language pertaining to the AMPV approved 80 percent of requested funding, but would withhold 20 percent until the Army submitted a report on the program by May 2015. The report requests a study on replacing M113 vehicles in formations separate from frontline fighting, rather than just in armored brigades, and the feasibility of a wheeled vehicle being used for the medical evacuation role. This works into General Dynamics' suggestion of a split buy, using tracked Bradley-type vehicles for mobility missions while having wheeled Strykers as an armored ambulance and for support vehicle missions not assigned to combat brigades.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: Although a split buy may be considered, with lower-mobility vehicles serving in rear-echelon units outside of armored brigades, the Army is unlikely to procure a mix of tracked and wheeled armored vehicles within an ABCT itself due to risk of mobility differences hindering cross-country maneuvering and mechanical differences increasing maintenance demands. General Dynamics claims that using the Stryker medical evacuation vehicle would save $2 billion in life cycle costs and that it is smoother and quicker than a tracked vehicle in the role.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: On 28 May 2014, BAE Systems submitted their proposal for the AMPV competition. Their submission was based on Bradley and Paladin Integrated Management designs to meet the force protection and all-terrain mobility requirements with maximum commonality within the family of vehicles. The BAE AMPV team includes: DRS Technologies for power management, distribution, and integration; Northrop Grumman for Mission Command Mission Equipment Package design and integration; Air Methods Corporation for medical evacuation and treatment subsystems; and Red River Army Depot for vehicle teardown and component remanufacture.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: A 52-month EMD contract was to be awarded in January 2015, with prototypes delivered after 24 months. General Dynamics did not make a submission, saying they would not compete in the program as the requirements and other provisions did not allow them to provide a competitive solution. The company also ruled out bringing their protest to the Federal Circuit Court so they could pursue other options, including their mixed fleet idea to include Stryker medical vehicles.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: The Senate Appropriations Committee may include language in its 2015 defense appropriations bill that prohibits the Army from funding the medical evacuation variant of the AMPV. This is due to lobbying from General Dynamics to Congress in order to get the Stryker incorporated into future Army vehicle plans, with the Senate claiming time and funding may be wasted on developing a new medical evacuation variant when "a wheeled combat vehicle has successfully deployed in combat with armored brigade combat teams," referencing Stryker medical vehicles deployed with some heavy brigades in Iraq. The Army said that this would require them to compete that part of the program separately, write a new RFP, and come up with a new acquisition strategy, independent cost estimate, and acquisition decision memorandum. This could potentially cost an additional $95 million, delay the program at least two years, and would take money away from Abrams, Bradley, and Stryker modernization efforts.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: On 23 December 2014, BAE Systems was awarded a $383 million contract to begin the Engineering, Manufacturing, and Development (EMD) phase of the AMPV program. The initial award is for a 52-month base term to produce 29 vehicles across each of the variants. It also contains the option to begin Low-Rate Initial Production (LRIP) immediately following the EMD's conclusion to produce an additional 289 vehicles for the total contract value of $1.2 billion.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: The vehicles are to move as rapidly as the primary combat vehicles in an ABCT during unified land operations over multiple terrain sets with superior force protection, survivability, and mobility than the M113. They will support the M1 Abrams and M2/M3 Bradley to resupply the formation, conduct battle command functions, deliver organic indirect fires, provide logistics support and medical treatment, and perform medical and casualty evacuation to function as an integral part of the ABCT formation.


title: Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle

text: Army leaders have rejected General Dynamics' idea of using a wheeled vehicle for medical evacuation in armored brigades, saying a tracked vehicle's superior mobility better enables it to retrieve wounded soldiers. The requirements were for a vehicle that could go wherever the tracked vehicles of an armored brigade went, which would include rough terrain and soft ground that a wheeled vehicle could get bogged down in, preventing an armored ambulance from reaching wounded soldiers in time. Using BAE's Bradley-based chassis also allows for commonality between 75 percent of an armored brigade's combat vehicles, easing maintenance and logistics and ensuring the vehicles have comparable mobility.


title: 15th century

text: The 15th century was the century which spans the Julian dates from 1 January 1401 (MCDI) to 31 December 1500 (MD).


title: 15th century

text: In Europe, the 15th century includes parts of the Late Middle Ages, the Early Renaissance, and the early modern period.


title: 15th century

text: Many technological, social and cultural developments of the 15th century can in retrospect be seen as heralding the "European miracle" of the following centuries. The architectural perspective, and the modern fields which are known today as banking and accounting were founded in Italy.


title: 15th century

text: The Hundred Years' War ended with a decisive French victory over the English in the Battle of Castillon. Financial troubles in England following the conflict resulted in the Wars of the Roses, a series of dynastic wars for the throne of England. The conflicts ended with the defeat of Richard III by Henry VII at the Battle of Bosworth Field, establishing the Tudor dynasty in the later part of the century.


title: 15th century

text: Constantinople, known as the capital of the world and the capital of the Byzantine Empire (today's Turkey), fell to the emerging Muslim Ottoman Turks, marking the end of the tremendously influential Byzantine Empire and, for some historians, the end of the Middle Ages. This led to the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy, while Johannes Gutenberg's invention of a mechanical movable type began the printing press. These two events played key roles in the development of the Renaissance. The Roman papacy was split in two parts in Europe for decades (the so-called Western Schism), until the Council of Constance. The division of the Catholic Church and the unrest associated with the Hussite movement would become factors in the rise of the Protestant Reformation in the following century.


title: 15th century

text: Islamic Spain became dissolved through the Christian Reconquista, followed by the forced conversions and the Muslim rebellion, ending over seven centuries of Islamic rule and returning southern Spain to Christian rulers.


title: 15th century

text: The spices,wines and precious metals of the Bengal sultanate. . had attracted European traders to trade with Bengal but the trade went subsequently less due to the rise of the ottoman empire which introduced new taxes and tarrifs against European traders.This had led to explorers like Christopher Columbus to find a route to reach india which eventually reached to Americas.Explorers like Vasco da Gama,a Portuguese explorer also find a route to reach to india from African coast.


title: 15th century

text: In Asia, the Timurid Empire collapsed and the Afghan Pashtun Lodi dynasty took control of the Delhi Sultanate. Under the rule of the Yongle Emperor, who built the Forbidden City and commanded Zheng He to explore the world overseas, the Ming dynasty's territory reached its pinnacle.


title: 15th century

text: In Africa, the spread of Islam led to the destruction of the Christian kingdoms of Nubia, by the end of the century, leaving only Alodia (which was to collapse in 1504). The formerly vast Mali Empire teetered on the brink of collapse, under pressure from the rising Songhai Empire.


title: 15th century

text: In the Americas, both the Aztec Empire and the Inca Empire reached the peak of their influence, but the European colonization of the Americas changed the course of modern history.


title: Type system

text: In computer programming, a type system is a logical system comprising a set of rules that assigns a property called a type to every "term" (a word, phrase, or other set of symbols). Usually the terms are various constructs of a computer program, such as variables, expressions, functions, or modules. A type system dictates the operations that can be performed on a term. For variables, the type system determines the allowed values of that term. Type systems formalize and enforce the otherwise implicit categories the programmer uses for algebraic data types, data structures, or other components (e.g. "string", "array of float", "function returning boolean").


title: Type system

text: Type systems are often specified as part of programming languages and built into interpreters and compilers, although the type system of a language can be extended by optional tools that perform added checks using the language's original type syntax and grammar. The main purpose of a type system in a programming language is to reduce possibilities for bugs in computer programs due to type errors. The given type system in question determines what constitutes a type error, but in general, the aim is to prevent operations expecting a certain kind of value from being used with values for which that operation does not make sense (validity errors). Type systems allow defining interfaces between different parts of a computer program, and then checking that the parts have been connected in a consistent way. This checking can happen statically (at compile time), dynamically (at run time), or as a combination of both. Type systems have other purposes as well, such as expressing business rules, enabling certain compiler optimizations, allowing for multiple dispatch, and providing a form of documentation.


title: Type system

text: An example of a simple type system is that of the C language. The portions of a C program are the function definitions. One function is invoked by another function. The interface of a function states the name of the function and a list of parameters that are passed to the function's code. The code of an invoking function states the name of the invoked, along with the names of variables that hold values to pass to it. During execution, the values are placed into temporary storage, then execution jumps to the code of the invoked function. The invoked function's code accesses the values and makes use of them. If the instructions inside the function are written with the assumption of receiving an integer value, but the calling code passed a floating-point value, then the wrong result will be computed by the invoked function. The C compiler checks the types of the arguments passed to a function when it is called against the types of the parameters declared in the function's definition. If the types do not match, the compiler throws a compile-time error.


title: Type system

text: A compiler may also use the static type of a value to optimize the storage it needs and the choice of algorithms for operations on the value. In many C compilers the "float" data type, for example, is represented in 32 bits, in accord with the IEEE specification for single-precision floating point numbers. They will thus use floating-point-specific microprocessor operations on those values (floating-point addition, multiplication, etc.).


title: Type system

text: The depth of type constraints and the manner of their evaluation affect the "typing" of the language. A programming language may further associate an operation with various resolutions for each type, in the case of type polymorphism. Type theory is the study of type systems. The concrete types of some programming languages, such as integers and strings, depend on practical issues of computer architecture, compiler implementation, and language design.


title: Type system

text: Formally, type theory studies type systems. A programming language must have the opportunity to type check using the "type system" whether at compile time or runtime, manually annotated or automatically inferred. As Mark Manasse concisely put it:


title: Type system

text: Assigning a data type, termed "typing", gives meaning to a sequence of bits such as a value in memory or some object such as a variable. The hardware of a general purpose computer is unable to discriminate between for example a memory address and an instruction code, or between a character, an integer, or a floating-point number, because it makes no intrinsic distinction between any of the possible values that a sequence of bits might "mean". Associating a sequence of bits with a type conveys that meaning to the programmable hardware to form a "symbolic system" composed of that hardware and some program.


title: Type system

text: A program associates each value with at least one specific type, but it also can occur that one value is associated with many subtypes. Other entities, such as objects, modules, communication channels, and dependencies can become associated with a type. Even a type can become associated with a type. An implementation of a "type system" could in theory associate identifications called "data type" (a type of a value), "class" (a type of an object), and "kind" (a "type of a type", or metatype). These are the abstractions that typing can go through, on a hierarchy of levels contained in a system.


title: Type system

text: When a programming language evolves a more elaborate type system, it gains a more finely grained rule set than basic type checking, but this comes at a price when the type inferences (and other properties) become undecidable, and when more attention must be paid by the programmer to annotate code or to consider computer-related operations and functioning. It is challenging to find a sufficiently expressive type system that satisfies all programming practices in a type safe manner.


title: Type system

text: A programming language compiler can also implement a "dependent type" or an "effect system", which enables even more program specifications to be verified by a type checker. Beyond simple value-type pairs, a virtual "region" of code is associated with an "effect" component describing "what" is being done "with what", and enabling for example to "throw" an error report. Thus the symbolic system may be a "type and effect system", which endows it with more safety checking than type checking alone.


title: Type system

text: Whether automated by the compiler or specified by a programmer, a type system makes program behavior illegal if outside the type-system rules. Advantages provided by programmer-specified type systems include:


title: Type system

text: A type error is an unintended condition which might manifest in multiple stages of a program's development. Thus a facility for detection of the error is needed in the type system. In some languages, such as Haskell, for which type inference is automated, lint might be available to its compiler to aid in the detection of error.


title: Type system

text: Type safety contributes to program correctness, but might only guarantee correctness at the cost of making the type checking itself an undecidable problem (as in the Halting problem). In a "type system" with automated type checking a program may prove to run incorrectly yet produce no compiler errors. Division by zero is an unsafe and incorrect operation, but a type checker which only runs at compile time does not scan for division by zero in most languages; that division would surface as a runtime error. To prove the absence of these defects, other kinds of formal methods, collectively known as program analyses, are in common use. Alternatively, a sufficiently expressive type system, such as in dependently-typed languages, can prevent these kinds of errors (for example, expressing "the type of non-zero numbers"). In addition software testing is an empirical method for finding errors that such a type checker would not detect.


title: Type system

text: The process of verifying and enforcing the constraints of types—"type checking"—may occur at compile time (a static check) or at run-time. If a language specification requires its typing rules strongly (i.e., more or less allowing only those automatic type conversions that do not lose information), one can refer to the process as "strongly typed", if not, as "weakly typed". The terms are not usually used in a strict sense.


title: Type system

text: Static type checking is the process of verifying the type safety of a program based on analysis of a program's text (source code). If a program passes a static type checker, then the program is guaranteed to satisfy some set of type safety properties for all possible inputs.


title: Type system

text: Static type checking can be considered a limited form of program verification (see type safety), and in a type-safe language, can be considered also an optimization. If a compiler can prove that a program is well-typed, then it does not need to emit dynamic safety checks, allowing the resulting compiled binary to run faster and to be smaller.


title: Type system

text: Static type checking for Turing-complete languages is inherently conservative. That is, if a type system is both "sound" (meaning that it rejects all incorrect programs) and "decidable" (meaning that it is possible to write an algorithm that determines whether a program is well-typed), then it must be "incomplete" (meaning there are correct programs, which are also rejected, even though they do not encounter runtime errors). For example, consider a program containing the code:


title: Type system

text: Even if the expression codice_3 always evaluates to codice_4 at run-time, most type checkers will reject the program as ill-typed, because it is difficult (if not impossible) for a static analyzer to determine that the codice_5 branch will not be taken. Consequently, a static type checker will quickly detect type errors in rarely used code paths. Without static type checking, even code coverage tests with 100% coverage may be unable to find such type errors. The tests may fail to detect such type errors, because the combination of all places where values are created and all places where a certain value is used must be taken into account.


title: Type system

text: A number of useful and common programming language features cannot be checked statically, such as downcasting. Thus, many languages will have both static and dynamic type checking; the static type checker verifies what it can, and dynamic checks verify the rest.


title: Type system

text: Many languages with static type checking provide a way to bypass the type checker. Some languages allow programmers to choose between static and dynamic type safety. For example, C# distinguishes between "statically-typed" and "dynamically-typed" variables. Uses of the former are checked statically, whereas uses of the latter are checked dynamically. Other languages allow writing code that is not type-safe; for example, in C, programmers can freely cast a value between any two types that have the same size, effectively subverting the type concept.


title: Type system

text: Dynamic type checking is the process of verifying the type safety of a program at runtime. Implementations of dynamically type-checked languages generally associate each runtime object with a "type tag" (i.e., a reference to a type) containing its type information. This runtime type information (RTTI) can also be used to implement dynamic dispatch, late binding, downcasting, reflection, and similar features.


title: Type system

text: Most type-safe languages include some form of dynamic type checking, even if they also have a static type checker. The reason for this is that many useful features or properties are difficult or impossible to verify statically. For example, suppose that a program defines two types, A and B, where B is a subtype of A. If the program tries to convert a value of type A to type B, which is known as downcasting, then the operation is legal only if the value being converted is actually a value of type B. Thus, a dynamic check is needed to verify that the operation is safe. This requirement is one of the criticisms of downcasting.


title: Type system

text: By definition, dynamic type checking may cause a program to fail at runtime. In some programming languages, it is possible to anticipate and recover from these failures. In others, type-checking errors are considered fatal.


title: Type system

text: Programming languages that include dynamic type checking but not static type checking are often called "dynamically-typed programming languages". For a list of such languages, see .


title: Type system

text: Some languages allow both static and dynamic typing. For example, Java and some other ostensibly statically-typed languages support downcasting types to their subtypes, querying an object to discover its dynamic type and other type operations that depend on runtime type information. Another example is C++ RTTI. More generally, most programming languages include mechanisms for dispatching over different 'kinds' of data, such as disjoint unions, runtime polymorphism, and variant types. Even when not interacting with type annotations or type checking, such mechanisms are materially similar to dynamic typing implementations. See programming language for more discussion of the interactions between static and dynamic typing.


title: Type system

text: Objects in object-oriented languages are usually accessed by a reference whose static target type (or manifest type) is equal to either the object's run-time type (its latent type) or a supertype thereof. This is conformant with the Liskov substitution principle, which states that all operations performed on an instance of a given type can also be performed on an instance of a subtype. This concept is also known as subsumption or subtype polymorphism. In some languages subtypes may also possess covariant or contravariant return types and argument types respectively.


title: Type system

text: Certain languages, for example Clojure, Common Lisp, or Cython are dynamically type checked by default, but allow programs to opt into static type checking by providing optional annotations. One reason to use such hints would be to optimize the performance of critical sections of a program. This is formalized by gradual typing. The programming environment "DrRacket", a pedagogic environment based on Lisp, and a precursor of the language Racket is also soft-typed.


title: Type system

text: Conversely, as of version 4.0, the C# language provides a way to indicate that a variable should not be statically type checked. A variable whose type is codice_6 will not be subject to static type checking. Instead, the program relies on runtime type information to determine how the variable may be used.


title: Type system

text: Static typing can find type errors reliably at compile time, which increases the reliability of the delivered program. However, programmers disagree over how commonly type errors occur, resulting in further disagreements over the proportion of those bugs that are coded that would be caught by appropriately representing the designed types in code. Static typing advocates believe programs are more reliable when they have been well type-checked, whereas dynamic-typing advocates point to distributed code that has proven reliable and to small bug databases. The value of static typing increases as the strength of the type system is increased. Advocates of dependent typing, implemented in languages such as Dependent ML and Epigram, have suggested that almost all bugs can be considered type errors, if the types used in a program are properly declared by the programmer or correctly inferred by the compiler.


title: Type system

text: Static typing usually results in compiled code that executes faster. When the compiler knows the exact data types that are in use (which is necessary for static verification, either through declaration or inference) it can produce optimized machine code. Some dynamically-typed languages such as Common Lisp allow optional type declarations for optimization for this reason.


title: Type system

text: By contrast, dynamic typing may allow compilers to run faster and interpreters to dynamically load new code, because changes to source code in dynamically-typed languages may result in less checking to perform and less code to revisit. This too may reduce the edit-compile-test-debug cycle.


title: Type system

text: Statically-typed languages that lack type inference (such as C and Java prior to version 10) require that programmers declare the types that a method or function must use. This can serve as added program documentation, that is active and dynamic, instead of static. This allows a compiler to prevent it from drifting out of synchrony, and from being ignored by programmers. However, a language can be statically typed without requiring type declarations (examples include Haskell, Scala, OCaml, F#, and to a lesser extent C# and C++), so explicit type declaration is not a necessary requirement for static typing in all languages.


title: Type system

text: Dynamic typing allows constructs that some (simple) static type checking would reject as illegal. For example, "eval" functions, which execute arbitrary data as code, become possible. An "eval" function is possible with static typing, but requires advanced uses of algebraic data types. Further, dynamic typing better accommodates transitional code and prototyping, such as allowing a placeholder data structure (mock object) to be transparently used in place of a full data structure (usually for the purposes of experimentation and testing).


title: Type system

text: Dynamic typing typically allows duck typing (which enables easier code reuse). Many languages with static typing also feature duck typing or other mechanisms like generic programming that also enable easier code reuse.


title: Type system

text: Dynamic typing typically makes metaprogramming easier to use. For example, C++ templates are typically more cumbersome to write than the equivalent Ruby or Python code since C++ has stronger rules regarding type definitions (for both functions and variables). This forces a developer to write more boilerplate code for a template than a Python developer would need to. More advanced run-time constructs such as metaclasses and introspection are often harder to use in statically-typed languages. In some languages, such features may also be used e.g. to generate new types and behaviors on the fly, based on run-time data. Such advanced constructs are often provided by dynamic programming languages; many of these are dynamically typed, although "dynamic typing" need not be related to "dynamic programming languages".


title: Type system

text: Languages are often colloquially referred to as "strongly typed" or "weakly typed". In fact, there is no universally accepted definition of what these terms mean. In general, there are more precise terms to represent the differences between type systems that lead people to call them "strong" or "weak".