title: 1988 Formula One World Championship

text: Monza, being another high speed circuit, would prove to be another McLaren dominated race, with both sitting on the front row, again with both Ferrari's behind. The race fell into regular routine as Senna lead from the start and Prost close behind. Prost had actually won the start, but as he changed gear from 1st to 2nd his Honda engine began to misfire allowing Senna to power past before the Retifillo chicane. At the end of the first lap with Senna holding a 2-second lead, Prost, correctly believing the misfire was bad enough that he wouldn't finish the race, turned his turbo boost up to full and gave chase. However, on lap 35 of 51, Prost's championship hopes seemed to evaporate when his Honda engine finally blew. The tifosi cheered as their drivers were shifted to second and third, albeit some 30 seconds behind Senna, and Honda were left embarrassed with one of their engines expiring on their main rivals (Ferrari) home track. Unfortunately for McLaren though, what Prost had done was force Senna to use too much fuel in his desire to stay in the lead (many in the pits, including his former Lotus team boss Peter Warr believed that Senna had effectively been suckered by Prost and should have realised that if he was using too much fuel then Prost was also, something Prost did not usually do). This forced Senna to back off over the last 16 laps in order to ensure a finish, and it allowed the Ferrari's to close the gap from 30 seconds when Prost retired, to just over 5 seconds with just two laps remaining as Senna came up to lap the Williams of Jean-Louis Schlesser, standing in for the still unwell Nigel Mansell.


title: 1988 Formula One World Championship

text: Senna, knowing the Ferraris were closing in, dived under Schlesser's Williams at the Rettifilo chicane instead of waiting for the long, fast Curva Grande that would follow. Senna took his normal line through the corner while Schlesser moved over to give him room. The Williams locked its brakes in the dust and marbles on the edge of the circuit and slid wide. Schlesser (a noted rally driver who was used to such things) then regained control and turned the Williams to avoid the sand trap and found Senna had not allowed any room for the Frenchman to rejoin the circuit. The Williams T-boned the right rear tyre of the McLaren, breaking its rear suspension and destroying any hopes of a perfect winning season for McLaren. The tifosi erupted as the #12 McLaren was beached on a curb and out of the race; Gerhard Berger and Michele Alboreto sat first and second, where they remained at the finish only half a second apart. The victory was made poignant by the fact that it was the first Italian Grand Prix since Enzo Ferrari's death. Both drivers and team dedicated the victory to the "old man". This race would prove to be the only chink in McLaren's perfect year and their only double retirement.


title: 1988 Formula One World Championship

text: Arrows, whose engine guru Heini Mader had finally solved the Megatron engine's pop-off valve problem giving them comparable power to the Honda and Ferrari engines (approximately ), finished 3rd and 4th, with Cheever gaining the final spot on the rostrum just six-tenths in front of Derek Warwick. It would prove to be the final podium finish for both Arrows with their old BMW M12 engine (re-badged as Megatron in 1987) which had been introduced to F1 with the Brabham team back in . With full power now available, during qualifying Cheever pushed his Arrows A10B to , comfortably faster than the McLarens and Ferraris which were timed at .


title: 1988 Formula One World Championship

text: The following Grand Prix in Portugal proved to be an exciting affair, for all but Ayrton Senna who suffered race long with handling troubles. He ended sixth while Prost retook the championship lead by obtaining his fifth victory of the year. March driver Ivan Capelli secured his first career podium with a brilliant second, with Boutsen once again finishing third in his Benetton. As the field finished the first lap of the race, Prost, who had claimed his second pole of the year (and pulled a psychological ploy on Senna by setting his time early in the final session, then spending the rest of the session lounging in the McLaren pits wearing jeans and a T-shirt, almost daring the Brazilian to beat him), pulled out of Senna's slipstream to pass his teammate for the lead down the straight. In a famous vision, Senna almost pushed his teammate into the pit wall at over , something which didn't please the race winner. This was after Prost had tried to block Senna and pushed him close to the grass during one of the aborted starts.


title: 1988 Formula One World Championship

text: At the Spanish Grand Prix, Prost secured his sixth win of the season, again in an attempt to delay an almost inevitable eighth race win for Senna – that would secure his first of three championships. As in Portugal, Senna suffered from fuel gauge problems, as well an overheating engine and was lucky to secure fourth. Nigel Mansell doubled his British Grand Prix efforts and scored another six points. He moved into second early and while never seriously threatening Prost for the lead, it was only a slow stop for tyres on lap 47 which prevented the Englishman from pressuring the Frenchman late in the race. Alessandro Nannini continued to impress when drove a steady race to finish third in his Benetton.


title: 1988 Formula One World Championship

text: During qualifying, Grand Prix's most experienced driver Riccardo Patrese was fined $10,000 for brake testing the Tyrrell of Julian Bailey. Patrese's action, which caused the Tyrrell to hit the back of the Williams, fly into the air and off the track into a gravel trap, was widely condemned by those in the paddock. One unnamed driver was quoted as saying ""I hope they fine him his bloody retainer. There are enough accidental shunts in this business without people actually trying to cause them...""


title: 1988 Formula One World Championship

text: The penultimate round in Japan was, once again, where the title was decided. This time it was the end of the weekend, and not the beginning. Prost made a superb start to the lead, whilst Senna stalled, lucky in the fact that Suzuka had a sloping grid, helping to start his car. Senna knew he had nothing to lose and everything to gain in this race, and knew he could seal the championship here. By the end of the lap he had already made up six positions, and by the fourth lap he was sitting in fourth position. The top six cars were all sitting very close and when the rain started to fall, so did Prost. Capelli took this chance to become the first naturally aspirated car to lead a Grand Prix in over 4 years, thrilling the March team. Unfortunately, this was not to last as his electronics would eventually fail. By then, Senna was hot on the tail of Prost. Prost disliked the wet, and his failing gearbox only added to the Brazilian's chances. When the pair came round to lap some back-markers, as Prost was caught up with de Cesaris, Senna went past to take the lead, and set three consecutive fastest laps and setting a new lap record. As he was now in front of the field of competitors and due to become world champion, he signaled to stop the race. However, the race ran its full distance and Honda were reveling in their 1–2 finish, whilst Prost was bitter, but readily accepted that Senna was a deserving champion.


title: 1988 Formula One World Championship

text: Other than those with Honda engines, the Japanese fans had two local drivers to cheer for the first time. Japanese Formula 3000 champion Aguri Suzuki was substituting for the sick Yannick Dalmas in the Larrousse team (Dalmas would later be diagnosed with Legionaire's Disease). Suzuki joined Satoru Nakajima as the only Japanese drivers in F1 at the time. The much-maligned Nakajima won praise at the meeting when he drove despite finding out only 30 minutes before the first practice session that his mother had died that morning. The inspired Japanese driver was faster than his World Champion teammate Piquet on the first day of qualifying, and matched the Brazilian's time to the thousandth of a second during the second session.


title: 1988 Formula One World Championship

text: McLaren secured their 12th 1–2 qualifying for the season, with Senna setting his record 13th pole for the year, again doing his last minute act by literally beating Prost's time on the last lap of qualifying. In the last turbo Formula One race until the season, Bernd Schneider failed to qualify his Zakspeed, while Nicola Larini failed to pre-qualify the Osella. A relaxed Nigel Mansell, in his last race in his first spell for Williams, qualified 3rd, though he wasn't confident going into the race as both he and Riccardo Patrese had suffered brake trouble all through practice and qualifying and the Adelaide Street Circuit had been notoriously hard on brakes in its 3 race history.


title: 1988 Formula One World Championship

text: Before the race Gerhard Berger told both Prost and Senna that with it being the last race for the turbos he was going to "go for it" and run the race with full turbo boost. He reasoned it was better to go out in the lead rather than just drone around in the wake of the McLarens. True to his word, Berger led the race by using maximum turbo boost in his engine and had passed Prost for the lead on lap 14. His race was only to last another 9 laps though as he crashed with René Arnoux on lap 25. After that the race turned into another McLaren demonstration, though late in the race Nelson Piquet did briefly threaten Senna who had been having gear selection problems almost from the start. Mansell's fear of the Williams's brakes came to fruition when he spun into the barriers on lap 65 simply through having no brakes left. He had been in fourth place at the time just in front of Patrese, but had not been able to truly challenge Piquet who was able to use Honda power on the 900-metre-long Brabham Straight to keep his former teammates at bay.


title: 1988 Formula One World Championship

text: Prost would go on to win in Adelaide, leading home Senna and outgoing champion Nelson Piquet giving Honda turbos a fitting 1–2–3 finish in the final race of the first turbo era in Formula One. Prost's win over Senna in Australia saw him score eleven more points in total than the Brazilian, but only the eleven highest scores counted, with Senna's eight wins and three seconds giving him a total of 90 points to Prost's 87. While Prost agreed that Senna deserved his championship win, he went on to be a proponent of the 90's scoring system where all results would count to the final results with the winner scoring 10, not 9, points.


title: 1988 Formula One World Championship

text: Incredibly, of the 14 races Alain Prost finished in 1988 he would record seven wins and seven second places, yet it wasn't enough to win the championship. His wins total equaled the single season record he himself had equalled in (Jim Clark had won 7 races in ) when he had also lost the world championship to then McLaren teammate Niki Lauda. However, unlike Lauda who scored 5 wins and it was his regular points finishes that gave him his 3rd championship, the wins record now belonged to Senna who finished with eight wins. Senna also set the single season pole winning record by claiming the fastest time on thirteen occasions during the year, finishing the season with 29 career pole positions, only four behind the record, which was another held by the great Jim Clark.


title: 1988 Formula One World Championship

text: In Adelaide, FOCA boss Bernie Ecclestone summed up the season by saying that what McLaren had actually done was nothing more than their usual professional job and that they didn't really do anything exceptional. With the Honda turbo they clearly had the best engines, and in Senna and Prost they had the two best drivers. The problem was that just about every other team performed well below par and the McLarens were rarely challenged. He then jokingly added that all the teams, including McLaren, would have to up their performance in as Brabham (which he had sold to EuroBrun owner Walter Brun) would be back in Formula One.


title: 1988 Formula One World Championship

text: While the McLaren-Honda cars had dominated the 1988 Formula One season like no-one had before, the FIA's rules to limit turbo cars' boost and fuel tank size had the desired effect of bringing the atmospheric cars back into contention. This was shown by front row starts for Nigel Mansell in Brazil and Hungary, as well as three second-place and eight third-place finishes for the non-turbo cars, and on each occasion that a non-turbo car finished on the podium, the only cars to finish in front of them were the all-conquering McLaren-Hondas.


title: 1988 Formula One World Championship

text: The Austrian Grand Prix was dropped from the 1988 calendar due to safety concerns with the Österreichring, the narrow pit straight resulting in the 1987 race having to be restarted twice and Stefan Johansson hitting a small reindeer during the practice session, destroying his car and breaking his ribs in the process. This led to a re-organisation of the calendar, with the Belgian Grand Prix being moved from late May to late August to fill the slot traditionally occupied by the Austrian Grand Prix, and the Mexican Grand Prix being moved from mid-October to late May. The Canadian Grand Prix returned after a year away, taking place in mid-June as the second race in a three-race North American tour, preceded by the Mexican Grand Prix and followed by the Detroit Grand Prix the following week.


title: 1988 Formula One World Championship

text: Driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.


title: 1988 Formula One World Championship

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki> Only the best 11 results counted toward the championship. Prost scored 105 points during the year, but only 87 points were counted toward the championship. Senna scored 94 points, with 90 points counted toward the championship by virtue of winning more races. Thus, Senna became the World Champion, although he did not score the most points over the course of the year.


title: 1988 Formula One World Championship

text: The 1988 season also included a single event which did not count towards the World Championship, the Formula One Indoor Trophy at the Bologna Motor Show.


title: URL redirection

text: URL redirection, also called URL forwarding, is a World Wide Web technique for making a web page available under more than one URL address. When a web browser attempts to open a URL that has been redirected, a page with a different URL is opened. Similarly, domain redirection or domain forwarding is when all pages in a URL domain are redirected to a different domain, as when wikipedia.com and wikipedia.net are automatically redirected to wikipedia.org.


title: URL redirection

text: A website may potentially be accessible over both a secure HTTPS URI scheme and plain HTTP (an insecure URI beginning with "http://").


title: URL redirection

text: If a user types in a URI or clicks on a link that refers to the insecure variant, the browser will automatically redirect to the secure version in case the website is contained in the HSTS preload list shipped with the application or if the user had already visited the origin in the past.


title: URL redirection

text: Otherwise the website will be contacted over HTTP. A website operator may decide to serve such requests by redirecting the browser to the HTTPS variant instead and hopefully also priming HSTS for future accesses.


title: URL redirection

text: A user might mistype a URL. Organizations often register these "misspelled" domains and redirect them to the "correct" location. This technique is often used to "reserve" other top-level domains (TLD) with the same name, or make it easier for a ".edu" or ".net" site to accommodate users who type ".com".


title: URL redirection

text: With URL redirects, incoming links to an outdated URL can be sent to the correct location. These links might be from other sites that have not realized that there is a change or from bookmarks/favorites that users have saved in their browsers. The same applies to search engines. They often have the older/outdated domain names and links in their database and will send search users to these old URLs. By using a "moved permanently" redirect to the new URL, visitors will still end up at the correct page. Also, in the next search engine pass, the search engine should detect and use the newer URL.


title: URL redirection

text: The access logs of most web servers keep detailed information about where visitors came from and how they browsed the hosted site. They do not, however, log which links visitors left by. This is because the visitor's browser has no need to communicate with the original server when the visitor clicks on an outgoing link. This information can be captured in several ways. One way involves URL redirection. Instead of sending the visitor straight to the other site, links on the site can direct to a URL on the original website's domain that automatically redirects to the real target. This technique bears the downside of the delay caused by the additional request to the original website's server. As this added request will leave a trace in the server log, revealing exactly which link was followed, it can also be a privacy issue. The same technique is also used by some corporate websites to implement a statement that the subsequent content is at another site, and therefore not necessarily affiliated with the corporation. In such scenarios, displaying the warning causes an additional delay.


title: URL redirection

text: Web applications often include lengthy descriptive attributes in their URLs which represent data hierarchies, command structures, transaction paths and session information. This practice results in a URL that is aesthetically unpleasant and difficult to remember, and which may not fit within the size limitations of microblogging sites. URL shortening services provide a solution to this problem by redirecting a user to a longer URL from a shorter one.


title: URL redirection

text: Sometimes the URL of a page changes even though the content stays the same. Therefore, URL redirection can help users who have bookmarks. This is routinely done on Wikipedia whenever a page is renamed.


title: URL redirection

text: Post/Redirect/Get (PRG) is a web development design pattern that prevents some duplicate form submissions if the user clicks the refresh button after submitting the form, creating a more intuitive interface for user agents (users).


title: URL redirection

text: Redirects can be effectively used for targeting purposes like geotargeting. Device targeting has become increasingly important with the rise of mobile clients. There are two approaches to serve mobile users: Make the website responsive or redirect to a mobile website version. If a mobile website version is offered, users with mobile clients will be automatically forwarded to the corresponding mobile content. For device targeting, client-side redirects or non-cacheable server-side redirects are used. Geotargeting is the approach to offer localized content and automatically forward the user to a localized version of the requested URL. This is helpful for websites that target audience in more than one location and/or language. Usually server-side redirects are used for Geotargeting but client-side redirects might be an option as well, depending on requirements.


title: URL redirection

text: Redirects have been used to manipulate search engines with unethical intentions, e.g., URL hijacking. The goal of misleading redirects is to drive search traffic to landing pages, which do not have enough ranking power on their own or which are only remotely or not at all related to the search target. The approach requires a rank for a range of search terms with a number of URLs that would utilize sneaky redirects to forward the searcher to the target page. This method had a revival with the uprise of mobile devices and device targeting. URL hijacking is an off-domain redirect technique that exploited the nature of the search engine's handling for temporary redirects. If a temporary redirect is encountered, search engines have to decide whether they assign the ranking value to the URL that initializes the redirect or to the redirect target URL. The URL that initiates the redirect may be kept to show up in search results, as the redirect indicates a temporary nature. Under certain circumstances it was possible to exploit this behavior by applying temporary redirects to well-ranking URLs, leading to a replacement of the original URL in search results by the URL that initialized the redirect, therefore "stealing" the ranking. This method was usually combined with sneaky redirects to re-target the user stream from the search results to a target page. Search engines have developed efficient technologies to detect these kinds of manipulative approaches. Major search engines usually apply harsh ranking penalties on sites that get caught applying techniques like these.


title: URL redirection

text: URL redirection is sometimes used as a part of phishing attacks that confuse visitors about which web site they are visiting. Because modern browsers always show the real URL in the address bar, the threat is lessened. However, redirects can also take you to sites that will otherwise attempt to attack in other ways. For example, a redirect might take a user to a site that would attempt to trick them into downloading antivirus software and installing a Trojan of some sort instead.


title: URL redirection

text: When a link is clicked, the browser sends along in the HTTP request a field called referer which indicates the source of the link. This field is populated with the URL of the current web page, and will end up in the logs of the server serving the external link. Since sensitive pages may have sensitive URLs (for example, codice_2), it is not desirable for the codice_1 URL to leave the organization. A redirection page that performs referrer hiding could be embedded in all external URLs, transforming for example codice_4 into codice_5. This technique also eliminates other potentially sensitive information from the referrer URL, such as the session ID, and can reduce the chance of phishing by indicating to the end user that they passed a clear gateway to another site.


title: URL redirection

text: Several different kinds of response to the browser will result in a redirection. These vary in whether they affect HTTP headers or HTML content. The techniques used typically depend on the role of the person implementing it and their access to different parts of the system. For example, a web author with no control over the headers might use a Refresh meta tag whereas a web server administrator redirecting all pages on a site is more likely to use server configuration.


title: URL redirection

text: The simplest technique is to ask the visitor to follow a link to the new page, usually using an HTML anchor like:


title: URL redirection

text: This method is often used as a fall-back — if the browser does not support the automatic redirect, the visitor can still reach the target document by following the link.


title: URL redirection

text: In the HTTP protocol used by the World Wide Web, a redirect is a response with a status code beginning with "3" that causes a browser to display a different page. If a client encounters a redirect, it needs to make a number of decisions how to handle the redirect. Different status codes are used by clients to understand the purpose of the redirect, how to handle caching and which request method to use for the subsequent request.


title: URL redirection

text: All of these status codes require the URL of the redirect target to be given in the Location: header of the HTTP response. The 300 multiple choices will usually list all choices in the body of the message and show the default choice in the Location: header.


title: URL redirection

text: Web authors producing HTML content can't usually create redirects using HTTP headers as these are generated automatically by the web server program when serving an HTML file. The same is usually true even for programmers writing CGI scripts, though some servers allow scripts to add custom headers (e.g. by enabling "non-parsed-headers"). Many web servers will generate a 3xx status code if a script outputs a "Location:" header line. For example, in PHP, one can use the "header" function:


title: URL redirection

text: More headers may be required to prevent caching. The programmer must ensure that the headers are output before the body. This may not fit easily with the natural flow of control through the code. To help with this, some frameworks for server-side content generation can buffer the body data. In the ASP scripting language, this can also be accomplished using codice_6 and codice_7 HTTP/1.1 allows for either a relative URI reference or an absolute URI reference. If the URI reference is relative the client computes the required absolute URI reference according to the rules defined in RFC 3986.


title: URL redirection

text: The Apache HTTP Server mod_alias extension can be used to redirect certain requests. Typical configuration directives look like:


title: URL redirection

text: For more flexible URL rewriting and redirection, Apache mod_rewrite can be used. E.g., to redirect a requests to a canonical domain name:


title: URL redirection

text: Such configuration can be applied to one or all sites on the server through the server configuration files or to a single content directory through a codice_8 file.


title: URL redirection

text: Nginx has an integrated http rewrite module, which can be used to perform advanced URL processing and even web-page generation (with the codice_9 directive). A showing example of such advanced use of the rewrite module is mdoc.su , which implements a deterministic URL shortening service entirely with the help of nginx configuration language alone.


title: URL redirection

text: For example, if a request for codice_10 were to come along, it would first be redirected internally to codice_11 with the first rewrite directive below (only affecting the internal state, without any HTTP replies issued to the client just yet), and then with the second rewrite directive, an HTTP response with a 302 Found status code would be issued to the client to actually redirect to the external cgi script of web-man:


title: URL redirection

text: Netscape introduced the meta refresh feature which refreshes a page after a certain amount of time. This can specify a new URL to replace one page with another. This is supported by most web browsers. A timeout of zero seconds effects an immediate redirect. This is treated like a 301 permanent redirect by Google, allowing transfer of PageRank to the target page.


title: URL redirection

text: This technique can be used by web authors because the meta tag is contained inside the document itself. The meta tag must be placed in the "head" section of the HTML file. The number "0" in this example may be replaced by another number to achieve a delay of that many seconds. The anchor in the "body" section is for users whose browsers do not support this feature.


title: URL redirection

text: This response is easier to generate by CGI programs because one does not need to change the default status code.


title: URL redirection

text: The W3C discourage the use of meta refresh, since it does not communicate any information about either the original or new resource, to the browser (or search engine). The W3C's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (7.4) discourage the creation of auto-refreshing pages, since most web browsers do not allow the user to disable or control the refresh rate. Some articles that they have written on the issue include W3C Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (1.0): Ensure user control of time-sensitive content changes, Use standard redirects: don't break the back button! and Core Techniques for Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 1.0 section 7.


title: URL redirection

text: Normally JavaScript pushes the redirector site's URL to the browser's history. It can cause redirect loops when users hit the back button. With the following command you can prevent this type of behaviour.


title: URL redirection

text: However, HTTP headers or the refresh meta tag may be preferred for security reasons and because JavaScript will not be executed by some browsers and many web crawlers.


title: URL redirection

text: One main difference to the above redirect methods is that for a frame redirect, the browser displays the URL of the frame document and not the URL of the target page in the URL bar. This "cloaking" technique may be used so that the reader sees a more memorable URL or to fraudulently conceal a phishing site as part of website spoofing.


title: URL redirection

text: One redirect may lead to another. For example, the URL "https://wikipedia.com" (with "*.com" as domain) is first redirected to https://www.wikipedia.org/ (with domain name in .org), where you can navigate to the language-specific site. This is unavoidable if the different links in the chain are served by different servers though it should be minimised by "rewriting" the URL as much as possible on the server before returning it to the browser as a redirect.


title: URL redirection

text: Sometimes a mistake can cause a page to end up redirecting back to itself, possibly via other pages, leading to an infinite sequence of redirects. Browsers should stop redirecting after a certain number of hops and display an error message.


title: URL redirection

text: A client "SHOULD" detect and intervene in cyclical redirections (i.e., "infinite" redirection loops).


title: URL redirection

text: Note: An earlier version of this specification recommended a maximum of five redirections ([RFC 2068], Section 10.3). Content developers need to be aware that some clients might implement such a fixed limitation.


title: URL redirection

text: There exist services that can perform URL redirection on demand, with no need for technical work or access to the web server your site is hosted on.


title: URL redirection

text: A redirect service is an information management system, which provides an internet link that redirects users to the desired content. The typical benefit to the user is the use of a memorable domain name, and a reduction in the length of the URL or web address. A redirecting link can also be used as a permanent address for content that frequently changes hosts, similarly to the Domain Name System. Hyperlinks involving URL redirection services are frequently used in spam messages directed at blogs and wikis. Thus, one way to reduce spam is to reject all edits and comments containing hyperlinks to known URL redirection services; however, this will also remove legitimate edits and comments and may not be an effective method to reduce spam.


title: URL redirection

text: Recently, URL redirection services have taken to using AJAX as an efficient, user friendly method for creating shortened URLs. A major drawback of some URL redirection services is the use of delay pages, or frame based advertising, to generate revenue.


title: URL redirection

text: The first redirect services took advantage of top-level domains (TLD) such as ".to" (Tonga), ".at" (Austria) and ".is" (Iceland). Their goal was to make memorable URLs. The first mainstream redirect service was V3.com that boasted 4 million users at its peak in 2000. V3.com success was attributed to having a wide variety of short memorable domains including "r.im", "go.to", "i.am", "come.to" and "start.at". V3.com was acquired by FortuneCity.com, a large free web hosting company, in early 1999. As the sales price of top level domains started falling from per year to less than , use of redirection services declined. With the launch of TinyURL in 2002 a new kind of redirecting service was born, namely URL shortening. Their goal was to make long URLs short, to be able to post them on internet forums. Since 2006, with the 140 character limit on the extremely popular Twitter service, these short URL services have been heavily used.


title: URL redirection

text: Redirection services can hide the referrer by placing an intermediate page between the page the link is on and its destination. Although these are conceptually similar to other URL redirection services, they serve a different purpose, and they rarely attempt to shorten or obfuscate the destination URL (as their only intended side-effect is to hide referrer information and provide a clear gateway between other websites.) This type of redirection is often used to prevent potentially-malicious links from gaining information using the referrer, for example a session ID in the query string. Many large community websites use link redirection on external links to lessen the chance of an exploit that could be used to steal account information, as well as make it clear when a user is leaving a service, to lessen the chance of effective phishing .


title: URL redirection

text: The above example does not check who called it (e.g. by referrer, although that could be spoofed). Also, it does not check the URL provided. This means that a malicious person could link to the redirection page using a URL parameter of his/her own selection, from any page, which uses the web server's resources.


title: URL redirection

text: URL redirection can be abused by attackers for phishing attacks, such as open redirect and covert redirect. "An open redirect is an application that takes a parameter and redirects a user to the parameter value without any validation." "Covert redirect is an application that takes a parameter and redirects a user to the parameter value WITHOUT SUFFICIENT validation." It was disclosed in May 2014 by a mathematical doctoral student Wang Jing from Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: Griffith Observatory is an observatory in Los Angeles, California on the south-facing slope of Mount Hollywood in Griffith Park. It commands a view of the Los Angeles Basin including Downtown Los Angeles to the southeast, Hollywood to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the southwest. The observatory is a popular tourist attraction with a close view of the Hollywood Sign and an extensive array of space and science-related displays. It is named after its benefactor, Griffith J. Griffith. Admission has been free since the observatory's opening in 1935, in accordance with the benefactor's will.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: Over 7 million people have been able to view through the 12-inch (30.5 cm) Zeiss refractor since the observatory's 1935 opening; this is the most people to have viewed through any telescope.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: On December 16, 1896, of land surrounding the observatory was donated to the City of Los Angeles by Griffith J. Griffith. In his will Griffith donated funds to build an observatory, exhibit hall, and planetarium on the donated land. Griffith's objective was to make astronomy accessible to the public, as opposed to the prevailing idea that observatories should be located on remote mountaintops and restricted to scientists.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: Griffith drafted detailed specifications for the observatory. In drafting the plans, he consulted with Walter Sydney Adams, the future director of Mount Wilson Observatory, and George Ellery Hale, who founded (with Andrew Carnegie) the first astrophysical telescope in Los Angeles.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: As a Works Progress Administration (WPA) project, construction began on June 20, 1933, using a design developed by architects John C. Austin and Frederic Morse Ashley (1870-1960), based on preliminary sketches by Russell W. Porter. The observatory and accompanying exhibits were opened to the public on May 14, 1935, as the country's third planetarium. In its first five days of operation the observatory logged more than 13,000 visitors. Dinsmore Alter was the museum's director during its first years.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: The building combines Greek and Beaux-Arts influences, and the exterior is embellished with the Greek key pattern.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: During World War II, the planetarium was used to train pilots in celestial navigation. The planetarium was again used for this purpose in the 1960s to train Apollo program astronauts for the first lunar missions.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: Griffith Observatory Foundation was chartered in 1978 as Friends Of The Observatory. It was founded by Debra Griffith and Harold Griffith (the grandson of the observatory's benefactor) with Dr. E.C. Krupp (the current Observatory Director) and a small group of dedicated partners. The foundation supports the observatory in its mission of public astronomy and advocated the restoration and expansion of the observatory. The foundation continues to promote the observatory as an agent of science literacy, education, and experiential astronomy.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: The observatory closed on January 6, 2002 for renovation and a major expansion of exhibit space. It reopened to the public on November 2, 2006, retaining its Art Deco exterior. The $93 million renovation, paid largely by a public bond issue, restored the building, as well as replaced the aging planetarium dome. The building was expanded underground, with completely new exhibits, a café, gift shop, and the new Leonard Nimoy Event Horizon Theater.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: On October 15, 2017, brush fires approached the Observatory Trail, but were extinguished before causing any structural damage.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: On July 10, 2018, the Griffith Observatory was evacuated after a brush fire burned 25 acres and damaged cars but was extinguished before it damaged any buildings.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: Ed Krupp has been the director of the Observatory since 1974. He has been responsible for updating the technology and the building for over 45 years.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: The first exhibit visitors encountered in 1935 was the Foucault pendulum, which was designed to demonstrate the rotation of the Earth. The exhibits also included a 12-inch (305mm) Zeiss refracting telescope in the east dome, a triple-beam coelostat (solar telescope) in the west dome, and a thirty-eight foot relief model of the moon's north polar region.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: Griffith requested that the observatory include a display on evolution which was accomplished with the Cosmochron exhibit which included a narration from Caltech Professor Chester Stock and an accompanying slide show. The evolution exhibit existed from 1937 to the mid-1960s.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: Also included in the original design was a planetarium under the large central dome. The first shows covered topics including the Moon, worlds of the Solar System, and eclipses.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: The Café at the End of the Universe, an homage to Restaurant at the End of the Universe, is one of the many cafés run by celebrity chef Wolfgang Puck. One wall inside the building is covered with the largest astronomically accurate image ever constructed ( long by high), called "The Big Picture", depicting the Virgo Cluster of galaxies; visitors can explore the highly detailed image from within arm's reach or through telescopes away. In 2006 the 1964-vintage Zeiss Mark IV star projector was replaced with a Zeiss Mark IX Universarium. The former planetarium projector is part of the underground exhibit on ways in which humanity has visualized the skies.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: Centered in the Universe features a high-resolution immersive video projected by an innovative laser system developed by Evans and Sutherland Corporation, along with a short night sky simulation projected by the Zeiss Universarium. A team of animators worked more than two years to create the 30-minute program. Actors, holding a glowing orb, perform the presentation, under the direction of Chris Shelton. Tickets for the show are purchased separately at the box office within the observatory. Tickets are sold on a first-come, first-served basis. Children under 5 are free, but are admitted to only the first planetarium show of the day. Only members of the observatory's support group, Friends Of The Observatory, may reserve tickets for the planetarium show.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: The observatory is split up into six sections: The Wilder Hall of the Eye, the Ahmanson Hall of the Sky, the W. M. Keck Foundation Central Rotunda, the Cosmic Connection, the Gunther Depths of Space Hall, and the Edge of Space Mezzanine.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: The Wilder Hall of the Eye, located in the east wing of the main level focuses on astronomical tools like telescopes and how they evolved over time so people can see further into space. Interactive features there include a Tesla coil and a "Camera Obscura", which uses mirrors and lenses to focus light onto a flat surface.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: The Ahmanson Hall of the Sky, located in the west wing, focuses on objects that are normally found in the sky, like the Sun and Moon. The main centerpiece of this section is a large solar telescope projecting images of the Sun, using a series of mirrors called coelostats. Exhibits here include a periodic table of the elements, a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, and several alcoves showing exhibits about topics like day and night, the paths of the Sun and stars, the seasons, the phases of the Moon, tides, and eclipses.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: The W. M. Keck Foundation Central Rotunda features several Hugo Ballin murals on the ceiling and upper walls restored since 1934, a Foucault pendulum that demonstrates the Earth's rotation, and a small exhibit dedicated to Griffith J. Griffith, after whom the observatory is named.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: The Cosmic Connection is a 150 ft long hallway connecting the main building and the underground exhibition areas (see below) that depicts the history of the universe, and dramatizes the amount of time that has passed from the Big Bang to the present day using, hundreds of individual pieces of astronomy-related jewelry.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: The Gunther Depths of Space Hall is the lower level of the observatory, dominated by "The Big Picture," and scale models of the Solar System. The planets (including dwarf planet Pluto) are shown relative to the size of the Sun, which is represented by the diameter of the Leonard Nimoy Event Horizon Theater. Below each planet are listed facts, as well as scales indicating a person's weight on planets having a solid surface (or weight at an altitude where atmospheric pressure would equal one bar otherwise). In addition, beneath the Earth's model, there is a small room containing a large model Earth globe, an older Zeiss planetarium projector, and a set of seismograph rolls, including one tracking room motion caused by occupants. The other rolls are attached to seismographs monitoring movement at the bedrock level, and indicate actual seismic activity. On the north wall of the Depths of Space is "The Big Picture", a by photograph (the largest astronomical image in the world) showing a portion of the Virgo Cluster of galaxies at an angular scale of 0.1 degree per foot. This image was taken over the course of 11 nights by the 48-inch Samuel Oschin telescope at Palomar Mountain. There is also a bronze statue of Albert Einstein sitting on a bench in the Depths of Space. Einstein is holding his index finger about in front of his eyes, to illustrate the visual area of space that is captured in The Big Picture.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: The Edge of Space Mezzanine, which overlooks the Depths of Space Hall, focuses more on astronomy related topics that involve celestial bodies much closer to Earth, with exhibits including meteorite displays, an asteroid impact simulator, cloud and spark chambers, a large globe of the Moon, and telescopes that allow inspection of The Big Picture from a distance.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: On display at the Observatory is a large Tesla coil, named for its inventor, Nikola Tesla. Dubbed "GPO-1", it is one of a pair which were built in 1910 by Earle Ovington. Ovington, who would go on to fame as an aviator, ran a company which built high voltage generators for medical X-ray and electrotherapy devices. In public demonstrations of his generators, the spectacular displays drew crowds. Ovington designed the Observatory's coil to surpass a coil made by Elihu Thomson in 1893 which generated a 64-inch spark. (Tesla had secretly produced much larger sparks in 1899.) The project caught the attention of an Edison Electric Illuminating Company official, who offered $1,000 if the coil were displayed at an upcoming electrical show in Madison Square Garden, with the stipulation that the machine would produce sparks not less than ten feet long.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: The machine, dubbed the "Million Volt Oscillator" was installed in the band balcony overlooking the arena. At the top of each hour the lights in the main hall were shut off, and sparks would shoot from the copper ball atop the coil to a matching coil 122 inches away, or to a wand held by an assistant. The chief engineer of the General Electric Company estimated that the discharges were at least 1.3 million volts.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: Ovington, who died in 1936, gave the matching Tesla coils to his old electrotherapy colleague Frederick Finch Strong, who in 1937 donated them to Griffith Observatory. The Observatory had room to exhibit only one of the pair. By this time the machine was missing parts, so Observatory staffer Leon Hall restored it with the notable assistance of Hollywood special effects expert Kenneth Strickfaden who designed the special effects for "Frankenstein" (1931) among many other movies.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: The "Astronomers Monument" is a large outdoor concrete sculpture on the front lawn of the Observatory that pays homage to six of the greatest astronomers of all time: Hipparchus (about 150 BC); Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543); Galileo Galilei (1564–1642); Johannes Kepler (1571–1630); Isaac Newton (1642–1727); and William Herschel (1738–1822).


title: Griffith Observatory

text: Soon after the Public Works of Art Project (PWAP) began in December 1933, in cooperation with the Los Angeles Park Commission, PWAP commissioned a sculpture project on the grounds of the Griffith Observatory which was under construction. Using a design by local artist Archibald Garner and materials donated by the Women's' Auxiliary of the Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce, Garner and five other artists Roger Noble Burnham, Djey El Djey (1905-1980, real name Djey Owens), Gordon Newell (1905–1998), George Stanley (creator of the famous Oscar statuette presented at the Academy Awards), and Arnold Foerster (1878–1943) sculpted and cast the concrete monument and figures. Each artist was responsible for sculpting one astronomer: Stanley did Newton, Garner sculpted Copernicus, Newell was responsible for Kepler, etc. (The attributions for Hipparchus and Galileo are unclear; Burnham may have done the Hershel figure.)


title: Griffith Observatory

text: According to the "Los Angeles Times" art critic Arthur Millier in 1934, the “original idea” was Foerster’s, and he was “responsible for the delicate engineering entailed in pouring a forty-foot concrete shaft.” The monument is topped with an armillary sphere, originally concrete, replaced with a bronze piece 1991.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: On November 25, 1934, almost six months prior to the opening of the Observatory on May 14, 1935, a celebration took place to mark completion of the "Astronomers Monument". The only "signature" on the "Astronomers Monument" is "PWAP 1934" referring to the program which funded the project and the year it was completed.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: Admission to the building and grounds of Griffith Observatory is free of charge. Planetarium shows at the Observatory are offered eight times a day on weekdays and ten times a day on weekends. A nominal fee is charged for admission to the planetarium shows. As long as the weather permits, the Observatory offers free public telescope viewing every night the observatory is open - usually beginning at 7:00 p.m. This includes the historic 12” Zeiss Refracting Telescope on the roof, and up to four portable telescopes placed outside offering views of visible celestial objects for the night. At 9:30 p.m., the doors to the Zeiss dome close, and lines for the portable telescopes outside stop allowing guests into the queues - though the lines may close earlier on the busier nights. In poor weather, the roof may be closed to the public, but if still accessible under overcast skies, the Zeiss Telescope can still be visited as an exhibit during viewing hours.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: There is a small parking lot next to the Observatory, plus more spaces along Western Canyon Rd, which require payment of $8–10 an hour, depending on the season. During busier times, the roads can get congested and limit access to the top. The Los Angeles Department of Transportation (LADOT) operates daily low cost DASH Observatory public bus service from the Vermont/Sunset Metro Red Line station to the Observatory, including a stop at the nearby Greek Theater, which can be used as a free parking area when there are no concerts. The observatory is closed on Mondays.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: There are photo opportunities and scenery at and around the Observatory, with views of the Pacific Ocean, the Hollywood Sign and Downtown Los Angeles.


title: Griffith Observatory

text: The observatory was featured in two major sequences of the James Dean film "Rebel Without a Cause" (1955), which helped to make it an international emblem of Los Angeles. A bust of Dean was subsequently placed at the west side of the grounds. It has also appeared in a number of other movies, including:


title: Rainbow flag

text: A rainbow flag is a multicolored flag consisting of the colors of the rainbow. The designs differ, but many of the colors are based on the spectral colors of the visible light spectrum.


title: Rainbow flag

text: In the 18th century, American Revolutionary War writer Thomas Paine proposed that a rainbow flag be used as a maritime flag to signify neutral ships in time of war.


title: Rainbow flag

text: Contemporary international uses of a rainbow flag dates to the beginning of the 20th century. The International Co-operative Alliance adopted a rainbow flag in 1925. A similar flag (ca. 1920) is used in Andean indigenism in Peru and Bolivia to represent the legacy of the Inca Empire. Since 1961, the international peace flag, also known as the PACE flag, has been especially popular in Italy and to a lesser extent Europe and the rest of the world. The pride flag has represented gay pride since 1978 and evolved into a symbol of the LGBT movement. There are several independent rainbow flags in use today.


title: Rainbow flag

text: The reformer Thomas Müntzer (1489–1525) connected socially revolutionary claims with his preaching of the gospel


title: Rainbow flag

text: He is often portrayed with a rainbow flag in his hand. The Thomas Müntzer statue in the German town of Stolberg also shows him holding a rainbow flag in his hand.


title: Rainbow flag

text: In the German Peasants' War of the 16th century, the rainbow flag together with the peasants' boot ("Bundschuh") was used as the sign of a new era, of hope and of social change.


title: Rainbow flag

text: The choice of the rainbow in the form of a flag harkens back to the rainbow as a symbol of biblical promise. According to the Bible, God first created the rainbow as a sign to Noah that there would never again be a worldwide flood, also known as the Rainbow covenant.


title: Rainbow flag

text: A rainbow flag was proposed for Armenia when it regained independence after World War I. It was designed by Armenian artist Martiros Saryan. It was not adopted as the country instead went with three stripes using the colors used in a past Armenian kingdom. The artist used muted, richer colors reflecting Armenian fabrics and carpets.


title: Rainbow flag

text: A seven-colour rainbow flag is a common symbol of the international cooperative movement. The rainbow flag has been the cooperative emblem since 1921 when the International Co-operative Congress of World Co-op Leaders met in Basel, Switzerland to identify and define the growing cooperative movement's common values and ideals to help unite co-ops around the world.


title: Rainbow flag

text: In Essen, Germany in 1922, the International Co-operative Alliance (ICA) designed an international co-op symbol and a flag for the first "Co-operators' Day," which was held in July 1923. After some experiments with different designs, a famous French cooperator, Professor Charles Gide, suggested using the seven colours of the rainbow for the flag. He pointed out that the rainbow symbolized unity in diversity and the power of light, enlightenment and progress. The first co-op rainbow flag was completed in 1924 and was adopted as an official symbol of the international cooperative movement in 1925.


title: Rainbow flag

text: In 2001, the ICA's official flag was changed from a rainbow flag to a rainbow logo flag on a white field, to clearly promote and strengthen the cooperative image, but still use the rainbow image. Other organizations sometimes use the traditional rainbow flag as a symbol of cooperation.


title: Rainbow flag

text: Like the rainbow, this flag is a symbol of hope and peace. The seven colours from flags around the world fly in harmony. Each of the seven colours in the co-operative flag have been assigned the following meaning:


title: Rainbow flag

text: The ICA has been flying a flag with its official logo since April 2001, when its Board decided to replace the traditional rainbow flag. Its use by a number of non-cooperative groups led to confusion in several countries around the world.


title: Rainbow flag

text: This rainbow flag in Italy was first used in a peace march in 1961, inspired by similar multi-coloured flags used in demonstrations against nuclear weapons. It became popular with the "Pace da tutti i balconi" ("peace from every balcony") campaign in 2002, started as a protest against the impending war in Iraq. The most common variety has seven colours, purple, blue, azure, green, yellow, orange and red, and is emblazoned in bold with the Italian word "PACE", meaning "peace".


title: Rainbow flag

text: Common variations include moving the purple stripe down below the azure one, and adding a white stripe on top (the original flag from the 60s had a white stripe on top). This flag has been adopted internationally as a symbol of the peace movement.


title: Rainbow flag

text: The Flag of Cusco was introduced in Peru in 1973, and became used as the official emblem of the city of Cusco. In 2007, the municipality decided to modify the flag design so that it would not be confused with the Gay Pride flag. The new flag design was implemented in 2021. In Ecuador, a rainbow emblem is used by the "Pachakutik" political party (1995), which is composed mostly of left-wing indigenous people.


title: Rainbow flag

text: A seven-striped rainbow flag design is used in Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador as a symbol of native ethnic groups and culture, and is anachronistically associated with the Tawantin Suyu, or Inca territory. Although commonly believed in Peru to be a flag of the Incan Empire, the oldest known rainbow flag dates back only to the 18th century and was used by Túpac Amaru II during his indigenous revolt against the Spanish. María Rostworowski, a Peruvian historian known for her extensive and detailed publications about Peruvian Ancient Cultures and the Inca Empire, said about this: "I bet my life, the Inca never had that flag, it never existed, no chronicler mentioned it". The National Academy of Peruvian History has stated on the topic: "The official use of the wrongly called 'Tawantinsuyu flag' is a mistake. In the pre-Hispanic Andean world the concept of flags did not exist, it did not belong to their historic context".


title: Rainbow flag

text: The rainbow flag was popularized as a symbol of the gay community by San Francisco artist Gilbert Baker in 1978. The different colors are often associated with "diversity" in the gay community (but actually have literal meanings). The flag is used predominantly at gay pride events and in gay villages worldwide in various forms including banners, clothing and jewelry.


title: Rainbow flag

text: Since the 1990s, its symbolism has been transferred to represent the extended "LGBT" (lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender) community. In 1994, for the 25th anniversary of the Stonewall riots in New York city, a mile-long rainbow flag was created by Baker which he later cut into sections that were distributed around the world.


title: Rainbow flag

text: The flag was originally created with eight colors, but pink and turquoise were removed for production purposes, and since 1979 it has consisted of six colored stripes. It is most commonly flown with the red stripe on top, as the colors appear in a natural rainbow. Aside from the obvious symbolism of a mixed LGBT community, the colors were determined to symbolize:


title: Rainbow flag

text: During the 1980s, a black stripe representing AIDS victims was added to the bottom of a rainbow flag as a seventh color and named the flag. At various times other colors have been introduced to modify the flag design by Gilbert Baker, including black-and-brown for people of color in 2017, and white-pink-blue for transgender and queer people in 2019.


title: Rainbow flag

text: The leftist Herri Batasuna party used a rainbow version of the Ikurriña (Basque national flag) from 1978 until it was dissolved in 2001.


title: Rainbow flag

text: Another variation of rainbow flag is used by Jewish Autonomous Oblast, situated in the Far Eastern Federal District of Russia, by the Chinese border. Proportions 2:3. Adopted first of October 1996.


title: Rainbow flag

text: The Jewish Autonomous Oblast has a flag with a seven-colour rainbow. The number of colours is meant to symbolize the seven-branched Jewish Menorah. Its colours are slightly different from the basic spectral colours, with gold in place of yellow, vivid blue instead of light blue, and indigo as dark blue. In 2013, the flag was checked according to the Russian gay propaganda law. JAO flag was confirmed as safe because of white background, white stripes and the seventh (light blue) colour.


title: Rainbow flag

text: During the 2020 coronavirus pandemic in the United Kingdom, the rainbow symbol has been used to signify support and gratitude for the National Health Service (NHS). However, the increasing association of the six-color Pride rainbow flag with the NHS has caused concern among some members of the LGBT community that it is being disassociated "as a symbol of LGBT equality" and may lead to the erasure of identity.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: Hail to the Thief is the sixth studio album by the English rock band Radiohead. It was released on 9 June 2003 through Parlophone internationally and a day later through Capitol Records in the United States. It was the last album released under Radiohead's record contract with EMI, the parent company of Parlophone and Capitol.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: After transitioning to a more electronic style on their albums "Kid A" (2000) and "Amnesiac" (2001), which were recorded through protracted studio experimentation, Radiohead sought to work more spontaneously, combining electronic and rock music. They recorded most of "Hail to the Thief" in two weeks in Los Angeles with their longtime producer Nigel Godrich, focusing on live takes rather than overdubs.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: Songwriter Thom Yorke wrote lyrics influenced by the unfolding war on terror and the surrounding political discourse, incorporating influences from fairy tales and children's literature. The cover artwork, created by the artist Stanley Donwood, is a roadmap of Hollywood with words taken from roadside advertising in Los Angeles and from Yorke's lyrics.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: Following a high-profile internet leak of unfinished material ten weeks before release, "Hail to the Thief" debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart and number three on the US "Billboard" 200 chart. It was certified platinum in the UK and Canada and gold in several countries. It was promoted with singles and music videos for "There There", "Go to Sleep" and "2 + 2 = 5". "Hail to the Thief" received positive reviews; it was the fifth consecutive Radiohead album nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album, and won for the Grammy Award for Best Engineered Non-Classical Album.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: With their previous albums "Kid A" (2000) and "Amnesiac" (2001), recorded simultaneously, Radiohead replaced their guitar-led rock sound with a more electronic style. For the tours, they learned how to perform the music live, combining synthetic sounds with rock instrumentation. The singer, Thom Yorke, said: "Even with electronics, there is an element of spontaneous performance in using them. It was the tension between what's human and what's coming from the machines. That was stuff we were getting into." Radiohead did not want to make a "big creative leap or statement" with their next album.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: In early 2002, after the "Amnesiac" tour had finished, Yorke sent his bandmates CDs of demos. The three CDs, "The Gloaming", "Episcoval" and "Hold Your Prize", comprised electronic music alongside piano and guitar sketches. Radiohead had tried to record some of the songs, such as "I Will", for "Kid A" and "Amnesiac", but were not satisfied with the results. They spent May and June 2002 arranging and rehearsing the songs before performing them on their tour of Spain and Portugal in July and August.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: In September 2002, Radiohead moved to Ocean Way Recording in Hollywood, Los Angeles, with their longtime producer Nigel Godrich. The studio was suggested by Godrich, who had used it to produce records by Travis and Beck and thought it would be a "good change of scenery" for Radiohead. Yorke said: "We were like, 'Do we want to fly halfway around the world to do this?' But it was terrific, because we worked really hard. We did a track a day. It was sort of like holiday camp."


title: Hail to the Thief

text: "Kid A" and "Amnesiac" were created through a years-long process of recording and editing that the drummer, Philip Selway, described as "manufacturing music in the studio". For their next album, Radiohead sought to capture a more immediate, "live" sound. Yorke said they wanted to spend less time "looking at computers and grids", and instead integrated computers into their performances with other instruments. He said "everything was about performance, like staging a play".


title: Hail to the Thief

text: Radiohead tried to work quickly and spontaneously, avoiding procrastination and overanalysis. The guitarist Jonny Greenwood said: "We didn't really have time to be stressed about what we did. We got to the end of the second week before we even heard what we did on the first two days, and didn't even remember recording it or who was playing things. Which is a magical way of doing things." Yorke was forced to write lyrics differently, as he did not have time to rewrite them in the studio. For some songs, he returned to the method of cutting up words and arranging them randomly he had employed for "Kid A" and "Amnesiac".


title: Hail to the Thief

text: Most electronic elements were not overdubbed, but recorded live in the studio. Greenwood used the music programming language Max to sample and manipulate the band's playing; for example, he used it to process his guitar on "Go To Sleep", creating a random stuttering effect. He continued to use modular synthesisers and the ondes Martenot, an early electronic instrument similar to a theremin"." After having used effects pedals heavily on previous albums, he challenged himself to create interesting guitar parts without effects.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: Inspired by the Beatles, Radiohead tried to keep the songs concise. The opening track, "2 + 2 = 5", was recorded as a studio test and finished in two hours. Radiohead struggled to record "There There"; after rerecording it in their Oxfordshire studio, Yorke was so relieved to have captured it he wept, feeling it was the band's best work. Radiohead had recorded an electronic version of "I Will" in the "Kid A" and "Amnesiac" sessions, but abandoned it as "dodgy Kraftwerk"; components of this recording were used to create "Like Spinning Plates" on "Amnesiac". For "Hail to the Thief", the band sought to "get to the core of what's good about the song" and not be distracted by production details or new sounds, settling on a stripped-back arrangement.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: Radiohead recorded most of "Hail to the Thief "in two weeks, with additional recording and mixing at their studio in Oxfordshire, England, in late 2002 and early 2003. The guitarist Ed O'Brien told "Rolling Stone" that "Hail to the Thief" was the first Radiohead album "where, at the end of making it, we haven't wanted to kill each other". However, mixing and sequencing created conflict; according to Yorke, "There was a long sustained period during which we lived with it but it wasn't completely finished, so you get attached to versions and we had big rows about it." Godrich estimated that rough mixes from the Los Angeles sessions were used for a third of the album.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: The "Hail to the Thief" lyrics were influenced by what Yorke called "the general sense of ignorance and intolerance and panic and stupidity" following the 2000 election of US president George W. Bush. He took words and phrases from discourse around the unfolding War on Terror and used them in the lyrics and artwork. He denied any intent to make a "political statement" with the songs, but said: "I desperately tried not to write anything political, anything expressing the deep, profound terror I'm living with day to day. But it's just fucking there, and eventually you have to give it up and let it happen."


title: Hail to the Thief

text: Yorke, a new father, adopted a strategy of "distilling" the political themes into "childlike simplicity". He took phrases from fairy tales and folklore such as the tale of Chicken Little, and from children's literature and television he shared with his son, such as the 1970s TV series "Bagpuss." Parenthood made Yorke concerned about the condition of the world and how it could affect future generations. Greenwood felt Yorke's lyrics expressed "confusion and escape, like 'I'm going to stay at home and look after the people I care about, buy a month's supply of food'."


title: Hail to the Thief

text: Yorke also took phrases from Dante's "Inferno", the subject of his partner Rachel Owen's PhD thesis. Several songs, such as "2 + 2 = 5", "Sit Down Stand Up", and "Sail to the Moon", reference Christian versions of good and evil and heaven and hell, a first for Radiohead's music. Other songs reference science fiction, horror and fantasy, such as the wolves and vampires of "A Wolf at the Door" and "We Suck Young Blood", the reference to the slogan "two plus two equals five" in the dystopian novel "Nineteen Eighty-Four", and the allusion to the giant of "Gulliver's Travels" in "Go to Sleep".


title: Hail to the Thief

text: Radiohead struggled to name the album. They considered titling it "The Gloaming" (), but this was rejected as too "poetic" and "doomy" and so became the album's subtitle. Other titles considered included "Little Man Being Erased", "The Boney King of Nowhere" and "Snakes and Ladders", which became the alternative titles for "Go To Sleep", "There There" and "Sit Down. Stand Up". The use of alternative titles was inspired by Victorian playbills showcasing moralistic songs played in music halls.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: The phrase "hail to the thief" was used by anti-Bush protesters as a play on "Hail to the Chief", the American presidential anthem. Yorke described hearing the phrase for the first time as a "formative moment". Radiohead chose the title partly in reference to Bush, but also in response to "the rise of doublethink and general intolerance and madness ... like individuals were totally out of control of the situation ... a manifestation of something not really human". The title also references the leak of an unfinished version of the album before its release. Yorke worried it might be misconstrued solely as reference to the US election, but his bandmates felt it "conjured up all the nonsense and absurdity and jubilation of the times".


title: Hail to the Thief

text: "Hail to the Thief" incorporates alternative rock, art rock, experimental rock and electronic rock. It features more conventional rock instrumentation and less digital manipulation than Radiohead's previous albums "Kid A" and "Amnesiac;" it makes prominent use of live drums, guitar and piano, and Yorke's voice was less manipulated with effects. "Rolling Stone" said "Hail to the Thief" was "more tuneful and song-focused""." Several tracks use the "Pixies-like" quiet-to-loud building of tension Radiohead had employed on previous albums.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: Though Yorke described "Hail to the Thief" as "very acoustic", he denied that it was a "guitar record". It retains electronic elements such as synthesisers, drum machines and sampling, and Yorke and Jonny Greenwood are credited for "laptop". The "Spin" critic Will Hermes found that "Hail to the Thief" "seesaws between the chill of sequencers and the warmth of fingers on strings and keys". Radiohead saw "Hail to the Thief" as a "sparkly, shiny pop record. Clear and pretty." O'Brien felt the album captured a new "swaggering" sound, with "space and sunshine and energy".The opening track, "2 + 2 = 5" is a rock song that builds to a loud climax. "Sit Down. Stand Up", an electronic song, was influenced by the jazz musician Charles Mingus. "Sail to the Moon" is a lullaby-like piano ballad with shifting time signatures. The lyrics allude to the Biblical story of Noah's Ark, and was written "in five minutes" for Yorke's infant son Noah. "Backdrifts" is an electronic song about "the slide backwards that's happening everywhere you look".


title: Hail to the Thief

text: "Go to Sleep" begins with an acoustic guitar riff described by the bassist, Colin Greenwood, as "1960s English sort of folk". "Where I End and You Begin" is a rock song with "walls" of ondes Martenot and rhythm section influenced by New Order. According to Yorke, "We Suck Young Blood" is a "slave ship tune" with a free jazz break, and is "not to be taken seriously". With ill-timed, "zombie-like" handclaps, the song satirises Hollywood culture and its "constant desire to stay young and fleece people, suck their energy".


title: Hail to the Thief

text: "The Gloaming" is an electronic song with "mechanical" rhythms that Jonny Greenwood built from tape loops. Greenwood described it as "very old school electronica: no computers, just analogue synths, tape machines, and sellotape". Yorke felt the song was "the most explicit protest song on the record ... I feel really strongly that it's about the rise of fascism, and the rise of intolerance and bigotry and fear, and all the things that keep a population down." "There There" is a rock song with layered percussion that builds to a loud climax. It was influenced by krautrock band Can, Siouxsie and the Banshees and the Pixies.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: Yorke described "I Will" as "the angriest song I've ever written". Its lyrics were inspired by news footage of the Amiriyah shelter bombing in the Gulf War, which killed about 400 people, including children and families. The funk-influenced "A Punchup at a Wedding" expresses the helplessness Yorke felt in the face of world events, and his anger over a negative review of Radiohead's homecoming performance in South Park, Oxford in 2001. Yorke said the performance was "one of the biggest days in my life", and that "I just didn't understand why... how someone, just because they had access to a keyboard and a typewriter, could just totally write off an event that meant an awful lot to an awful lot of people." For "Myxomatosis", a song built on a driving fuzz bassline, Radiohead sought to recreate the "frightening" detuned synthesiser sounds of 1970s and 80s new wave bands such as Tubeway Army.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: Jonny Greenwood described "Scatterbrain" as "very simple and sort of quite pretty, but there's something about the music for me, the chords for me, where it never quite resolves". "NME" described the final track, "A Wolf at the Door" as "a pretty song, with a sinister monologue over the top of it"; Greenwood likened its lyrics to a Grimms' fairy tale. Yorke described its placement at the end of the album as "sort of like waking you up at the end ... It's all been a nightmare and you need to go and get a glass of water now."


title: Hail to the Thief

text: The "Hail to the Thief's" artwork was created by Radiohead's collaborator Stanley Donwood, who joined them during the recording in Hollywood. Donwood initially planned to create artwork based on photographs of phallic topiary, but the idea was rejected by Yorke. Instead, the cover art is a roadmap of Hollywood, with words and phrases taken from roadside advertising in Los Angeles, such as "God", "TV" and "oil". Donwood noted that advertising was designed to be attractive, but that there was something "unsettling" about being sold something. He took the advertising slogans out of context to "remove the imperative" and "get to the pure heart of advertising".


title: Hail to the Thief

text: Other words in the artwork were taken from Yorke's lyrics and political discussion surrounding the war on terror. Among them is "Burn the Witch", the title of a song Radiohead did not complete until their ninth album, "A Moon Shaped Pool" (2016). Other artworks included with the album refer to cities relevant to the war on terror, including New York, London, Grozny and Baghdad. Early editions contained a fold-out road map of the cover.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: Comparing the cover to the more subdued palettes of his prior Radiohead artworks, Donwood described the bright, "pleasing" colours as "ominous because all these colours that I've used are derived from the petrol-chemical industry ... We've created this incredibly vibrant society, but we're going to have to deal with the consequences sooner or later." The essayist Amy Britton interpreted the artwork as an allusion to the Bush administration's "road map for peace" plan for the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Joseph Tate, likening it to the paintings of French artist Jean Dubuffet, saw it as a "homogenised and heavily regimented" portrayal of "capitalism's glaring visual presence: an oppressive sameness of style and colour that mirrors globalisation's reduction of difference".


title: Hail to the Thief

text: On 30 March 2003, ten weeks before release, an unfinished version of "Hail to the Thief" was leaked online. The leak comprised rough edits and unmixed songs from January that year. On Radiohead's forum, Jonny Greenwood wrote that the band were "pissed off", not with downloaders but because unfinished work had been released "in this sloppy way". Colin Greenwood said the leak was "like being photographed with one sock on when you get out of bed in the morning", but expressed dismay at the cease-and-desist orders sent by label EMI to radio stations and fan sites playing the leaked tracks, saying: "Don't record companies usually pay thousands of dollars to get stations to play their records? Now they're paying money to stations not to play them."


title: Hail to the Thief

text: EMI decided against moving the release date earlier to combat the leak. EMI executive Ted Mico said the company was confident that "Hail to the Thief" would sell and that the leak had brought them additional press. The leak partly influenced Radiohead's decision to self-release their next album, "In Rainbows" (2007), online, terming it "their leak date".


title: Hail to the Thief

text: "Hail to the Thief" was released on 9 June 2003 by Parlophone Records in the UK and a day later by Capitol Records in the US. The CD was printed with copy protection in some regions; the Belgian consumer group Test-Achats received complaints that it would not play on some CD players. A compilation of "Hail to the Thief" B-sides, remixes and live performances, "Com Lag (2plus2isfive)", was released in April 2004.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: "Hail to the Thief" reached number one in the UK Albums Chart and stayed on the chart for 14 weeks, selling 114,320 copies in its first week. In the US, it entered at number three on the "Billboard" 200, selling 300,000 copies in its first week, more than any previous Radiohead album. By 2008, it had sold over a million copies in the US. It is certified platinum in the UK and Canada.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: According to the "Guardian" critic Alexis Petridis, "Hail to the Thief's" marketing campaign was "by [Radiohead] standards ... a promotional blitzkrieg". In April 2003, promotional posters spoofing talent recruitment posters appeared in Los Angeles and London with slogans taken from the lyrics of "We Suck Young Blood". The posters included a phone number spelling the phoneword "to thief", which connected callers to a recording welcoming them to the ""Hail to the Thief" customer care hotline". In May, planes trailing "Hail to the Thief" banners flew over the California Coachella Festival.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: "There There" was released as the lead single on 26 May 2003. Yorke asked the "Bagpuss" creator, Oliver Postgate, to create its music video, but Postgate, who was retired, declined. Instead, a stop-motion animated video was created by Chris Hopewell. The video debuted on the Times Square Jumbotron in New York on 20 May 2003, and received hourly play that day on MTV2. "There There" was followed by the singles "Go to Sleep" on 18 August and "2 + 2 = 5" on 17 November.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: In June, Radiohead relaunched their website, featuring digital animations on the themes of mass-media culture and 24-hour cities. They also launched radiohead.tv, where short films, music videos and live webcasts from the studio were streamed at scheduled times. Visitors late for streams were shown a test card with "1970s-style" intermission music. Yorke said Radiohead had planned to broadcast the material on their own television channel, but this was cancelled due to "money, cutbacks, too weird, might scare the children, staff layoffs, shareholders". The material was released on the 2004 DVD "The Most Gigantic Lying Mouth of All Time".


title: Hail to the Thief

text: "Hail to the Thief" has a score of 85 out of 100 on review aggregate site Metacritic, indicating "universal acclaim". Neil McCormick, writing for "The Daily Telegraph", called it "Radiohead firing on all cylinders, a major work by major artists at the height of their powers". Chris Ott of "Pitchfork" wrote that Radiohead had "largely succeeded in their efforts to shape pop music into as boundless and possible a medium as it should be" and named it the week's "Best New Music". The "New York" critic Ethan Brown said that "Hail to the Thief" "isn't a protest album, and that's why it works so well. As with great Radiohead records past, such as "Kid A", the music – restlessly, freakishly inventive – pushes politics far into the background." Andy Kellman of AllMusic wrote that "despite the fact that it seems more like a bunch of songs on a disc rather than a singular body, its impact is substantial", concluding that the band "have entered a second decade of record-making with a surplus of momentum". In "Mojo", Peter Paphides wrote that "Hail to the Thief" "coheres as well as anything else in their canon".


title: Hail to the Thief

text: James Oldham of "NME" saw "Hail to the Thief" as "a good rather than great record... the impact of the best moments is dulled by the inclusion of some indifferent electronic compositions." The "Q" writer John Harris felt that some of the material "comes dangerously close to being all experimentalism and precious little substance". Alexis Petridis of "The Guardian" wrote that while "you could never describe "Hail to the Thief" as a bad record", it was "neither startlingly different and fresh nor packed with the sort of anthemic songs that once made [Radiohead] the world's biggest band". He felt the political lyrics and bleak mood put Radiohead in danger of self-parody. Robert Christgau of "The Village Voice" wrote that while its melodies and guitar work are "never as elegiac and lyrical" or "articulate and demented" as those of "OK Computer", he felt it "flows better" and later awarded it an "honourable mention".


title: Hail to the Thief

text: "Hail to the Thief" was the fifth consecutive Radiohead album nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album, and earned Godrich and engineer Darrell Thorp the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Engineered Non-Classical Album. In 2010, "Rolling Stone" ranked "Hail to the Thief" the 89th best album of the 2000s, writing that "the dazzling overabundance of ideas makes "Hail to the Thief" a triumph".


title: Hail to the Thief

text: Radiohead have criticised "Hail to the Thief". In 2006, Yorke told "Spin": "I'd maybe change the playlist. I think we had a meltdown when we put it together ... We wanted to do things quickly, and I think the songs suffered." In 2008, Yorke posted an alternative track listing on Radiohead's website, omitting "Backdrifts", "We Suck Young Blood", "I Will" and "A Punchup at a Wedding". That year, in an interview with "Mojo", O'Brien said Radiohead should have cut the album to ten tracks and that its length had alienated some listeners, and Colin Greenwood said several songs were unfinished and that the album was "a holding process". Jonny agreed that the album was too long, and said: "We were trying to do what people said we were good at ... But it was good for our heads. It was good for us to be doing a record that came out of playing live." In 2013, Godrich told "NME:" "I think there's some great moments on there — but too many songs ... As a whole I think it's charming because of the lack of editing. But personally it's probably my least favourite of all the albums ... It didn't really have its own direction. It was almost like a homogeny of previous work. Maybe that's its strength."


title: Hail to the Thief

text: After a period of being out of print on vinyl, EMI reissued a double LP of "Hail to the Thief" on 19 August 2008 along with "Kid A", "Amnesiac" and "OK Computer" as part of the "From the Capitol Vaults" series.


title: Hail to the Thief

text: On 31 August 2009, EMI reissued "Hail to the Thief" in a 2-CD "Collector's Edition" and a 2-CD 1-DVD "Special Collector's Edition". The first CD contains the original studio album; the second CD collects B-sides and live performances previously compiled on the "COM LAG (2plus2isfive)" EP (2004); the DVD contains music videos and a live television performance. Radiohead, who left EMI in 2007, had no input into the reissue and the music was not remastered. "Pitchfork" named the "Collector's Edition" the week's "best new reissue" and "Gagging Order" the best B-side included in the bonus material. "The A.V. Club" wrote that the bonus content was all "worth hearing, though the live tracks stand out".


title: Hail to the Thief

text: The "Collector's Editions" were discontinued after Radiohead's back catalogue was transferred to XL Recordings in 2016. In May 2016, XL reissued Radiohead's back catalogue on vinyl, including "Hail to the Thief".


title: Last rites

text: The last rites, also known as the Commendation of the Dying, are the last prayers and ministrations given to an individual of Christian faith, when possible, shortly before death. They may be administered to those awaiting execution, mortally injured, or terminally ill. Last rites cannot be performed on someone who has already died. Last rites, in sacramental Christianity, can refer to multiple sacraments administered concurrently in anticipation of an individual's passing.


title: Last rites

text: The Latin Church of the Catholic Church defines Last Rites as Viaticum (Holy Communion administered to someone who is dying), and the ritual prayers of Commendation of the Dying, and Prayers for the Dead.


title: Last rites

text: The sacrament of Anointing of the Sick is usually postponed until someone is near death. Anointing of the Sick has been thought to be exclusively for the dying, though it can be received at any time. Extreme Unction (Final Anointing) is the name given to Anointing of the Sick when received during last rites. If administered to someone who is not just ill but near death, Anointing of the Sick is generally accompanied by celebration of the sacraments of Penance and Viaticum. The order of the three is important and should be given in the order of Penance (confessing one's sins), then Anointing of the Sick, and finally the Viaticum. The principal reason Penance is administered first to the seriously ill and dying is because the forgiveness of one's sins, and most especially one's serious (mortal) sins, is for Catholics necessary for being in a state of grace (in a full relationship with God). Dying while in the state of grace ensures that a Catholic will go to heaven (if they are in a state of grace but still attached to sin, they will eventually make it to heaven but must first go through a spiritual cleansing process called purgatory).


title: Last rites

text: Although these three (Penance, Anointing of the sick, and Viaticum) are not, in the proper sense, the Last Rites, they are sometimes spoken of as such; the Eucharist given as Viaticum is the only sacrament essentially associated with dying. "The celebration of the Eucharist as Viaticum is the sacrament proper to the dying Christian".


title: Last rites

text: In the Roman Ritual's "Pastoral Care of the Sick: Rites of Anointing and Viaticum", Viaticum is the only sacrament dealt with in "Part II: Pastoral Care of the Dying". Within that part, the chapter on Viaticum is followed by two more chapters, one on "Commendation of the Dying", with short texts, mainly from the Bible, a special form of the litany of the saints, and other prayers, and the other on "Prayers for the Dead". A final chapter provides "Rites for Exceptional Circumstances", namely, the "Continuous Rite of Penance, Anointing, and Viaticum", "Rite for Emergencies", and "Christian Initiation for the Dying". The last of these concerns the administration of the sacraments of Baptism and Confirmation to those who have not received them.


title: Last rites

text: In addition, the priest has authority to bestow a blessing in the name of the Pope on the dying person, to which a plenary indulgence is attached.


title: Last rites

text: In the Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite, the last rites consist of the Sacred Mysteries (sacraments) of Confession and the reception of Holy Communion.


title: Last rites

text: Following these sacraments, when a person dies, there are a series of prayers known as "The Office at the Parting of the Soul From the Body". This consists of a blessing by the priest, the usual beginning, and after the Lord's Prayer, Psalm 50. Then a Canon to the Theotokos is chanted, entitled, "On behalf of a man whose soul is departing, and who cannot speak". This is an elongated prayer speaking in the person of the one who is dying, asking for forgiveness of sin, the mercy of God, and the intercession of the saints. The rite is concluded by three prayers said by the priest, the last one being said "at the departure of the soul."


title: Last rites

text: There is an alternative rite known as "The Office at the Parting of the Soul from the Body When a Man has Suffered for a Long Time". The outline of this rite is the same as above, except that Psalm 70 and Psalm 143 precede Psalm 50, and the words of the canon and the prayers are different.


title: Last rites

text: The rubric in the Book of Needs (priest's service book) states, "With respect to the Services said at the parting of the soul, we note that if time does not permit to read the whole Canon, then customarily just one of the prayers, found at the end of the Canon, is read by the Priest at the moment of the parting of the soul from the body."


title: Last rites

text: As soon as the person has died the priest begins "The Office After the Departure of the Soul From the Body" (also known as "The First Pannikhida").


title: Last rites

text: In the Orthodox Church Holy Unction is not considered to be solely a part of a person's preparation for death, but is administered to any Orthodox Christian who is ill, physically or spiritually, to ask for God's mercy and forgiveness of sin. There is an abbreviated form of Holy Unction to be performed for a person in imminent danger of death, which does not replace the full rite in other cases.


title: Last rites

text: In the Lutheran Churches, last rites are formally known as the Commendation of the Dying, in which the priest "opens in the name of the triune God, includes a prayer, a reading from one of the psalms, a litany of prayer for the one who is dying, [and] recites the Lord’s Prayer". The dying individual is then anointed with oil and receives the sacraments of Holy Absolution and Holy Communion.


title: Last rites

text: The proposed 1928 revision of the Church of England's "Book of Common Prayer" would have permitted reservation of the Blessed Sacrament for use in communing the sick, including during last rites. This revision failed twice in the Parliament of the United Kingdom's House of Commons.


title: Doujin

text: In Japan, is a group of people who share an interest, activity, or hobby. The word is sometimes translated into English as "clique", "fandom", "coterie", "society", or "circle" (as in "sewing circle"). Self-published creative works produced by these groups are also called "doujin", including manga, magazines, novels, music ("doujin" music), anime, and video games ("doujin" soft). Print "doujin" works are collectively called "doujinshi".


title: Doujin

text: "Doujin" works are typically amateur and derivative in nature, though some professional artists participate in "doujin" culture as a way to publish material outside the regular publishing industry.


title: Doujin

text: Annual research by the research agency Media Create indicated that of the US$1.65 billion of the otaku industry in 2007, "doujin" sales made up 48% (US$792 million).


title: Doujin

text: Literary circles first appeared in the Meiji period when groups of like-minded "waka" writers, poets and novelists met and published literary magazines (many of which are still publishing today). Many modern writers in Japan came from these literary circles. One famous example is Ozaki Koyo, who led the Kenyusha society of literary writers that first published collected works in magazine form in 1885.


title: Doujin

text: After World War II, manga "doujin" started to appear in Japan. Manga artists like Shotaro Ishinomori ("Kamen Rider", "Cyborg 009") and Fujio Fujiko ("Doraemon") formed "doujin" groups such as Fujiko's . At this time, "doujin" groups were used by artists to make a professional debut. This changed in the coming decades with "doujin" groups forming as school clubs and the like. This culminated in 1975 with Comiket in Tokyo.


title: Doujin

text: Avid fans of "doujin" attend regular "doujin" conventions, the largest of which is called Comiket (a portmanteau of "Comic Market") held in the summer and winter at Tokyo Big Sight. Here, over of "doujin" materials are bought, sold, and traded by attendees. "Doujin" creators who base their materials on other creators' works normally publish in small numbers to maintain a low profile from litigation. This makes a talented creator's or circle's products a coveted commodity as only the fast or the lucky will be able to get them before they sell out.


title: Doujin

text: Over the last decade, the practice of creating "doujin" has expanded significantly, attracting thousands of creators and fans alike. Advances in personal publishing technology have also fueled this expansion by making it easier for "doujin" creators to write, draw, promote, publish, and distribute their works.


title: Doujin

text: In Western cultures, "doujin" are often perceived to be derivative of existing work, analogous to fan fiction. To an extent, this is true: many "doujin" are based on popular manga, anime, or video game series. However, many "doujin" consisting of original content also exist. Among the numerous "doujin" categories, are the ones getting the most exposure outside Japan, as well as within Japan, where "doujinshi" are by tradition the most popular and numerous "doujin" products.


title: Poetics (Aristotle)

text: Aristotle's Poetics ( "Peri poietikês"; ; c. 335 BC) is the earliest surviving work of Greek dramatic theory and first extant philosophical treatise to focus on literary theory. In this text Aristotle offers an account of ποιητική, which refers to poetry and more literally "the poetic art," deriving from the term for "poet; author; maker," ποιητής.


title: Poetics (Aristotle)

text: Aristotle divides the art of poetry into verse drama (to include comedy, tragedy, and the satyr play), lyric poetry, and epic. The genres all share the function of mimesis, or imitation of life, but differ in three ways that Aristotle describes:


title: Poetics (Aristotle)

text: The surviving book of "Poetics" is primarily concerned with drama, and the analysis of tragedy constitutes the core of the discussion.


title: Poetics (Aristotle)

text: Although the text is universally acknowledged in the Western critical tradition, "almost every detail about [t]his seminal work has aroused divergent opinions". Among scholarly debates on the "Poetics", the three most prominent have concerned the meanings of catharsis and hamartia (these being the best known), and the question why Aristotle appears to contradict himself between chapters 13 and 14.


title: Poetics (Aristotle)

text: Aristotle's work on aesthetics consists of the "Poetics," "Politics" (Bk VIII) and "Rhetoric". The "Poetics" was lost to the Western world for a long time. The text was restored to the West in the Middle Ages and early Renaissance only through a Latin translation of an Arabic version written by Averroes. The accurate Greek-Latin translation made by William of Moerbeke in 1278 was virtually ignored. At some point during antiquity, the original text of the "Poetics" was divided in two, each "book" written on a separate roll of papyrus. Only the first part – that which focuses on tragedy and epic (as a quasi-dramatic art, given its definition in Ch 23) – survives. The lost second part addressed comedy. Some scholars speculate that the "Tractatus coislinianus" summarises the contents of the lost second book.


title: Poetics (Aristotle)

text: The table of contents page of the "Poetics" found in Modern Library's "Basic Works of Aristotle" (2001) identifies five basic parts within it.


title: Poetics (Aristotle)

text: Aristotle also draws a famous distinction between the tragic mode of poetry and the type of history writing practiced among the Greeks. Whereas history deals with things that took place in the past, tragedy concerns itself with what might occur, or could be imagined to happen. History deals with particulars, whose relation to one another is marked by contingency, accident or chance. Contrariwise, poetic narratives are determined objects, unified by a plot whose logic binds up the constituent elements by necessity and probability. In this sense, he concluded, such poetry was more philosophical than history in so far as it approximates to a knowledge of universals.


title: Poetics (Aristotle)

text: Having examined briefly the field of "poetry" in general, Aristotle proceeds to his definition of tragedy:


title: Poetics (Aristotle)

text: Tragedy is a representation of a serious, complete action which has magnitude, in embellished speech, with each of its elements [used] separately in the [various] parts [of the play] and [represented] by people acting and not by narration, accomplishing by means of pity and terror the catharsis of such emotions.


title: Poetics (Aristotle)

text: By "embellished speech", I mean that which has rhythm and melody, i.e. song. By "with its elements separately", I mean that some [parts of it] are accomplished only by means of spoken verses, and others again by means of song (1449b25-30).


title: Poetics (Aristotle)

text: Anyway, arising from an improvisatory beginning (both tragedy and comedy—tragedy from the leaders of the dithyramb, and comedy from the leaders of the phallic processions which even now continue as a custom in many of our cities) [...] (1449a10-13)


title: Poetics (Aristotle)

text: The Arabic version of Aristotle's "Poetics" that influenced the Middle Ages was translated from a Greek manuscript dated to some time prior to the year 700. This manuscript, translated from Greek to Syriac, is independent of the currently-accepted 11th-century source designated "Paris 1741". The Syriac-language source used for the Arabic translations departed widely in vocabulary from the original "Poetics" and it initiated a misinterpretation of Aristotelian thought that continued through the Middle Ages.


title: Poetics (Aristotle)

text: The scholars who published significant commentaries on Aristotle's "Poetics" included Avicenna, Al-Farabi and Averroes. Many of these interpretations sought to use Aristotelian theory to impose morality on the Arabic poetic tradition. In particular, Averroes added a moral dimension to the "Poetics" by interpreting tragedy as the art of praise and comedy as the art of blame.


title: Poetics (Aristotle)

text: Averroes' interpretation of the "Poetics" was accepted by the West, where it reflected the "prevailing notions of poetry" into the 16th century.