title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: The film is an interesting object lesson on how conspiracy theories get to be so popular ... It's a driven, if uneven, piece of propaganda, a marvel of tight editing and fuzzy thinking. Its on-camera sources are mostly conspiracy theorists, co-mingled with selective eyewitness accounts, drawn from archival footage and often taken out of context. It derides the media as a pawn of the International Bankers, but produces media reports for credibility when convenient. The film ignores expert opinion, except the handful of experts who agree with it. And yet, it's compelling. It shamelessly ploughs forward, connecting dots with an earnest certainty that makes you want to give it an A for effort.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: Filipe Feio, reflecting upon the film's Internet popularity in "Diário de Notícias", stated that "[f]iction or not, "Zeitgeist: The Movie" threatens to become the champion of conspiracy theories of today".


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: Michael Shermer, founder of the Skeptics Society, mentioned "Zeitgeist" in an article in "Scientific American" on skepticism in the age of mass media and the postmodern belief in the relativism of truth. He argues that this belief, coupled with a "clicker culture of mass media," results in a multitude of various truth claims packaged in "infotainment units", in the form of films such as "Zeitgeist" and "Loose Change".


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: Jane Chapman, a film producer and reader in media studies at the University of Lincoln, called "Zeitgeist" "a fast-paced assemblage of agitprop," an example of "unethical film-making". Chapman accused Peter Joseph of "implicit deception" through the use of standard film-making propaganda techniques. While parts of the film are, she says, "comically" self-defeating, the nature of "twisted evidence" and use of Madrid bomb footage to imply it is of the London bombings amount to "ethical abuse in sourcing". She finishes her analysis with the comment: "Thus, legitimate questions about what happened on 9/11, and about corruption in religious and financial organizations, are all undermined by the film's determined effort to maximize an emotional response at the expense of reasoned argument."


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: Alex Jones, American radio host, conspiracy theorist and executive producer of "Loose Change", stated that film segments of "Zeitgeist" are taken directly from his documentary "Terrorstorm", and that he supports "90 percent" of the film.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: "Skeptic" magazine's Tim Callahan, criticizing the parts of the film on the origins of Christianity, wrote that "some of what it asserts is true. Unfortunately, this material is liberally—and sloppily—mixed with material that is only partially true and much that is plainly and simply bogus."


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: Chris Forbes, Senior lecturer in Ancient History of Macquarie University and member of the Synod of the Diocese of Sydney, severely criticized Part I of the film, stating that it has no basis in serious scholarship or ancient sources, and that it relies on amateur sources that recycle frivolous ideas from one another, commenting that "[i]t is extraordinary how many claims it makes which are simply not true". Similar conclusions were reached by Dr. Mark Foreman of Liberty University.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: In "Tablet" magazine, journalist Michelle Goldberg criticized "Zeitgeist: The Movie" as being "steeped in far-right, isolationist, and covertly anti-Semitic conspiracy theories," writing that the film borrowed from the work of Eustace Mullins, Lyndon LaRouche, and radio host Alex Jones, and that it portrays a cabal of international bankers purportedly ruling the world. In an interview with TheMarker, Joseph said that while the film does mention bankers it does not seek to blame any individual or group of individuals. He argued they are merely a product of a socioeconomic system in need of change.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: Chip Berlet wrote that the 9/11 conspiracy theories "are bait used to attract viewers from the 9/11 Truth movement and others who embrace conspiracist thinking to the idiosyncratic antireligion views of the videographer and the world of right-wing antisemitic theories of a global banking conspiracy".


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: Jay Kinney questioned the accuracy of its claims and the quality of its arguments, describing it as agitprop and propaganda. At times, according to Kinney, "Zeitgeist engages in willful confusion by showing TV screen shots of network or cable news with voice-overs from unidentified people not associated with the news programs. If one weren't paying close attention, the effect would be to confer the status and authority of TV news upon the words being spoken. Even when quotes or sound bites are attributed to a source, there's no way to tell if they are quoted correctly or in context."


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: In June 2013, Peter Joseph directed the music video for "God Is Dead?" by Black Sabbath, using extensive imagery from "Zeitgeist: The Movie" and its sequels.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: "Zeitgeist: Addendum" is a 2008 film produced and directed by Peter Joseph, and is a sequel to the 2007 film, "Zeitgeist: The Movie". It premiered at the 5th Annual Artivist Film Festival in Los Angeles, California on October 2, 2008.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: The film begins and ends with excerpts from a speech by Jiddu Krishnamurti. The remainder of the film is narrated by Peter Joseph and divided into four parts, which are prefaced by on-screen quotations from Krishnamurti, John Adams, Bernard Lietaer, and Thomas Paine, respectively.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: "Part I" covers the process of fractional-reserve banking as illustrated in , by the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago. The film suggests that society is manipulated into economic slavery through debt-based monetary policies by requiring individuals to submit for employment in order to pay off their debt.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: "Part II" includes an interview with John Perkins, author of "Confessions of an Economic Hitman", who says he was involved in the subjugation of Latin American economies by multinational corporations and the United States government, including involvement in the overthrow of Latin American heads of state. Perkins sees the US as a corporatocracy in which maximization of profits is the first priority.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: "Part III" introduces futurist Jacque Fresco and The Venus Project and asserts a need to move away from current socioeconomic paradigms. Fresco states that capitalism perpetuates the conditions it claims to address, as problems are only solved if there is money to be made. The film looks at Fresco's proposal of a resource-based economy, which puts environmental friendliness, sustainability and abundance as fundamental societal goals. He goes on to discuss technology which he sees as the primary driver of human advancement, and he describes politics as being unable to solve any problems.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: "Part IV" suggests that the primary reason for what the film sees as society's social values ("warfare, corruption, oppressive laws, social stratification, irrelevant superstitions, environmental destruction, and a despotic, socially indifferent, profit oriented ruling class") is a collective ignorance of "the emergent and symbiotic aspects of natural law". The film advocates the following actions for achieving social change: boycotting of the most powerful banks in the Federal Reserve System, the major news networks, the military, energy corporations, all political systems; and joining, and supporting The Zeitgeist Movement.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: "Zeitgeist: Addendum" won the 2008 Artivist Film Festival's award for "best feature" ("Artivist Spirit" category).


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: Originally, the film was uploaded-released on Google Video. The current video posting on YouTube surpassed 5 million views by late 2013.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: Alan Feuer of "The New York Times" noted that while the first film was famous for alleging that the attacks of September 11 were an inside job, the second, "was all but empty of such conspiratorial notions, directing its rhetoric and high production values toward posing a replacement for the evils of the banking system and a perilous economy of scarcity and debt".


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: "Zeitgeist: Moving Forward" is the third installment in Peter Joseph's "Zeitgeist" film series. The film premiered at the JACC Theater in Los Angeles on January 15, 2011, at the Artivist Film Festival, was released in theaters and online. As of November 2014, the film had over 23 million views on YouTube. The film is arranged in four parts, each containing interviews, narration and animated sequences.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: The film begins with an animated sequence narrated by Jacque Fresco. He describes his adolescent life and his discontinuation of public education at the age of 14 and describes his early life influences.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: Human behavior and the nature vs. nurture debate is discussed, which Robert Sapolsky refers to as a "false dichotomy." Disease, criminal activity, and addictions are also discussed. The overall conclusion of Part I is that social environment and cultural conditioning play a large part in shaping human behavior.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: John Locke and Adam Smith are discussed in regard to modern economics. The film critically questions the economic need for private property, money, and the inherent inequality between agents in the system. Also seen critically is the need for cyclical consumption in order to maintain market share, resulting in wasted resources and planned obsolescence. According to the movie, the current monetary system will result in default or hyperinflation at some future time.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: As with "Zeitgeist: Addendum", the film presents a "resource-based economy" as advocated by Jacque Fresco discussing how human civilization could start from a new beginning in relation to resource types, locations, quantities, to satisfy human demands; track the consumption and depletion of resources to regulate human demands and maintain the condition of the environment.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: The current worldwide situation is described as disastrous. A case is presented that pollution, deforestation, climate change, overpopulation, and warfare are all created and perpetuated by the socioeconomic system. Various poverty statistics are shown that suggest a progressive worsening of world culture.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: The final scene of the film shows a partial view of earth from space, followed by a sequence of superimposed statements; "This is your world", "This is our world", and "The revolution is now".


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: "Zeitgeist: Moving Forward" received "Best Political Documentary" in 2011 from the Action on Film International Film Festival.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: A "The Socialist Standard" review said the film's use of animation and humour gave it a "well rounded feel", though it criticized the "shaky economic analysis" in the second part of the film, saying "Karl Marx had already undertaken a more scientific analysis", adding, "the analysis is at least on the right track". Regarding transition to the new system proposed in the film, the reviewer noted "there is no mention of how to get from here to there".


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: In an article, in "Tablet" magazine, Michelle Goldberg described the film as "silly enough that at times [she] suspected it was [a] sly satire about new-age techno-utopianism instead of an example of it". She describes the 3 Zeitgeist movies as "a series of 3 apocalyptic cult documentaries.


title: Zeitgeist (film series)

text: "Zeitgeist: The Movie" (2007) started the chain of events leading to the formation of the Zeitgeist movement. The group advocates transition from the global money-based economic system to a post-scarcity economy or resource-based economy. "VC Reporter's" Shane Cohn summarized the movement's charter as: "Our greatest social problems are the direct results of our economic system". Joseph created a political movement that, according to "The Daily Telegraph", dismisses historic religious concepts as misleading and embraces a version of sustainable ecological concepts and scientific administration of society. The group describes the current socioeconomic system as structurally corrupt and inefficient in the use of resources. Michelle Goldberg described the Zeitgeist movement as "the first Internet-based apocalyptic cult".


title: Livonia

text: Livonia (, , , German and Scandinavian languages: "", archaic German: "Liefland", , Latvian and , , archaic English: "Livland", "Liwlandia"; ) is a historical region on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. It is named after the Livonians, who lived on the shores of present-day Latvia.


title: Livonia

text: By the end of the 13th century, the name was extended to most of present-day Estonia and Latvia, which had been conquered during the Livonian Crusade (1193–1290) by the Livonian Brothers of the Sword. Medieval Livonia, or Terra Mariana, reached its greatest extent after Saint George's Night Uprising that in 1346 forced Denmark to sell the Duchy of Estonia (northern Estonia conquered by Denmark in the 13th century) to the State of the Teutonic Order. Livonia, as understood after the retreat of Denmark in 1346, bordered on the Gulf of Finland in the north, Lake Peipus and Russia to the east, and Lithuania to the south.


title: Livonia

text: As a consequence of the Livonian War in the 16th century, the territory of Livonia was reduced to the southern half of Estonia and the northern half of Latvia.


title: Livonia

text: The indigenous inhabitants of Livonia were various Finnic tribes in the north and Baltic tribes in the south. The descendants of the crusaders formed the nucleus of the new ruling class of Livonia after the Livonian Crusade, and eventually became known as Baltic Germans.


title: Livonia

text: Beginning in the 12th century CE, Livonia became a target for economic and political expansion by Danes and Germans, particularly for the Hanseatic League and the Cistercian Order.


title: Livonia

text: Around 1160, Hanseatic traders from Lübeck established a trading post on the site of the future city of Riga, which Bishop Albrecht von Buxthoeven founded in 1201. He ordered (1215) the construction of a cathedral and became the first Prince-Bishop of Livonia.


title: Livonia

text: Bishop Albert of Riga (Albert of Buxhoeveden) founded the military order of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword (, ) in 1202; Pope Innocent III sanctioned the establishment in 1204. The membership of the order comprised German "warrior monks". Alternative names of the order include the Christ Knights, Sword Brethren, and the Militia of Christ of Livonia. Following their defeat by Lithuanian forces in the Battle of Saule in 1236, the surviving Brothers merged into the Teutonic Order as an autonomous branch (1237) and became known as the Livonian Order.


title: Livonia

text: Albert, bishop of Riga (or Prince-Bishop of Livonia), founded the Brotherhood to aid the Bishopric of Riga in the conversion of the pagan Curonians, Livonians, Semigallians, and Latgalians living on the shores of the Gulf of Riga. From its foundation, the undisciplined Order tended to ignore its supposed vassalage to the bishops. In 1218 Albert asked King Valdemar II of Denmark for assistance, but Valdemar instead arranged a deal with the Brotherhood and conquered the north of Estonia for Denmark. The Brotherhood had its headquarters at Fellin (Viljandi) in present-day Estonia, where the walls of the Master's castle stand. Other strongholds included Wenden (Cēsis), Segewold (Sigulda) and Ascheraden (Aizkraukle). The commanders of Fellin, Goldingen (Kuldīga), Marienburg (Alūksne), Reval (Tallinn), and the bailiff of Weißenstein (Paide) belonged to the five-member entourage of the Order's Master.


title: Livonia

text: Pope Gregory IX asked the Brothers to defend Finland from Novgorodian attacks in his letter of 24 November 1232;


title: Livonia

text: however, no known information regarding the knights' possible activities in Finland has survived. (Sweden eventually took over Finland after the Second Swedish Crusade in 1249.) In the Battle of Saule in 1236 the Lithuanians and Semigallians decimated the Order. This disaster led the surviving Brothers to become incorporated into the Order of Teutonic Knights in the following year, and from that point on they became known as the Livonian Order. They continued, however, to function in all respects (rule, clothing and policy) as an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order, headed by their own Master (himself "de jure" subject to the Teutonic Order's Grand Master).


title: Livonia

text: The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia from the 1220s gives a firsthand account of the Christianization of Livonia, granted as a fief by the Hohenstaufen ("de facto" but not known as) the King of Germany, Philip of Swabia (), to Bishop Albert of Buxthoeven, nephew of the Hartwig II, Archbishop of Bremen, who sailed (1200) with a convoy of ships filled with armed crusaders to carve out a Catholic territory in the east as part of the Livonian Crusade.


title: Livonia

text: The Livonian Order was a largely autonomous branch of the Teutonic Knights (or Teutonic Order) and a member of the Livonian Confederation from 1418 to 1561. After being defeated by Lithuanian forces in the 1236 Battle of Saule, the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were incorporated into the Teutonic Knights as the Livonian Order in 1237. Between 1237 and 1290, the Livonian Order conquered all of Courland, Livonia, and Semigallia, but their attack on northern Russia was repelled in the Battle of Rakvere (1268). In 1346, after the St. George's Night Uprising the Order purchased the rest of Estonia from King Valdemar IV of Denmark. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia and the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle describe conditions within the Order's territory. The Teutonic Order fell into decline following its defeat in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410 and the secularization of its Prussian territories by Albert of Brandenburg in 1525, but the Livonian Order managed to maintain an independent existence. During the many years of the Livonian War (1558–1582), however, they suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of troops of Muscovite Russia in the Battle of Ergeme in 1560 and continued living under great threat. Letters to the Holy Roman Emperor arrived from many European countries, warning, "that Moscow has its eyes on much more than only a few harbors or the province of Liefland" ... the East Sea (Ostsee-Baltic Sea) and the West Sea (Atlantic) are equally in danger. Duke Barnim the Elder, 50 years duke of Pomerania, warned, "that never before did he experience the fear than now, where even in his land, where people send by Moscow are everywhere". At stake was the Narva-trade-route and practically all trade in the North, and with that all of Europe. Due to the religious upheavals of the Reformation the distant Holy Roman Empire could not send troops, which it could not afford anyway. The Duchy of Prussia was not able to help for much of the same reason, and Duke Albrecht () was under continuous ban by the Empire. The Hanseatic League was greatly weakened by this and the city state of Luebeck fought its last great war. The emperor Maximilian II () diffused the greatest threat by remaining on friendly terms with Tsar Ivan IV of Russia (), but not sending Ivan IV troops as requested in his struggles with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.


title: Livonia

text: In 1570 Tsar Ivan IV of Russia installed Duke Magnus as King of Livonia. The other forces opposed this appointment. The Livonian Order saw no other way than to seek protection from Sigismund II Augustus (King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania), who had intervened in a war between Bishop William of Riga and the Brothers in 1557. After coming to an agreement with Sigismund II Augustus and his representatives (especially Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł), the last Livonian Master, Gotthard Kettler, secularized the Order and converted to Lutheranism. In the southern part of the Brothers' lands he set up the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia for his family. Most of the remaining lands were seized by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Denmark and Sweden re-occupied the north of Estonia.


title: Livonia

text: From the 14th to the 16th centuries, Middle Low German - as spoken in the towns of the Hanseatic League - functioned as the established language of the Livonian lands, but High German subsequently succeeded it as the official language in the course of the 16th and 17th centuries.


title: Livonia

text: In 1418, the Archbishop of Riga, Johannes Ambundii, organised the five ecclesiastical states of the Holy Roman Empire in Medieval Livonia (Livonian Order, Courland, Ösel–Wiek, Dorpat and Riga) into the Livonian Confederation.


title: Livonia

text: Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor once again asked for help of Gustav I of Sweden, and the Kingdom of Poland also began direct negotiations with Gustav, but nothing resulted because on 29 September 1560, Gustav I Vasa died. The chances for success of Magnus, (who had become Bishop of Courland and of Ösel-Wiek) in 1560 and his supporters looked particularly good in 1560 (and in 1570). In 1560 he had been recognised as their sovereign by the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek and by the Bishopric of Courland, and as their prospective ruler by the authorities of the Bishopric of Dorpat; the Bishopric of Reval with the Harrien-Wierland gentry were on his side; the Livonian Order conditionally recognised his right of ownership of Estonia (Principality of Estonia). Then along with Archbishop Wilhelm von Brandenburg of the Archbishopric of Riga and his Coadjutor Christoph von Mecklenburg, Kettler, the last Master of the Teutonic Order, gave to Magnus the portions of the Kingdom of Livonia which he had taken possession of, but they refused to give him any more land.


title: Livonia

text: Once Eric XIV of Sweden became king in September 1560 he took quick actions to get involved in the war. He negotiated a continued peace with Muscovy and spoke to the burghers of Reval city. He offered them goods to submit to him as well as threatening them. By 6 June 1561 they submitted to him contrary to the persuasions of Kettler to the burghers. King Eric's brother and future King Johan married the Polish princess Catherine Jagiellon in 1562. Wanting to obtain his own land in Livonia, he loaned Poland money and then claimed the castles they had pawned as his own instead of using them to pressure Poland. After Johan returned to Finland, Erik XIV forbade him to deal with any foreign countries without his consent.


title: Livonia

text: Shortly after that Erik XIV quickly lost any allies he was about to obtain, either in the form of Magnus or of the Archbishop of Riga. Magnus was upset he had been tricked out of his inheritance of Holstein. After Sweden occupied Reval, Frederick II of Denmark made a treaty with Erik XIV of Sweden in August 1561. Magnus and his brother Frederick II were in great disagreement, and Frederick II negotiated a treaty with Ivan IV on 7 August 1562 to help his brother obtain more land and to stall further Swedish advances. Erik XIV did not like this and the Northern Seven Years' War (1563-1570) broke out, with Sweden pitted against the Free City of Lübeck, Denmark, and Poland. While only losing land and trade, Frederick II and Magnus were not faring well. But in 1568 Erik XIV became insane and his brother Johan took his place as King John III of Sweden.


title: Livonia

text: Johan III, due to his friendship with Poland, began a policy against Muscovy. He would try to obtain more land in Livonia and to dominate Denmark. After all parties had been financially drained, Frederick II let his ally, King Sigismund II Augustus of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, know that he was ready for peace. On 15 December 1570, the Treaty of Stettin concluded the Northern Seven Years' War.


title: Livonia

text: It is, however, more difficult to estimate the scope and magnitude of the support Magnus received in Livonian cities. Compared to the Harrien-Wierland gentry, the Reval city council, and hence probably the majority of citizens, demonstrated a much more reserved attitude towards Denmark and towards King Magnus of Livonia. Nevertheless, there is no reason to speak about any strong pro-Swedish sentiments among the residents of Reval. The citizens who had fled to the Bishopric of Dorpat or had been deported to Muscovy hailed Magnus as their saviour until 1571. Analysis indicates that during the Livonian War a pro-independence wing emerged among the Livonian gentry and townspeople, forming the so-called "Peace Party". Dismissing hostilities, these forces perceived an agreement with Muscovy as a chance to escape the atrocities of war and to avoid the division of Livonia. Thus Magnus, who represented Denmark and later struck a deal with Ivan IV, proved a suitable figurehead for this faction.


title: Livonia

text: The Peace Party, however, had its own armed forces – scattered bands of household troops ("Hofleute") under diverse command, which only united in action in 1565 (Battle of Pärnu and Siege of Reval), in 1570–1571 (Siege of Reval; 30 weeks), and in 1574–1576 (first on Sweden's side, then came the sale of Ösel–Wiek to the Danish Crown, and the loss of territory to Tsardom of Russia). In 1575, after Muscovy attacked Danish claims in Livonia, Frederick II dropped out of the competition, as did the Holy Roman Emperor. After this Johan III held off on his pursuit for more land due to Muscovy obtaining lands that Sweden controlled. He used the next two years of truce to get in a better position. In 1578 he resumed the fight, not only for Livonia, but also for everywhere due to an understanding he made with the Rzeczpospolita. In 1578 Magnus retired to the Rzeczpospolita and his brother all but gave up the land in Livonia.


title: Livonia

text: In 1561, during the Livonian War, Livonia fell to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and became a dependent vassal of Lithuania. Eight years later, in 1569, when the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Livonia became a joint domain administered directly by the king and grand duke.


title: Livonia

text: Having rejected peace proposals from its enemies, Ivan the Terrible found himself in a difficult position by 1579, when Crimean Khanate devastated Muscovian territories and burnt down Moscow (see Russo-Crimean Wars), the drought and epidemics have fatally affected the economy, Oprichnina had thoroughly disrupted the government, while The Grand Principality of Lithuania had united with The Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569) and acquired an energetic leader, Stefan Batory, supported by Ottoman Empire (1576). Stefan Batory replied with a series of three offensives against Muscovy, trying to cut The Kingdom of Livonia from Muscovian territories. During his first offensive in 1579, with 22,000 men, he retook Polotsk; during the second, in 1580, with 29,000-strong army, he took Velikie Luki, and in 1581 with a 100,000-strong army he started the Siege of Pskov. Frederick II of Denmark and Norway had trouble continuing the fight against Muscovy unlike Sweden and Poland. He came to an agreement with John III in 1580 giving him the titles in Livonia. That war would last from 1577 to 1582. Muscovy recognized Polish–Lithuanian control of Ducatus Ultradunensis only in 1582. After Magnus von Lyffland died in 1583, Poland invaded his territories in The Duchy of Courland and Frederick II decided to sell his rights of inheritance. Except for the island of Œsel, Denmark was out of the Baltic by 1585. As of 1598 Inflanty Voivodeship was divided onto:


title: Livonia

text: Based on a guarantee by Sigismund II Augustus from the 1560s, the German language retained its official status.


title: Livonia

text: The armies of Ivan the Terrible were initially successful, taking Polotsk (1563) and Parnawa (1575) and overrunning much of Grand Duchy of Lithuania up to some proximity of Vilnius. Eventually, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Kingdom of Poland formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569 under the Union of Lublin. Eric XIV of Sweden did not like this and the Northern Seven Years' War between the Free City of Lübeck, Denmark, Poland, and Sweden broke out. While only losing land and trade, Frederick II of Denmark and Magnus von Lyffland of the Œsel-Wiek did not fare well. But in 1569, Erik XIV became insane and his brother John III of Sweden took his place. After all parties had been financially drained, Frederick II let his ally, King Zygmunt II August, know that he was ready for peace. On 15 December 1570, the Treaty of Stettin was concluded.


title: Livonia

text: In the next phase of the conflict, in 1577 Ivan IV took advantage of the Commonwealth's internal strife (called the war against Gdańsk in Polish historiography), and during the reign of Stefan Batory in Poland, invaded Livonia, quickly taking almost the entire territory, with the exception of Riga and Reval. In 1578, Magnus of Livonia recognized the sovereignty of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (not ratified by the Sejm of Poland-Lithuania, or recognized by Denmark). The Kingdom of Livonia was beaten back by Muscovy on all fronts. In 1578, Magnus of Livonia retired to The Bishopric of Courland and his brother all but gave up the land in Livonia.


title: Livonia

text: Sweden was given roughly the same area as the former Duchy of Livonia after the 1626–1629 Polish–Swedish War. The area, usually known as Swedish Livonia, became a very important Swedish dominion, with Riga being the second largest Swedish city and Livonia paying for one third of the Swedish war costs. Sweden lost Swedish Livonia, Swedish Estonia and Ingria to the Russian Empire almost 100 years later, by the Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710 and the Treaty of Nystad in 1721.


title: Livonia

text: The Livonian Voivodeship (; ) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Duchy of Livonia, part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, since it was formed in the 1620s out of the Wenden Voivodeship till the First Partition of Poland in 1772.


title: Livonia

text: The Russian Empire conquered Swedish Livonia during the course of the Great Northern War and acquired the province in the Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710, confirmed by the Treaty of Nystad in 1721. Peter the Great confirmed German as the exclusive official language. Russia then added Polish Livonia in 1772 during the Partitions of Poland.


title: Livonia

text: In 1796 the Riga Governorate was renamed as the Governorate of Livonia ( / , , ). Livonia remained within the Russian Empire until the end of World War I, when it was split between the newly independent states of Latvia and Estonia. In 1918–1920, both Soviet troops and German Freikorps fought against Latvian and Estonian troops for control over Livonia, but their attempts were defeated.


title: Livonia

text: From 1845 to 1876, the Baltic governorates of Estonia, Livonia, and Courland—an area roughly corresponding to the historical medieval Livonia—were administratively subordinated to a common Governor-General. Amongst the holders of this post were Count Alexander Arkadyevich Suvorov and Count Pyotr Andreyevich Shuvalov.


title: Livonia

text: In independent Latvia between the World Wars, southern Livonia became an administrative region under the traditional Latvian name Vidzeme, encompassing the then much larger counties of Riga, Cēsis, Valmiera, and Valka.


title: Livonia

text: Ostland was one of the Reichskommissariats established, by a Decree of the Führer dated 17 July 1941, as administrative units of the "Großdeutsches Reich" (Greater Germanic Reich). The structure of the Reichskommissariats was defined by the same decree. Local administration in the Reichskommissariats was to be organized under a "National Director" ("Reichskomissar") in Estonia, a "General Director" in Latvia and a "General Adviser" in Lithuania. The local administration of the Reichskommissariat Ostland was under "Reichskomissar" Hinrich Lohse. Below him there was an administrative hierarchy: a "Generalkomissar" led each "Generalbezirke", "Gebietskomissars" and "Hauptkommissars" administered "Kreigsbietes" and "Hauptgenbietes", respectively. Alfred Rosenberg's (Minister für die besetzten Ostgebiete (Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories)) ministerial authority was, in practice, severely limited. The first reason was that many of the practicalities were commanded elsewhere: the Wehrmacht and the SS managed the military and security aspects, Fritz Sauckel (Reich Director of Labour) had control over manpower and working areas, Hermann Göring and Albert Speer had total management of economic aspects in the territories and the Reich postal service administered the East territories' postal services. These German central government interventions in the affairs of Ostland, overriding the appropriate ministries was known as "Sonderverwaltungen" (special administration). Later, from September, the civil administration that had been decreed in the previous July was actually set up. Lohse and, for that matter, Koch would not bow to his authority seeking to administer their territories with the independence and authority of gauleiters. on 1 April 1942 an "arbeitsbereich" (lit. "working sphere", a name for the party cadre organisation outside the reich proper) was established in the civil administration part of the occupied Soviet territories, whereupon Koch and Lohse gradually ceased communication with him, preferring to deal directly with Hitler through Martin Bormann and the party chancellery. In the process they also displaced all other actors including notably the SS, except in central Belarus where HSSPF Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski had a special command encompassing both military and civil administration territories and engaged in "anti-partisan" atrocities.


title: Livonia

text: The historical land of Livonia has been split between Latvia and Estonia ever since. The Livonian language is spoken by fewer than 100 individuals as a second language, and is understood to be fast approaching extinction. The last native Livonian speaker died in June 2013.


title: Livonia

text: The anthem (unofficial) of Livonians is "Min izāmō, min sindimō" sharing the melody of Finnish and Estonian anthems.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Mary Marvel is a fictional character, a superheroine originally published by Fawcett Comics and now owned by DC Comics. Created by Otto Binder and Marc Swayze, she first appeared in "Captain Marvel Adventures" #18 (cover-dated Dec. 1942). The character is a member of the Marvel / Shazam Family of heroes associated with the superhero Shazam / Captain Marvel.


title: Mary Marvel

text: In the traditional "Shazam!" concept, Mary Marvel is the alter ego of teenager Mary Batson (adopted name Mary Bromfield), twin sister of Captain Marvel's alter-ego, Billy Batson. Like her brother, Mary has been granted the power of the wizard Shazam, and has but to speak the wizard's name to be transformed into the superpowered Mary Marvel. Mary Marvel was one of the first female spin-offs of a major male superhero, and predates the introduction of Superman's female cousin Supergirl (also created by Otto Binder) by more than a decade.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Following DC's licensing of the Marvel Family characters in 1972, Mary Marvel began appearing in DC Comics, co-starring in DC series such as "Shazam!" (1973–1978) and "The Power of Shazam!" (1995–1999). Two limited series from 2007 to 2009, "Countdown" and "Final Crisis", feature an evil version of Mary Marvel having acquired powers from first Shazam Family archenemy Black Adam and further from Apokoliptian supervillain god Desaad. In current continuity following DC's 2011 New 52 reboot, Mary Bromfield appears as the eldest of Billy Batson's foster siblings. Mary can share Billy's power by saying "Shazam" to become an adult superhero (Lady Shazam) similar to the traditional Mary Marvel (the "Marvel" monikers having been retired with the reboot).


title: Mary Marvel

text: Mary Bromfield and her superhero alter-ego both made their cinematic debut in the DC Extended Universe film "Shazam!", played by Grace Fulton and Michelle Borth, respectively. Fulton is set to return for the sequel, "Shazam! Fury of the Gods", in 2023.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Mary Marvel was introduced into Fawcett Comics' Marvel Family franchise a year after a young male counterpart, Captain Marvel Jr., made his debut. Artist Marc Swayze based Mary Marvel's design and personality upon American actress Judy Garland. Mary was introduced in "Captain Marvel Adventures" #18 as Mary Bromfield, a girl who discovers she is the long lost sister of Captain Marvel's alter ego Billy Batson.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Soon after her introduction, Mary Marvel headlined "Wow Comics", and by 1945 had her own "Mary Marvel" book. She also appeared in "The Marvel Family" book with Captain Marvel and Captain Marvel Jr. In her solo adventures, Mary soon gained sidekicks in her kindly Uncle Marvel, who was not actually her uncle nor a Marvel, and his similarly nonpowered niece, Freckles Marvel. Uncle Marvel was eventually made the Marvel Family's manager, and also served as Mary's guardian.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Just before the Marvel Family's adventures ceased publication in 1953, Mary Marvel's costume and appearance were altered: the neckline of her blouse was lowered slightly, her hair was shortened, and she now wore yellow slippers instead of the customary Marvel Family yellow boots. After Fawcett canceled their superhero comics line because of a copyright infringement lawsuit with National Comics (later DC Comics), Mary Marvel hosted a puzzle page drawn by C. C. Beck on page 33 of "Mysteries of Unexplored World" issue 1 (Charlton Comics August 1956). After that, Mary and her teammates went unseen for years.


title: Mary Marvel

text: In 1972, DC Comics licensed the rights to the Marvels, and revived them in a new comic series called "Shazam!". Mary, Cap, and Junior appeared in both new stories and reprints of their classic stories. According to Shazam #1 the Sivanas had put the Marvel family into suspended animation for 20 years, along with themselves (by mistake) and much of the supporting cast. The comic book was canceled by 1978, and the "Shazam!" stories were relegated to the back pages of "World's Finest Comics" (from 1979 to 1982) and "Adventure Comics" (from 1982 to 1983). After the 1985 "Crisis on Infinite Earths" miniseries, Captain Marvel's origin was rebooted in the "Shazam: The New Beginning" miniseries in 1987. The Marvel Family was written out of the "Shazam!" mythos, and neither Mary Batson nor Mary Marvel appeared in DC Comics for several years.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Mary Batson was reintroduced in "The Power of Shazam!" graphic novel by Jerry Ordway in 1994. An ongoing series followed in the next year, and Mary Marvel was introduced into the modern DC Universe with a new origin story in "Power of Shazam!" #4.


title: Mary Marvel

text: When calling upon her powers, Mary is transformed into an adult resembling her late mother (in the same way that Billy resembles his father when in Marvel form). Mary shares the title of Captain Marvel with her brother. Various characters in the series distinguish the two by gender when addressing them, addressing Mary as "the lady Captain Marvel".


title: Mary Marvel

text: At first, Mary's costume was the same as her original one. However, beginning with "Power of Shazam!" #28, Mary donned a white costume to distinguish herself from her brother. The color change was retained for most future uses of the character during the next decade.


title: Mary Marvel

text: After the "Power of Shazam!" series ended in 1999, Mary's superpowered alter ego was officially rechristened "Mary Marvel." In 2002 she had lunch with Supergirl in "The Clubhouse of Solitude", in the spoof graphic anthology "Bizarro Comics". Since then, she has guest-starred in both "Superman" and "Supergirl" comics. In 2003, Mary became a member of an offshoot of the Justice League known as the Super Buddies in the "Formerly Known as the Justice League" miniseries, which juxtaposed her Golden Age-era personality with the modern-day world for comic effect.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Mary Marvel appears briefly in several stories relating to DC's 2005–2006 "Infinite Crisis" crossover. Mary also appeared in DC's weekly limited series "52", with her most substantial appearance being in "52" #16 as the maid of honor at the wedding of Black Adam and Isis, two "Shazam!"-related characters. She was defeated by Black Adam during World War III (DC Comics) along with the other Marvels.


title: Mary Marvel

text: In 2006, DC began a revamp of the "Shazam!" mythos with Judd Winick and Howard Porter's "Trials of Shazam!" limited series. The series began with a preview within the pages of "Brave New World" #1 in June 2006, in which Mary Batson loses her powers, suffers a three-mile fall, and falls into a coma. This set up Mary's appearances as a main character in "Countdown", a weekly DC series which served as the successor to "52". During the course of the series, head writer Paul Dini and his collaborators had Mary acquire the powers of Black Adam, which give her a new look including a form-fitting long-sleeved black uniform and skirt with black lace-up boots. While the series tracked the character's struggle between good and evil, due to manipulation by supervillainesses Eclipso and Granny Goodness (promotional material for the series used the catchphrase "Seduction of the Innocent," a reference to Fredric Wertham's book of the same title), Mary emerged from the series under the influence of Superman villain Darkseid.


title: Mary Marvel

text: This darker Mary Marvel appears in DC's 2008 crossover series "Final Crisis", written by Grant Morrison and illustrated by J. G. Jones, as a Female Fury, with another design change (to match the styles of the other Furies) and a fully evil personality due to possession by the New God Desaad. Though defeated by Freddy Freeman/Shazam before the end of the "Final Crisis" miniseries, the evil Mary appeared again in the "Black Adam and Isis" arc featured in "Justice Society of America" (vol. 3) #23–25, by the end of which she has lost her powers and returned to being a normal teenage girl.


title: Mary Marvel

text: In 2011, following its "Flashpoint" company-wide event, DC made sweeping continuity changes to some comic book series and minor ones to others, as part of its relaunch event "The New 52". Captain Marvel, now known as Shazam, received a new origin story as part of a "Shazam!" backup feature by writer Geoff Johns and penciler Gary Frank, published between 2012 and 2013 in the relaunched "Justice League" comic series. Mary does not feature in the new continuity until "Justice League" #8 (2012), and is not transformed into a superhero for the first time until "Justice League" #21 (2013), when Billy directs his powers into her, Freddy, and their foster siblings Darla, Pedro, and Eugene during a fray with Black Adam.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Mary was largely absent from the main DC Universe for several years after "Justice League" #22 in 2013. Versions of Mary Marvel from alternate earths in the DC Multiverse appeared in events such as "The Multiversity" in 2014 and "Convergence" in 2015. In December 2018, Geoff John and artist Dale Eaglesham launched a new "Shazam!" ongoing comic series, featuring Mary alongside Billy Batson and the rest of the Shazam Family. The first issue of the new volume of "Shazam!" also featured a manga backup focused on Mary by Geoff Johns and Mayo "SEN" Naito.


title: Mary Marvel

text: As infants, twins Billy and Mary Batson were nursed by a woman named Sarah Primm. When the Batsons' parents die in a car accident, Primm was required to send both children to an orphanage. However, Primm is determined to at least give one of the children a home, and arranges for Mary to secretly take the place of another baby girl who had suddenly died while under Primm's care. As a result, Billy is sent to an orphanage while his sister is raised by the wealthy Mrs. Bromfield.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Several years later, Billy Batson becomes a teenage radio announcer. While hosting an on-air quizbowl, he receives an urgent letter from Sarah Primm, now on her death bed, requesting his presence. Billy goes to see her during a break, and Primm tells him the secret of his long-lost sister. To help him find Mary, Primm gives Billy a locket broken in half and tells the boy with her last breaths that Mary wears the other half.


title: Mary Marvel

text: After the quizbowl broadcast is over, Billy tells his best friend Freddy Freeman about his sister and the locket. Billy then recalls that one of the quizbowl contestants, a rich girl named Mary Bromfield, wore a broken locket. He and Freddy trail Mary's limousine in their superpowered forms of Captain Marvel and Captain Marvel Jr. and find themselves called into service to save Mary from a gang of kidnappers.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Captain Marvel then learns that Mary's locket matches his own, and that she is indeed Billy's sister. The Marvels reveal their secret identities to Mary, who wonders if, since she is Billy's twin, she could become a Marvel by saying the magic word "Shazam". Billy, however, is assured that "Old Shaz—er—you know who—wouldn’t give his powers to a girl!"


title: Mary Marvel

text: Just then, the kidnappers awaken then bind and gag Billy and Freddy, preventing them from saying their magic words. Mary exclaims that Billy cannot say "Shazam", inadvertently saying the word herself. She is then struck by a magic lightning bolt and transformed into a super-powered version of herself, later christened "Mary Marvel" by her brother. She defeats the thugs by herself, discovering that she is bulletproof and has super strength, and frees Billy and Freddy. Shazam later reveals the goddesses Mary derives her powers from.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Mary Marvel's updated DC origin was presented in the "Power of Shazam!" graphic novel and ongoing series, written by Jerry Ordway.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Prominent archaeologists C.C. and Marilyn Batson are assigned by the Sivana expedition on an excursion to Egypt. They take along their young daughter Mary, but are forced to leave their son Billy in America with C.C.'s half-brother. The elder Batsons are killed by their associate Theo Adam, who then kidnaps Mary. Upon Theo Adam's return to the United States, Adam's sister, a maid named Sarah Primm, takes Mary into her care. Primm arranges for her childless employers, Nick and Nora Bromfield, to illegally adopt Mary. As Mary Bromfield, the young girl grows up living an idyllic life in a wealthy family, but continuously has dreams of another family with a brother she has never seen.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Meanwhile, Billy eventually finding himself on the streets, and is given the power to become Captain Marvel. He learns that Mary is still alive, but after four years of searching, neither he nor his benefactor, the wizard Shazam, can find the girl. The only thing Billy has to remember Mary by is her favorite toy, a "Tawky Tawny" doll, which was shipped to America with the Batsons’ possessions after their murders.


title: Mary Marvel

text: As a young teenager, Mary enters a regional spelling bee held in Fawcett City and emceed by Billy, who works as an on-air reporter for WHIZ radio. After saving Mary from kidnappers twice as Captain Marvel, Billy notices how much Mary Bromfield reminds him of Mary Batson and has an undercover cop named "Muscles" McGinnis retrieve the girl's forged adoption record. Learning that Mary is indeed his sister, Billy tries to figure out a way to let Mary know he is her brother. The old "Tawky Tawny" doll suddenly transforms into a full-sized humanoid tiger and comes to life, instructing Billy to take it to Mary. As Captain Marvel, Billy flies out to the Bromfields’ hometown of Fairfield to deliver the doll and the adoption papers to Mary.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Captain Marvel arrives at the Bromfield estate and changes back to Billy Batson to deliver the package, but is immediately kidnapped by the thugs who helped Primm forge Mary's adoption records. Mary, not having seen Billy, takes the package and opens it, discovering the adoption records and the Tawky Tawny doll. Once again, the doll comes to life and instructs the bewildered girl to say the magic word "Shazam" and save her brother. Mary complies and is transformed by a bolt of magic lightning into a superpowered doppelganger of her deceased mother. She saves Billy, who transforms into Captain Marvel to help Mary defeat the thugs, but the two Marvels cannot save Sarah Primm, who is murdered by one of the thugs.


title: Mary Marvel

text: In the eleven page preview to Judd Winick and Howard Porter's "Trials of Shazam" limited series appearing in DC's "Brave New World" one-shot comic (June 2006), Mary Marvel loses her powers in mid-flight as an after-effect of the death of the wizard Shazam by the Spectre in "Day of Vengeance" #6, and falls from a height of three miles (this contradicts her appearances in the "52" series, as she appears in that series using her powers, despite "52" taking place chronologically after "Day of Vengeance"). Mary survives the fall but goes into a coma, and Freddy Freeman, who lost the power to become Captain Marvel Jr. in the same way, has her transported to a hospital in New York City where he can keep watch over her. He spends all his money to help her.


title: Mary Marvel

text: In "Countdown" #51, Mary is released from the hospital. She finds that she is still powerless and a note left by Freddy Freeman with a nurse asks her not to look for him as he is trying to get the powers of Shazam back, per the orders of Marvel. Making her way to Gotham City (despite being warned by Madame Xanadu to avoid the place in "Countdown" #50), Mary stumbles upon the former Kahndaqi embassy while being chased by violent criminals from the subway, who are killed by Black Adam. Black Adam angrily threatens her. Mary tells Adam how much she valued her powers and how she desires to regain them. Adam, bitter over the loss of his wife Isis and brother-in-law Osiris during the events of "52" as well as his failure to resurrect the former, gives Mary his powers instead of killing her. He is transformed into the mortal Teth-Adam, whom Mary rescues from a wall toppling on him. Mary wears a black form-fitting costume and wields Adam's powers as a darker, angrier character. While searching for a tutor to help her harness her power at the reformed Riddler's advice, she encounters Klarion the Witch boy in a market for dark magic, who tries to take her power, then Zatanna, who banishes her from her home after a fight, and then Eclipso, who only fuels her wild abandon. She uses a rougher justice, such as turning soldiers to stone and shrinking poachers so their quarries chase them.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Their alliance, however, seems to break down when Eclipso, hoping to please her master Darkseid, offers the young and pretty Mary as his new concubine, reasoning that the two women could always leech Darkseid's arcane knowledge, slay him, and take his place. Mary refuses to sell herself for more power, beats Eclipso with her own crystal, and flees, enraged. Eclipso catches up to her and regains the diamond. Eclipso then departs, leaving Mary alone again. Some time later, Eclipso returns hoping to finish her off, but Mary is too strong for her.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Mary experiences a change of mind, and upon realizing that Black Adam's powers are as responsible for her corruption as Eclipso, divests herself of them by feeding the lightning bolt into Eclipso, who tries to kill her and take her power. Both women lose their powers and fall into the ocean. However, an unpowered Mary lands on Themysciran soil, where Queen Hippolyta drafts her in the rebellion against Granny Goodness, who is posing as the goddess Athena.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Mary, Holly Robinson, and Harleen Quinzel manage to reveal Goodness' deception, and the trio follow her to Apokolips. After escaping the Female Furies, Mary starts to hear the voices of the gods. The group manages to free the Olympian gods from an Apokoliptan chamber, and Mary Marvel's powers are restored along with her white costume, which now has a gray lightning bolt and long sleeves.


title: Mary Marvel

text: After journeying with the Challengers to Earth-51 and witnessing the Great Disaster occurring there, Mary finally returns home to find Darkseid waiting for her. Reminding her of how strong she felt using Black Adam's powers, and claiming the gods do not trust her as much now, he returns them to her, restoring her black costume. She then confronts Donna Troy, Kyle Rayner, Forager, and Jimmy Olsen, seizing Jimmy to take him back to Darkseid. When Donna questions Mary's use of the powers, Mary insists that she is not evil, merely "driven". After Darkseid's defeat, Mary returns to Black Adam, asking to be a part of a new Black Marvel Family. Adam refuses her and, after a big tantrum, she decides to become a solo superheroine.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Mary returns in "Final Crisis", still apparently in Darkseid's thrall, wearing a new black costume with more of a punk look. She attacks Wonder Woman, scratching the Amazon's upper arm and infecting her with an unknown virus delivered from a broken glass vial bearing a gold Omega symbol. Later, when the heroes of Earth attack Blüdhaven, Black Adam notes that she's been possessed by one of the New Gods, a "leering old man". The possessed Mary claims to have a new dirty magic word, a blasphemous name of power, and to have new gods. During a heated battle with Supergirl, Black Adam learns that the evil god Desaad was the one who possessed Mary. Black Adam tries to kill her but is stopped by Freddy. Later, distracted by hordes of Anti-Life followers about to attack, Freddy Freeman, the new Captain Marvel, grabs Mary and uses the last of his magic to transform them back to normal. Though horrified by her actions while possessed by Desaad, and saying, while crying, that she never meant for this to happen, she is seen standing with Freddy with clubs in their hands, awaiting the end of the world.


title: Mary Marvel

text: After the end of the Crisis, Mary is recruited by Black Adam and Isis, who have taken over the Rock of Eternity formerly lorded over by the wizard Shazam by defeating Captain Marvel and stealing his powers, using the magic scarab Shazam used to take Black Adam's powers. During a battle between Black Adam, Isis, and the Justice Society, who had been summoned by Billy, the evil Mary Marvel abducts a powerless Billy Batson and forces him to become a teenage Black Marvel by sharing her powers and forcing him to say "Mary Marvel".


title: Mary Marvel

text: The two now evil Black Marvels join Adam and Isis, who are intent on using the power of Shazam to destroy the modern world, in fighting the Justice Society. When Isis begins attacking the citizens of Adam's native Khandaq and Adam's friend Atom Smasher, he switches loyalties and joins the Justice Society's Flash and the spirit of Mary and Billy's father in helping resurrect the wizard Shazam from the Rock of Finality, where he has been sealed in stone. Black Adam gives up his powers to restore the wizard to life. Shazam promptly and angrily takes his powers back from Mary, Billy, and Isis, turns Teth Adam and Isis to stone, and closes off all contact to the Rock of Eternity to the Batson kids upon stating that Billy and Mary failed him. He also threatens to go after Freddy for stealing his name. The two Batsons are later seen wandering the streets of Fawcett City, homeless, and wondering what happened to their father's spirit.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Mary and Billy are briefly seen during the events of "Blackest Night", now living in an apartment in Fawcett City. While watching news reports of the various heroes and villains being reanimated as Black Lanterns on their laptop, Mary remarks how scary it is to not have her powers anymore.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Mary is approached by Blaze, who offers to restore her and Billy's powers in exchange for her killing Freddy. Mary seems to go along with the deal, appearing to poison Freddy. However, when Blaze arrives to claim Freddy's powers, he gets up and attacks her. With a little help from Mary and Billy, Freddy defeats Blaze and sends her back to hell, later promising them that he will find a way to restore their lost powers.


title: Mary Marvel

text: The DC Universe was rebooted in 2011 with the New 52 line of comics. In the current continuity, Mary appears as Mary Bromfield, making her debut in "Justice League" (vol. 2) #8 in 2012. She is the oldest kid living in the Vázquezes' foster home, along with Billy Batson, Freddy Freeman, Eugene Choi, Darla Dudley, and Pedro Peña.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Mary was the second child placed with the Vázquezes, having run away from an abusive home at a young age. Polite and well-mannered, Mary functions as the unofficial "den mother", looking after her foster siblings. When Billy arrives at the Vázquez home and gains the power to become Shazam, he shares his powers with his foster siblings. By saying the magic word "Shazam!" Mary can become an adult superhero with a red uniform similar to that of the traditional Mary Marvel.


title: Mary Marvel

text: As Billy's twin, Mary shared Billy's ability to transform into a superhero by speaking the name of the wizard Shazam. In her petite superpowered state, Mary Marvel originally wore a red short-sleeved blouse and red skirt lined with gold trim, which included a lightning bolt insignia and cape.


title: Mary Marvel

text: The Fawcett and pre-1985 version of Mary Marvel did not derive her "Shazam" powers from the male mythological figures who empower Billy, but from a set of female benefactors: Selene for grace, Hippolyta* for strength, Ariadne (later changed to Artemis, Greek goddess of the hunt) for skill, Zephyrus for fleetness (and flight), Aurora (later changed to Greek goddess Aphrodite) for beauty and Minerva for wisdom.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Although these deities were originally described and depicted as goddesses, Zephyrus is actually a male god. In addition, the list does not account for all of the superhuman traits shared by Billy and Mary, specifically Captain Marvel's powers of invulnerability, stamina, and courage. The original Mary Marvel remained a teenager when she transformed rather than becoming a mature adult like Billy.


title: Mary Marvel

text: A version of Mary Marvel, originating in "The Power of Shazam!", has the same powers from the same benefactors as her brother (Solomon, Hercules*, Atlas, Zeus, Achilles and Mercury). A power-sharing element was added to the mythos in the "Power of Shazam!" series; one finite source of power was shared between Mary, Captain Marvel, and Captain Marvel Jr. This power-sharing element has not been honored by all later appearances of the Marvels. Mary loses these powers in the 2006 "Brave New World" one-shot special. In early stories, if she had lost her memory or been transformed, her transformation would restore her.


title: Mary Marvel

text: In "Countdown to Final Crisis" (2007–2008), Black Adam gives Mary his powers. Since Adam was not sharing his powers with anyone else when he granted them to Mary, and had also been carrying the powers of his dead wife Isis (who had granted them to him with her death), Mary is now more powerful than she has ever been. Mary's patron deities become seven Egyptian gods: Shu, Heru, Amon, Zehuti, Aten, Mehen, and the "most powerful" Egyptian deity, Isis, which increases her other powers and allows her to perform magical feats like weather control and transforming others. Mary's powers continue to expand rapidly as she and her mentor Eclipso seek new sources of magical power for her, gaining various new magical powers. She became sufficiently powerful to withstand Darkseid's Omega Beams. Eventually realizing she had been corrupted by Eclipso and the powers of Adam's gods, Mary relinquished these abilities. Mary's powers were restored when she aided the Olympian Gods in retaining their freedom from Apokolips. Later, her Black Adam powers were restored, given to her by Darkseid.


title: Mary Marvel

text: In the later "Final Crisis" miniseries (2008–2009), Mary's body was further enhanced with genetic technology stolen by the Atomic Knights. In addition to her impressive magical powers, her empowered form is now "aged" from late adolescence to adulthood, with clawed hands able to slice through metal. Later Black Adam restores her powers from the Egyptian gods. She is able to bestow part of it upon Billy, making him Black Billy.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Power of Shazam: Formerly, in order to change form, Mary had to call upon the name of Shazam, thereby invoking spells involving the energies of those extradimensional beings once known as gods on Earth. When Mary Batson said the magic word "Shazam!", she would be transformed into Mary Marvel. In her Mary Marvel form, Mary possessed the following attributes:


title: Mary Marvel

text: Mary Marvel has been analyzed as a portrayal of women in American comics, specifically how her physique and costumes serve as examples of masculinity vs. femininity and the objectification of women in comics.


title: Mary Marvel

text: In the final issue of "52", a new Multiverse is revealed consisting of 52 identical realities. Earth-5 is depicted as home to the Marvel family characters. As a result of Mister Mind "eating" aspects of this universe, it takes on aspects similar to the pre-"Crisis" Earth-S. Although the characters are not named in the panel in which they appear, a character looking like Mary Marvel is shown. "52" co-author Grant Morrison has made clear that this alternate universe is not the pre-"Crisis" Earth-S.


title: Mary Marvel

text: An evil version of Mary Marvel exists in an alternate universe as a member of the "Power Posse" (evil analogues of the Super Buddies). Mistress Mary, as she is called, wears a black variant of Mary's traditional outfit, almost identical to her costume during the 2007/2008 "Countdown" series.


title: Mary Marvel

text: In the 2007 limited series "Shazam! The Monster Society of Evil", written and illustrated by Jeff Smith, Mary Batson is depicted as a prepubescent child who does not age when she transforms into Mary Marvel.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Mary meets her lost brother in the circus that is attacked by Alligator Men and is rescued by Captain Marvel. With the help of Tawky Tawny, a trickster spirit who changes into various forms but prefers being a tiger when convenient, the siblings learn they are related. When Billy transforms into Captain Marvel, Mary stands too close to her brother and is struck by the fringe of the magic lightning; as a result, Mary gains her Marvel form (which is still at her actual age) that is apparently based on the aspects of various goddesses, including superior flying speed to her brother, and powers stemming by a female set of benefactors. For example, Athena's wisdom is different from Solomon's, allowing Mary to perceive "life vibrations" and distinguish between living and non-living beings.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Although she and Billy are kidnapped in their regular form by Doctor Sivana and Mr. Mind and gagged, Billy escapes and later rescues her as Captain Marvel when she is thrown from the top of a robot by Doctor Sivana; she in turn rescues him from Sivana after, while defeating Mr. Mind, he accidentally loses his powers. Mary subsequently manages to restore his abilities.


title: Mary Marvel

text: Mary appears as a main character in this follow-up series. As in "Monster Society of Evil", Mary has only a fraction of her brother's powers and remains a child in super form; although faster, she is far less strong. As Mary is very hyper and reckless, Billy is very protective of her, although he is also often annoyed by her antics and snarkiness. During the final battle against Black Adam, she briefly gains an adult form, only to lose it shortly after and reverting to a child.


title: Mary Marvel

text: In the digital Justice League Beyond comics taking place in the DC Animated Universe's future (based on the Batman Beyond TV series), Mary Marvel, Billy Batson, the wizard Shazam, and Black Adam are somehow sharing the same body. Only one of them can exist in the real world at a time, but can switch places with each other. She appears to be attracted to the Green Lantern of that time period. It is unknown how this occurred.


title: Mary Marvel

text: In the Tangent Comics print, Mary was one of three superheroines (the others being Madame Xanadu and Lori Lemaris) who masqueraded as a heroic version of The Joker.


title: Mary Marvel

text: In the DC alternate-WWII universe of the Bombshells, a young Jewish woman named Miriam Bätzel relates traditional Jewish folklore to children hiding from the Nazis to keep their spirits up. Under the stress of their imminent deaths, she starts reciting the names of Jewish heroines: "Shiphrah, Huldah, Abigail, Zipporah, Asenath, Miriam..." In the nick of time, by muttering the acronym "S...H...A...Z...A...M" she is able to tap into mystical energy and become the extremely powerful Shazam, who the children nickname "Miri Marvel." Rather than engage in destructive super-battles, she uses her power to protect and aid the escape of a large group of refugees. Aiding refugees in escaping the war becomes her primary mission in the series.


title: Field marshal (India)

text: Field Marshal (or field marshal, abbreviated as FM) is a five–star general officer rank and the highest attainable rank in the Indian Army. Field Marshal is ranked immediately above general, but not exercised in the regular army structure. It is a largely ceremonial or wartime rank, having been awarded only twice. A Field Marshal’s insignia consists of the national emblem over a crossed baton and sabre in a lotus blossom wreath.


title: Field marshal (India)

text: Sam Manekshaw was the first Field Marshal of India, and was conferred the rank on 1 January 1973. The second was Kodandera M. Cariappa, who was conferred the rank on 15 January 1986.


title: Field marshal (India)

text: Field Marshal is equivalent to an admiral of the fleet in the Indian Navy and a Marshal of the Indian Air Force in the Indian Air Force. In the Navy, Admiral of the Fleet has never been awarded, but from the Air Force, Arjan Singh was promoted to the rank of Marshal of the Indian Air Force.


title: Field marshal (India)

text: To date, only two Indian Army officers have been conferred the rank. It was first conferred to Sam Manekshaw in 1973, in recognition of his service and leadership in the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War. In 1971, after the war, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi decided to promote Manekshaw to Field Marshal and subsequently to appoint him as the Chief of the Defence Staff (CDS). This appointment was dropped after several objections from the bureaucracy and the commanders of the Navy and the Air Force. On 3 January 1973, after his term as the Chief of the Army Staff (COAS) Manekshaw was conferred with the rank of Field Marshal at a ceremony held at Rashtrapati Bhavan. As it was the first appointment, several entitlements of the rank, including the badges and ribbons, were yet to be worked out. A few weeks before Manekshaw's appointment, the Field Marshal's badges of rank were made at the Army workshop in Delhi Cantonment. They were inspired by the British Field Marshal insignia.


title: Field marshal (India)

text: The second individual to be conferred the rank was Kodandera M. Cariappa, the first Indian to serve as the Commander–in–Chief of the Indian Army. Unlike Manekshaw, who was conferred the rank just before his retirement, Cariappa was already retired in 1953, and since a field marshal never retires, therefore retired officers cannot be given the rank. But as a token of gratitude for the exemplary service rendered by him to the nation, the Government of India overruled the pre-established criteria, and conferred the rank of field marshal on him on 15 January 1986 at a special investiture ceremony held at Rashtrapati Bhavan.


title: Field marshal (India)

text: Field Marshal is the five-star rank and highest attainable rank in the Indian Army. Though the rank is placed above general, it is not observed in the regular structure. It is a largely ceremonial or wartime rank, having been awarded only twice.


title: Field marshal (India)

text: A Field Marshal receives the full pay of a four–star General, and is considered a serving officer until their death. They wear a full uniform on all ceremonial occasions. In addition to this, they also run an office in the Army Headquarters with a secretariat.


title: Field marshal (India)

text: Field Marshal is equivalent to an Admiral of the Fleet in the Indian Navy or a Marshal of the Air Force in the Indian Air Force. While Arjan Singh is the only holder of the Marshal of the Air Force to date, no officer has ever been promoted to Admiral of the Fleet.


title: Field marshal (India)

text: A Field Marshal's insignia consists of the national emblem over a crossed baton and sabre in a lotus blossom wreath. On appointment, Field Marshals are awarded a gold-tipped baton which they may carry on formal occasions. The star insignia, which comprises five golden stars over a red strip, is used on car pennants, rank flags and as gorget patches.


title: Field marshal (India)

text: Sam Manekshaw, MC (1914–2008), also known as "Sam Bahadur" ("Sam the Brave"), was the first Indian Army officer to be promoted to the rank of field marshal. Commissioned into the British Indian Army on 1 February 1935 with seniority antedated to 4 February 1934, Manekshaw's distinguished military career spanned four decades and five wars, beginning with service in World War II. He was first attached to the 2nd Battalion of Royal Scots, and later posted to the 4th Battalion of 12th Frontier Force Regiment, commonly known as the 54th Sikhs. Following partition, he was reassigned to the 16th Punjab Regiment.


title: Field marshal (India)

text: Manekshaw rose to be the 8th COAS of the Indian Army in 1969, and under his command Indian forces conducted successful campaigns against Pakistan in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 that led to the Liberation of Bangladesh in December 1971.The war lasted for 12 days from 3 December to 16 December, one among the Shortest wars of the History. On 16 December 1971, Lt. Gen A. A. K. Niazi of the Pakistan Army signed the Instrument of Surrender at Dhaka in the presence of Lt. Gen. Jagjit Singh Aurora, Lt. Gen. J. F. R. Jacob and other Senior Officers of the Indian Army. More than 93000 Pakistani Soldiers surrendered to the Indian Army, which was recorded as one among the largest surrender in the History. The decisive results achieved by the Indian Army during this war, under the able military leadership of Manekshaw, gave the nation a new sense of confidence, and in recognition of his services, in January 1973 the President of India conferred the rank of field marshal on him. He was also awarded the Padma Vibhushan and the Padma Bhushan, the second and third highest Indian civilian awards respectively, for his services to the Indian nation.


title: Field marshal (India)

text: Though Sam Manekshaw was conferred the rank of field marshal in 1973, it was reported that he was never given the complete allowances he was entitled to as a field marshal. It was not until President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam took the initiative when he met Manekshaw in Wellington, and made sure that the field marshal was presented with a cheque for ₹1.3 crores–his arrears of pay for over 30 years. Even more surprisingly, Manekshaw's funeral was not attended by the top brass from civil, military, or political leadership, because non parsis are not allowed to enter parsi funeral .


title: Field marshal (India)

text: Kodandera Madappa Cariappa, OBE (1899–1993), was the first Indian to be appointed as commander-in-chief (C-in-C) of the Indian Army. His distinguished military career spanned almost three decades. Cariappa joined the British Indian Army on 1 December 1920, and was commissioned as temporary second lieutenant in the 2/88 Carnatic Infantry. He was later transferred to 2/125 Napier Rifles, then to the 7th Prince of Wales Own Dogra Regiment in June 1922, and finally to the 1/7 Rajput, which became his parent regiment.


title: Field marshal (India)

text: He was the first Indian officer to attend the course at Staff College, Quetta, the first Indian to command a battalion in the Indian Army, and also was one of the first two Indians selected to undergo a training course at the Imperial Defence College, Camberly, UK. He served in various staff capacities at various unit and command headquarters (HQ) and also at the General HQ, New Delhi.


title: Field marshal (India)

text: He led the Indian forces in Kashmir during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. He was a member of the Army Sub Committee of the Forces Reconstitution Committee, which divided the British Indian Army into the Indian and Pakistani Armies after the Partition of India in 1947. After his retirement from the Indian Army in 1953, he served as the high commissioner to Australia and New Zealand until 1956. As a token of gratitude for the exemplary service rendered by him to the nation, the Government of India conferred the rank of field marshal on Cariappa in his 87th year, on 14 January 1986.


title: Alebrije

text: Alebrijes () are brightly colored Mexican folk art sculptures of fantastical (fantasy/mythical) creatures.


title: Alebrije

text: The monos de madera or alebrijes as they are called in Spanish were originally created by carver Manuel Jimenez but soon became so popular that other people from his town and a few other communities in Oaxaca began carving to have an extra income. The first alebrijes, along with the invention of the term, originated with Mexico City "cartonero" Pedro Linares. Linares often told that in 1943, he fell very ill. While he was in bed unconscious, he dreamt of a strange place resembling a forest. There, he saw trees, rocks, and clouds that suddenly turned into something strange, and some kind of animals but unknown animals. He saw "a donkey with butterfly wings, a rooster with bull horns, and a lion with an eagle head", and all of them were shouting one word ""Alebrijes! Alebrijes! Alebrijes!"" Before this happened, he was already a cartonero artisan. Upon recovery, he began recreating these Chimera-like creatures that he had seen in cartonería, the making of three-dimensional sculptures with different types of papers, strips of papers and engrudo (glue made out of wheat flour and water).


title: Alebrije

text: His work caught the attention of artists Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo because they used to purchase Judas figures from Pedro Linares. In the 1980s, British filmmaker Judith Bronowski arranged an itinerant Mexican art craft demonstration workshop in the United States featuring Pedro Linares, Manuel Jiménez, and Maria Sabina, a textile artisan from Oaxaca. Although the Oaxaca valley area already had a history of carving animals and other types of figures from wood, artisans from Oaxaca learned of the alebrijes papier-mâché sculptures when Bronowski's workshop took place. Linares demonstrated his designs on family visits and these were adapted to the carving of a local wood called copal; this type of wood is said to be magical, made from unitado magic. In the 1990s, the artisans of Oaxaca began to use the word Alebrije to designate their figures carved in wood.


title: Alebrije

text: The papier-mâché-to-wood carving adaptation was pioneered by Arrazola native Manuel Jiménez. This version of the craft has since spread to a number of other towns, most notably San Martín Tilcajete and La Unión Tejalapan, and has become a major source of income for the area, especially for Tilcajete. The success of the craft, however, has led to the depletion of the native copal trees. Attempts to remedy this with reforestation efforts and management of wild copal trees has had limited success. The three towns most closely associated with alebrije production in Oaxaca have produced a number of notable artisans such as Manuel Jiménez, Jacobo Angeles, Martin Sandiego, Julia Fuentes, and Miguel Sandiego.


title: Alebrije

text: Alebrijes originated in Mexico City in the 20th century, in 1936. The first alebrijes, as well as the name itself, are attributed to Pedro Linares, an artisan from México City (Distrito Federal), who specialized in making piñatas, carnival masks and "Judas" figures from cartonería, an ancient and widespread papercraft often confused with papier-mâché. He sold his work in markets such as the one in La Merced.


title: Alebrije

text: In 1936, when he was 30 years old, Linares fell ill with a high fever, which caused him to hallucinate. In his fever dreams, he was in a forest with rocks and clouds, many of which turned into wild, unnaturally colored creatures, frequently featuring wings, horns, tails, fierce teeth and bulging eyes. He heard a crowd of voices repeating the nonsense word "Alebrije" After he recovered, he began to re-create the creatures he'd seen, using papier-mâché and cardboard. Eventually, a Cuernavaca gallery owner discovered his work. This brought him to the attention of Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo, who began commissioning more alebrijes. The tradition grew considerably after British filmmaker Judith Bronowski's 1975 documentary on Linares.


title: Alebrije

text: Linares received Mexico's National Arts and Sciences Award in the Popular Arts and Traditions category in 1990, two years before he died. This inspired other alebrije artists, and Linares' work became prized both in Mexico and abroad. Rivera said that no one else could have fashioned the strange figures he requested; work done by Linares for Rivera is now displayed at the Anahuacalli Museum in Mexico City.


title: Alebrije

text: The descendants of Pedro Linares, such as his son Miguel Linares , his granddaughters Blanca y Elsa Linares and his grandson Ricardo Linares, live in Mexico City near the Sonora Market, carry on the tradition of making alebrijes and other figures from cardboard and papier-mâché. Their customers have included the Rolling Stones , David Copperfield and filmmaker Guillermo del Toro. The Stones gave the family tickets to their show. Various branches of the family occupy a row of houses on the same street. Each family works in its own workshops in their own houses but they will lend each other a hand with big orders. Demand rises and falls; sometimes there is no work and sometimes families work 18 hours a day.


title: Alebrije

text: The original designs for Pedro Linares' alebrijes have fallen into the public domain. However, according to Chapter Three of the 1996 Mexican federal copyright law, it is illegal to sell crafts made in Mexico without acknowledging the community and region they are from, or to alter the crafts in a way that could be interpreted as damaging to the culture's reputation or image. The law applied to the commercialization of the crafts as well as to their public exhibition and the use of their images. However, this law is rarely enforced; most crafts sellers in Mexico rarely give where the origin of their products are from. The name "alebrijes" is used for a wide variety of crafts even though the Linares family has sought to gain control over the name. The family says that pieces which are not made by them and do not come from Mexico City should state so. The Linares family continues to export their work to the most important galleries showing Mexican art worldwide. For example, "Beasts and Bones: The Cartonería of the Linares Family" in Carlsbad, California, featured about seventy alebrijes and was so popular that it was extended by several weeks.


title: Alebrije

text: However, because a variety of artists and artisans have been creating alebrijes in their own styles, the craft has become part of Mexico's folk art repertoire. No two alebrijes are exactly alike. Outside of the Linares family, one of the most noted alebrije artists is Susana Buyo, who learned to work with cardboard and papier-mâché at one of the Linares family workshops. Known as the "Señora de los Monstruos" by the local children in Condesa, an upscale neighborhood of Mexico City, she is a native Argentine and naturalized Mexican citizen. Her work can be found across Mexico City and elsewhere, such as those in Europe. Her work differs from that of the Linares in that many of her designs include human contours and many with expressions more tender than terrifying. She also uses nontraditional materials such as feathers, fantasy stones and modern resins, both for novelty and for durability.


title: Alebrije

text: While Pedro Linares dreamed of the creatures, they did not surface in a vacuum. Similarities and parallels can be drawn between alebrijes and various supernatural creatures from Mexico's indigenous and European past. In pre-Hispanic art, the brightly colored images were often fantastic and macabre. Influences from Mexico City's Chinatown, especially in the dragons, and Gothic art such as gargoyles can be seen. Red cardboard demons called judas, which Linares made, are still made to be burned in Mexico during Holy Week in purification rituals. More recent predecessors in Mexican culture, artists Julio Ruelas and graphics artist/commentator José Guadalupe Posada, created fantastic and sometimes terrifying images. Alebrijes, especially the monsters, have gained a reputation for "scaring away bad spirits" and protecting the home. Some, like master craftsman Christian David Mendez, claim that there is a certain mysticism involved in the making and owning of alebrijes, with parts of certain animals representing human characteristics.


title: Alebrije

text: A more recent phenomenon, the annual Monumental Alebrije Parade, has been sponsored by the Museo de Arte Popular in Mexico City since 2007. The 2009 parade featured more than 130 giant alebrijes made of wood, cardboard, paper, wire and other materials, and marched from the Zocalo in the historic center of the city to the Angel of Independence monument on Paseo de la Reforma. Entries by artisans, artists, families and groups each year have gotten bigger, more creative and more numerous, with names like


title: Alebrije

text: and are accompanied by bands playing popular Mexican music. At the end of the parade, the pieces are lined up on Paseo de la Reforma for judging and displayed for two weeks. The 2010 alebrije parade had themes related to the Bicentennial of the Independence of Mexico and the Centennial of the Mexican Revolution, although Walter Boelsterly, head of the Museo de Artes Populares, concedes that such may require a bit of tolerance because it can lead to revered figures such as Miguel Hidalgo and Ignacio Allende with animal parts. However, he states that the aim is to celebrate and not to mock. In addition to the annual parade, the Museum has sponsored alebrije shows such as the three-meter tall alebrije which captured attention at the Feria International del Libro in Bogotá. The word "alebrije" was not known in Colombia, so the locals dubbed it a "dragoncito" (little dragon). Along with "dragoncito" 150 other, smaller pieces of Mexican crafts were shown.


title: Alebrije

text: Many rural households in the Mexican state of Oaxaca have prospered over the past three decades through the sale of brightly painted, whimsical wood carvings they call alebrijes to international tourists and the owners of ethnic arts shops in the United States, Canada, and Europe. What are called "alebrijes" in Oaxaca is a marriage of native woodcarving traditions and influence from Pedro Linares' work in Mexico City.


title: Alebrije

text: Pedro Linares was originally from México City (Distrito Federal). In the 1980s, British filmmaker, Judith Bronowski, arranged an itinerant demonstration workshop in the United States participating Pedro Linares, Manuel Jiménez and a textil artisan Maria Sabina from Oaxaca. Although the Oaxaca valley area already had a history of carving animal and other types of figures from wood, it was at this time, when Bronowski's workshop took place when artisans from Oaxaca knew the alebrijes papier-mâché sculptures. Then Linares' designs were adapted to the carving of a local wood called copal. The Oaxaca valley area already had a history of carving animal and other types of figures from wood, and Linares' designs were adapted to the carving of a local wood called copal. This adaptation was pioneered by Arrazola native Manuel Jiménez. This version of the craft has since spread to a number of other towns, most notably San Martín Tilcajete and La Unión Tejalapan, become a major source of income for the area, especially for Tilcajete. The success of the craft, however, has led to the depletion of the native copal trees. Attempts to remedy this, with reforestation efforts and management of wild copal trees has only had limited success. The three towns most closely associated with alebrije production in Oaxaca have produced a number of notable artisans such as Manuel Jiménez, Jacobo Angeles, Martin Sandiego, Julia Fuentes and Miguel Sandiego.


title: Alebrije

text: One of the most important things about the fantastical creatures carved of wood is that every piece is removable, it's how you can tell you have a piece carved by one of the original great carvers. The later carvers didn't learn the technique of making each piece fit so well that it could be removed and put back in again and again. Those pieces have more than tripled in value. The painting on these figures is also more intense and varied.


title: Alebrije

text: The first to copy the fantastic forms and bright colors was Manuel Jiménez, who carved the figures in local copal wood rather than using paper. Animal figures had always been carved in the central valleys area of Oaxaca by the Zapotecs since the pre-Hispanic period. Totems of local animals were carved for luck or religious purposes as well as hunting decoys. Figures were also carved for children as toys, a tradition that continued well into the 20th century. After the craft became popular in Arrazola, it spread to Tilcajete and from there to a number of other communities, and now the three main communities are, San Antonino Arrazola, San Martin Tilcajete and La Union Tejalapam, each of which has developed its own style. The carving of wood figures did not have a name, so the name "alebrije" eventually became adopted for any carved, brightly colored figure of copal wood, whether it is of a real animal or not. To make the distinction, the carvings of fantastic creatures, closer to Linares' alebrijes, are now sometimes called "marcianos" (lit. Martians). Oaxacan alebrijes have eclipsed the Mexico City version, with a large number of stores in and around the city of Oaxaca selling the pieces, and it is estimated that more than 150 families in the same area make a living making the figures.


title: Alebrije

text: Woodcarving, along with other crafts in Oaxaca, grew in importance as the state opened up to tourism. This started in the 1940s with the Pan-American Highway and has continued to this day with the construction of more roads, airports and other transportation coincided with the rising prosperity of the U.S. and Canada making Mexico an affordable exotic vacation. Oaxacan woodcarving began to be bought in the 1960s by hippies. Prior to the 1980s, most of the woodcarvings were natural and spiritual world of the communities, featuring farm animals, farmers, angels and the like. These pieces, now referred to as "rustic" (nistico), were carved and painted in a simple manner. Later known for their alebrijes, carvers such as Manuel Jimenez of Arrazola, Isadoro Cruz of Tilcajete and Martin Sandiego of La Union began by carving animals as youths, often while doing other chores such as tending sheep. By the 1960s and 1970s, these carvers had enough of a reputation to sell their work in the city of Oaxaca. As more dealers shipping to other parts of Mexico and abroad visited the rural villages, more exotic animals such as lions, elephants and the like were added, and eventually came to dominate the trade. Eventually, traditional paints gave way to acrylics as well. Another development that encouraged woodcarving were artisans' contests held by the state of Oaxaca in the 1970s, which encouraged carvers to try new ideas in order to win prizes and sell their pieces to state museums.


title: Alebrije

text: In the 1970s and early 1980s, carvers in the three villages sold pieces mostly to store owners in Oaxaca, with only one carver, Manuel Jimenez, carving full-time. Most other carvers used the craft to supplement incomes from farming and wage labor. It was also considered to be a male occupation. In the mid-1980s, the influence of the Linares alebrijes was becoming popular and wholesalers and store owners from the United States, began to deal with artisans in Oaxaca directly. The desire of the foreign merchants for non-indigenous animals and the newly popular alebrijes affected the market. By 1990, woodcarving had begun to boom with most households in Arrazola and Tilcajete earning at least part of their income from the craft. La Union was less successful in attracting dealers and tourists. The boom had a dramatic economic effect, shifting the economies of Arrazola and Tilcajete away from farming and towards carving. It also affected the carvings that were being produced. Carvings became more complicated and paintings more ornate as families competed against each other. Specialization also occurred with neophyte carvers looking for a niche to compete with already established carvers. The craft continued to become established in the 1990s as more families carved and more tourists came to Oaxaca with the building of new roads. Some of these new Oaxacan crafters have extended the design to smooth – abstract painted realistic animals, especially the Mendoza family (Luis Pablo, David Pablo and Moises Pablo a.k.a. Ariel Playas), creating a new generation of alebrijes.


title: Alebrije

text: While the sales trend has been mostly positive for Oaxacan alebrijes, it is dependent on global market fluctuations and on tourism to Oaxaca. There was a decline in sales in the late 1980s, possibly due to global market saturation and the dominance of repetitive, unimaginative designs. Sales rose again in the 1990s. Sales fell again in 2001, when tourism from the U.S. fell and fell again precipitously 2006 due to statewide social unrest. It has not fully recovered since.


title: Alebrije

text: The alebrije market is divided into two levels, the production of unique, high-quality, labor-intensive pieces and the production of repetitive, average quality and inexpensive pieces. Those who have produced exceptionally fine pieces have gained reputations as artists, commanding high prices. Larger pieces are generally made only by the better carving families. While pieces can be bought and ordered from the artisans directly, most sell to middlemen who in turn sell them to outlets in Mexico and abroad. The most successful carving families sell almost exclusively to dealers and may have only a few pieces available for the drop-in visitor. Within Mexico, Oaxacan alebrijes are often sold in tourist locations such as Oaxaca city, La Paz, Cancún, Cozumel and Puerto Escondido. Most pieces sold internationally go to the United States, Canada, Europe and Japan, where the most expensive pieces end up in ethnic craft stores in urban areas, university towns and upscale resorts. Cheaper pieces tend to be sold at trade shows and gift shops. Tourists who buy pieces directly from carvers pay about twice what wholesalers do. The price of each piece depends on the quality, coloring, size, originality and sometimes the reputation of the carver. The most expensive pieces are most often sent abroad. Pieces sold retail in Oaxaca generally range from US$1 to $200. The most commercialized figures are those of dogs, armadillos, iguanas, giraffes, cats, elephants, zebras, deer, dolphins, sharks and fish. Animals are often painted with bright colors and designs and carved with exaggerated features that bear little resemblance to what occurs in the natural world. Anthropomorphism is common and carvings of animals playing musical instruments, golfing, fishing, and engaging in other human pursuits are very popular.


title: Alebrije

text: Fantastic creatures such as dragons and chimeras and others are also carved, even carvings of Benito Juárez, Subcomandante Marcos, chupacabras (imaginary beings that eat goats), "Martians," mermaids, and hippocampus. The diversity of the figures is due to a segmented market both in Mexico and abroad which rewards novelty and specialization. In a number of cases, carvings return to images from Mexican culture such as angels, saints, and Virgins, which will have somber faces even if they are painted in very bright colors. Devils and skeletons are often parts of more festive scenes depicting them, for example, riding dogs and drinking. Foreign customers demand more creative figures with little repetition. Prices abroad range from between three and five times the retail price in Oaxaca, with a median of US$100, with lowest usually around $10 and highest around $2,000. One of the most expensive pieces sold from a carving village occurred in 1995, when a doctor from Mexico City paid Isidro Cruz of Tilcajete the equivalent of US$3000 for a piece entitled "Carousel of the Americas." This piece took Cruz three months to complete.


title: Alebrije

text: Typical household income of families from Arrazola and Tilcajete averages about US$2000 per year, but exceptional artists can earn up to $20,000 per year. Two thousand a year is substantially more than average in Oaxaca and allows families to build or expand housing and send children to secondary school. However, most families carve as a sideline with agriculture providing basic staples. In some towns, especially in Tilcajete, the economy has shifted from agriculture to the making of wood carvings with a number of families abandoning farming altogether. However, for most households in Oaxaca, the success of alebrijes has not replaced the need to farm or alleviated the need to send family members to Mexico City or to the United States and work and send remittances back home.


title: Alebrije

text: Despite Oaxaca's reputation for the production of crafts by indigenous peoples, alebrije makers are monolingual Spanish speakers who generally do not identify themselves as a member of an indigenous group although almost all have Zapotec ancestors. The alebrijes are considered to be novelty items for the makers rather than expressions of a cultural heritage. More traditional woodcarving, such as utensils, toys, religious figures and the like are still made by older residents, but these crafts are overshadowed by alebrijes. Approximately 150 families now devote themselves at least part-time to the making of alebrijes, with carving techniques being passed down from generation to generation and many children growing up around fantastic figures both finished and in process.


title: Alebrije

text: Due to copies from other places, a certification scheme is being considered to ensure the viability of crafts from this area. That would include educating consumers and working with reputable stores.


title: Alebrije

text: The carving of a piece, which is done while the wood is still wet, can last anywhere from hours to a month, depending on the size and fineness of the piece. Often the copal wood that is used will influence what is made, both because of the shapes the branches can take and because male and female trees differ in hardness and shape. Carving is done with non-mechanical hand tools such as machetes, chisels and knives. The only time a more sophisticated tool is used is when a chain saw is employed to cut off a branch or level a base for the proposed figure. The basic shape of the creature is usually hacked using a machete, then a series of smaller knives used as the final shape is achieved. Certain details such as ears, tails and wings are usually made from pieces separate from the one for the main body.


title: Alebrije

text: After the carving, the figure is then left to dry for up to ten months, depending on its overall size and thickness. Semi tropical wood such as copal is susceptible to insect infestations, and for this reason drying pieces are often soaked in gasoline and sometimes baked to ensure that all insect eggs have been destroyed. As the figure dries, it is also susceptible to cracking. The cracks are filled with small pieces of copal wood and a sawdust resin mixture before painting.


title: Alebrije

text: Oaxaca woodcarvings were all originally painted with aniline paints made with natural ingredients such as bark of the copal tree, baking soda, lime juice, pomegranate seeds, zinc, indigo, huitlacoche and cochineal. These colorings were also used for dying clothing, ceremonial paints and other uses. Since 1985, most carvers have now switched to acrylics which resist fading and withstand repeated cleanings better. However, some still use aniline paints as they have a more rustic look that some customers prefer. Either way, the painting is generally done in two layers, with a solid undercoat and a multicolored designed superimposed.