title: Anti-globalization movement

text: One argument often made by the opponents of the anti-globalization movement (especially by "The Economist") is that one of the major causes of poverty amongst third-world farmers are the trade barriers put up by rich nations and poor nations alike. The WTO is an organization set up to work towards removing those trade barriers. Therefore, it is argued, people really concerned about the plight of the third world should actually be encouraging free trade, rather than attempting to fight it. Specifically, commodities such as sugar are heavily distorted by subsidies on behalf of powerful economies (the United States, Europe, and Japan), which have a disproportionate influence in the WTO. As a result, producers in these countries often receive two to three times the world market price. As Amani Elobeid and John Beghin note, the world price might decline by as much as 48% (by 20112012 baselines) were these distortions to be removed.


title: Anti-globalization movement

text: Many supporters of globalization think that policies different from those of today should be pursued, although not necessarily those advocated by the anti-globalization movement. For example, some see the World Bank and the IMF as corrupt bureaucracies which have given repeated loans to dictators who never do any reforms. Some, like Hernando De Soto, argue that much of the poverty in the Third World countries is caused by the lack of Western systems of laws and well-defined and universally recognized property rights. De Soto argues that because of the legal barriers, poor people in those countries can not utilize their assets to produce more wealth.


title: Anti-globalization movement

text: Critics have asserted that people from poor and developing countries have been relatively accepting and supportive of globalization while the strongest opposition to globalization has come from activists, unions, and NGOs in wealthier developed countries. Alan Shipman, author of "The Globalization Myth" accuses the anti-globalization movement of "defusing the Western class war by shifting alienation and exploitation to developing-country sweatshops." He later goes on to claim that the anti-globalization movement has failed to attract widespread support from poor and working people from the developing nations, and that its "strongest and most uncomprehending critics had always been the workers whose liberation from employment they were trying to secure."


title: Anti-globalization movement

text: These critics assert that people from the Third World see the anti-globalization movement as a threat to their jobs, wages, consuming options and livelihoods, and that a cessation or reversal of globalization would result in many people in poor countries being left in greater poverty. Jesús F. Reyes Heroles the former Mexican Ambassador to the US, stated that "in a poor country like ours, the alternative to low-paid jobs isn't well-paid ones, it's no jobs at all."


title: Anti-globalization movement

text: Egypt's Ambassador to the UN has also stated "The question is why all of a sudden, when third world labor has proved to be competitive, why do industrial countries start feeling concerned about our workers? When all of a sudden there is a concern about the welfare of our workers, it is suspicious."


title: Anti-globalization movement

text: On the other hand, there have been notable protests against certain globalization policies by workers in developing nations as in the cause of Indian farmers protesting against patenting seeds.


title: Anti-globalization movement

text: In the last few years, many developing countries (esp. in Latin America and Caribbean) created alter-globalization organizations as economic blocs Mercosur and Unasur, political community CELAC or Bank of the South which are supporting development of low income countries without involvement from IMF or World Bank.


title: Nose piercing

text: Nose piercing is the piercing of the skin or cartilage which forms any part of the nose, normally for the purpose of wearing jewelry, called a nose-jewel. Among the different varieties of nose piercings, the nostril piercing is the most common.


title: Nose piercing

text: Nostril piercing is a body piercing practice for the purpose of wearing jewelry, much like ear piercing, which is most primarily and prominently associated with Indian culture and fashion since classical times, and found commonly in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal and other SWANA countries (specifically Berber and Beja communities, as well as Iran), and Europe, particularly Poland. Nostril piercing is also part of traditional Australian Aboriginal culture and the culture of the Ilocano, a tribe in the Philippines.


title: Nose piercing

text: Since the introduction and diffusion of Indian fashion and culture in the 1960s, punks and subsequent youth cultures of the 1980s and 1990s adopted nostril piercing. Today, nostril piercing is popular in the wider world including South America, United States of America, Canada, the Caribbean, Australia, Africa, Japan and Europe, with piercings being performed on either the left or right nostril. For some cultures, this practice is simply for ornament, while for others it is for religious practices. Initially in America, this practice was for subcultures and was seen to be associated with minority youth.


title: Nose piercing

text: In the United States, nose piercings may have negative connotations. For example, in a 2006 survey done in the hospitality industry, 81% of hiring managers stated that piercings and tattoos affect their perception of the candidate negatively.


title: Nose piercing

text: Historically in India, nose piercings were worn by women only. However the spread of this fashion has resulted in both men and women having nostril piercings in the wider world. Several different types of nostril rings are found.


title: Nose piercing

text: In India, the outside of the left side of the nose is the preferred position of the piercing. This is followed by some orthodox folk also because Ayurvedic medicine associates this location with the female reproductive organs.


title: Nose piercing

text: Much like in India, the historical record in Egypt only indicates nose piercings being worn by women. The specifics of jewelry in Egypt are regional, though some form of nose piercing has been known throughout Egypt, by urban and desert dwelling women. An exception is Siwa- while other women in Marsa Matruh wore nose rings, Siwi women do not. In Upper Egypt the nose ring is commonly called a khuzam, a name used since the 1830s. According to Lane, the nose rings of his time were an inch to a inch and a half diameter of brass, strung with beads, and worn on the right side of the nose.


title: Nose piercing

text: In Bahariya, the nose piercing is called the gatar or qatrah, made from 12 carat gold, with filigree and granulation. Commonly, the design is a ring with decoration around the lower half (on some nose rings, this extends to decorating inside the circle, creating a circle where half is empty and half is filled in with filigree), and a flat circle of gold applied to hide the end of the wire that goes through the nose. It is never made of silver, and women believe that the area of nose they pierce has fine blood vessels that would be harmed by silver. It is only worn by married women, and is worn on the left. Traditionally the women of the region believe the nose ring, while worn, will prevent pains and headaches.


title: Nose piercing

text: In Sinai, the nose piercing is called the shenaf, and like much of the region's jewelry, bears a resemblance to Palestinian examples. It is typically made of gold and sometimes will have colored beads worked into the design. Pieces that dangle from the main ring are common.


title: Nose piercing

text: In Nubian Egypt, the nose ring is called a zimam. The Rashayda call it by the same name, and make it from 21 carat gold. The Bishariya also wear a nose ring- there is some overlap between the three groups jewelry, as they live in proximity and would buy jewelry from the same cities. The nose rings of the Rashayda have a similar shape to the small nose rings of Bahariya with a thickened decoration around the lower half, but do not employ filigree. Some nose rings in the region are similar to Lane's drawing from 1836, being just a wire with some beads strung on it.


title: Nose piercing

text: Nose piercing can be dated through pre-Columbian and colonial times throughout North and South America. Numerous status ceremonies are carved into the North Temple of the Great Ballcourt at Chichin Itza. One of these processions is a nose piercing ceremony that is depicted on the North Temple vault. Rather than depicting sacrifice, the common theme of the temple's carvings, the central figure is shown aiming what most likely is a bone awl to pierce the figure's nose. The ritual of the nostril piercing signified the elevated status of this figure. His place in society is symbolized by his nose piercing. Similarly, nose piercing signified elevated status in Colonial Highland Maya. The two prominent lords, Ajpop and the Ajpop K'ama, of the K'iche were pierced through the nose at the pinnacle of an elaborate ceremony. Similar to a crowning of a king, the nose piercing was to show their newfound leadership of the K'iche.


title: Nose piercing

text: In Yucatan, explorers Oviedo y Valdes, Herrera y Tordesillas, Diego de Landa, and Jeronimo de Aguilar all noted different nose piercings that they observed in Mayans and other cultures in Yucatan in general. They reported that different stones could have different meaning within each civilization. In addition, they believed the different placement and size and shape of beads could denote the specific society the person came from. The Toltecs were believed to have piercings through the ala of the nose that was adorned with a bead. While the Mayans pierced through the septum and consisted of an oblong bead rather than a spherical.


title: Nose piercing

text: The nasal septum is the cartilaginous dividing wall between the nostrils. Generally, the cartilage itself is not pierced, but rather the small gap between the cartilage and the bottom of the nose (sometimes called the "sweet spot" by piercers), typically at 14ga (1.6 mm) although it is often stretched to a larger gauge (size). This piercing heals within a month and a half to three months also depending on the individual. It should only be stretched by 1mm at a time, and waiting at least a month between stretches is advisable. If a certain point is exceeded, usually about 8mm, the cartilage gets forced towards the top of the nose, which can be uncomfortable.


title: Nose piercing

text: Many types of jewelry generally are worn in a septum piercing, such as: Captive bead rings (CBRs), rings that close with a bead held in the center by the tension of the ring, circular barbells (as shown in the picture), a circular bar with a bead that screws onto either end, a "tusk" that is a straight or shaped piece of material generally tapered on either end, or pinchers. For large gauge septums, many individuals choose to wear plugs, as the plugs do not weigh their noses down, which is helpful in healing. This measure allows the piercing not to be damaged by the sudden movement of the jewelry.


title: Nose piercing

text: Another option is a septum retainer, which is staple-shaped. This type of nose piercing is particularly easy to hide when desired, for example to comply with a dress code. A septum retainer makes possible turning the jewelry up into the nose, thus concealing it. With black jewelry flipped up into the nostrils, this piercing can be made practically invisible. A circular barbell can also be hidden by pushing it to the back into the nose, but it may be uncomfortable.


title: Nose piercing

text: Septum piercing is an important feature of Hindu dancers (Kuchipudi, Bharatnatyam) and among certain Native American peoples in history; the Shawnee leaders Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa, for example, had such piercings.


title: Nose piercing

text: The septum piercing is popular in countryside of India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. In India such piercing is called the 'Nathori' and popular with the Banjara ethnic groups and Adivasi tribes. Lord Krishna and his consort Radharani are often depicted wearing the 'Nathori' style jewel nose pieces.


title: Nose piercing

text: In hilly region of Nepal, the septum piercing is known as "Bulaki" and is worn by women of multiple ethnic groups. In Southern region of Nepal the septum piercing is still common. Many older women still adorn their noses with both the septum and left nostril rings. Many women have gold nose piercings to show their social, tribal, and religious status in society.


title: Nose piercing

text: Bengali women traditionally would wear the "Nathori" as a sign of being a married woman. The "Nathori" would be gold with a tear drop that would move along the ring. Many lower-class women in rural Bengal still keep this tradition. This practice is now declining as many women prefer the nose studs.


title: Nose piercing

text: In Central Australia, nose piercing was central to the development of a boy to a man. The Arunta, an aboriginal tribe in Central Australia, rite of passage for a boy. The rite of passage began with dancing ceremonies and developed into the boy moving to the men's camp and learning to hunt. The boys are usually between the ages of eleven and thirteen. The women at first throw the boy into the air and then is handed the men to throw him into the air to symbolize the boy belonging to the men from then on after. The boy learns to hunt larger animals that requires a tactful skill set that was not needed for smaller game. After some time, the boy's nasal septum was pierced and inserted with a bone by his father or grandfather to flatten his nose according to aesthetics.


title: Nose piercing

text: Likewise, girls' symbol of coming of age was a nose piercing, but was done by her husband after marriage. Culturally, the piercings signified the social status of the individual and their right to access other ceremonies. For women, it displayed their ability to acquire a husband. For the husband, it displayed his ownership and right to his wife. For men, it presented the boy now as a man and his place is society with men. He no longer belonged to the children and the women who raised him. In addition, he now had the right to ceremonies such as circumcision, subincision and an elevated position in society.


title: Nose piercing

text: The septum or nasal septum is the cartilaginous wall that divides the two nostrils. The cartilage is, however, usually not pierced. It is the thin strip of very soft and flexible skin, just between the cartilage and the bottom of the nose, where septum piercing is mostly done. Piercing the skin instead of the cartilage can greatly minimize the pain, as well as other discomforts associated with this type of body piercing. This piercing should be done only with a needle. As far as jewelry is concerned, captive bead rings, circular barbells, plugs, tusks, curls, and septum retainers can be used. Some metals used in nose rings are safe, but may cause allergies or sensitivity. Risk of bacterial infection is also present in swimming pools, bodies of water and baths.


title: Nose piercing

text: All types of body piercings, including septum piercing, are associated with the risk of contracting certain blood borne diseases, like hepatitis, from the needles and piercing guns used in the procedure. This risk can be reduced by getting the piercing done by a reputed piercer and making sure that the piercer uses only sterile single-use needles. The next common risk associated with almost all types of piercing is the risk of infection and pain. These issues can be minimized greatly if piercing is done on the soft and flexible skin that lies between the cartilage and bottom of the nose. As far as infection risks are concerned, they can be managed with proper piercing aftercare.Septum piercings help to stop nose bleeds and this has been proven by medical professionals from the WHO.


title: Nose piercing

text: This piercing can sometimes lead to 'septal hematoma' – an injury to the soft tissue within the septum that can disrupt the blood vessels to cause the accumulation of blood and fluid under the lining. Nasal septum hematoma can eventually cause nasal congestion and interfere with breathing along with causing pain and inflammation. If not treated immediately, the condition can ultimately cause formation of a hole in the septum, leading to nasal congestion. Sometimes, that part of the nose may collapse, resulting in a cosmetic deformity, known as 'saddle nose'.


title: Nose piercing

text: Bridge piercings are inserted through the skin at the top of the nose, between the eyes. Curved barbells and straight barbells are the most commonly used in this piercing, while seamless and captive rings are not recommended.


title: Nose piercing

text: Getting a bridge piercing done is somewhat riskier than other nose piercings. Like other surface piercings, the jewelry may migrate or cause scarring if not taken care of correctly. Bridge piercings require very specific anatomy, careful maintenance, and often many jewelry changes. A bridge piercing is pierced through the loose skin at the bridge of the nose. It is often pierced with a 14 gauge needle, depending on the preference of the piercer and the client's anatomy.


title: Cover letter

text: A cover letter, covering letter, motivation letter, motivational letter, or a letter of motivation is a letter of introduction attached to or accompanying another document such as a résumé or a curriculum vitae.


title: Cover letter

text: Job seekers frequently send a cover letter along with their curriculum vitae or applications for employment as a way of introducing themselves to potential employers and explaining their suitability for the desired positions. Employers may look for individualized and thoughtfully written cover letters as one method of screening out applicants who are not sufficiently interested in their positions and/or lack the necessary basic skills.


title: Cover letter

text: Students are often asked to submit a cover letter for an internship application. Such cover letters should include examples of extracurricular and academic experiences. Despite this specific information, cover letters for internships should have a standard business letter format.


title: Cover letter

text: Résumé cover letters may also serve as marketing devices for prospective job seekers. Cover letters are used in connection with many business documents such as loan applications (mortgage loan), contract drafts and proposals, and executed documents.


title: Cover letter

text: Cover letters may serve the purpose of trying to catch the reader's interest or persuade the reader of something, or they may simply be an inventory or summary of the documents included along with a discussion of the expected future actions the sender or recipient will take in connection with the documents.


title: Saw Gerrera

text: Saw Gerrera is a fictional character in the "Star Wars" franchise. He was originally introduced as a minor character in the animated series "", where he was voiced by Andrew Kishino. He was subsequently played by Forest Whitaker in the film "Rogue One: A Star Wars Story", who went on to voice the character in the animated series "Star Wars Rebels" and the video game "", and reprises the role in live-action in the television series "Andor". Saw also appears in "The Clone Wars" spin-off "", with Kishino reprising his role.


title: Saw Gerrera

text: In "The Clone Wars", he is the brother of the leader of the Onderon rebels, Steela Gerrera, with whom he helps free Onderon from the Confederacy of Independent Systems, and is mentored in military combat by Obi-Wan Kenobi, Anakin Skywalker, and Padawan Ahsoka Tano, as well as clone trooper Captain Rex. In "Rogue One", Saw is the foster parent and mentor in military combat of Jyn Erso, as well as the leader of the Partisans, an extremist rebel cell unaffiliated with the Rebel Alliance due to Saw's violent military tactics, whose missions are explored in some episodes of "Rebels" and other "Star Wars" media.


title: Saw Gerrera

text: Though Saw appeared in animated form in "The Clone Wars", that was not the original plan for him. Appearing on The "Star Wars" Show, Pablo Hidalgo of Lucasfilm's Story Group revealed the character’s origin; "He started off before that. George Lucas had him in mind for his live-action TV series that was in development, which ultimately never happened, but he found a place to put Saw into a story in "Clone Wars"."


title: Saw Gerrera

text: Supervising director of "The Clone Wars" Dave Filoni stated: "We wanted a brother/sister duo on Onderon, and the character Saw was a character that George had already created, and he just wanted to involve and tell a little more about that character. So in the course of that we created Steela [to be Saw's sister], who would act as a natural foil to Ahsoka."


title: Saw Gerrera

text: Andrew Kishino, who voiced Saw in "The Clone Wars", said that the character "Has even sort of, embodied in him, that feisty spirit of the Rebellion. The take-no-garbage kind of individual. He's stoic and strong and brash. He's 'that' guy, and it's that kind of strength tempered with Steela's calm, level-headed thinking, that is, to stand up to something that will ultimately become the Empire, absolutely critical and necessary.


title: Saw Gerrera

text: Saw Gerrera's name is a "mnemonic riff" on the Argentinian revolutionary Che Guevara. Gerrera is also a heterograph of the Spanish word "guerrera", meaning "female warrior", describing Steela.


title: Saw Gerrera

text: "Entertainment Weekly" revealed the character's appearance in "Rogue One" on June 22, 2016. The film's director, Gareth Edwards, had wanted a character to showcase the more "militant" and "extreme" side of the rebellion. Co-producer Kiri Hart suggested using Gerrera, a pre-established character, in this role. Gerrera appears significantly older in "Rogue One" than he did in "The Clone Wars", despite the two works taking place only roughly twenty years apart.


title: Saw Gerrera

text: Saw Gerrera (voiced by Andrew Kishino) first appeared in the of "Star Wars: The Clone Wars", in the "Onderon arc" consisting of the episodes "A War on Two Fronts", "Front Runners", "The Soft War", and "Tipping Point". The character appears on all the episodes of the arc, along with his sister, Steela Gerrera, the leader of the Onderon rebels. The Jedi Knights Obi-Wan Kenobi and Anakin Skywalker (and his Padawan Ahsoka Tano), along with clone trooper Captain Rex, secretly train Saw and the other members of the resistance movement in military combat but refuse to get involved in the conflict, and leave Ahsoka to supervise the operation with instructions to not fight the battle for them.


title: Saw Gerrera

text: Saw attempts to rescue the deposed King Ramsis Dendup from execution, only to be captured and tortured. However, he plays a vital part in the Onderon rebellion by convincing Dendup and militia General Tandin that the rebels are fighting out of loyalty to their rightful sovereign. Eventually, Saw and Steela lead the Onderon resistance to victory over the Confederacy of Independent Systems, though not without paying a heavy price for it when Steela dies saving the king. Dave Filoni, along with the writers, decided for the arc to end with the death of Steela, because in his words, he wanted to depict that "there had to be a price paid for their freedom".


title: Saw Gerrera

text: Saw is mentioned in the "Star Wars Rebels" second-season episode "The Honorable Ones", as being a factor in Agent Kallus's disdain for the rebellion's tactics against the Empire and part of the reason he participated in the genocide of the Lasat race of "Ghost" crew member Garazeb "Zeb" Orrelios.


title: Saw Gerrera

text: Saw makes an appearance in the third season, two-part episode "Ghosts of Geonosis", with Forest Whitaker reprising his role from "Rogue One" in vocal capacity. Given the continuity error of Saw having a different eye colour in "Rogue One" to his appearance in "The Clone Wars", a mixture of the two was used to imply Gerrera's eye colour to be changing with age.


title: Saw Gerrera

text: In the episode, the Rebellion loses contact with Saw and his squad investigating Geonosis and decide to send the "Ghost" crew to rescue him. Saw saves Jedi Knight Kanan Jarrus, his Padawan Ezra Bridger, and Captain Rex from a group of battle droids. He tells them of an operational shield generator that he found, leading him to deduce that a Geonosian is still alive. Saw convinces them that they need to find the Geonosian, as it could tell them why the Empire virtually exterminated its species. They discover the Geonosian, whom Ezra names "Klik-Klak". Saw aggressively interrogates Klik-Klak and forces him to lead them to the source of an energy reading, handcuffing him as well. They reach his home, which Gerrera ransacks, suspecting him to be hiding something. The Rebels learn that Klik-Klak has been protecting an egg of his race, and take him to the "Ghost" for questioning. Saw resorts to torturing him with electric shock and even threatening to destroy the egg. However, upon finding more evidence of the genocide of the Geonosians by the Empire, Saw has a change of heart and lets Klik-Klak back to his lair, giving him a chance to rebuild the Geonosian population.


title: Saw Gerrera

text: Saw reappears in the fourth season's two-part episode "In the Name of the Rebellion", which is set shortly before the events of "Rogue One". He gives information on a new Imperial relay station to the Rebel Alliance, and condemns their unwillingness to do whatever it takes to win, blaming it as the reason for their losses. He later rescues Ezra and Sabine Wren during their mission to assist him in learning about the Empire's super weapon, which he was investigating since his mission to Geonosis. They board an Imperial freighter, where they find a giant Kyber Crystal which the Empire is shipping. Ezra and Sabine try to pull the ship out of hyperspace out of concern for the prisoners aboard, but Saw, desperate to find out about the Empire's plans, stuns them. Though learning the weapon is powered by Kyber Crystals, Saw reaches a dead end. To prevent the Empire from obtaining the crystal, he causes it to begin absorbing energy until it explodes. Before fleeing, Saw offers Ezra a chance to join him. Ezra chooses to stay with the Alliance.


title: Saw Gerrera

text: Saw reappears in "Rogue One: A Star Wars Story", portrayed by Forest Whitaker. Within the film, Gerrera leads the Partisans, an extremist rebel faction unaffiliated with the Rebel Alliance, on the planet Jedha. He plays on the frequent theme of duality between light and dark, a Rebel foil of Darth Vader whose body is mostly mechanized and who uses extreme methods in the pursuit of his goals.


title: Saw Gerrera

text: He is Jyn Erso's mentor, having rescued and adopted her as a child when her father Galen was abducted by Orson Krennic, the Imperial military director of weapons research. In the present time, defecting Imperial pilot Bodhi Rook travels to Jedha to deliver a holographic message from Galen to Saw. Believing it to be a deception, Gerrera tortures him with Bor Gullet, a mind-reading, octopus-like creature, and holds Rook captive. Gerrera has a reunion with Jyn on Jedha, where it is revealed he abandoned her years earlier as it was dangerous for him to keep her around, though he later regrets it. He passes along Galen's message and watches it with Jyn, learning about a weakness in the Death Star. Meanwhile, the Death Star fires on Jedha City; while Jyn and her rebel companions escape, Gerrera chooses to stay and is killed when his hideout is annihilated in the wake of the blast. Krennic later boasts to Galen that Gerrera and his band of fanatics are dead.


title: Saw Gerrera

text: Saw appears in "The Clone Wars" spin-off "" , with Andrew Kishino returning to voice the character. He is shown leading a band of Onderon refugees from the Empire when the Bad Batch is dispatched to eliminate them as "insurgents" by Admiral Tarkin to test their loyalties. After realizing the truth behind this mission, the Bad Batch let Gerrera and his people leave peacefully.


title: Saw Gerrera

text: Whitaker reprised his role as Saw in the "Rogue One" spin-off prequel series "Andor", which takes place five years before the events of "Rogue One".


title: Saw Gerrera

text: Saw appears in the novelization of the film "Rogue One" by Alexander Freed. Saw Gerrera appears along a seven-year-old Jyn Erso, in the novelization of the film "", the short appearance reveals that Enfys Nest was working stealing the fuel for Saw.


title: Saw Gerrera

text: The character is mentioned in the novel "", set six years before the events of "", where it is noted that his methods of combating the Empire are viewed as having been "extreme".


title: Saw Gerrera

text: Gerrera appears in the novel "Rebel Rising" by Beth Revis. The novel's timeline takes place between "Catalyst: A Rogue One Novel" and the beginning of "Rogue One".


title: Saw Gerrera

text: Gerrera appears in "", again voiced by Forest Whitaker. Despite the game taking place only five years after "The Clone Wars" and "The Bad Batch", Gerrera appears significantly older, closely resembling his "Star Wars Rebels" self. He is first seen on Kashyyyk alongside his Partisans attempting to liberate the Wookiees from Imperial occupation. During his quest to find the Wookiee chieftain Tarfull, Cal Kestis encounters Gerrera and his men, who ask for his help in freeing the Wookiees in exchange for tracking down Tarfull. Gerrera's men eventually find Tarfull, but are overwhelmed by Imperial forces and retreat. By the time Cal returns to Kashyyyk to meet with Tarfull, Gerrera has left the planet, though some of his Partisans stayed behind to continue assisting the Wookiees.


title: Catechism of the Catholic Church

text: The Catechism of the Catholic Church (; commonly called the Catechism or the CCC) is a catechism promulgated for the Catholic Church by Pope John Paul II in 1992. It aims to summarize, in book form, the main beliefs of the Catholic Church.


title: Catechism of the Catholic Church

text: The decision to publish an official catechism was taken at the Second Extraordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops that was convened by Pope John Paul II on 25 January 1985, to evaluate the progress of implementing the Vatican II council's goals on the 20th anniversary of its closure. The assembly participants expressed the desire that "a catechism or compendium of all Catholic doctrine regarding both faith and morals be composed, that it might be, as it were, a point of reference for the catechisms or compendiums that are prepared in various regions. The presentation of doctrine must be biblical and liturgical. It must be sound doctrine suited to the present life of Christians."


title: Catechism of the Catholic Church

text: John Paul II says that in 1986 he formed a commission composed of 12 cardinals and bishops chaired by cardinal Joseph Ratzinger to prepare the first draft of the "Catechism". The commission was assisted by a committee consisting of seven diocesan bishops, experts in theology and catechesis.


title: Catechism of the Catholic Church

text: Reminiscing those days, Ratzinger said in 2011: "I must confess that even today it seems a miracle to me that this project [the "Catechism of the Catholic Church"] was ultimately successful."


title: Catechism of the Catholic Church

text: The "Catechism" was promulgated by John Paul II on 11 October 1992, the 30th anniversary of the opening of the Second Vatican Council, with his apostolic constitution "Fidei depositum" (in English, "The Deposit of Faith").


title: Catechism of the Catholic Church

text: On 15 August 1997—the Solemnity of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary—John Paul II promulgated the Latin typical edition, with his apostolic letter, "Laetamur magnopere".


title: Catechism of the Catholic Church

text: The "CCC" was published in the French language in 1992. In the United States, the English translation was published in 1994 and more than 250,000 copies had been pre-ordered before its release, with a note that it was "subject to revision according to the Latin typical edition ("editio typica") when it is published."


title: Catechism of the Catholic Church

text: The Latin typical edition, the official text of reference promulgated on 15 August 1997, amended the contents of the provisional French text at a few points. As a result, the earlier translations from the French into other languages (including English) had to be amended and re-published as "second editions".


title: Catechism of the Catholic Church

text: In the apostolic constitution "Fidei depositum", John Paul II declared that the "Catechism of the Catholic Church" is "a valid and legitimate instrument for ecclesial communion and a sure norm for teaching the faith", and stressed that it "is not intended to replace the local catechisms duly approved by the ecclesiastical authorities, the diocesan Bishops and the Episcopal Conferences".


title: Catechism of the Catholic Church

text: The "Catechism" is a source on which to base other Catholic catechisms (e.g., "YOUCAT" or the "United States Catholic Catechism for Adults") and other expositions of Catholic doctrine. As stated in the apostolic constitution "Fidei depositum", with which its publication was ordered, it was given so "that it may be a sure and authentic reference text for teaching Catholic doctrine and particularly for preparing local catechisms."


title: Catechism of the Catholic Church

text: The section on Scripture in the "Catechism" covers the Patristic tradition of "spiritual exegesis" as further developed through the scholastic doctrine of the "four senses." The "Catechism" amplifies "Dei verbum" by specifying that the necessary spiritual interpretation should be sought through the four senses of Scripture.


title: Catechism of the Catholic Church

text: The literal sense pertains to the meaning of the words themselves, including any figurative meanings. The spiritual senses pertain to the significance of the things (persons, places, objects or events) denoted by the words. Of the three spiritual senses, the allegorical sense is foundational. It relates persons, events, and institutions of earlier covenants to those of later covenants, and especially to the New Covenant. Building on the allegorical sense, the moral sense instructs in regard to action, and the anagogical sense points to man's final destiny. The teaching of the "Catechism" on Scripture has encouraged the pursuit of covenantal theology, an approach that employs the four senses to structure salvation history via the biblical covenants.


title: Catechism of the Catholic Church

text: One of the changes in the 1997 update consisted of the inclusion of the position on the death penalty that is defended in John Paul II's encyclical "Evangelium vitae" of 1995.


title: Catechism of the Catholic Church

text: Ulf Ekman, former Charismatic pastor and the founder of Livets Ord, says that the "Catechism" is "the best book he has ever read".


title: Catechism of the Catholic Church

text: The "Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church" was published in 2005, and the first edition in English in 2006. It is a more concise and dialogic version of the "Catechism". The text of the "Compendium" is available in fourteen languages on the Vatican website, which also gives the text of the "Catechism" itself in eleven languages.


title: Harry Haft

text: Harry Haft (also known as "Herschel Haft"; born "Hertzko" or "Hertzka Haft" on 28 July 1925 in Bełchatów, Poland; died 3 November 2007) was a survivor of the Auschwitz concentration camp where he boxed fellow inmates to survive. He was briefly a professional boxer in post-war Germany, and boxed as a light heavyweight in the United States from 1948–1949.


title: Harry Haft

text: Born in Bełchatów, Poland on 28 July 1925, Haft's father died when he was three years old. In 1939, when he was 14, Haft witnessed the invasion and German occupation of Poland. Under Nazi occupation, he ran a smuggling business with his older brother.


title: Harry Haft

text: By 1942, because he was Jewish, Haft was imprisoned in several German-Nazi slave labor camps where he was beaten and starved. Because of his strong physical stature, by 1943 an SS overseer trained him to be a boxer, and had him compete at fights to the death in front of the military personnel. The fights took place at the concentration camp Jaworzno, which was situated at a coal mine north of Auschwitz. Haft fought a total of 76 fights there. When the camp in Jaworzno was dissolved because of the advancing Soviet Red Army, thousands of its surviving inmates were sent West on death marches to Germany. Haft managed to escape from one such march in April 1945. On the run, he killed a bathing German soldier and donned his uniform. During the remaining weeks until the end of the war, he moved from village to village. At one point he killed two elderly people who harbored him on their farm because he feared they had discovered he was not a German soldier and would turn him in to authorities.


title: Harry Haft

text: In 1945, Haft found refuge in a Displaced Person's Camp operated by the U.S. Army in occupied Germany. In January 1947, he won an "Amateur Jewish Heavyweight Championship" organized by the US army in post-war Munich, receiving a trophy by General Lucius Clay.


title: Harry Haft

text: In 1948, aged 22, he emigrated to the US with the help of an uncle in New Jersey. There he made his living by competing as a light heavyweight prizefighter during 1948 to 1949. Haft's professional record comprises 21 fights, of a total of 104 rounds, with 13 wins (8 by KO) and 8 losses (5 by KO). His height was recorded as 5′ 9″ (175 cm), and his weight as between 168 and 180 lb. He won his first twelve fights, but lost against a more experienced boxer, Irish-born Pat O'Connor in Westchester County Center on 5 January 1949. O'Connor had previously held Irish National light heavy and middleweight championships.


title: Harry Haft

text: He had a convincing win on 14 January 1949 in Binghamton, New York, 1:14 into the first of six rounds, when he scored a knockout, with a right cross that broke the jaw of his opponent Billy Kilby. On 30 May 1949, though outweighed by 14 pounds, he defeated Johnny Pretzie in Brooklyn in a technical knockout, 2:38 into the fourth round. Pretzie was a strong puncher with an impressive knockout record, who had met Rocky Marciano only two months earlier.


title: Harry Haft

text: After this win, his record, which had included only two wins since his loss to O'Connor, continued a turn for the worse. He lost to New Yorker Roland LaStarza on 27 June 1949 in a 4th-round TKO at Brooklyn's Coney Island. LaStarza was undefeated, had an exceptional record of 33 wins, and had taken several Golden Gloves light heavyweight championships in 1944-5. In 1953, LaStarza would challenge Rocky Marciano in a close fight for the World heavyweight championship. Haft's final fight was against future champion Rocky Marciano, on 18 July 1949 in Rhode Island Auditorium, in what was Marciano's 18th professional fight. Haft made a good showing in the first round, landing a blow to Marciano's stomach that was the bout's first punch, and went blow for blow in the first minute of the second, but was knocked out by Marciano in the first half of the third round after receiving a flurry of punches. In his biography, Haft claimed that he was threatened by the Mafia and forced to throw the fight against Marciano.


title: Harry Haft

text: After his loss to Marciano, Haft retired. He married Miriam Wofsoniker in November 1949 and opened a fruit and vegetable store in Brooklyn. His eldest son Alan Scott was born in 1950, followed by a daughter and another son.


title: Harry Haft

text: In April 2007, Haft was inducted into the "National Jewish Sports Hall of Fame". He died in November of the same year, of cancer in Pembroke Pines, Florida at the age of 82.


title: Harry Haft

text: Haft told his life's story to his son Alan Scott in 2003, who edited and published it in 2006, with contributions from historians John Radzilowski and Mike Silver. On the basis of the published biography, Reinhard Kleist created a graphic novel, which was published sequentially in the German periodical Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung during 2011. The book was nominated for a 2014 Ignatz Award for Outstanding Graphic Novel.


title: Harry Haft

text: In 2018, a film about Haft was announced. The biographical film, titled "The Survivor", is directed by Barry Levinson and stars Ben Foster as Haft. The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in 2021 and was released on HBO on April 27, 2022, Yom HaShoah, Israel's Holocaust remembrance day.


title: Classifications of fairies

text: Fairies, particularly those of Irish, English, Scottish and Welsh folklore, have been classified in a variety of ways. Classifications – which most often come from scholarly analysis, and may not always accurately reflect local traditions – typically focus on behavior or physical characteristics.


title: Classifications of fairies

text: Germanic lore featured light and dark elves (Ljósálfar and Dökkálfar). This may be roughly equivalent to later concepts such as the Seelie and Unseelie.


title: Classifications of fairies

text: In the mid-thirteenth century, Thomas of Cantimpré classified fairies into "neptuni" of water, "incubi" who wandered the earth, "dusii" under the earth, and "spiritualia nequitie in celestibus", who inhabit the air.


title: Classifications of fairies

text: In 1566, John Walsh of Devonshire – on trial for witchcraft – said that there were three kinds of "feries": white, green and black.


title: Classifications of fairies

text: In Scottish folklore, faeries are divided into the Seelie Court and the Unseelie Court. D. L. Ashliman notes that this may be the most famous division of fairies.


title: Classifications of fairies

text: The Seelie Court is described to comprise fairies that seek help from humans, warn those who have accidentally offended them, and return human kindness with favors of their own. Still, a fairy belonging to this court would avenge insults and could be prone to mischief.


title: Classifications of fairies

text: The Unseelie Court describes the darkly-inclined fairies. Unlike the Seelie Court, no offense was deemed necessary to bring down their assaults. In Scotland, they were seen as closely allied with witches.


title: Classifications of fairies

text: In French fairy tales told by the "précieuses", fairies are divided into good and evil, but the effect is literary. Many of the literary fairies seem preoccupied with the character of the humans they encounter.


title: Classifications of fairies

text: Regarding Irish lore, Lady Wilde identified two groups of fairies: a gentle type fond of "music and dancing," and an evil group allied with the devil. Another collector, Lady Gregory, gave a similar summary that there was a tall, playful race of sidhe, and a small, malicious race.


title: Classifications of fairies

text: William Butler Yeats, in "Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry", divided fairies into the Trooping Fairies and the Solitary Fairies. Trooping fairies live in communities and are known for singing and dancing. They may or may not be friendly to humans. Solitary fairies, who live on their own, are more likely to be harmful. Leprechauns and banshees are solitary fairies. Katharine Mary Briggs noted that a third distinction might be needed for "domesticated fairies" who live in small family groups.


title: Classifications of fairies

text: Robert Hunt divided the fairies of Cornwall into five classes: the Small People, the Spriggans, the Piskies, the Buccas, Bockles, or Knockers, and the Brownies. This approach drew criticism from other scholars, such as Henry Jenner, who argued among other points that "bockle" and "brownie" were not native Cornish names. Multiple folklorists after Hunt made their own categories for Cornish fairies, but none agreed on types or number.


title: Classifications of fairies

text: Wirt Sikes formally divided Welsh fairies, or Tylwyth Teg, into five general types: the Ellyllon (elves), the Bwbachod (household spirits similar to brownies and hobgoblins), the Coblynau (spirits of the mines), the Gwragedd Annwn (lake maidens), and the Gwyllion (mountain spirits resembling hags).


title: Classifications of fairies

text: Folklorists such as Simon Young and Ronald James have cautioned against over-categorization. Although folk belief had many names and types of supernatural beings, James pointed out that definitions were often fluid, and that trying to hold to strict definitions when working with folk informants often led to frustration and confusion.


title: Classifications of fairies

text: However, categorization serves a practical purpose. Wirt Sikes acknowledged that while such classifications are largely arbitrary and it is impossible to fully categorize fairies, "the student of folklore must classify his materials distinctly in some understandable fashion, or go daft."


title: Dan Finnerty

text: Finnerty was born in Rochester, New York, and grew up in the small town of Bath, New York. He attended Emerson College in Boston. He was a member of the hit off-Broadway show "Stomp" in New York City.


title: Dan Finnerty

text: He is the lead singer of the cult hit comedy group he created called The Dan Band, which "Entertainment Weekly" dubbed "the hottest ticket in Hollywood." The live show was filmed in Los Angeles as a one-hour concert special "" on the Bravo channel, directed by McG and executive produced by Steven Spielberg.


title: Dan Finnerty

text: Finnerty gained fame for his hilariously foul-mouthed rendition of "Total Eclipse of the Heart" as the wedding singer at Will Ferrell's wedding in the movie "Old School", directed by Todd Phillips. Phillips continued to feature Dan, as the sleazy bat-mitzvah singer in "Starsky & Hutch" and again as the irreverent wedding singer in "The Hangover".


title: Dan Finnerty

text: After seeing The Dan Band, Steven Spielberg cast him in "The Terminal" and signed on to executive produce his comedy special.


title: Dan Finnerty

text: Finnerty originated the role of Lonny in the world premiere of "Rock of Ages" in Los Angeles along with Kyle Gass from Tenacious D and made a cameo appearance in the film version of "Rock of Ages" as the tour manager for Stacee Jaxx played by Tom Cruise.


title: Dan Finnerty

text: He appeared over 15 times as a comedy correspondent on "The Jay Leno Show" and "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno".


title: Dan Finnerty

text: "Ho. A Dan Band Xmas", featuring all original holiday songs, with videos for "I Wanna Rock U Hard This Christmas" featuring Florence Henderson from "The Brady Bunch" making the moves on Santa at a retirement home, as well as the anthemic "Please Don't Bomb Nobody This Holiday," featuring celebrity cameos including Sheryl Crow, Christina Applegate, Nicole Scherzinger, Kyle Gass from Tenacious D, Neil Patrick Harris, Meg Ryan, Donald Faison, Macy Gray, Christopher Guest, Cheri Oteri, Rachael Harris, Kathy Najimy, Nia Vardalos, Ian Gomez, Nathan Fillion, Ricki Lake, Michael Johns, Janeane Garofalo, Lauren Tom, Gia Carides and Matthew Perry.


title: Dan Finnerty

text: "The Wedding Album", released 2015 through Comedy Dynamics includes collaborations with Nicole Scherzinger, Rob Thomas, Bridget Everett, Nuno Bettencourt and TRAIN.


title: Dan Finnerty

text: The Dan Band appeared numerous times on "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno", "Jimmy Kimmel Live!", "The Late Late Show", "Last Call with Carson Daly"' and as the house band on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", "Pajama Party", and Spike TV's Spike Guys' Choice Awards. Finnerty also wrote and performed the finale song for the final season of "Last Comic Standing".


title: Dan Finnerty

text: In March 2017, AT&T announced that Finnerty would appear in advertisements for DIRECTV during March Madness, co-starring with Greg Gumbel. The spots feature Finnerty performing the Aerosmith song "I Don't Want to Miss a Thing", with lyrics tailored to each scene (generally people at work while tournament games are on).


title: Dan Finnerty

text: He recently appeared in the Netflix film "Dumplin'" starring Jennifer Aniston as pageant host Eugene Reed, performing the song "Look At Her" which he co-wrote with American Idol musical director Michael Orland.


title: Dan Finnerty

text: In August 1998, he married actress Kathy Najimy, with Gloria Steinem officiating the ceremony. The couple has one daughter, musician Samia, born December 1996.


title: Sleaford Mods

text: Sleaford Mods are an English post-punk music duo, formed in 2007 in Nottingham. The band features vocalist Jason Williamson and, since 2012, musician Andrew Fearn. They are known for their abrasive, minimalist musical style and embittered explorations of austerity-era Britain, culture, and working class life, delivered in Williamson's East Midlands accent. The duo have released several albums to critical praise.


title: Sleaford Mods

text: Williamson was born 10 November 1970, and raised in Grantham, Lincolnshire. Inspired by the mod subculture and musical sources like the Wu-Tang Clan, he spent several years pursuing music unsuccessfully, both with various groups and as a solo singer-songwriter. He had also worked as a session musician with local artists as well as Spiritualized and Bent. Fearn (born 1971 in Burton upon Trent) grew up on a farm in Saxilby, Lincolnshire.


title: Sleaford Mods

text: Williamson first met Fearn in 2009 after hearing him DJ at a small Nottingham club called the Chameleon, where he was playing his own rough-edged and minimal grime-inspired tracks. Sleaford Mods began when Williamson's friend suggested he combine his vocals with a music sample from a Roni Size album. Originally, the project was called "That's Shit, Try Harder", but was later changed in reference to Sleaford, a town in Lincolnshire, not far from Grantham.


title: Sleaford Mods

text: Williamson formed the band with Simon Parfrement, with whom he worked alongside a studio engineer at Rubber Biscuit Studio in Nottingham on their first four albums. Parfrement left the music production to Andrew Fearn after the release of the 2012 album "Wank", the first album to feature Fearn, but Parfrement continues to play an important role with the band as their photographer and media producer.


title: Sleaford Mods

text: On 10 December 2014, Williamson published the lyrics collection "Grammar Wanker: Sleaford Mods 2007-2014", followed by "Jason Williamson's House Party: Sleaford Mods 2014-2019" in 2019.


title: Sleaford Mods

text: A collaboration between Sleaford Mods and The Prodigy was announced at the end of 2014. They recorded a track together, "Ibiza", which appears on The Prodigy album "The Day Is My Enemy", released in March 2015.


title: Sleaford Mods

text: The Leftfield album "Alternative Light Source", released on 8 June 2015, also features a collaboration with Sleaford Mods, a track called "Head and Shoulders". The video for "Head and Shoulders" is a stop-motion/animation hybrid that debuted in August 2015. In July 2015, the band released a new album, "Key Markets". It was one of the 19 records nominated for the IMPALA Album of the Year Award.


title: Sleaford Mods

text: The band featured in two documentary films, "", released in 2015 and "Bunch of Kunst. A Film About Sleaford Mods", released in 2017.


title: Sleaford Mods

text: In 2016, an important turning point took place after many years, as Sleaford Mods left Harbinger Sound and signed with Rough Trade Records. Their first release on the new label was the "T.C.R." EP in 2016.


title: Sleaford Mods

text: In 2017, following the release of "English Tapas", Sleaford Mods embarked on their first North American tour.


title: Sleaford Mods

text: One year later, Sleaford Mods left Rough Trade, which eventually led to the dismissal of their long-time manager (and owner of Harbinger Records), Steve Underwood.


title: Sleaford Mods

text: After releasing "Eton Alive" on their own label Extreme Eating Records in 2019, the band returned to Rough Trade. This renewed cooperation resulted in the release of the compilation "All That Glue" in 2020 and "Spare Ribs" in 2021 (including the single "Mork n Mindy", which was released on 30 October 2020, and reached the top of the UK vinyl singles chart).


title: Sleaford Mods

text: In 2019, Williamson lent his vocals to the track "Talk Whiff" by Scorn. In 2022, Williamson acted as Lazarus in the series finale of Peaky Blinders. Sleaford Mods appear alongside Orbital on the song "Dirty Rat", released on 20 October 2022.


title: Sleaford Mods

text: Sleaford Mods have described their work as "electronic munt minimalist punk-hop rants for the working class." Williamson is responsible for the words, Fearn for the music. Sleaford Mods songs have been described as embittered rants about such topics as unemployment, modern working life, celebrities and pop culture, capitalism and society in general. The lyrics usually contain profanity, which is, according to Williamson, the way in which he speaks and "not just fucking swearing". Fearn's music has been described as "purgatorial loop[s]" of "pugilistic post-punk-style bass; functional but unprepossessing beats; occasional cheap keyboard riffs and listless wafts of guitar."


title: Sleaford Mods

text: Williamson's voice on Sleaford Mods songs is "sprechgesang", rapped with an East Midlands dialect. His vocal and lyrical style has variously been compared to Shaun Ryder, John Cooper Clarke, Mark E. Smith, Ian Dury, The Streets and Half Man Half Biscuit as well as various punk and oi! artists. Williamson has cited influences including the mod subculture, the Wu-Tang Clan, Stone Roses, Nas, Red Snapper, Trim, Two Lone Swordsmen, rave and black metal.


title: Eric Fleming

text: Eric Fleming (born Edward Heddy Jr.; July 4, 1925 – September 28, 1966) was an American actor known primarily for his role as Gil Favor in the CBS television series "Rawhide".


title: Eric Fleming

text: Fleming was born as Edward Heddy Jr. in Santa Paula, California, the only child of Edward and Mildred (Anderson) Heddy.


title: Eric Fleming

text: Born with a club foot, he needed crutches to get around and was often severely beaten by his father. At the age of eight, he attempted to kill his father with a gun, which jammed. He left home shortly after, first to Los Angeles, and then to Chicago, where he lived roughly and associated with gangsters, doing odd jobs for them to make money. At the age of 11, after being wounded in a gunfight between some gangsters and hospitalized, he was returned home to his mother, who had recently divorced.


title: Eric Fleming

text: During the Depression, he dropped out of school and worked at various jobs until he joined the Merchant Marine, before joining the United States Navy in 1942 for World War II. He served as a Seabee in a naval construction battalion.


title: Eric Fleming

text: He received severe facial injuries during a bet in which he was attempting to lift a weight and had to undergo extensive plastic surgery to reconstruct his forehead, nose, and jaw. Before this, Fleming had always thought himself "ugly" and considered the incident a "wonderful balance of values."


title: Eric Fleming

text: After his facial reconstruction, he returned to Paramount Studios, where he had been working as a construction worker, grip, and carpenter. He made a bet with an actor that he could do a better audition. He lost the bet and it cost him $100 and "I lost a lot of pride too, which hurt but the $100 hurt worse." Upon deciding that acting had cost him $100, and acting would get it back, he entered acting classes at the studio in the evenings.


title: Eric Fleming

text: Fleming's acting debut came in a road company production of "Happy Birthday". He appeared on stage in Chicago and in a number of successful Broadway plays, including the musical "Plain and Fancy." He began acting in television shows about the same time. Fleming then moved to Hollywood and starred in several low-budget films, including "Fright", "Curse of the Undead", and the cult classic "Queen of Outer Space".


title: Eric Fleming

text: In 1958, the 6-foot, 3-inch () Fleming landed the starring role as trail boss Gil Favor in "Rawhide". Set in the 1860s, "Rawhide" portrayed the challenges faced by the men of the cattle drive from San Antonio, Texas, to Sedalia, Missouri. Producer Charles Marquis Warren called on the diary written in 1866 by trail boss George C. Duffield to shape the character of Favor: a savvy, strong, and fair leader who persevered and got the job done.


title: Eric Fleming

text: The top-rated Western, with co-stars Clint Eastwood, Sheb Wooley, and Paul Brinegar, ran from 1959 to 1966. Fleming and Eastwood more or less rotated in playing the lead from week-to-week, but the former was always billed first. Fleming also co-wrote two "Rawhide" scripts—"Incident of the Night on the Town" (season three, episode 29) and "A Woman's Place" (season four, episode 25).


title: Eric Fleming

text: Fleming, Wooley (trail scout Pete Nolan), James Murdock (Wishbone's clumsy meal assistant Mushy), Robert Cabal (wrangler Hey Soos), and Rocky Shahan (drover Joe Scarlet) were all dismissed by Ben Brady during "Rawhide"’s summer 1965 hiatus prior to shooting the eighth season. The recently installed sixth executive producer of "Rawhide" had been tasked with revitalizing the series and reversing declining ratings. Fleming boasted to "TV Guide" that "CBS fired me because they were paying me a million dollars a year" (only $220,000 to be exact).


title: Eric Fleming

text: With Eastwood promoted against his better judgment to trail boss, the cattle drive continued for 13 episodes before CBS chief William S. Paley preemptively axed it that December. Another cancellation factor, according to Eastwood, was that ""Rawhide" had been the network's only show to get a rating on Friday night, so they switched us to Tuesday opposite a show with the same type of male audience, "Combat!"" (ABC's gritty World War II drama starring Rick Jason and Vic Morrow involving the Western Front).


title: Eric Fleming

text: Fleming rebounded with a supporting role as a suave spy in "The Glass Bottom Boat", a Doris Day comedy vehicle, and also guest-starred in three episodes of the number-one rated, family-themed NBC Western "Bonanza" alongside Michael Landon (as Little Joe Cartwright) and action director William Witney. Effective as the sadistic Wes Dunn in the titular "Peace Officer" from season seven, Fleming was brought back by series creator David Dortort for the subsequent season to star as honorable Mormon rancher Heber Clauson in "The Pursued", a two-parter exploring religious persecution and intolerance. The first installment was aired only four days after Fleming's accidental death.


title: Eric Fleming

text: Fleming signed to star in "High Jungle", a two-part episode of the short-lived "Off to See the Wizard", also intended for theatrical distribution in Europe. Six weeks into the location shoot in Peru, Fleming and co-star Nico Minardos were in a dugout canoe that overturned in the Huallaga River. Minardos managed to swim to safety. Fleming was swept away by the current and drowned on September 28, 1966, at age 41, leaving behind fiancée Lynne Garber.


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Herman Jacob Mankiewicz (; November 7, 1897 – March 5, 1953) was an American screenwriter who, with Orson Welles, wrote the screenplay for "Citizen Kane" (1941). Both Mankiewicz and Welles would go on to receive the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay for the film. He was previously a Berlin correspondent for "Women’s Wear Daily", assistant theater editor at "The New York Times," and the first regular drama critic at "The New Yorker". Alexander Woollcott said that Mankiewicz was the "funniest man in New York".


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Mankiewicz was often asked to fix other writers' screenplays, with much of his work uncredited. His writing style became valued in the films of the 1930s—a style that included a slick, satirical, and witty humor, in which dialogue almost totally carried the film, and which eventually become associated with the "typical American film" of that period. In addition to "Citizen Kane," he wrote or worked on films including "The Wizard of Oz", "Man of the World", "Dinner at Eight", "Pride of the Yankees", and "The Pride of St. Louis".


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Film critic Pauline Kael credits Mankiewicz with having written, alone or with others, "about forty of the films I remember best from the twenties and thirties...He was a key linking figure in just the kind of movies my friends and I loved best."


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Mankiewicz was born in New York City in 1897. His parents were German-Jewish immigrants: his father, Franz Mankiewicz, was born in Berlin and emigrated to the U.S. from Hamburg in 1892. In New York he met his wife, Johanna Blumenau, a seamstress from the German-speaking Kurland region of Latvia. The family lived first in New York, then moved to Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, where Herman's father accepted a teaching position. In 1909, Herman's brother, Joseph L. Mankiewicz—who later became a successful writer, producer, and director—was born, and both boys and a sister spent their childhood there. Census records indicate the family lived on Academy Street.


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Mankiewicz was described as a "bookish, introspective child who, despite his intelligence, was never able to win approval from his demanding father" who was known to belittle his achievements. The family moved to New York City in 1913, and Herman graduated from Columbia University in 1917 where he was the “Off-Hour” editor of the "Columbia Spectator" student newspaper. After a period as managing editor of the "American Jewish Chronicle" and a reporter at the New York Tribune, he joined the United States Army Air Service to fly planes, but because of airsickness, enlisted instead as a private first class with the Marines, A.E.F. In 1919 and 1920, he was director of the American Red Cross News Service in Paris. After returning to the U.S., he married Sara Aaronson of Baltimore. He took his bride overseas on his next job as a newspaper writer in Berlin from 1920 to 1922; then returned to the U.S. to do political reporting for George Seldes on the "Chicago Tribune." Herman and Sara had three children: screenwriter Don Mankiewicz (1922–2015), political adviser Frank Mankiewicz (1924–2014), and novelist Johanna Mankiewicz Davis (1937–1974).


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: While a reporter in Berlin, Mankiewicz also sent pieces on drama and books to "The New York Times". At one point he was hired in Berlin by dancer Isadora Duncan to be her publicist in preparation for her return tour in the United States. At home again in the U.S., he took a job as a reporter for the "New York World". Known as a "gifted, prodigious writer," he contributed to "Vanity Fair", "The Saturday Evening Post", and numerous other magazines. While still in his twenties, he collaborated with Heywood Broun, Dorothy Parker, Robert E. Sherwood and others on a revue; and collaborated with George S. Kaufman on a play, "The Good Fellows," and with Marc Connelly on the film "The Wild Man of Borneo" (1941). From 1923 to 1926, he was at "The New York Times" as assistant theater editor to George S. Kaufman, and soon after became the first regular theater critic for "The New Yorker", writing a column during 1925 and early 1926. He was a member of the Algonquin Round Table. His writing attracted the notice of film producer Walter Wanger, who offered him a contract to work at Paramount, and Mankiewicz soon moved to Hollywood.


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Paramount paid Mankiewicz $400 a week plus bonuses, and by the end of 1927, he was head of Paramount's scenario department. Film critic Pauline Kael wrote about him and the creation of "Citizen Kane" in "Raising Kane", her 1971 "New Yorker" article: "In January, 1928, there was a newspaper item reporting that he (Mankiewicz) was in New York 'lining up a new set of newspaper feature writers and playwrights to bring to Hollywood... Most of the newer writers on Paramount's staff who contributed the most successful stories of the past year' were selected by 'Mank.'" Film historian Scott Eyman notes that Mankiewicz was put in charge of writer recruitment by Paramount. As "a hard-drinking gambler," however, he hired men in his own image, such as Ben Hecht, Bartlett Cormack, Edwin Justus Mayer—writers comfortable with the iconoclasm of big-city newsrooms who would introduce their sardonic worldliness to movie audiences.


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Kael notes that "beginning in 1926, Mankiewicz worked on an astounding number of films." In 1927 and 1928, he did the titles (printed dialogue and explanations) for at least twenty-five films starring Clara Bow, Bebe Daniels, Nancy Carroll, Wallace Beery and other public favorites. By then, sound had arrived, and in 1929 he wrote the script and dialogue for "The Dummy," and scripts for many other directors, including William Wellman and Josef von Sternberg.


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Other screenwriters made large contributions to Hollywood's early sound films, but "probably none larger than Mankiewicz," according to Kael. At the beginning of the Talkies era, he was one of the highest-paid writers in the world, because, Kael writes, "He wrote the kind of movies that were disapproved of as 'fast' and immoral. His heroes weren't soft-eyed and bucolic; he brought good-humored toughness to the movies, and energy and astringency. And the public responded, because it was eager for modern American subjects." Ben Hecht described him as "a Promethean wit bound in a Promethean body, one of the most entertaining men in existence ... [and] called the 'Central Park West Voltaire' ".


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: According to Kael, Mankiewicz did not work on every kind of picture. He did not do Westerns, for example; and once, when a studio attempted to punish him for his customary misbehavior by assigning him to a Rin Tin Tin picture, he rebelled by turning in a script that began with the craven dog frightened by a mouse and reached its climax with a house on fire and the dog taking a baby into the flames.


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Shortly after his arrival on the West Coast, Mankiewicz sent a telegram to journalist-friend Ben Hecht in New York: "Millions are to be grabbed out here and your only competition is idiots. Don't let this get around." He attracted other New York writers to Hollywood who contributed to a burst of creative, tough, sardonic styles of writing for the fast-growing movie industry.


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Between 1929 and 1935, he worked on at least twenty films, many of which he received no credit for. Between 1930 and 1932 he was either producer or associate producer on four comedies and helped write their screenplays without credit: "Laughter", "Monkey Business", "Horse Feathers", and "Million Dollar Legs", which many critics considered one of the funniest comedies of the early 1930s. In 1933, he moved to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer where, along with Frances Marion, he adapted "Dinner at Eight", which was based on the George S. Kaufman/Edna Ferber play, and became one of the most popular comedies at that time and remains a "classic" comedy.


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: In 1933, he went on leave from MGM to write a film warning Americans about the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany. No studio was willing to produce his screenplay, "The Mad Dog of Europe," and in 1935, MGM was notified by Joseph Goebbels, the Minister of Education and Propaganda under Hitler, that films written by Mankiewicz could not be shown in Nazi Germany unless his name was removed from the screen credits. During World War II, Mankiewicz officially sponsored and took financial responsibility for many refugees fleeing Nazi Germany for the United States.


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: In February 1938, Mankiewicz was assigned as the first of ten screenwriters to work on "The Wizard of Oz". Three days after he started writing, he handed in a 17-page treatment of what was later known as "the Kansas sequence". While L. Frank Baum devoted less than a thousand words in his book to Kansas, Mankiewicz almost balanced the attention between Kansas and Oz, feeling it necessary that audiences relate to Dorothy Gale in a real world before she was transported to a magic one. By the end of the week he had finished 56 pages, and included instructions to film the scenes in Kansas in black and white. His goal, according to film historian Aljean Harmetz, was to "capture in pictures what Baum had captured in words—the grey lifelessness of Kansas contrasted with the visual richness of Oz." He was not credited for his work on the film.


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Mankiewicz is best known for his collaboration with Orson Welles on the screenplay of "Citizen Kane", for which they both won an Academy Award. The authorship later became a source of controversy. Pauline Kael attributed "Kane"s screenplay to Mankiewicz in a 1971 essay that was and continues to be strongly disputed. Much debate has centered on this issue, largely because of the importance of the film itself, which most agree is a fictionalized biography of newspaper publisher William Randolph Hearst. According to film biographer David Thomson, however, "No one can now deny Herman Mankiewicz credit for the germ, shape, and pointed language of the screenplay..."


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Mankiewicz biographer Richard Meryman notes that the dispute had various causes, including the way the movie was promoted. When RKO opened the movie on Broadway on May 1, 1941, followed by showings at theaters in other large cities, the publicity programs included photographs of Welles as "the one-man band, directing, acting, and writing." In a letter to his father afterwards, Mankiewicz wrote, "I'm particularly furious at the incredibly insolent description of how Orson wrote his masterpiece. The fact is that there isn't one single line in the picture that wasn't in writingwriting from and by mebefore ever a camera turned." Mankiewicz biographer Sydney Ladensohn Stern discounts his assertion as his defensiveness with his father, especially because he and other family members had recently bailed him out financially.


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: According to film historian Otto Friedrich, it made Mankiewicz "unhappy to hear Welles quoted in Louella Parsons's column, before the question of screen credits was officially settled, as saying, 'So I wrote "Citizen Kane".' Mankiewicz went to the Screen Writers Guild and declared that he was the original author. Welles later claimed that he planned on a joint credit all along, but Mankiewicz sometimes claimed that Welles offered him a bonus of ten thousand dollars if he would let Welles take full credit. Welles eventually agreed to share credit with Mankiewicz and furthermore, to list his name first. Sometime later, Welles commented on this allegation:


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: God, if I hadn't loved him I would have hated him after all those ridiculous stories, persuading people I was offering him money to have his name taken off ... that he would be carrying on like this, denouncing me as a coauthor, screaming around.


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Mankiewicz became good friends with Hollywood screenwriter Charles Lederer, who was Marion Davies's nephew. Lederer grew up as a Hollywood habitué, spending much time at San Simeon, where Davies reigned as William Randolph Hearst's mistress. As one of his admirers in the early 1930s, Hearst often invited Mankiewicz to spend the weekend at San Simeon.


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: "Herman told Joe to come to the office of their mutual friend Charlie Lederer." "Mankiewicz found himself on story-swapping terms with the power behind it all, Hearst himself. When he had been in Hollywood only a short time, he met Marion Davies and Hearst through his friendship with Charles Lederer, a writer, then in his early twenties, whom Ben Hecht had met and greatly admired in New York when Lederer was still in his teens. Lederer, a child prodigy who had entered college at thirteen, got to know Mankiewicz." Herman eventually "saw Hearst as 'a finagling, calculating, machiavellian figure.' But also, with Charlie Lederer, ... wrote and had printed parodies of Hearst newspapers."


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: In 1939, Mankiewicz suffered a broken leg in a driving accident and had to be hospitalized. During his hospital stay, one of his visitors was Orson Welles, who met him earlier and had become a great admirer of his wit. During the months after his release from the hospital, he and Welles began working on story ideas which led to the creation of "Citizen Kane".


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Despite Welles' denial that the film was about Hearst, few people were convinced—including Hearst. After the release of "Citizen Kane", Hearst pursued a longtime vendetta against Mankiewicz and Welles for writing the story.


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: "Certain elements in the film were taken from Mankiewicz's own experience: the sled Rosebud was based—according to some sources—on a very important bicycle that was stolen from him. ... [and] some of Kane's speeches are almost verbatim copies of Hearst's." Most personally, the word "rosebud" was reportedly Hearst's private nickname for Davies' clitoris. Hearst's thoughts about the film are unknown; what is certain is that his extensive chain of newspapers and radio stations blocked all mentions of the film, and refused to accept advertising for it, while some Hearst employees worked behind the scenes to block or restrict its distribution.


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: "Citizen Kane" was nominated for an Academy Award in every possible category, including Best Original Screenplay. Meryman writes, "Herman insisted he had no chance to win, though "The Hollywood Reporter" had given the film first place in ten of its twelve divisions. The fear of Hearst, he felt, was still alive. And Hollywood's resentment and distrust of Welles, the nonconformist upstart, were even greater since he had lived up to his wonderboy ballyhoo." Neither Welles nor Mankiewicz attended the dinner, which was broadcast on radio. Welles was in South America filming "It's All True", and Herman refused to attend. "He did not want to be humiliated," said his wife, Sara.


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: On the night of the awards, Herman turned on his radio and sat in his bedroom chair. Sara lay on the bed. As the screenplay category approached, he pretended to be hardly listening. Suddenly from the radio, half screamed, came "Herman J. Mankiewicz." Welles's name as coauthor was drowned out by voices all through the audience calling out, "Mank! Mank! Where is he?" And audible above all others was Irene Selznick: "Where is he?"


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: George Schaefer accepted Herman's Oscar. "Except for this coauthor award, the Motion Picture Academy excommunicated Orson Welles," wrote Meryman, "[and] as Pauline Kael put it, 'The members of the Academy ... probably felt good because their hearts had gone out to crazy, reckless Mank, their own resident loser-genius."


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Richard Meryman concludes that "taken as a whole ... "Citizen Kane" was overwhelmingly Welles's film, a triumph of intense personal magic. Herman was one of the talents, the crucial one, that were mined by Welles. But one marvels at the debt those two self-destroyers owe to each other. Without Welles there would have been no supreme moment for Herman. Without Mankiewicz there would have been no perfect idea at the perfect time for Welles ... to confirm his genius ... The "Citizen Kane" script was true creative symbiosis, a partnership greater than the sum of its parts."


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Mankiewicz was an alcoholic. Ten years before his death, he wrote: "I seem to become more and more of a rat in a trap of my own construction, a trap that I regularly repair whenever there seems to be danger of some opening that will enable me to escape. I haven't decided yet about making it bomb proof. It would seem to involve a lot of unnecessary labor and expense." A future Hollywood biographer went so far as to suggest that Mankiewicz’s behavior "made him seem erratic even by the standards of Hollywood drunks."


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Mankiewicz died March 5, 1953, at age of 55, of uremic poisoning, at Cedars of Lebanon Hospital in Los Angeles. Orson Welles said of him, "He saw everything with clarity. No matter how odd or how right or how marvelous his point of view was, it was always diamond white. Nothing muzzy."


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: In looking back on his early films, Pauline Kael wrote that Mankiewicz had, in fact, written (alone or with others) "about forty of the films I remember best from the twenties and thirties. I hadn't realized how extensive his career was. ... and now that I have looked into Herman Mankiewicz's career it's apparent that he was a key linking figure in just the kind of movies my friends and I loved best. These were the hardest-headed periods of American movies ... [and] the most highly acclaimed directors of that period, suggests that the writers ... in little more than a decade, gave American talkies their character."


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Director and screenwriter Nunnally Johnson claimed that the "two most brilliant men he has ever known were George S. Kaufman and Herman Mankiewicz, and that Mankiewicz was the more brilliant of the two. ... [and] spearheaded the movement of that whole Broadway style of wisecracking, fast-talking, cynical-sentimental entertainment onto the national scene."


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: Mankiewicz is played by John Malkovich in "RKO 281", a 1999 American film about the battle over "Citizen Kane".


title: Herman J. Mankiewicz

text: "Mank", a black-and-white Mankiewicz biopic directed by David Fincher and starring Gary Oldman in the title role, was released on Netflix in December 2020. Oldman was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance.


title: Equus (genus)

text: Equus , is a genus of mammals in the family Equidae, which includes horses, donkeys, and zebras. Within the Equidae, "Equus" is the only recognized extant genus, comprising seven living species. Like Equidae more broadly, "Equus" has numerous extinct species known only from fossils. The genus most likely originated in North America and spread quickly to the Old World. Equines are odd-toed ungulates with slender legs, long heads, relatively long necks, manes (erect in most subspecies), and long tails. All species are herbivorous, and mostly grazers, with simpler digestive systems than ruminants but able to subsist on lower-quality vegetation.


title: Equus (genus)

text: While the domestic horse and donkey (along with their feral descendants) exist worldwide, wild equine populations are limited to Africa and Asia. Wild equine social systems are in two forms; a harem system with tight-knit groups consisting of one adult male or stallion, several females or mares, and their young or foals; and a territorial system where males establish territories with resources that attract females, which associate very fluidly. In both systems, females take care of their offspring, but males may play a role as well. Equines communicate with each other both visually and vocally. Human activities have threatened wild equine populations.


title: Equus (genus)

text: The word is Latin for "horse" and is cognate with the Greek (, "horse") and Mycenaean Greek , the earliest attested variant of the Greek word, written in Linear B syllabic script. Compare the alternative development of the Proto-Greek labiovelar in Ionic ().


title: Equus (genus)

text: The genus "Equus" was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. It is the only recognized extant genus in the family Equidae. The first equids were small, dog-sized mammals (e.g. "Eohippus") adapted for browsing on shrubs during the Eocene, around 54 million years ago (Mya). These animals had three toes on the hind feet and four on the front feet with small hooves in place of claws, but also had soft pads.<ref name="doi10.1126/science.1105458"></ref> Equids developed into larger, three-toed animals (e.g. "Mesohippus") during the Oligocene and Miocene. From there, the side toes became progressively smaller through the Pleistocene until the emergence of the single-toed "Equus".


title: Equus (genus)

text: The genus "Equus", which includes all extant equines, is believed to have evolved from "Dinohippus", via the intermediate form "Plesippus". One of the oldest species is "Equus simplicidens", described as zebra-like with a donkey-like head shape. The oldest material to date was found in Idaho, USA. The genus appears to have spread quickly into the Old World, with the similarly aged "E. livenzovensis" documented from western Europe and Russia. Molecular phylogenies indicate that the most recent common ancestor of all modern equines (members of the genus "Equus") lived ~5.6 (3.9-7.8) Mya. Direct paleogenomic sequencing of a 700,000-year-old middle Pleistocene horse metapodial bone from Canada implies a more recent 4.07 Mya for the most recent common ancestor within the range of 4.0 to 4.5 Mya.


title: Equus (genus)

text: Mitochondrial evidence supports the division of "Equus" species into noncaballoid (which includes zebras and asses) and caballoids or "true horses" (which includes "E. ferus" and "E. przewalskii"). Of the extant equine species, the lineage of the asses may have diverged first, possibly as soon as "Equus" reached the Old World. Zebras appear to be monophyletic and differentiated in Africa, where they are endemic. Members of the subgenus "Sussemionus" were abundant during the Early and Middle Pleistocene of North America and Afro-Eurasia, but only a single species, "E. ovodovi" survived into the Late Pleistocene and Holocene in south Siberia and China, with the youngest remains from China dating to around 3500 BP (1500 BC), during the Shang dynasty. Genetic data from "E. ovodovi" has placed the "Sussemionus" lineage as closer to zebras and asses than to caballine horses.


title: Equus (genus)

text: Molecular dating indicates the caballoid lineage diverged from the noncaballoids 4 Mya. Genetic results suggest that all North American fossils of caballine equines, as well as South American fossils traditionally placed in the subgenus "E." ("Amerhippus"), belong to "E. ferus". Remains attributed to a variety of species and lumped together as New World stilt-legged horses (including "E. francisci", "E. tau", and "E. quinni") probably all belong to a second species that was endemic to North America. This was confirmed in a genetic study done in 2017, which subsumed all the specimens into the species "E. francisci" which was placed outside all extant horse species in the new genus "Haringtonhippus""," although its placement as a separate genus was subsequently questioned. A separate genus of horse, "Hippidion" existed in South America. The possible causes of the extinction of horses in the Americas (about 12,000 years ago) have been a matter of debate. Hypotheses include climatic change and overexploitation by newly arrived humans. Horses only returned to the American mainland with the arrival of the "conquistadores" in 1519.


title: Equus (genus)

text: Many extinct prehistoric species of "Equus" have been described. The validity of some of these species is questionable and a matter of debate. For example, "Equus niobrarensis" is likely synonymous with "Equus scotti", while "Equus alaskae" is most likely the same species as "Equus lambei", which itself may be a North American form of the living "Equus przewalskii".


title: Equus (genus)

text: DNA studies on American horse remains found frozen into permafrost have shown that several of the supposed American species, and the European "Equus ferus", are actually one highly-variable widespread species.


title: Equus (genus)

text: , as if the evolutionary process of speciation was persistently being frustrated by large herds of the horses moving long distances and mixing, carrying their genes about with them.


title: Equus (genus)

text: Equine species can crossbreed with each other. The most common hybrid is the mule, a cross between a male donkey and a female horse. With rare exceptions, these hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce. A related hybrid, a hinny, is a cross between a male horse and a female donkey. Other hybrids include the zorse, a cross between a zebra and a horse and a zonkey or zedonk, a hybrid of a zebra and a donkey. In areas where Grévy's zebras are sympatric with plains zebras, fertile hybrids do occur. Ancient DNA identifies the Bronze Age kunga as a cross between the Syrian wild ass and the donkey.


title: Equus (genus)

text: Equines have significant differences in size, though all are characterized by long heads and necks. Their slender legs support their weight on one digit (which evolved from the middle digits). Grévy's zebra is the largest wild species, standing up to and weighing up to . Domesticated horses have a wider range of sizes. Heavy or draft horses are usually at least high and can be as tall as and weigh from about . Some miniature horses are no taller than in adulthood. Sexual dimorphism is limited in equines. The penis of the male is vascular and lacks a bone (baculum). Equines are adapted for running and traveling over long distances. Their dentition is adapted for grazing; they have large incisors that clip grass blades and highly crowned, ridged molars well suited for grinding. Males have spade-shaped canines ("tushes"), which can be used as weapons in fighting. Equines have fairly good senses, particularly their eyesight. Their moderately long, erect ears are movable and can locate the source of a sound.


title: Equus (genus)

text: A dun-colored coat with primitive markings that include a dorsal stripe and often leg striping and transverse shoulder stripes reflect the wildtype coat and are observed in most wild extant equine species. Only the mountain zebra lacks a dorsal stripe. In domestic horses, dun color and primitive markings exist in some animals across many breeds. The purpose of the bold black-and-white striping of zebras has been a subject of debate among biologists for over a century, but 2014 evidence supports the theory that they are a form of protection from biting flies. These insects appear to be less attracted to striped coats, and compared to other wild equines, zebras live in areas with the highest fly activity. With the exception of the domestic horses, which have long manes that lay over the neck and long tail hair growing from the top of the tailhead or dock, most equines have erect manes and long tails ending in a tuft of hair. The coats of some equine species undergo shedding in certain parts of their range and are thick in the winter.


title: Equus (genus)

text: Extant wild equines have scattered ranges across Africa and Asia. The plains zebra lives in lush grasslands and savannas of Eastern and Southern Africa, while the mountain zebra inhabits mountainous areas of southwest Africa. The other equine species tend to occupy more arid environments with more scattered vegetation. Grévy's zebra is found in thorny scrubland of East Africa, while the African wild ass inhabits rocky deserts of North Africa. The two Asian wild ass species live in the dry deserts of the Near East and Central Asia and Przwelski's wild horse's habitat is the deserts of Mongolia. Only the range of the plains and Grévy's zebras overlap. In addition to wild populations, domesticated horses and donkeys are widespread due to humans. In certain parts of the world, populations of feral horses and feral donkeys exist, which are descended from domesticated animals that were released or escaped into the wild.


title: Equus (genus)

text: Equines are monogastric hindgut fermenters. They prefer to eat grasses and sedges, but may also consume bark, leaves, buds, fruits, and roots if their favored foods are scarce, particularly asses. Compared to ruminants, equines have a simpler and less efficient digestive system. Nevertheless, they can subsist on lower-quality vegetation. After food is passed through the stomach, it enters the sac-like cecum, where cellulose is broken down by micro-organisms. Fermentation is quicker in equines than in ruminants—30–45 hours for a horse compared to 70–100 hours for cattle. Equines may spend 60–80% of their time feeding, depending on the availability and quality of vegetation. In the African savannas, the plains zebra is a pioneer grazer, mowing down the upper, less nutritious grass canopy and preparing the way for more specialized grazers such as blue wildebeests and Thomson's gazelles, which depend on shorter and more nutritious grasses below.


title: Equus (genus)

text: Wild equines may spend seven hours a day sleeping. During the day, they sleep standing up, while at night they lie down. They regularly rub against trees, rocks, and other objects and roll in around in dust for protection against flies and irritation. Except the mountain zebra, wild equines can roll over completely.


title: Equus (genus)

text: Horses, plains zebras, and mountain zebras live in stable, closed family groups or harems consisting of one adult male, several females, and their offspring. These groups have their own home ranges, which overlap and they tend to be nomadic. The stability of the group remains even when the family stallion dies or is displaced. Plains zebra groups gather into large herds and may create temporarily stable subgroups within a herd, allowing individuals to interact with those outside their group. Among harem-holding species, this behavior has only otherwise been observed in primates such as the gelada and the hamadryas baboon. Females of harem species benefit as males give them more time for feeding, protection for their young, and protection from predators and harassment by outside males. Among females in a harem, a linear dominance hierarchy exists based on the time at which they join the group. Harems travel in a consistent filing order with the high-ranking mares and their offspring leading the groups followed by the next-highest ranking mare and her offspring, and so on. The family stallion takes up the rear. Social grooming (which involves individuals rubbing their heads against each other and nipping with the incisors and lips) is important for easing aggression and maintaining social bonds and status. Young of both sexes leave their natal groups as they mature; females are usually abducted by outside males to be included as permanent members of their harems.


title: Equus (genus)

text: In Grévy's zebras and the wild ass species, adults have more fluid associations and adult males establish large territories and monopolize the females that enter them. These species live in habitats with sparser resources and standing water, and grazing areas may be separated. Groups of lactating females are able to remain in groups with nonlactating ones and usually gather at foraging areas. The most dominant males establish territories near watering holes, where more sexually receptive females gather. Subdominants have territories farther away, near foraging areas. Mares may wander through several territories, but remain in one when they have young. Staying in a territory offers a female protection from harassment by outside males, as well as access to a renewable resource. Some feral populations of horses exhibit features of both the harem and territorial social systems.


title: Equus (genus)

text: In both equine social systems, excess males gather in bachelor groups. These are typically young males that are not yet ready to establish a harem or territory. With the plains zebra, the males in a bachelor group have strong bonds and have a linear dominance hierarchy. Fights between males usually occur over estrous females and involve biting and kicking.


title: Equus (genus)

text: When meeting for the first time or after they have separated, individuals may greet each other by rubbing and sniffing their noses followed by rubbing their cheeks, moving their noses along their bodies and sniffing each other's genitals. They then may rub and press their shoulders against each other and rest their heads on one another. This greeting is usually performed among harem or territorial males or among bachelor males playing.


title: Equus (genus)

text: Equines produce a number of vocalizations and noises. Loud snorting is associated with alarm. Squealing is usually made when in pain, but bachelors also squeal while play fighting. The contact calls of equines vary from the whinnying and nickering of the horse and the barking of plains zebras to the braying of asses, Grévy's zebras, and donkeys. Equines also communicate with visual displays, and the flexibility of their lips allows them to make complex facial expressions. Visual displays also incorporate the positions of the head, ears, and tail. An equine may signal an intention to kick by laying back its ears and sometimes lashing the tail. Flattened ears, bared teeth, and abrupt movement of the heads may be used as threatening gestures, particularly among stallions.


title: Equus (genus)

text: Among harem-holding species, the adult females mate only with their harem stallion, while in other species, mating is more promiscuous and the males have larger testes for sperm competition. Estrus in female equines lasts 5–10 days; physical signs include frequent urination, flowing muscus, and swollen, everted labia. In addition, estrous females will stand with their hind legs spread and raise their tails when in the presence of a male. Males assess the female's reproductive state with the flehmen response and the female will solicit mating by backing in. Length of gestation varies by species; it is roughly 11–13 months, and most mares come into estrus again within a few days after foaling, depending on conditions. Usually, only a single foal is born, which is capable of running within an hour. Within a few weeks, foals attempt to graze, but may continue to nurse for 8–13 months. Species in arid habitats, like Grévy's zebra, have longer nursing intervals and do not drink water until they are three months old.


title: Equus (genus)

text: Among harem-holding species, foals are cared for mostly by their mothers, but if threatened by predators, the entire group works together to protect all the young. The group forms a protective front with the foals in the center and the stallion will rush at predators that come too close. In territory-holding species, mothers may gather into small groups and leave their young in "kindergartens" under the guard of a territorial male while searching for water. Grévy's zebra stallions may look after a foal in his territory to ensure that the mother stays, though it may not be his.


title: Equus (genus)

text: The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, dating to around 4000–3500 BCE. By 3000 BCE, the horse was completely domesticated, and by 2000 BCE, a sharp increase occurred in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe, indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent. The most recent, but most irrefutable, evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse remains were buried with chariots in graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures c. 2100 BCE. Studies of variation in genetic material shows that a very few wild stallions, possibly all from a single haplotype, contributed to the domestic horse, mating with many mares in early domesticated herds.


title: Equus (genus)

text: Przewalski's horse has been conclusively shown not to be an ancestor of the domestic horse, though the two can hybridize and produce fertile offspring. The split between Przewalskii's horse and "E. ferus caballus" is estimated to have occurred 120,000–240,000 years ago, long before domestication. Of the caballine equines of "E. ferus," "E. f. ferus," also known as the European wild horse or "tarpan", shares ancestry with the modern domestic horse. In addition, tarpans that lived into modern times may have been hybridized with domestic horses.


title: Equus (genus)

text: Archaeological, biogeographical, and linguistic evidence suggests that the donkey was first domesticated by nomadic pastoral people in North Africa over 5,000 years ago. The animals were used to help cope with the increased aridity of the Sahara and the Horn of Africa. Genetic evidence finds that the donkey was domesticated twice based on two distinct mitochondrial DNA haplogroups. It also points to a single ancestor, the Nubian wild ass. Attempts to domesticate zebras were largely unsuccessful, though Walter Rothschild trained some to draw a carriage in England.


title: Equus (genus)

text: Humans have had a great impact on the populations of wild equines. Threats to wild equines include habitat destruction and conflicts with local people and livestock. Since the 20th century, wild equines have been decimated over many of their former ranges and their populations scattered. In recent centuries, two subspecies, the quagga and the tarpan, became extinct. The IUCN lists the African wild ass as critically endangered, Grévy's zebra, the mountain zebra, and Przewalski's horse as endangered, the onager as vulnerable, the plains zebra as near threatened, and the kiang as least concern. Przewalski's horse was considered to be extinct in the wild from the 1960s to 1996. However, following successful captive breeding, it has been reintroduced in Mongolia.