title: Tajikistani Civil War

text: The main zone of conflict was in the country's south, although disturbances occurred nationwide. The civil war was at its peak during its first year and continued for five years, devastating the country. An estimated 20,000 to 150,000 people were killed in the conflict, and about 10 to 20 percent of the population of Tajikistan were internally displaced. On 27 June 1997, Tajikistan president Emomali Rahmon, United Tajik Opposition (UTO) leader Sayid Abdulloh Nuri and Special Representative of the United Nations Secretary-General Gerd Merrem signed the "General Agreement on the Establishment of Peace and National Accord in Tajikistan" and the "Moscow Protocol" in Moscow, Russia, ending the war.


title: Tajikistani Civil War

text: There were numerous causes of civil war in Tajikistan, such as economic hardship, communal way of life of Tajiki people and their high religiosity. Under Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev's 'Perestroika' policies, a Muslim-Democratic movement began to emerge in Tajiki SSR. The backbone of opposition were Party of Tajikistan Muslim Resurrection, Democratic party of Tajikistan and some other movements. The fight between the former communist elite and opposition shifted from the political sphere to an ethnic and clan based one.


title: Tajikistani Civil War

text: Tensions began in the spring of 1992 after opposition members took to the streets in demonstrations against the results of the 1991 presidential election. President Rahmon Nabiyev and Speaker of the Supreme Soviet Safarali Kenjayev orchestrated the dispersal of weapons to pro-government militias, while the opposition turned to mujahidin in Afghanistan for military aid.


title: Tajikistani Civil War

text: Fighting broke out on 5 May 1992 between old-guard supporters of the government and a loosely organized opposition composed of ethnic and regional groups from the Gharm and Gorno-Badakhshan areas (the latter were also known as Pamiris). Ideologically, the opposition included democratic liberal reformists and Islamists. The government, on the other hand, was dominated by people from the Leninabadi region, which had also made up most of the ruling elite during the entire Soviet period. It was also supported by people from the Kulob region, who had held high posts in the Ministry of Internal Affairs in Soviet times. After many clashes, the Leninabadis were forced to accept a compromise and a new coalition government was formed, incorporating members of the opposition and eventually dominated by them. On 7 September 1992, Nabiyev was captured by opposition protesters and forced at gunpoint to resign his presidency. Chaos and fighting between the opposing factions reigned outside of the capital Dushanbe.


title: Tajikistani Civil War

text: With the aid of the Russian military and Uzbekistan, the Leninabadi-Kulobi Popular Front forces routed the opposition in early and late 1992. The coalition government in the capital was forced to resign. On 12 December 1992 the Supreme Soviet (parliament), where the Leninabadi-Kulobi faction had held the majority of seats all along, convened and elected a new government under the leadership of Emomali Rahmon, representing a shift in power from the old power based in Leninabad to the militias from Kulob, from which Rahmon came.


title: Tajikistani Civil War

text: The height of hostilities occurred from 1992 to 1993 and pitted Kulobi militias against an array of groups, including militants from the Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan (IRP) and ethnic minority Pamiris from Gorno-Badakhshan. In large part due to the foreign support they received, the Kulobi militias were able to soundly defeat opposition forces and went on what has been described by Human Rights Watch as an ethnic cleansing campaign against Pamiris and Garmis. The campaign was concentrated in areas south of the capital and included the murder of prominent individuals, mass killings, the burning of villages and the expulsion of the Pamiri and Garmi population into Afghanistan. The violence was particularly concentrated in Qurghonteppa, the power base of the IRP and home to many Garmis. Tens of thousands were killed or fled to Afghanistan.


title: Tajikistani Civil War

text: In Afghanistan, the opposition reorganized and rearmed with the aid of the Jamiat-i-Islami. The group's leader Ahmad Shah Masoud became a benefactor of the Tajik opposition. Later in the war the opposition organized under an umbrella group called the United Tajik Opposition, or UTO. Elements of the UTO, especially in the Tavildara region, became the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, while the leadership of the UTO was opposed to the formation of the organization.


title: Tajikistani Civil War

text: Other combatants and armed bands that flourished in this civil chaos simply reflected the breakdown of central authority rather than loyalty to a political faction. In response to the violence the United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan was deployed. Most fighting in the early part of the war occurred in the southern part of the country, but by 1996 the rebels were battling Russian troops in the capital city of Dushanbe. Islamic radicals from northern Afghanistan also began to fight Russian troops in the region.


title: Tajikistani Civil War

text: A United Nations-sponsored armistice finally ended the war in 1997. This was in part fostered by the Inter-Tajik Dialogue, a Track II diplomacy initiative in which the main players were brought together by international actors, namely the United States and Russia. The peace agreement eliminated the Leninabad region (Khujand) from power. Presidential elections were held on 6 November 1999.


title: Tajikistani Civil War

text: The UTO warned in letters to United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan and Tajik President Emomali Rahmon on 23 June 1997 that it would not sign the proposed peace agreement on 27 June if prisoner exchanges and the allocation of jobs in the coalition government were not outlined in the agreement. Akbar Turajonzoda, second-in-command of the UTO, repeated this warning on 26 June, but said both sides were negotiating. President Rahmon, UTO leader Sayid Abdulloh Nuri and Russian President Boris Yeltsin met in the Kremlin in Moscow on 26 June to finish negotiating the peace agreement. The Tajik government had previously pushed for settling these issues after the two sides signed the agreement, with the posts in the coalition government decided by a joint commission for national reconciliation and prisoner exchanges by a future set of negotiations. Russian Foreign Minister Yevgeny Primakov met with the Foreign Ministers of Iran, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan to discuss the proposed peace accord.


title: Tajikistani Civil War

text: By the end of the war, Tajikistan was in a state of complete devastation. Around 1.2 million people were refugees inside and outside the country. Tajikistan's physical infrastructure, government services and economy were in disarray and much of the population was surviving on subsistence handouts from international aid organizations. The United Nations established a Mission of Observers in December 1994, maintaining peace negotiations until the warring sides signed a comprehensive peace agreement in 1997.


title: Tajikistani Civil War

text: Journalists were particularly targeted for assassination and dozens of Tajik journalists were killed. Many more fled the country, leading to a brain drain. Notable individuals murdered include journalist and politician Otakhon Latifi, journalist and Jewish leader Meirkhaim Gavrielov, politician Safarali Kenjayev and four members of the United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan: Yutaka Akino, a noted Japanese scholar of Central Asian history; Maj. Ryszard Szewczyk from Poland; Maj. Adolfo Scharpegge from Uruguay; and Jourajon Mahramov from Tajikistan; and documentary filmmaker Arcady Ruderman, from Belarus.


title: Spike Chunsoft

text: They created games such as the first five "Dragon Quest" installments and the "Mystery Dungeon" franchise as Chunsoft, and the "Conception" series as Spike Chunsoft. They also developed titles such as "The Portopia Serial Murder Case", the "Sound Novel" series (consisting of "Otogirisō", "Kamaitachi no Yoru", "Machi" and "") and the "Zero Escape" series as Chunsoft. Spike developed "Danganronpa" before the merger.


title: Spike Chunsoft

text: Chunsoft was founded by Koichi Nakamura, a video game designer and programmer who had worked with Enix, including the popular "Dragon Quest" franchise until "Dragon Quest V". The "Chun" in the company name is from the first kanji Naka (中) of the company founder's name; Naka is read as "Chun" in Japanese Mahjong. This name would also appear in Nakamura's first work with Enix, titled "Door Door" in 1983. "Otogirisō" marked Chunsoft's debut brand. Following that, successive genre-trailblazing titles "", "Kamaitachi no Yoru", and "" established the company's good reputation. Nakamura himself had to move away from programming in order to run the company.


title: Spike Chunsoft

text: For a time, the company's products were considered mediocre, but "3-Nen B-Gumi Kinpachi Sensei: Densetsu no Kyoudan ni Tate!" was a hit that showed signs of recovery. During the development of "", Kouji Maruta, one of the programmers for these two games, and contributed previously on "EarthBound" and "Shiren the Wanderer 2", stated the company went through bad business performance, as employees from Chunsoft would leave the company progressively due to this issue. The game's success not only helped giving more popularity in the "Mystery Dungeon" franchise, it also helped Chunsoft from avoiding bankruptcy. Later in 2005, it was bought by Dwango and became a subsidiary of the company.


title: Spike Chunsoft

text: Before the project, Sega were helping Chunsoft in developing and releasing their games for the Dreamcast. From 2005 to 2010, Sega have made a collaboration with Chunsoft titled "SEGA×CHUN PROJECT". Their goal was to provide support and sales for development funds, such as the Nintendo DS remake of "" or "".


title: Spike Chunsoft

text: In 2012, Chunsoft merged with its sister company Spike and the new company would be called Spike Chunsoft.


title: Spike Chunsoft

text: In 2017, Spike Chunsoft established a North American subsidiary based in Long Beach, California to carry out localization and publishing of its own games, in addition to games by its sister company 5pb./Mages under a newly formed partnership. Their first game under the Mages partnership was the Microsoft Windows version of "Steins;Gate", taking over publishing of the game from Mages in 2018; they have since continued publishing further games in the "Science Adventure" series, including "Steins;Gate 0" and "Chaos;Child".


title: Spike Chunsoft

text: On July 16, 2020, NIS America announced that "Danganronpa" games on the Playstation Store will be removed. Spike Chunsoft subsequently announced on July 22, 2020 that they will take on publishing the "Danganronpa" series outside of Japan. Similarly, the Nintendo Switch and Microsoft Windows release of "" would not be released by Aksys but by their subsidiary.


title: Spike Chunsoft

text: This table lists video games published internationally by Spike Chunsoft's American subsidiary Spike Chunsoft, Inc. since its foundation on December 1, 2017. Outside of titles from Spike Chunsoft in Japan, the company publishes titles from Mages (which was also part of Spike Chunsoft's parent company Dwango until July 2019) and from other companies.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: The black hole information paradox is a puzzle that appears when the predictions of quantum mechanics and general relativity are combined. The theory of general relativity predicts the existence of black holes that are regions of spacetime from which nothing — not even light — can escape. In the 1970s, Stephen Hawking applied the rules of quantum mechanics to such systems and found that an isolated black hole would emit a form of radiation called Hawking radiation. Hawking also argued that the detailed form of the radiation would be independent of the initial state of the black hole and would depend only on its mass, electric charge and angular momentum. The information paradox appears when one considers a process in which a black hole is formed through a physical process and then evaporates away entirely through Hawking radiation. Hawking's calculation suggests that the final state of radiation would retain information only about the total mass, electric charge and angular momentum of the initial state. Since many different states can have the same mass, charge and angular momentum this suggests that many initial physical states could evolve into the same final state. Therefore, information about the details of the initial state would be permanently lost. However, this violates a core precept of both classical and quantum physics—that, "in principle," the state of a system at one point in time should determine its value at any other time. Specifically, in quantum mechanics the state of the system is encoded by its wave function. The evolution of the wave function is determined by a unitary operator, and unitarity implies that the wave function at any instant of time can be used to determine the wave function either in the past or the future.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: It is now generally believed that information is preserved in black-hole evaporation. This means that the predictions of quantum mechanics are correct whereas Hawking's original argument that relied on general relativity must be corrected. However, views differ as to how precisely Hawking's calculation should be corrected. In recent years, several extensions of the original paradox have been explored. Taken together these puzzles about black hole evaporation have implications for how gravity and quantum mechanics must be combined, leading to the information paradox remaining an active field of research within quantum gravity.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: In quantum mechanics, the evolution of the state is governed by the Schrödinger equation. The Schrödinger equation obeys two principles that are relevant for the paradox. These are the principles of quantum determinism, which means that given a present wave function, its future changes are uniquely determined by the evolution operator and also the principle of reversibility, which refers to the fact that the evolution operator has an inverse, meaning that the past wave functions are similarly unique. The combination of the two means that information must always be preserved. In this context "information" is used to refer to all the details of the state and the statement that information must be preserved means that details corresponding to an earlier time can always be reconstructed at a later time.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: Mathematically, the Schrödinger equation implies that the wavefunction at a time t can be related to the wavefunction at a time t by means of a unitary operator.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: Since the unitary operator is bijective, the wavefunction at t can be obtained from the wavefunction at t and vice versa.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: The reversibility of time-evolution described above applies only at the "microscopic level" since the wavefunction provides a complete description of the state. It should not be conflated with thermodynamic irreversibility. A process may appear to be irreversible if one keeps track only of coarse-grained features of the system and does not keep track of its microscopic details, as is usually done in thermodynamics. However, at the microscopic level the principles of quantum mechanics imply that every process is completely reversible.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: Starting in the mid-1970s, Stephen Hawking and Jacob Bekenstein put forward theoretical arguments that suggested that black-hole evaporation loses information, and is therefore inconsistent with unitarity. Crucially, these arguments were meant to apply at the microscopic level and suggested that black-hole evaporation is not only thermodynamically irreversible but microscopically irreversible. This contradicts the principle of unitarity described above and leads to the information paradox. Since the paradox suggested that quantum mechanics would be violated by black-hole formation and evaporation, Hawking framed the paradox in terms of the "breakdown of predictability in gravitational collapse".


title: Black hole information paradox

text: The arguments for microscropic irreversibility were backed by Hawking's calculation of the spectrum of radiation emitted by isolated black holes. This calculation utilized the framework of general relativity and quantum field theory. The calculation of Hawking radiation is performed at the black-hole horizon; for a large enough black hole the curvature at the horizon is small and therefore both these theories should be valid. Hawking relied on the no-hair theorem to arrive at the conclusion that radiation emitted by black holes would depend only on a few macroscopic parameters such as the black hole's mass, charge and spin and not on the details of the initial state that led to the formation of the black hole. Moreover, the argument for information loss relied on the causal structure of the black-hole spacetime, which suggests that information in the interior should not affect any observation in the exterior including observations performed on the radiation emitted by the black hole. If so, the region of spacetime outside the black hole would lose information about the state of the interior after black-hole evaporation leading to the loss of information.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: Today, some physicists believe that the holographic principle (specifically the AdS/CFT duality) demonstrates that Hawking's conclusion was incorrect, and that information is in fact preserved.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: In 1973–1975, Stephen Hawking and Jacob Bekenstein showed that black holes should slowly radiate away energy and Hawking later argued that this leads to a contradiction with unitarity. Hawking used the classical no-hair theorem to argue that the form of this radiation – called Hawking radiation – would be completely independent of the initial state of the star or matter that collapsed to form the black hole. Hawking argued that the process of radiation would continue until the black hole had evaporated completely. At the end of this process, all the initial energy in the black hole would have been transferred to the radiation. But, according to Hawking's argument, the radiation would retain no information about the initial state and therefore information about the initial state would be lost.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: More specifically, Hawking argued that the pattern of radiation emitted from the black hole would be random, with a probability distribution controlled only by the initial temperature, charge and angular momentum of the black hole and not by the initial state of the collapse. The state produced by such a probabilistic process is called a mixed state in quantum mechanics. Therefore, Hawking argued that if the star or material that collapsed to form the black hole started in a specific pure quantum state, the process of evaporation would transform the pure state into a mixed state. This is inconsistent with the unitarity of quantum-mechanical evolution discussed above.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: The loss of information can be quantified in terms of the change in the fine-grained von Neumann entropy of the state. A pure state is assigned a von Neumann entropy of 0 whereas a mixed state has a finite entropy. The unitary evolution of a state according to Schrödinger's equation preserves the entropy. Therefore Hawking's argument suggests that the process of black-hole evaporation cannot be described within the framework of unitary evolution. Although this paradox is often phrased in terms of quantum mechanics, the evolution from a pure state to a mixed state is also inconsistent with Liouville's theorem in classical physics. (see e.g.).


title: Black hole information paradox

text: In equations, Hawking showed that if one denotes the creation and annihilation operators at a frequency formula_2 for a quantum field propagating in the black-hole background by formula_3 and formula_4 then the expectation value of the product of these operators in the state formed by the collapse of a black hole would satisfy formula_5 where formula_6 where k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature of the black hole. (See, for example, section 2.2 of.)


title: Black hole information paradox

text: There are two important aspects of the formula above. The first is that the form of the radiation depends only on a single parameter, the temperature, even though the initial state of the black hole cannot be characterized by one parameter. Second, the formula implies that the black hole radiates mass at a rate given by formula_7 where a is constant related to fundamental constants, including the Stefan–Boltzmann constant and certain properties of the black hole spacetime called its greybody factors.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: The temperature of the black hole is in turn dependent on the mass, charge and angular momentum of the black hole. For a Schwarzschild black hole the temperature is given by


title: Black hole information paradox

text: This means that if the black hole starts out with an initial mass formula_9, it evaporates completely in a time proportional to formula_10.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: The important aspect of the formulas above is they suggest that the final gas of radiation formed through this process depends only on the black hole's temperature and is independent of other details of the initial state. This leads to the following paradox. Consider two distinct initial states that collapse to form a Schwarzschild black hole of the same mass. Even though the states were distinct to start with, since the mass (and, hence, the temperature) of the black holes is the same, they will emit the same Hawking radiation. Once the black holes evaporate completely, in both cases, one will be left with a featureless gas of radiation. This gas cannot be used to distinguish between the two initial states, and therefore information has been lost.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: It is now widely believed that the reasoning leading to the paradox above is flawed. Several solutions have been put forward that are reviewed below.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: The information paradox has received coverage in the popular media and has been described in popular-science books. Some of this coverage resulted from a widely publicized bet made in 1997 between John Preskill on the one hand and Hawking and Kip Thorne that information was not lost in black holes. The scientific debate on the paradox was described in a popular book published in 2008 by Leonard Susskind called "The Black Hole War". (The book carefully notes that the 'war' was purely a scientific one, and that at a personal level, the participants remained friends.) The book states that Hawking was eventually persuaded that black-hole evaporation was unitary by the holographic principle, which was first proposed by 't Hooft, further developed by Susskind and later given a precise string theory interpretation by the AdS/CFT correspondence. In 2004, Hawking also conceded the 1997 bet, paying Preskill with a baseball encyclopedia "from which information can be retrieved at will" although Thorne refused to concede.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: Since the 1997 proposal of the AdS/CFT correspondence, the predominant belief among physicists is that information is indeed preserved in black hole evaporation. However, there are broadly two main streams of thought about how this happens. Within, what might broadly be termed, the "string theory community", the dominant idea is that Hawking radiation is not precisely thermal but receives quantum correlations that encode information about the black hole's interior. This viewpoint has been the subject of extensive recent research and received further support in 2019 when researchers amended the computation of the entropy of the Hawking radiation in certain models, and showed that the radiation is in fact dual to the black hole interior at late times. Hawking himself was influenced by this view and in 2004, published a paper that assumed the AdS/CFT correspondence and argued that quantum perturbations of the event horizon could allow information to escape from a black hole, which would resolve the information paradox. In this perspective, it is the event horizon of the black hole that is important and not the black-hole singularity.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: On the other hand, within, what might broadly be termed, the "loop quantum gravity community", the dominant belief is that to resolve the information paradox, it is important to understand how the black-hole singularity is resolved. These scenarios are broadly called remnant scenarios since information does not emerge gradually but remains in the black-hole interior only to emerge at the end of black-hole evaporation.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: Other possibilities are also studied by researchers, which include a modification of the laws of quantum mechanics to allow for non-unitary time evolution.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: This idea suggests that Hawking's computation fails to keep track of small corrections that are eventually sufficient to preserve information about the initial state. This can be thought of as being analogous to what happens during the mundane process of "burning": the radiation produced appears to be thermal but its fine-grained features encode the precise details of the object that was burnt. This idea is consistent with reversibility, as required by quantum mechanics. It is the dominant idea in, what might broadly be termed, the string-theory approach to quantum gravity.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: More precisely, this line of resolution suggests that Hawking's computation is corrected so that the two point correlator computed by Hawking and described above becomes


title: Black hole information paradox

text: The equations above utilize a concise notation and the correction factors formula_13 may depend on the temperature, the frequencies of the operators that enter the correlation function and other details of the black hole.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: Such corrections were initially explored by Maldacena in a simple version of the paradox. They were then analyzed by Papadodimas and Raju who showed that corrections to low-point correlators (such as formula_14 above ) that were exponentially suppressed in the black-hole entropy were sufficient to preserve unitarity and significant corrections were required only for very high point correlators. The mechanism that allowed the right small corrections to form was initially postulated in terms of a loss of exact locality in quantum gravity so that the black-hole interior and the radiation were described by the same degrees of freedom. Recent developments suggest that such a mechanism can be realized precisely within semiclassical gravity and allows information to escape. See § Recent developments.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: Some researchers, most notably Samir Mathur, have argued that the small corrections required to preserve information cannot be obtained while preserving the semiclassical form of the black-hole interior and instead require a modification of the black-hole geometry to a fuzzball.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: The defining characteristic of the fuzzball is that it has structure at the horizon scale. This should be contrasted with the conventional picture of the black-hole interior as a largely-featureless region of space. For a large enough black hole, tidal effects are very small at the black-hole horizon and remain small in the interior until one approaches the black-hole singularity. Therefore, in the conventional picture, an observer who crosses the horizon may not even realize that they have done so until they start approaching the singularity. In contrast, the fuzzball proposal suggests that the black hole horizon is not empty. Consequently, it is also not information free since the details of the structure at the surface of the horizon preserve information about the initial state of the black hole. This structure also affects the outgoing Hawking radiation and thereby allows information to escape from the fuzzball.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: The fuzzball proposal is supported by the existence of a large number of gravitational solutions called microstate geometries.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: The firewall proposal can be thought of as a variant of the fuzzball proposal except that it posits that the black-hole interior is replaced with a firewall rather than a fuzzball. Operationally, the difference between the fuzzball and the firewall proposals has to do with whether an observer crossing the horizon of the black hole encounters high-energy matter, suggested by the firewall proposal, or merely low-energy structure, suggested by the fuzzball proposal. The firewall proposal also originated with an exploration of Mathur's argument that small corrections are insufficient to resolve the information paradox.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: The fuzzball and firewall proposals have been questioned for lacking an appropriate mechanism that can generate structure at the horizon scale.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: In the final stages of black-hole evaporation, quantum effects become important and cannot be ignored. The precise understanding of this phase of black-hole evaporation requires a complete theory of quantum gravity. Within, what might be termed, the loop-quantum-gravity approach to black holes, it is believed that understanding this phase of evaporation is crucial to resolving the information paradox.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: This perspective holds that Hawking's computation is reliable until the final stages of black-hole evaporation when information suddenly escapes. An alternative possibility along the same lines is that black-hole evaporation might simply stop when the black hole becomes Planck-sized. Such scenarios are called "remnant scenarios".


title: Black hole information paradox

text: An appealing aspect of this perspective is that a significant deviation from classical and semiclassical gravity is needed only in the regime in which the effects of quantum gravity are expected to dominate.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: On the other hand, this idea implies that just before the sudden escape of information, a very small black hole must be able to store an arbitrary amount of information and have a very large number of internal states. Therefore, researchers who follow this idea must take care to avoid the common criticism of remnant-type scenarios, which is that they might may violate the Bekenstein bound and lead to a violation of effective field theory due to the production of remnants as virtual particles in ordinary scattering events.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: In 2016, Hawking, Perry and Strominger noted that black holes must contain "soft hair". Particles that have no rest mass, like photons and gravitons, can exist with arbitrarily low-energy and are called soft particles. The soft-hair resolution posits that information about the initial state is stored in such soft particles. The existence of such soft hair is a peculiarity of four-dimensional asymptotically flat space and therefore this resolution to the paradox does not carry over to black holes in anti-de Sitter space or black holes in other dimensions.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: A minority view within the theoretical physics community is that information is genuinely lost when black holes form and evaporate.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: This conclusion follows if one assumes that the predictions of semiclassical gravity and the causal structure of the black-hole spacetime are exact.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: However, this conclusion leads to the loss of unitarity. Banks, Susskind and Peskin argued that, in some cases, loss of unitarity also implies violation of energy–momentum conservation or locality, but this argument may possibly be evaded in systems with a large number of degrees of freedom. According to Roger Penrose, loss of unitarity in quantum systems is not a problem: quantum measurements are by themselves already non-unitary. Penrose claims that quantum systems will in fact no longer evolve unitarily as soon as gravitation comes into play, precisely as in black holes. The Conformal Cyclic Cosmology advocated by Penrose critically depends on the condition that information is in fact lost in black holes. This new cosmological model might in the future be tested experimentally by detailed analysis of the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB): if true, the CMB should exhibit circular patterns with slightly lower or slightly higher temperatures. In November 2010, Penrose and V. G. Gurzadyan announced they had found evidence of such circular patterns, in data from the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) corroborated by data from the BOOMERanG experiment. The significance of the findings was subsequently debated by others.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: Along similar lines, Modak, Ortíz, Peña and Sudarsky, have argued that the paradox can be dissolved by invoking foundational issues of quantum theory often referred as the measurement problem of quantum mechanics. This work was built on an earlier proposal by Okon and Sudarsky on the benefits of objective collapse theory in a much broader context. The original motivation of these studies was the long-standing proposal of Roger Penrose wherein collapse of the wave-function is said to be inevitable in the presence of black holes (and even under the influence of gravitational field). Experimental verification of collapse theories is an ongoing effort.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: This idea suggests that Hawking radiation stops before the black hole reaches the Planck size. Since the black hole never evaporates, information about its initial state can remain inside the black hole and the paradox disappears. However, there is no accepted mechanism that would allow Hawking radiation to stop while the black hole remains macroscopic.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: Some models of gravity, such as the Einstein–Cartan theory of gravity which extends general relativity to matter with intrinsic angular momentum (spin) predict the formation of such baby universes. No violation of known general principles of physics is needed. There are no physical constraints on the number of the universes, even though only one remains observable.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: However, it is difficult to test the Einstein–Cartan theory because its predictions are significantly different from general-relativistic ones only at extremely high densities.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: The final-state proposal suggests that boundary conditions must be imposed at the black-hole singularity which, from a causal perspective, is to the future of all events in the black-hole interior. This helps to reconcile black-hole evaporation with unitarity but it contradicts the intuitive idea of causality and locality of time-evolution.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: In 2014, Chris Adami argued that analysis using quantum channel theory causes any apparent paradox to disappear; Adami rejects black hole complementarity, arguing instead that no space-like surface contains duplicated quantum information.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: Significant progress was made in 2019, when starting with work by Penington and Almheiri, Engelhardt, Marolf and Maxfield, researchers were able to compute the von Neumann entropy of the radiation emitted by black holes in specific models of quantum gravity. These calculations showed that, in these models, the entropy of this radiation first rises and then falls back to zero. As explained above, one way to frame the information paradox is that Hawking's calculation appears to show that the von Neumann entropy of Hawking radiation increases throughout the lifetime of the black hole. However, if the black hole formed from a pure state with zero entropy, unitarity implies that the entropy of the Hawking radiation must decrease back to zero once the black hole evaporates completely. Therefore, the results above provide a resolution to the information paradox, at least in the specific models of gravity considered in these models.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: These calculations compute the entropy by first analytically continuing the spacetime to a Euclidean spacetime and then using the replica trick. The path integral that computes the entropy receives contributions from novel Euclidean configurations called "replica wormholes". (These wormholes exist in a Wick rotated spacetime and should not be conflated with wormholes in the original spacetime.) The inclusion of these wormhole geometries in the computation prevents the entropy from increasing indefinitely.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: These calculations also imply that for sufficiently old black holes, one can perform operations on the Hawking radiation that affect the black hole interior. This result has implications for the related firewall paradox, and provides evidence for the physical picture suggested by the ER=EPR proposal, black hole complementarity and the Papadodimas–Raju proposal.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: It has been noted that the models used to perform the Page curve computations above have consistently involved theories where the graviton itself has a mass, unlike the real world where the graviton is massless. These models have also involved a "nongravitational bath", which can be thought of as an artificial interface where gravity ceases to act. It has also been argued that a key technique used in the Page-curve computations, called the "island proposal", would be inconsistent in standard theories of gravity with a Gauss law. This would suggest that the Page curve computations are inapplicable to realistic black holes and only work in special toy models of gravity. The validity or otherwise of these criticisms remains under investigation and there is no general agreement in the research community.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: In 2020, Laddha, Prabhu, Raju and Shrivastava argued that, as a result of the effects of quantum gravity, information should always be available outside the black hole. This would imply that the von Neumann entropy of the region outside the black hole always remains zero, as opposed to the proposal above, where the von Neumann entropy first rises and then falls. Extending this, Raju argued that Hawking's error was to assume that the region outside the black hole would have no information about its interior.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: Hawking formalized this assumption in terms of a "principle of ignorance". The principle of ignorance is correct in classical gravity, when quantum-mechanical effects are neglected, by virtue of the no-hair theorem. It is also correct when only quantum-mechanical effects are considered but gravitational effects are neglected. But Raju has argued that, when both quantum mechanical and gravitational effects are accounted for, the principle of ignorance should be replaced by a "principle of holography of information" which would imply just the opposite: all the information about the interior can be regained from the exterior through suitably precise measurements.


title: Black hole information paradox

text: The two recent resolutions of the information paradox described above — via replica wormholes and the holography of information — share the common feature that observables in the black-hole interior also describe observables far from the black hole. This implies a loss of exact locality in quantum gravity. Although this loss of locality is very small, it persists over large distance scales. This feature has been challenged by some researchers.


title: Captain (United States O-3)

text: In the United States Army (), U.S. Marine Corps (USMC), U.S. Air Force (USAF), and U.S. Space Force (USSF), captain (abbreviated "CPT" in the and "Capt" in the USMC, USAF, and USSF) is a company-grade officer rank, with the pay grade of O-3. It ranks above first lieutenant and below major. It is equivalent to the rank of lieutenant in the Navy/Coast Guard officer rank system and should not be confused with the Navy/Coast Guard rank of captain. The insignia for the rank consists of two silver bars, with slight stylized differences between the Army/Air Force version and the Marine Corps version.


title: Captain (United States O-3)

text: The U.S. military inherited the rank of captain from its British Army forebears. In the British Army, the captain was designated as the appropriate rank for the commanding officer of infantry companies, artillery batteries, and cavalry troops, which were considered as equivalent-level units. Captains also served as staff officers in regimental and brigade headquarters and as aides-de-camp to brigadiers and general officers. British Marine battalions also utilized captain as the appropriate rank of their constituent Marine companies. Therefore, American colonial militia and Provincial Regular units (e.g., First and Second Virginia Regiments), as well as colonial Marines, mirrored British Army and Marine organization and rank structure.


title: Captain (United States O-3)

text: On July 23, 1775, General Washington decreed that captains would wear a "yellow or buff" cockade in their hats as their badge of rank. In 1779, the rank insignia for captains was changed to an epaulette worn of the right shoulder. Infantry captains wore a silver epaulette while all other captains wore a gold epaulette. Both company-grade officers and non-commissioned officers began wearing chevrons as rank insignia in 1821. The captain wore a single chevron, point up, above the elbow on each sleeve; again, the color was silver for infantry captains and gold for all other captains. In 1832, company-grade officers ceased wearing chevrons and reverted to a system of epaulettes (again silver for infantry and gold for all others); captains wearing an epaulette on each shoulder, but smaller and less elaborate than the field grade officer versions. In 1836, captains began wearing an insignia of two bars (gold for infantry and silver for all others). Finally, in 1872, all captains, regardless of branch, began to wear two silver bars.


title: Captain (United States O-3)

text: An Army captain generally serves as a battalion/squadron (cavalry) or brigade staff officer and may have an opportunity to command a company/battery (field and air defense artillery)/troop (cavalry). When given such a command, they bear the title company/battery/troop commander. U.S. Army Special Forces (12-member) Operational Detachments Alpha are also commanded by a captain, who has the title of "detachment commander."


title: Captain (United States O-3)

text: Marine captains generally serve as staff officers in battalions/squadrons (aviation), regiments/aviation groups (MAG or MACG), or in MAGTFs (MEU and MEB) and may have an opportunity to command companies, batteries (artillery and air defense) or various types of detachments, with the title of commanding officer. In the Marine Raider Regiment, a captain, with the title of "team leader," commands a 14-man Marine Special Operations Team (MSOT). Marine captains also serve as executive officers (i.e., second-in-command) of infantry battalion weapons companies and some other larger combat logistics and aviation support units. Marine Aviation captains routinely serve as aircraft and air mission commanders, aircraft section and division leaders, aviation maintenance department division officers, and as officers-in-charge (OIC) of various combat logistics and aviation support functional and staff sections.


title: Captain (United States O-3)

text: An Air Force captain's authority varies by group assignment. In an operations group, senior captains may be flight commanders while more junior captains may be heads of departments. In the maintenance or logistics and mission support groups they are almost always flight commanders. In the medical group, captains usually have limited administrative and command responsibility as captain is frequently the entry-level rank for most medical officers and dental officers.


title: Captain (United States O-3)

text: In the Space Force, a captain typically has authority over a flight, and is referred to as a company commander.


title: Captain (United States O-3)

text: Captains of all four services routinely serve as instructors at service schools and combat training centers, aide-de-camps to general officers, liaison and exchange officers to other units, services, and foreign militaries, recruiting officers, students in advanced and graduate/post-graduate programs in Professional Military Education institutions and civilian universities, and on various types of special assignments.


title: Captain (United States O-3)

text: In Army and Air Force medical units, captain is the entry-level rank for those possessing a medical degree, or a doctorate in a healthcare profession. Other health care professions including nurse anesthetists, pharmacists, optometrists, veterinarians, and physician assistants, among others may start as first lieutenants promotable upon completion of initial entry training.


title: Captain (United States O-3)

text: In Army and Air Force Judge Advocate General Corps, lawyers with a Juris Doctor degree and membership in the bar of at least one U.S. state or territory are appointed captains, or first lieutenants promotable upon completion of initial entry training.


title: Captain (United States O-3)

text: However, in Marine Corps Judge Advocates, after earning their commissions as unrestricted line officer second lieutenants, as well as earning an accredited law degree and passing a bar examination, enter active duty as first lieutenants and must complete the Marine Officer Basic Officer Course/The Basic School to qualify as rifle platoon commanders, before subsequently attending their MOS school prior to assignment to their first Marine Corps Judge Advocate billet and completing the minimum time in grade requirements for selection for and promotion to captain.


title: Digital signal processing

text: Digital signal processing (DSP) is the use of digital processing, such as by computers or more specialized digital signal processors, to perform a wide variety of signal processing operations. The digital signals processed in this manner are a sequence of numbers that represent samples of a continuous variable in a domain such as time, space, or frequency. In digital electronics, a digital signal is represented as a pulse train, which is typically generated by the switching of a transistor.


title: Digital signal processing

text: Digital signal processing and analog signal processing are subfields of signal processing. DSP applications include audio and speech processing, sonar, radar and other sensor array processing, spectral density estimation, statistical signal processing, digital image processing, data compression, video coding, audio coding, image compression, signal processing for telecommunications, control systems, biomedical engineering, and seismology, among others.


title: Digital signal processing

text: DSP can involve linear or nonlinear operations. Nonlinear signal processing is closely related to nonlinear system identification and can be implemented in the time, frequency, and spatio-temporal domains.


title: Digital signal processing

text: The application of digital computation to signal processing allows for many advantages over analog processing in many applications, such as error detection and correction in transmission as well as data compression. Digital signal processing is also fundamental to digital technology, such as digital telecommunication and wireless communications. DSP is applicable to both streaming data and static (stored) data.


title: Digital signal processing

text: To digitally analyze and manipulate an analog signal, it must be digitized with an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Sampling is usually carried out in two stages, discretization and quantization. Discretization means that the signal is divided into equal intervals of time, and each interval is represented by a single measurement of amplitude. Quantization means each amplitude measurement is approximated by a value from a finite set. Rounding real numbers to integers is an example.


title: Digital signal processing

text: The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem states that a signal can be exactly reconstructed from its samples if the sampling frequency is greater than twice the highest frequency component in the signal. In practice, the sampling frequency is often significantly higher than this.


title: Digital signal processing

text: Theoretical DSP analyses and derivations are typically performed on discrete-time signal models with no amplitude inaccuracies (quantization error), "created" by the abstract process of sampling. Numerical methods require a quantized signal, such as those produced by an ADC. The processed result might be a frequency spectrum or a set of statistics. But often it is another quantized signal that is converted back to analog form by a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).


title: Digital signal processing

text: DSP engineers usually study digital signals in one of the following domains: time domain (one-dimensional signals), spatial domain (multidimensional signals), frequency domain, and wavelet domains. They choose the domain in which to process a signal by making an informed assumption (or by trying different possibilities) as to which domain best represents the essential characteristics of the signal and the processing to be applied to it. A sequence of samples from a measuring device produces a temporal or spatial domain representation, whereas a discrete Fourier transform produces the frequency domain representation.


title: Digital signal processing

text: Time domain refers to the analysis of signals with respect to time. Similarly, space domain refers to the analysis of signals with respect to position, e.g., pixel location for the case of image processing.


title: Digital signal processing

text: The most common processing approach in the time or space domain is enhancement of the input signal through a method called filtering. Digital filtering generally consists of some linear transformation of a number of surrounding samples around the current sample of the input or output signal. The surrounding samples may be identified with respect to time or space. The output of a linear digital filter to any given input may be calculated by convolving the input signal with an impulse response.


title: Digital signal processing

text: Signals are converted from time or space domain to the frequency domain usually through use of the Fourier transform. The Fourier transform converts the time or space information to a magnitude and phase component of each frequency. With some applications, how the phase varies with frequency can be a significant consideration. Where phase is unimportant, often the Fourier transform is converted to the power spectrum, which is the magnitude of each frequency component squared.


title: Digital signal processing

text: The most common purpose for analysis of signals in the frequency domain is analysis of signal properties. The engineer can study the spectrum to determine which frequencies are present in the input signal and which are missing. Frequency domain analysis is also called "spectrum-" or "spectral analysis".


title: Digital signal processing

text: Filtering, particularly in non-realtime work can also be achieved in the frequency domain, applying the filter and then converting back to the time domain. This can be an efficient implementation and can give essentially any filter response including excellent approximations to brickwall filters.


title: Digital signal processing

text: There are some commonly used frequency domain transformations. For example, the cepstrum converts a signal to the frequency domain through Fourier transform, takes the logarithm, then applies another Fourier transform. This emphasizes the harmonic structure of the original spectrum.


title: Digital signal processing

text: Digital filters come in both infinite impulse response (IIR) and finite impulse response (FIR) types. Whereas FIR filters are always stable, IIR filters have feedback loops that may become unstable and oscillate. The Z-transform provides a tool for analyzing stability issues of digital IIR filters. It is analogous to the Laplace transform, which is used to design and analyze analog IIR filters.


title: Digital signal processing

text: A signal is represented as linear combination of its previous samples. Coefficients of the combination are called autoregression coefficients. This method has higher frequency resolution and can process shorter signals compared to the Fourier transform. Prony's method can be used to estimate phases, amplitudes, initial phases and decays of the components of signal. Components are assumed to be complex decaying exponents.


title: Digital signal processing

text: A time-frequency representation of signal can capture both temporal evolution and frequency structure of analyzed signal. Temporal and frequency resolution are limited by the principle of uncertainty and the tradeoff is adjusted by the width of analysis window. Linear techniques such as Short-time Fourier transform, wavelet transform, filter bank, non-linear (e.g., Wigner–Ville transform) and autoregressive methods (e.g. segmented Prony method) are used for representation of signal on the time-frequency plane. Non-linear and segmented Prony methods can provide higher resolution, but may produce undesirable artifacts. Time-frequency analysis is usually used for analysis of non-stationary signals. For example, methods of fundamental frequency estimation, such as RAPT and PEFAC are based on windowed spectral analysis.


title: Digital signal processing

text: In numerical analysis and functional analysis, a discrete wavelet transform is any wavelet transform for which the wavelets are discretely sampled. As with other wavelet transforms, a key advantage it has over Fourier transforms is temporal resolution: it captures both frequency "and" location information. The accuracy of the joint time-frequency resolution is limited by the uncertainty principle of time-frequency.


title: Digital signal processing

text: Empirical mode decomposition is based on decomposition signal into intrinsic mode functions (IMFs). IMFs are quasiharmonical oscillations that are extracted from the signal.


title: Digital signal processing

text: DSP algorithms may be run on general-purpose computers and digital signal processors. DSP algorithms are also implemented on purpose-built hardware such as application-specific integrated circuit (ASICs). Additional technologies for digital signal processing include more powerful general purpose microprocessors, graphics processing units, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), digital signal controllers (mostly for industrial applications such as motor control), and stream processors.


title: Digital signal processing

text: For systems that do not have a real-time computing requirement and the signal data (either input or output) exists in data files, processing may be done economically with a general-purpose computer. This is essentially no different from any other data processing, except DSP mathematical techniques (such as the DCT and FFT) are used, and the sampled data is usually assumed to be uniformly sampled in time or space. An example of such an application is processing digital photographs with software such as Photoshop.


title: Digital signal processing

text: When the application requirement is real-time, DSP is often implemented using specialized or dedicated processors or microprocessors, sometimes using multiple processors or multiple processing cores. These may process data using fixed-point arithmetic or floating point. For more demanding applications FPGAs may be used. For the most demanding applications or high-volume products, ASICs might be designed specifically for the application.


title: Digital signal processing

text: Parallel implementations of DSP algorithms, utilising multi-core CPU and many-core GPU architectures, are developed to improve the performances in terms of latency of these algorithms.


title: Digital signal processing

text: Specific examples include speech coding and transmission in digital mobile phones, room correction of sound in hi-fi and sound reinforcement applications, analysis and control of industrial processes, medical imaging such as CAT scans and MRI, audio crossovers and equalization, digital synthesizers, and audio effects units.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 14)

text: The fourteenth season of the American television medical drama "Grey's Anatomy" was ordered on February 10, 2017, by American Broadcasting Company (ABC), and premiered on September 28, 2017 with a special 2-hour premiere. The season consists of 24 episodes, with the season's seventh episode marking the 300th episode for the series overall. The season is produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and Entertainment One Television.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 14)

text: Krista Vernoff who helped co-lead the show with Shonda Rhimes in its early years, marked her return as co-showrunner this season with William Harper, having previously left at the end of the seventh season. Rhimes left ABC to produce television for Netflix, and now has a hands-off approach to the show. Despite not being showrunner since its eighth season to run "Scandal", Rhimes still signed off each episode's storyline, but this season marked a departure from this. Rhimes explained she only trusted Vernoff to pursue uncharted territory without her. As such, drastic creative changes occurred in the season, with Vernoff retiring Martin Henderson, Jessica Capshaw, and Sarah Drew's characters. Jason George also departs as Ben Warren to appear in the second spin-off, "Station 19".


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 14)

text: On April 20, 2018, ABC officially renewed "Grey's Anatomy" for a network primetime drama record-tying fifteenth season.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 14)

text: The number in the "No. overall" column refers to the episode's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season" column refers to the episode's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions" refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live. Each episode of this season, with the exception of episode nine, is named after a song.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 14)

text: "Grey's Anatomy" was renewed for a 14th season on February 10, 2017. It premiered on September 28, 2017, with a 2-hour premiere. Ellen Pompeo announced that she would be directing several episodes in the 14th season. On April 28, 2017, veteran writer Krista Vernoff announced that she would return to the show as a writer after leaving the show after the seventh season. On January 11, 2018, ABC released a 6-episode web series following the new surgical interns at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. The web series was written by Barbara Kaye Friend and directed by series-regular Sarah Drew.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 14)

text: Series regular Jerrika Hinton does not appear for the first time since her introduction at the start of the ninth season, after it was announced she landed a starring role in Alan Ball's new HBO drama series "Here and Now". Hinton had previously been in talks of leaving the show at the end of the 12th season when she was cast in the Shondaland comedy pilot "Toast", but ABC passed on the project. Renewing her contract for another 3 seasons as Dr. Arizona Robbins after the eleventh season, Jessica Capshaw returned for the fourteenth season. On June 20, 2017, it was announced that Kim Raver would reprise her role as Dr. Teddy Altman for a guest-arc. In August 2017, it was announced that Abigail Spencer would replace Bridget Regan as Megan Hunt for a multi-episode arc this season. After recurring in the previous season as the controversial character, Eliza Minnick, it was announced in August 2017 that Marika Dominczyk would not return to the show. On September 13, 2017, another guest-star was announced in Greg Germann ("Ally McBeal"), and later it was revealed that his character would be Tom Koracick, Amelia's neurosurgery mentor.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 14)

text: On October 9, 2017, the new group of interns to join the cast in the fourth episode "Ain't That A Kick In The Head" was announced to include Jeanine Mason ("So You Think You Can Dance") as Sam Bello, Alex Blue Davis as Casey Parker, Rushi Kota as Vik Roy, Jaicy Elliot as Taryn Helm, Sophia Ali as Dahlia Qadri, and Jake Borelli as Levi Schmitt. On October 26, 2017, it was announced that Martin Henderson's appearance in the fifth episode titled "Danger Zone" would be his last.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 14)

text: On January 31, 2018, it was announced that Candis Cayne would be joining the show as Dr. Michelle Velez for a multi-episode arc revolving around a transgender character receiving a ground-breaking surgery. On March 8, 2018, it was announced that both Jessica Capshaw and Sarah Drew would leave the series following the conclusion of the season.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 14)

text: It was released on April 4, 2018 that a familiar character would be returning to the set later on in the season as Sarah Utterback's Nurse Olivia Harper would be revisiting Grey Sloan, not as a nurse but as mom of a patient. Details of her storyline or duration of arc have yet to be released. On April 20, 2018, it was released that Geena Davis would return for the episode "Cold as Ice" as Dr. Herman to present a new opportunity for Arizona.


title: Tituba

text: Tituba Indian was an enslaved woman who was one of the first to be accused of witchcraft during the Salem witch trials of 1692-1693. She was brought to colonial Massachusetts from Barbados by Samuel Parris, the minister of Salem Village. She was pivotal in the trials because she confessed to witchcraft when examined by the authorities, giving credence to the accusations. She accused the two other women, Sarah Good and Sarah Osborne, of the same crime. She was imprisoned for over a year but never went to trial. It is unknown what happened to her after the case against her was dismissed by a grand jury in May 1693.


title: Tituba

text: Tituba's husband was John Indian, an Indigenous man whose origins are unknown, but he may have been from Central or South America, Tibitó, Colombia to be precise. It is said that she was named after her town or tribe. Tituba may have originally been from Barbados. Many historians, such as Elaine Breslaw and Charles Upham, gathered that Tituba was a Native American based on Samuel Fowler's writing, "Account of the life of Samuel Parris". Tituba may have originally been a member of the Arawak-Guiana native South American tribe. While there is no physical evidence to prove this theory, it is believed that she was taken from her tribe and forced into slavery in Barbados, where she was sold to the Thompson plantation and became the family cook, as most Native American slaves were. This evidence was concluded through slave-transport documents which described things such as head counts and names of the slaves. As Tituba interacted with a diverse group of people in Barbados, it is assumed that Barbados is the place where she picked up most of her knowledge about witchcraft from mistresses and other slaves. Once the head of the Thompson plantation died, Tituba was inherited by Samuel Parris and then she was brought to Massachusetts. The often unreliable records of the enslaved persons’ origins makes this information difficult to verify. There are historians such as Samuel Drake who suggest that Tituba was African. Her husband went on to become one of the accusers in the Witch Trials. They appear documented together in Samuel Parris's church record book.


title: Tituba

text: Tituba was the first person to be accused of practicing witchcraft by Elizabeth Parris and Abigail Williams. It has been theorized that Tituba told the girls tales of voodoo and witchcraft prior to the accusations. Tituba was allowed to speak against her accusers despite their race because it was not illegal for slaves to give testimony in court. She was also the first person to confess to practicing witchcraft in Salem Village in March 1692. Initially denying her involvement in witchcraft, Tituba later confessed to making a "witch cake", but she confessed to making it after she was beaten by Samuel Parris. Tituba also confessed to speaking with the devil and in her confession, she stated that he ordered her to worship him and hurt the children of the village. When she was questioned later, she added that she learned about occult techniques from her mistress in Barbados, who taught her how to ward herself from evil powers and reveal the cause of witchcraft. Since such knowledge was not supposed to be harmful, Tituba again asserted to Parris that she was not a witch, but she admitted that she had participated in an occult ritual when she made the witch cake in an attempt to help Elizabeth Parris. Tituba, Sarah Good, and Sarah Osborne were sent to jail in Boston to await trial and punishment on March 7, 1692. Despite these confessions, there is no proof that she did the things to which she confessed.


title: Tituba

text: Other women and men from surrounding villages were accused of practicing witchcraft and arrested during the Salem witchcraft trials. Tituba not only used these outlandish accusations to stir confusion among Massachusetts residents, but she also used them to displace the punishment and/or death sentence that could have been imposed upon her. By deflecting people's attention, she was able to prove that she was a credible witness and as a result of the recognition she received, her life and her reputation were both saved. Tituba must have been aware that she could not hide from the accusations which were being made against her due to certain prejudices which people held against her based on her ethnicity. She claimed not to be a witch and denied that accusation against her despite her use of occult practices, admitting that the devil visited her and Parris' determination to find her guilty. Her confession and accusations not only served as a scapegoat, they also served as a new form of entertainment to the residents of Salem as they experienced possessions because of her words. Not only did Tituba accuse others in her confession, but she talked about black dogs, hogs, a yellow bird, red and black rats, cats, a fox, and a wolf. Tituba talked about riding sticks to different places. She confessed that Sarah Osborne possessed a creature with the head of a woman, two legs, and wings. Since it mixed various perspectives on witchcraft, Tituba's confession confused listeners, and its similarities to certain stock tropes of demonology caused some Salem Village residents to believe that Satan was among them.


title: Tituba

text: After the trials, Tituba remained in Boston Gaol, which had very poor living conditions for thirteen months, because Samuel Parris refused to pay her gaol fees. In April 1693, Tituba was sold to an unknown person for the price of her gaol fees. In an interview with Robert Calef for his collection of papers on the trials, titled "More Wonders of the Invisible World: Being an Account of the Trials of Several Witches, Lately Executed in New-England", Tituba confirmed that Parris had beaten a confession out of her and then coached her on what to say and how to say it when she was first questioned.


title: Tituba

text: The majority of fictional pieces that artistically or historically depict Tituba's life portray her as a Black woman or an "outgroup" by Puritan society, due to her racial and socioeconomic status as a South American Indigenous and an indentured servant woman or slave. Although it is not explicitly discussed in all of the movies, plays and books, that account for Tituba's conviction, it is quite possible that the "fear of strangers" in combination with the Western European traditional belief and understanding of witchcraft, made Tituba a prime target for witchcraft conviction. With reference to the historical understanding of Tituba and why she was convicted, it has been argued that the pre-existing ideas about "out groups" and stereotypical ideas of foreign cultures combined with fictional portrayals of witchcraft and sorcery works, has created a case where history and fiction shape each other. Essentially, the fictional works have assisted in the idea of what the Salem Witch Trials were like and what events lead to the convictions, trials and confessions, but without factoring in racial, political, religious and economic influences of the time, the portrayals of Tituba in media remain, for the most part, fictional.


title: Tituba

text: In John Neal's 1828 novel "Rachel Dyer", a socially isolated Matthew Paris (based on Samuel Parris) feels threatened by Tituba's relationship with John Indian and is motivated to accuse her of witchcraft as a result. Neal described her as a "female Indian" who "did the drudgery of the house".


title: Tituba

text: Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, in his 1868 play entitled "Giles Corey of the Salem Farms", describes Tituba as "the daughter of a man all black and fierce…He was an Obi man, and taught [her] magic." Obeah (also spelled Obi) is a specifically African and Afro-American system of magic."


title: Tituba

text: Tituba is featured prominently in the 1953 play "The Crucible" by Arthur Miller. The image of Tituba as the instigator of witchcraft at Salem was reinforced by the opening scene of "The Crucible", which owes much to Marion L. Starkey's historical work "The Devil in Massachusetts" (1949).


title: Tituba

text: In Miller's play, Tituba is said to have come from Barbados, where she was taught how to conjure up spirits, and had allegedly dabbled in sorcery, witchcraft, and Satanism. The play suggests that Abigail Williams and the other girls tried to use Tituba's knowledge when dancing in the woods before the trials began; it was, in fact, their being caught that led to those events. With the original intention of covering up their own sinful deeds, Tituba was the one to be accused by Abigail, who had in fact drunk from a magic cup Tituba made to kill John Proctor's wife, Elizabeth, and to bewitch him into loving her. She and the other girls claimed to have seen Tituba "with the Devil". It is ironic that the belief that Tituba led these girls astray has persisted in popular lore, fiction, and nonfiction alike. The charge, which is seen by some as having barely disguised racist undertones, is based on the imagination of authors like Starkey, who mirrors Salem's accusers when she asserts that "I have invented the scenes with Tituba ... but they are what I really believe happened."


title: Tituba

text: Tituba appears in the novel "Calligraphy of the Witch" (2007) by Alicia Gaspar de Alba as an Arawak Native American Indigenous from Guyana fluent in several languages, and the only person in the Boston area who understands Spanish. She is a friend and English tutor to the indentured servant Concepción Benavidez who is accused of witchcraft in the Boston area because of her Mexican and Catholic culture.


title: Tituba

text: In "" (2013–2014), young African-American witch Queenie states that she is a descendant of Tituba. Later in the series, Voodoo Queen Marie Laveau and Supreme witch Fiona Goode have an in-depth discussion of Tituba's history and legacy. They suggest her magic came from her Arawak ancestry.


title: Tituba

text: Tituba is portrayed in the Jayce Landberg song "Happy 4 U", featured on the album "The Forbidden World" (2020).


title: Vicenza

text: Vicenza ( , ; ) is a city in northeastern Italy. It is in the Veneto region at the northern base of the "Monte Berico", where it straddles the Bacchiglione River. Vicenza is approximately west of Venice and east of Milan.


title: Vicenza

text: Vicenza is a thriving and cosmopolitan city, with a rich history and culture, and many museums, art galleries, piazzas, villas, churches and elegant Renaissance "palazzi". With the Palladian Villas of the Veneto in the surrounding area, and his renowned "Teatro Olimpico" (Olympic Theater), the "city of Palladio" has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1994.


title: Vicenza

text: In December 2008, Vicenza had an estimated population of 115,927 and a metropolitan area of 270,000. Vicenza is the third-largest Italian industrial centre as measured by the value of its exports, and is one of the country's wealthiest cities, in large part due to its textile and steel industries, which employ tens of thousands. Additionally, about one fifth of the country's gold and jewelry is made in Vicenza, greatly contributing to the city's economy. Another important sector is the engineering/computer components industry (Federico Faggin, the microprocessor's co-inventor, was born in Vicenza).


title: Vicenza

text: Vicentia was settled by the Italic Euganei tribe and then by the Paleo-Veneti tribe in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. The Romans allied themselves with the Paleo-Veneti in their fight against the Celtic tribes that populated north-western Italy. The Roman presence in the area grew exponentially over time and the Paleo-Veneti (whose culture mirrored Etruscan and Greek values more so than Celtic ones) were gradually assimilated. In 157 BC, the city was a de facto Roman centre and was given the name of Vicetia or Vincentia, meaning "victorious".


title: Vicenza

text: The citizens of Vicetia received Roman citizenship and were inscribed into the Roman tribe "Romilia" in 49 BC. The city was known for its agriculture, brickworks, marble quarry, and wool industry and had some importance as a way-station on the important road from "Mediolanum" (Milan) to Aquileia, near "Tergeste" (Trieste), but it was overshadowed by its neighbor "Patavium" (Padua). Little survives of the Roman city, but three of the bridges across the Bacchiglione and Retrone rivers are of Roman origin, and isolated arches of a Roman aqueduct exist outside the "Porta Santa Croce".


title: Vicenza

text: During the decline of the Western Roman Empire, Heruls, Vandals, Alaric and his Visigoths, as well as the Huns laid waste to the area, but the city recovered after the Ostrogoth conquest in 489 AD, before being conquered by the Byzantine Empire soon after. It was also an important Lombard city and then a Frankish center. Numerous Benedictine monasteries were built in the Vicenza area, beginning in the 6th century.


title: Vicenza

text: In 1001, Otto III handed over the government of the city to the bishop, and its communal organization had an opportunity to develop, separating soon from the episcopal authority. It took an active part in the League with Verona and, most of all, in the Lombard League (1164–1167) against Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa compelling Padua and Treviso to join: its podestà, Ezzelino II il Balbo, was captain of the league. When peace was restored, however, the old rivalry with Padua, Bassano, and other cities was renewed, besides which there were the internal factions of the Vivaresi (Ghibellines) and the Maltraversi (Guelphs).


title: Vicenza

text: The tyrannical Ezzelino III from Bassano drove the Guelphs out of Vicenza, and caused his brother, Alberico, to be elected podestà (1230). The independent commune joined the Second Lombard League against Emperor Frederick II, and was sacked by that monarch (1237), after which it was annexed to Ezzelino's dominions. On his death the old oligarchic republic political structure was restored – a "consiglio maggiore" ("grand council") of four hundred members and a "consiglio minore" ("small council") of forty members – and it formed a league with Padua, Treviso and Verona. Three years later the Vicentines entrusted the protection of the city to Padua, so as to safeguard republican liberty; but this protectorate ("custodia") quickly became dominion, and for that reason Vicenza in 1311 submitted to the Scaligeri lords of Verona, who fortified it against the Visconti of Milan.


title: Vicenza

text: Vicenza came under the rule of the Republic of Venice in 1404, and its subsequent history is that of Venice. It was besieged by the Emperor Sigismund, and Maximilian I held possession of it in 1509 and 1516.


title: Vicenza

text: The 16th century was the time of Andrea Palladio, who left many outstanding examples of his art with palaces and villas in the city's territory, which before Palladio's passage, was arguably the most downtrodden and esthetically lacking city of the Veneto.


title: Vicenza

text: After the Fall of the Venetian Republic in 1797, under Napoleonic rule, it was made a duché grand-fief (not a grand duchy, but a hereditary (extinguished in 1896), nominal duchy, a rare honor reserved for French officials) within Napoleon's personal Kingdom of Italy for general Caulaincourt, also imperial Grand-Écuyer. One of the consequences of the city's occupation was the destruction of a prized silver model of the city, the Jewel of Vicenza.


title: Vicenza

text: After 1814, Vicenza passed to the Austrian Empire. In 1848, however, the populace rose against Austria, more violently than in any other Italian centre apart from Milan and Brescia (the city would receive the highest award for military valour for the courage displayed by revolutionaries in this period). As a part of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, it was annexed to Italy after the Third War of Italian independence.


title: Vicenza

text: Vicenza's area was a location of major combat in both World War I (on the Asiago plateau) and World War II (a focal center of the Italian resistance), and it was the most damaged city in Veneto by Allied bombings, including many of its monuments; the civil victims were over 2,000. The end of World War II was followed by a period of depression, caused by the devastation during the two world wars. In the 1960s, the whole central part of Veneto, witnessed a strong economic development caused by the emergence of small and medium family businesses, ranging in a vast array of products (that often emerged illegally) that paved the way for what would be known as the ""miracolo del nord-est"" ("miracle of the northeast").


title: Vicenza

text: In the following years, the economic development grew vertiginously. Huge industrial areas sprouted around the city, massive and disorganized urbanization and employment of foreign immigrants increased.


title: Vicenza

text: Vicenza is home to the US Army post Caserma Ederle (Camp Ederle), also known as the U.S. Army Garrison Vicenza. In 1965, Caserma Ederle became the headquarters of the Southern European Task Force, which includes the 173d Airborne Brigade. In January 2006, the European Gendarmerie Force was inaugurated in Vicenza.


title: Vicenza

text: In 2007, there were 114,268 people residing in Vicenza, located in the province of Vicenza, Veneto, of whom 47.6% were male and 52.4% were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 17.17% of the population, compared to pensioners, who number 21.60%. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06% (minors) and 19.94% (pensioners). The average age of Vicenza residents is 43 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Vicenza grew by 3.72%, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.85%. The current birth rate of Vicenza is 9.16 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births.


title: Vicenza

text: In 2010, 83.5% of the population was Italian. From 1876 to 1976 it has been calculated that over 1,000,000 people from the province of Vicenza have emigrated, with more than 3,000,000 people of Vicentino descent living around the world (most common migrational currents included Brazil, the United States, Canada, Australia, Germany, France, Belgium and Switzerland) escaping the devastation left by poverty, war and sickness. Today, almost 100,000 Vicenza citizens live and work abroad. Today, the city has morphed from a land of emigration to a land of immigration. The largest immigrant group comes from the United States (about 9,000 people, partly due to the presence of the military base). Other ethnic minorities comes from other European nations (the largest being Serbia, Romania, and Moldova), South Asian (the largest being Bangladesh and Pakistan), sub-saharan Africa, and North Africa (largest is from Morocco). The city is predominantly Roman Catholic, but due to immigration, it now has some Orthodox Christian, Muslim and Sikh followers.


title: Vicenza

text: In 1994 UNESCO inscribed "Vicenza, City of Palladio" on its list of World Heritage Sites. In 1996, the site was expanded to include the Palladian villas outside the core area, and accordingly renamed "City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto".


title: Vicenza

text: The surrounding country is predominantly agricultural. Major products are wine, wheat, corn, olive oil ( in the Barbarano area ) and cherries and asparagus are a particularity of Bassano. There are also quarries of marble, sulphur, copper, and silver mines, and beds of lignite and kaolin; mineral springs also abound, the most famous being those of Recoaro.


title: Vicenza

text: Massive industrial areas surround the city and extend extensively in the western and eastern hinterland, with numerous steel and textile factories located in the Montecchio Maggiore, Chiampo and Sovizzo area in the west and Camisano Vicentino and Torri di Quartesolo in the east, areas characterised by a disorganised and extensive cementifaction.


title: Vicenza

text: Elitè sectors are the jewelry and clothing factories. Important vicentino clothing firms include: Diesel, Pal Zileri, Marzotto, Bottega Veneta, Marlboro Classics etc. The Gold Exposition is world-famous and it takes place in Vicenza twice a year (January and September).


title: Vicenza

text: Other industries worthy of mention are the woollen and silk, pottery, tanneries, and musical instruments. The headquarters of the bicycle component manufacturer Campagnolo and the protective wear for sports manufacturer Dainese are located here.


title: Vicenza

text: Vicenza railway station, opened in 1846, forms part of the Milan–Venice railway, and is also a junction of two branch lines, to Schio and Treviso, respectively.


title: Vicenza

text: Vicenza is home to Vicenza Hurricanes American Football team which currently plays in . Founded in 2009, the Hurricanes have a junior team and a senior team with a roster of 35+ athletes.


title: Vicenza

text: Vicenza is home to football club L.R. Vicenza Virtus, formerly Lanerossi Vicenza and Vicenza Calcio, which currently compete in Serie B. Their home venue is the Stadio Romeo Menti.


title: Vicenza

text: Vicenza's cuisine reflects its humble, agricultural past. Simple, hearty meals made with fresh local ingredients that reflect the province's geographical diversity.


title: Vicenza

text: Unlike Venetian cuisine where fish reigns supreme, game meat, cheeses and vegetables take center stage accompanied by polenta, soft from the stove or day-old sliced and grilled over the fireplace embers, better yet cooked in a pan under the spit where it lightly fries in meat drippings to create a crunchy golden outer crust.


title: Vicenza

text: Vicenza is known for its simple dishes, and often famous cheeses, fruits, ingredients and wines, such as sopressa Vicentina, Asiago cheese, Marostica cherries, Nanto truffles, Bassano asparagus and Breganze Cabernet wine.


title: Vicenza

text: The inhabitants of Vicenza are jokingly referred to by other Italians as "mangiagatti", or "cat eaters". Purportedly, Vicentinos turned to cats for sustenance during times of famine, such as during World War II.


title: Susan Lynch

text: Susan Lynch (born 5 June 1971) is a Northern Irish actress. three-times an IFTA Award winner, she also won the British Independent Film Award for Best Supporting Actress for the 2003 film "16 Years of Alcohol". Her other film appearances include "Waking Ned" (1998), "Nora" (2000), "Beautiful Creatures" (2000), and "From Hell" (2001). In 2020, she was listed as number 42 on "The Irish Times" list of Ireland's greatest film actors.


title: Susan Lynch

text: Lynch was born in Corrinshego, County Armagh, Northern Ireland to an Italian mother (from Trivento) and an Irish father. She has four siblings; her oldest brother is actor John Lynch.


title: Susan Lynch

text: She trained at the Central School of Speech and Drama, and in August 2004, she starred in "The Night Season" at the Royal National Theatre in London. In 2008, she was one of the leads in "The Last Days of Judas Iscariot" at the Almeida Theatre.


title: Susan Lynch

text: Her film roles include "Beautiful Creatures" (2000), "Waking Ned Devine" (1998), and the title role in "Nora" (2000), about Nora Barnacle, James Joyce's wife.


title: Susan Lynch

text: Lynch and her husband, actor Craig Parkinson, lived in Painswick, Gloucestershire. They have one son together and previously lived in the Camden area of London. The couple separated in 2019.


title: Susan Lynch

text: Lynch has won three Irish Film and Television Academy Awards, including Best Leading Actress for her work in the film County Armagh, Northern Ireland2000 "Nora", about Nora Barnacle and her husband, Irish author James Joyce.


title: Caffè mocha

text: A mocha ( or ), also called mocaccino (), is a chocolate-flavoured warm beverage that is a variant of a caffè latte (), commonly served in a glass rather than a mug. Other commonly used spellings are mochaccino and also mochachino. The name is derived from the city of Mocha, Yemen, which was one of the centres of early coffee trade. Like latte, the name is commonly shortened to just mocha.


title: Caffè mocha

text: Like café latte, mocha is based on espresso and hot milk but with added chocolate flavouring and sweetener, typically in the form of cocoa powder and sugar. Many varieties use chocolate syrup instead, and some may contain dark or milk chocolate.


title: Caffè mocha

text: A variant is white mocha, made with white chocolate instead of milk or dark. There are also variants of the drink that mix the two syrups; this mixture is referred to by several names, including black-and-white mocha, marble mocha, tan mocha, tuxedo mocha, and zebra mocha.


title: Caffè mocha

text: Another variant is a mochaccino which is an espresso shot (double) with either a combination of steamed milk and cocoa powder or chocolate milk. Both mochaccinos and mocha can have chocolate syrup, whipped cream and added toppings such as cinnamon, nutmeg or chocolate sprinkles.


title: Caffè mocha

text: A third variant on the mocha is to use a coffee base instead of espresso. The combination would then be coffee, steamed milk, and the added chocolate. This is the same as a cup of coffee mixed with hot chocolate. The caffeine content of this variation would then be equivalent to the coffee choice included.


title: Islamic funeral

text: Funerals and funeral prayers in Islam () follow fairly specific rites, though they are subject to regional interpretation and variation in custom. In all cases, however, sharia (Islamic religious law) calls for burial of the body as soon as possible, preceded by a simple ritual involving bathing and shrouding the body, followed by (prayer). Burial is usually within 24 hours of death to protect the living from any sanitary issues, except in the case of a person killed in battle or when foul play is suspected; in those cases it is important to determine the cause of death before burial. Cremation of the body is strictly forbidden in Islam.


title: Islamic funeral

text: The corpse is washed (, bathed), with the purpose to physically cleanse the deceased. The exact manner, method, style and accessories used for bathing the corpse may vary by locale and temporal position, except that it is to be done with heated water. Bathing the dead body is an essential ritual of the Sunnah of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and therefore a part of the Islamic sharia. This should occur as soon as possible after death, preferably within hours.


title: Islamic funeral

text: Orthodox practice is to wash the body an odd number of times (at least once) with a cloth covering its (parts of the body that should be hidden according to sharia).


title: Islamic funeral

text: The "washers" are commonly adult members of the immediate family, who are of the same gender as the deceased. In cases of violent deaths or accidents, where the deceased has suffered trauma or mutilation, morgue facilities mend the body and wrap it in a shroud to minimise fluid leakage prior to surrendering it to mourners for washing.


title: Islamic funeral

text: The corpse is typically wrapped in a simple plain cloth (the ). This is done to respect the dignity and privacy of the deceased with the family sometimes present. The specifics of this ritual, including the material, style, and colour of the cloth, may vary between regions. However, the shroud should be simple and modest. It is for this reason that Muslims have generally preferred to use white cotton cloth to serve as the shroud. Men may use only three pieces of cloth and women five pieces of cloth.


title: Islamic funeral

text: The body may be kept in this state for several hours, allowing well-wishers to pass on their respects and condolences.


title: Islamic funeral

text: The Muslims of the community gather to offer their collective prayers for the forgiveness of the dead. This prayer has been generally termed as the (funeral prayer).


title: Islamic funeral

text: Following washing, shrouding and prayer, the body is then taken for burial (). The exact manner, customs and style of the grave, the burial and so forth may vary by regional custom.


title: Islamic funeral

text: The grave should be perpendicular to the direction of the Qibla (i.e. Mecca) so that the body, placed in the grave without a coffin lying on its right side, faces the Qibla. Grave markers should be raised, not more than about above the ground, so that the grave will neither be walked nor sat on. Grave markers are simple, because outwardly lavish displays are discouraged in Islam. Graves are frequently marked only with a simple wreath, if at all. However, it is becoming more common for family members to erect grave monuments.


title: Islamic funeral

text: In Middle Eastern Muslim cultures, women are generally discouraged from participating in the funeral procession. The reason for this is that in pre-Islamic Arabia it was customary for grieving women to wail loudly. Wealthy families often even hired moirologists to attend the funerals of their deceased relative. Wailing at funerals is not permitted according to the Sahih Bukhari. Women are allowed to attend or be present if they do not wail or cry or hit themselves in grief, especially in an exaggerated excessive manner as in pre-Islamic Arabia.


title: Islamic funeral

text: Three fist-sized spheres of hand-packed soil prepared beforehand by the gravediggers are used to prop up the corpse, one under the head, one under the chin and one under the shoulder. The lowering of the corpse and positioning of the soil-balls is done by the next of kin. In the case of a deceased husband, a male brother or brother-in-law usually performs this task. In the case of a deceased wife, the husband undertakes this if physically able to. If the husband is elderly, then the eldest son (or son-in-law) is responsible for lowering, alignment and propping the deceased.


title: Islamic funeral

text: Orthodoxy expects those present to symbolically pour three handfuls of soil into the grave while reciting a Quranic verse meaning, "We created you from it, and return you into it, and from it we will raise you a second time". More prayers are then said, asking for forgiveness of the deceased, and reminding the dead of their profession of faith.


title: Islamic funeral

text: The corpse is then fully buried by the gravediggers, who may stamp or pat down the earth to shape. Commonly, the eldest male will supervise. After the burial, those gathered pay their last respects to the dead by collectively praying for the forgiveness of the dead. This collective prayer is the last formal one for the dead. In some cultures such as those in Southeast Asia, relatives scatter flowers and pour rosewater upon the grave before leaving.


title: Islamic funeral

text: According to Sunni Islam, loved ones and relatives are to observe a three-day mourning period. Islamic mourning is observed by increased devotion, receiving visitors and condolences, and avoiding decorative clothing and jewelry in accordance with the Qur'an. Widows observe an extended mourning period (, "period of waiting"), four months and 10 days long. During that time, the widow is not to remarry or to interact with non- (a man she can marry). This rule is to confirm that the woman is not pregnant with the deceased's child prior to remarrying. However, in case of emergencies such as visiting a doctor because of a health emergency, the widow can interact with non-.


title: Islamic funeral

text: Pre-Islamic practices of wailing were instrumental in illustrating the role that women played in Islam. The act of lamentation came to represent Jahiliya behavior, or contrary to ideal Islamic behavior according to the Prophet Muhammad. Loud grieving was inappropriate and was a viewed as questioning God. Women were portrayed as emotional and unable to control themselves when grieving. However, later Muhammad lost his son, and established the difference between grieving and crying. Outward and loud grief was inappropriate, whereas crying was appropriate.


title: Islamic funeral

text: Sunni Islam expects expressions of grief to remain dignified, prohibiting loud wailing or mourning in a loud voice, shrieking, beating the chest and cheeks, tearing hair or clothes, breaking objects, scratching faces or speaking (such as challenging the power of God e.g. "If God exists and is just, he would not allow such injustice”). Grieving is allowed as part of the funerary rites to allow one to come to terms with the loss of a person passing away as long as it respects Allah.


title: Islamic funeral

text: The Qur'an prohibits widows to engage themselves for four lunar months and ten days, after the death of their husbands. According to the Qur'an:


title: Islamic funeral

text: Islamic scholars consider this directive a balance between the mourning of a husband's death and the protection of a widow from cultural or societal censure if she became interested in remarrying after her husband's death, often an economic necessity. This provision also operates to protect the property rights of the unborn, as the duration is enough to ascertain whether a widow is pregnant or not.


title: Islamic funeral

text: Husbands are recommended to make a will in favor of their wives for the provision of one year's residence and maintenance, except if the wives themselves leave the house or take any other similar step. As stated in Qur'an:


title: 2022–23 Arsenal F.C. season

text: The 2022–23 season is the 137th season in the history of Arsenal Football Club and the club's 104th consecutive season in the top-flight. In addition to the domestic league, Arsenal are competing in the FA Cup, the EFL Cup and the UEFA Europa League, which is their 37th European campaign.


title: 2022–23 Arsenal F.C. season

text: The season covers the period from 1 July 2022 to 30 June 2023. It is unusual in that the fixture dates of domestic and European competitions are altered to accommodate the 2022 FIFA World Cup being played in November and December 2022 in Qatar.


title: 2022–23 Arsenal F.C. season

text: On 20 December 2019, Arsenal appointed former club captain Mikel Arteta – who was 37 years old then and had never managed before – as the new head coach on a three-and-a-half-year deal. After leading the Gunners to win the 2020 FA Cup and 2020 FA Community Shield, his title was changed to manager. On 6 May 2022, Arsenal announced that Mikel Arteta had signed a new contract to the end of the 2024–25 campaign.


title: 2022–23 Arsenal F.C. season

text: The 2021–22 season, which was documented in the Amazon Prime Video series "", was a rollercoaster season for the Gunners. With their three consecutive defeats to open the Premier League campaign, the club dropped to 20th, sitting at the bottom of the table, which was their worst start to a season for 67 years. Since then, a new look Arsenal started to emerge with several academy graduates and new signings making a major impact. In fact, Arteta's side were the youngest team in the 2021–22 Premier League with an average starting age of 24 years and 308 days – more than a whole year younger than the next team. The Gunners had moved into the top four for several times between December 2021 and May 2022, but they finished the league season in fifth place, narrowly missing out on Champions League football.


title: 2022–23 Arsenal F.C. season

text: It was reported on 29 June 2022 that the first-team players who were not in action for their respective countries since the end of the last campaign were back to the London Colney training ground for pre-season training.


title: 2022–23 Arsenal F.C. season

text: On 4 July, the Gunners travelled to Germany for a mini training camp at Adidas headquarters in Herzogenaurach. Five academy players – Salah-Eddine Oulad M'Hand, Charlie Patino, Matt Smith, Lino Sousa and Reuell Walters – were with the first-team squad. On 8 July, Arsenal faced 2. Bundesliga side 1. FC Nürnberg at Max-Morlock-Stadion in Nuremberg. New signings Gabriel Jesus, Marquinhos and Matt Turner made their non-competitive debuts for the club in a 5–3 win. They returned to England on the next day.