title: Overtime (sports)

text: Up until 2021, under NCAA college soccer rules, all matches that remained tied after 90 minutes had an overtime period. A sudden-death golden goal rule was applied, with the game ending as soon as an overtime goal was scored. If neither team scored in the two 10-minute halves, the match ended in a draw unless it was a conference or national championship tournament match. A playoff game tied after two overtime periods then moved to a penalty kick shoot-out with the winner determined by the teams alternating kicks from the penalty mark.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: Since the 2022 men's and women's season, the golden goal has been abolished during the regular season. Matches that ended in a draw during a conference or national tournament match involve two 10-minute periods, but no golden goal (following FIFA's extra time rules since 2005). A playoff game tied after two overtime periods still moves to a penalty kick shoot-out with the winner determined by the teams alternating kicks from the penalty mark.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: High school rules vary depending on the state and conference, but most will have a sudden-death overtime procedure wherein the game ends upon scoring a golden goal, although in some instances the overtime will go until completion with the team in the lead after time expires (i.e., silver goal rules) declared the winner. The overtime period length may vary, but it is commonly 10 minutes long. Depending on the state, if the game is still tied at the end of the first overtime:


title: Overtime (sports)

text: The National Football League (NFL) introduced sudden-death overtime for any divisional tiebreak games beginning in 1940, and for championship games beginning in 1946. The first postseason game to be played under these rules was the 1958 NFL Championship Game between the Baltimore Colts and New York Giants (the "Greatest Game Ever Played").


title: Overtime (sports)

text: In 1974, the NFL adopted sudden-death overtime for regular season and preseason games: if the score is tied after regulation time, one additional period is played.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: Until the 2016 season, the period was 15 minutes in all games: in , it was changed to 10 minutes in regular season games, while overtime in preseason games was abolished from 1920 to and since , and it remains 15 minutes for playoff games.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: The captains meet with the officials for a coin toss, and then one side kicks off to the other, as at the start of a game. Under the original regular-season format used through 2011, whoever scored first won the game. Additionally, during regular season games, fourth-quarter timing rules were in effect throughout the period, including a two-minute warning if necessary. In the regular season, if the overtime period expired without either side scoring, the game ended in a tie.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: Because there cannot be a tie in the playoffs, the teams would switch ends of the field and start multiple 15-minute overtime periods until one side scored, and all clock rules were as if a game had started over. Should a tie remain after overtime, this procedure repeats in true sudden death thereafter. Therefore, if a game was still tied with two minutes to go in any even overtime, there would be a two-minute warning (but not during the first overtime period as in the regular season). If it was still tied at the end of double overtime, the team that lost the overtime coin toss would have the option to kick or receive, or to choose which direction to play; at the end of quadruple overtime, there is a new coin toss, and play continues.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: In March 2010, NFL owners voted to amend overtime rules for postseason games; the changes were extended to the regular season in 2012.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: The changes preserved sudden death with one notable exception: if the team that receives the opening kickoff scores a field goal, the team that initially kicked off gets one possession to tie or win the game; any other score on the opening possession ends the game immediately. In postseason games, if both teams are still tied after the first overtime, the procedure is repeated (but in true sudden death hereafter) until a winner is declared. In regular-season games, if the score is tied after 10 minutes has expired, the game ends in a tie.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: As no 2010 postseason game went into overtime, the first overtime game played after the implementation of this rule came in the wild-card round in 2011. Incidentally, this was also the shortest overtime in NFL history; Pittsburgh Steelers kicker Shaun Suisham kicked off and the ball went out of the back of the end zone, resulting in a touchback and no time off the clock. Tim Tebow, then with the Denver Broncos, threw an 80-yard touchdown pass on the first play to Demaryius Thomas to give the Broncos the win in only 11 seconds.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: The first time the "first-possession field goal" rule was enforced occurred on 9 September 2012, the first week of the season, in a game between the Minnesota Vikings and Jacksonville Jaguars. Minnesota's Blair Walsh kicked a 38-yard field goal on the Vikings' first drive. When Jacksonville regained possession, they failed to gain a first down, losing possession and the game on a failed fourth-down conversion.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: The first overtime in which both teams scored occurred on 18 November 2012, in a game between the Houston Texans and Jacksonville Jaguars; the Texans won 43–37. The first overtime game that ended in a tie after both teams scored in overtime occurred on 24 November 2013, when the Minnesota Vikings and Green Bay Packers played to a 26–all tie.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: On 5 February 2017, a Super Bowl went into overtime for the first time, with the New England Patriots defeating the Atlanta Falcons, 34–28; the Patriots scored a touchdown on their initial possession, so the Falcons never received the ball in overtime.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: A rule change gives both teams one possession to start the first overtime in playoffs, no matter whether or not if a touchdown is scored first.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: The Arena Football League and NFL Europe used a variant in which each team is guaranteed one possession. Whoever is leading after one possession won the game; if the teams remain tied after one possession, the game went to sudden death. This procedure was used by the United Football League in its inaugural 2009 season. This included both games of all semifinals series. All overtime periods thereafter were true sudden death periods.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: The short-lived World Football League, for its inaugural 1974 season (the same year the NFL established sudden death in the regular season), used a fifteen-minute quarter of extra time, divided into two halves. It was not sudden death.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: The New York Pro Football League, a 1910s-era league that eventually had several of its teams join the NFL, used the replay to settle ties in its playoff tournament. The replay was used in the 1919 tournament to decide the championship between the Buffalo Prospects and the Rochester Jeffersons. The teams had played to a tie on Thanksgiving; Buffalo won the replay 20–0 to win the championship.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: The United States Football League settles ties this way: teams will try three rounds of 2-point conversions from the three-yard line. Coin toss is called by the visiting team; winner of the toss can choose to possess the ball first or defend. Whoever scores the most points after three rounds wins it; otherwise, teams play sudden-death rounds until one team scores. One timeout can be called per overtime round.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: In college (since the 1996 season) and high school football, as well as the Canadian Football League (since the 2000 season) and the short-lived Alliance of American Football, an "overtime procedure" is used to determine the winner. This method is sometimes referred to as a "Kansas Playoff", or "Kansas Plan" because of its origins for high school football in that state. A brief summary of the rules:


title: Overtime (sports)

text: On two occasions, just two plays were required to determine an overtime winner in an NCAA football game: on 26 September 2002, when Louisville defeated Florida State 26–20 and on 27 September 2003, when Georgia Tech defeated Vanderbilt 24–17.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: It is possible for a college game to end after a single play in overtime if the team on defense secures a turnover and returns it for a touchdown: on 9 September 2005, Ohio defeated Pittsburgh 16–10 on an 85-yard interception return by Dion Byrum on the third play of overtime. It is also possible for the defense to get a safety on the first play of overtime (which would also end the game), but this would require the offense to lose 75 yards on the play, which is extremely unlikely (such a scenario is attested in regular play from scrimmage in college football but never in an overtime period).


title: Overtime (sports)

text: As of 2016, the Tennessee Volunteers have competed in the most overtime college football games, totalling 19.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: The college game with the most overtime periods was on 23 October 2021, when Illinois defeated Penn State 20–18 in nonuple overtime. Prior to that, five games had been decided in septuple overtime: Arkansas vs. Ole Miss in 2001, Arkansas vs. Kentucky in 2003, North Texas vs. FIU in 2006, Western Michigan vs. Buffalo in 2017, and LSU vs. Texas A&M in 2018, the latter of which was the impetus for the 2019 rule change which mandated two-point conversion attempts after a set number of overtime periods.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: The Kansas System was first implemented in 1970. The original Kansas System had each team start on the 10-yard line. Throughout the state that first year, seventy games went into overtime with one game requiring five overtime periods to determine a winner. After the system was reviewed positively by the majority of state's coaches and administrators, Kansas State High School Activities Association leadership presented the system to the National Federation of State High School Associations, who approved giving state associations the option of using the overtime system for two years. Two years later the overtime system became a permanent option for state associations use.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: Another type of overtime system was once used by the California Interscholastic Federation. Known as the "California tiebreaker", it was used in high school football from 1968 through the 1970s and '80s. The California tiebreaker starts with the ball placed at the 50-yard line, and the teams run four plays each (a coin toss decides who gets to go first), alternating possession at the spot of the ball after every play. If no one manages to score (field goals are not allowed), then the team that is in its opponents' territory at the conclusion of the eight plays is awarded one point and declared the winner. When the California tiebreaker was finally phased out, it was replaced by the Kansas tiebreaker.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: In basketball, if the score is tied at the end of regulation play, the teams play multiple five-minute overtime periods until a winner is decided. In levels below collegiate/Olympic play, an overtime period is half the length of a standard quarter, i.e., four minutes for high school varsity. The alternating possession rule is used to start all overtime periods under international rules for full-court basketball, while a jump ball is used under high school and NCAA rules, with the arrow reset based on the results of the jump ball to start each overtime. The Women's National Basketball Association, which use a quarter-possession rule to start periods after the opening jump, also use a jump ball. The entire overtime period is played; there is no sudden-death provision. All counts of personal fouls against players are carried over for the purpose of disqualifying players. If the score remains tied after an overtime period, this procedure is repeated until a winner is determined.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: In exhibition games (non-competitive play), it is upon the discretion of the coaches and organizers if an overtime is to be played especially if it is a non-tournament game (a one-off event).


title: Overtime (sports)

text: Starting in the 2009–10 season, Euroleague Basketball, the organizer of the EuroLeague and EuroCup, introduced a new rule for two-legged ties that eliminated overtime unless necessary to break a tie on aggregate. The rule was first used in the 2009–10 EuroCup quarterfinals (which consist of two-legged ties), although no game in that phase of the competition ended in a regulation draw. Euroleague Basketball extended this rule to all two-legged ties in its competitions, including the EuroLeague, in 2010–11. One game in the qualifying rounds of that season (the only phase of the EuroLeague that uses two-legged ties), specifically the second leg of the third qualifying round tie between Spirou Charleroi and ALBA Berlin, ended in a draw after regulation. No overtime was played in that game because Spirou had won the first leg, and the two-legged tie. Although other competitions use two-legged ties at various stages, the FIBA Europe competitions are the only ones known to use overtime only if the aggregate score after the second game is tied.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: A rule change in the FIBA rules effective 1 October 2017 (Article D.4.2) permits drawn games at the end of either leg of the two-legged tie. The definition states, "If the score is tied at the end of the first game, no extra period shall be played."


title: Overtime (sports)

text: In The Basketball Tournament, a 64-team single-elimination tournament held each summer in the U.S. with a $1 million winner-take-all prize, no overtime is played since 2018. Games employ the "Elam Ending", named after its creator, Ball State University professor Nick Elam, with the idea of making sure the game always ends on a basket. Upon the first dead ball (time-out, foul, violation) with 4 minutes or less remaining in the fourth period, the game clock is turned off (though the shot clock remains active). A target score is set at the current lead score plus eight points (originally seven, but changed for the 2019 edition), and the first team to reach or surpass the target wins. The NBA All-Star Game has also used the Elam Ending since 2020. The fourth period has no game clock, but the shot clock is active. Instead, a target score is set at the leading score after three periods plus 24 points; the first team to reach or exceed that score by any legal basket (field goal, three-pointer, or free throw) wins the game. The Canadian Elite Basketball League first used the Elam Ending in a 2020 tournament that replaced the season that was scrapped due to COVID-19, using TBT rules except that the target score was set by adding 9 points instead of 8. The CEBL made this permanent starting with its 2021 season.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: Starting in 2022–23, the NBA G League adopted a variation of the Elam Ending in regular-season games, calling it the "Final Target Score". Instead of replacing overtime, the G League is using the Elam Ending as its overtime format. In this implementation, the target score is set by adding 7 points to the tied teams' score. The teams then play with a shot clock but no game clock, with the game ending once the target score is reached or exceeded. For the G League Winter Showcase, an event held in December in Las Vegas that sees all 30 teams play two games, the Elam Ending is implemented in the same manner as in the NBA All-Star Game, except the target score is the leading score plus 25 (instead of 24).


title: Overtime (sports)

text: In 3x3 basketball, a formalized version of the half-court three-on-three game, ties after a 10-minute game are settled by continuing play with no game clock (only the shot clock) until one team scores two additional points: baskets made outside the arc being worth two points and all others being worth one point. The 21-point rule, under which a regulation game ends once either team has reached 21 points, does not apply during overtime; a tie at 20 must go to 22. The team that did not get first possession in the game gets first possession in overtime (as jump balls are not used in 3x3). Individual personal foul counts are not kept at any time during the game; all personal fouls are recorded against the team, and team fouls carry over to overtime.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: Ties are common in ice hockey due to the game's low-scoring nature. If the score is tied at the end of regulation play, certain leagues play overtime.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: When a tie needs to be broken in handball, two straight 5-minute overtimes are played. If the teams are still tied after that, this overtime procedure is repeated once more; a further draw will result in a penalty shootout.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: Baseball and softball are unique among the popular North American team sports in that they do not use a game clock. However, if the regulation number of innings are complete (normally nine in baseball and seven in softball) and the score is even, extra innings are played to determine a winner. Complete innings are played, so if a team scores in the top half of the inning, the other team has the chance to play the bottom half of the inning; they will extend the game by tying the score again and win if they take the lead before their third out. The longest professional baseball game ever played, a 1981 minor league baseball game between the Pawtucket Red Sox and the Rochester Red Wings required 33 innings and over eight hours to complete. The Red Wings had scored in the top half of the 21st inning, but Pawtucket tied the game in the bottom half, extending the game.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: Major League Baseball games normally end in a tie only if the game is called off due to weather conditions. In the early decades of baseball (up to the 1920s), a game could also be called off due to nightfall, but this ceased to be a problem once stadiums began installing lights in the 1930s. Two Major League Baseball All-Star Games have ended in a tie; the second 1961 game was called due to rain with the teams tied 1-1 after the ninth inning, and the 2002 game was called after the eleventh inning after both teams had exhausted their supply of pitchers. Since 2022, extra innings in All-Star games had been abolished, settling ties with a three-player, three-swing playoff after nine innings of regulation.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: The exceptions to this are in Nippon Professional Baseball, Chinese Professional Baseball League, and the Korea Baseball Organization, where the game cannot go beyond 12 innings (in Japan Series, first 7 games only; no such limit thereafter). During the 2011 season the NPB had a game time limit of hours during the regular season; ties are allowed to stand in the regular season and postseason ties are resolved in a full replay, extending a series if necessary. Extra innings are not played in KBO doubleheaders' first game.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: In 2017, the Arizona League and Gulf Coast League served as testing grounds for the softball version of the World Baseball Softball Confederation extra-inning rule that places a runner on second base to start an extra inning of play. That rule also was followed by MLB as an experimental rule in and , now a permanent one.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: Ties are allowed to stand in most forms of cricket, but should a winner be necessary (such as in tournament settings), the most commonly used tiebreaking method is the Super Over, which is a limited extra session of the game wherein each team plays an additional six balls (together known as an over) to determine the winner. Tied Super Overs may be followed by another Super Over in some matches, such as (since 2008) the knockout matches of International Cricket Council tournaments. The Super Over originates from Twenty20 cricket, and has been used several times in Twenty20 International games; its first use in a One-Day International was the 2019 Cricket World Cup Final, wherein the Super Over was tied, and the winner then had to be determined by boundary countback (a statistical tiebreaker). Following this event, the ICC changed the rules of its knockout matches so that tied matches continue until one team wins a Super Over.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: In the ICC ODI World Cup 2019 Final, the score was decided by a super over with that being tied and England winning it 32-24 on boundary countdown


title: Overtime (sports)

text: Rugby league games in some competitions are decided using overtime systems if scores are level at full-time (80 minutes). One extra time system is golden point, where any score (try, penalty goal, or field goal) by a team immediately wins the game. This entails a five-minute period of golden point time, after which the teams switch ends and a second five-minute period begins. Depending on the game's status, a scoreless extra time period ends the game as a draw, otherwise play continues until a winner is found.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: In the knockout stages of rugby competitions, most notably the Rugby World Cup, two full-length extra time periods of 10 minutes each are played (with an interval of 5 minutes in between) if the game is tied after full-time. If scores are level after 100 minutes, the rules call for a period of sudden-death extra time to be played. Originally, this sudden-death period was 20 minutes, but is now 10 minutes. If the sudden-death extra time period results in no scoring, standard World Rugby rules call for a kicking competition to be used to determine the winner. Domestic leagues may use other tiebreakers; for example, playoff games in the French professional leagues that are level at the end of extra time use a set of tiebreakers before going to a kicking competition, with the first tiebreaker being tries scored.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: However, no match in the history of the Rugby World Cup has gone past 100 minutes into a sudden-death extra time period.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: In the sevens variant of rugby union, extra time is used only in knockout stages of competitions, such as the World Rugby Sevens Series and Rugby World Cup Sevens. Extra time begins one minute after the end of full-time, and is played in multiple 5-minute periods. Unlike the 15-man game, extra time in sevens is true sudden-death, with the first score by either team winning the match. If neither team has scored at the end of a period, the teams change ends. This procedure is repeated until one team scores.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: The longest rugby league game at first class level is 104 minutes, during the 1997 Super League Tri-series final between NSW and QLD. Normal game time is 80 minutes, but with scores level a further 20 minutes was played. When the scores remained level after 100 minutes, golden point extra time was invoked, a Noel Goldthorpe field goal decided the game after 104 minutes.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: The Isner–Mahut match at the 2010 Wimbledon Championships was a first round Men's Singles match, in which the American 23rd seed John Isner played French qualifier Nicolas Mahut. In total, the match took 11 hours, 5 minutes of play over three days, with a final score of 6–4, 3–6, 6–7(7), 7–6(3), 70–68 for a total of 183 games. It remains by far the longest match in tennis history, measured both by time and number of games. The final set alone was longer than the previous longest match.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: The official longest tie-break on record, 50 points, came in the first round of Wimbledon in 1985 when Michael Mortensen and Jan Gunnarson defeated John Frawley and Victor Pecci 6–4, 6–4, 3–6, 7-6 (24). Of note is an even longer tie-break of 70 points, with Benjamin Balleret defeating Guillaume Couillard 7-6 (34), 6–1. The match, held in Plantation, FL in 2013, was only a qualifying match in a Futures event, the lowest level tournament in pro tennis. All matches in qualifying are played without any chair umpire or any lines people. Without any official scorecard, this record is not official.


title: Overtime (sports)

text: Since 2022, all 5th-set tiebreakers for men's (3rd-set for women's) are broken using the "super tiebreaker", with the first to reach 10 points winning the match; this began with the Australian Open. If the tiebreaker game deciding the match is tied at 9–all, whoever scores two straight points wins. This includes the French Open & Olympics.


title: Liar's dice

text: Liar's dice is a class of dice games for two or more players requiring the ability to deceive and to detect an opponent's deception. In "single hand" liar's dice games, each player has a set of dice, all players roll once, and the bids relate to the dice each player can see (their hand) plus all the concealed dice (the other players' hands). In "common hand" games, there is one set of dice which is passed from player to player. The bids relate to the dice as they are in front of the bidder after selected dice have been re-rolled. Originating during the 15th century, the game subsequently spread to Latin American and European countries. In 1993, a variant, "Call My Bluff", won the Spiel des Jahres.


title: Liar's dice

text: "Liar's dice" originated as a bluffing board game titled Dudo during the 15th century from the Inca Empire, and subsequently spread to Latin American countries. The game later spread to European countries via Spanish conquistadors. In the 1970s, numerous commercial versions of the game were released.


title: Liar's dice

text: Each round, each player rolls a "hand" of dice under their cup and looks at their hand while keeping it concealed from the other players. The first player begins bidding, announcing any face value and the minimum number of dice that the player believes are showing that value, under all of the cups in the game. Ones are often wild, always counting as the face of the current bid.


title: Liar's dice

text: Turns rotate among the players in a clockwise order. Each player has two choices during their turn: to make a higher bid, or challenge the previous bid—typically with a call of "liar". Raising the bid means either increasing the quantity, or the face value, or both, according to the specific bidding rules used. There are many variants of allowed and disallowed bids; common bidding variants, given a previous bid of an arbitrary quantity and face value, include:


title: Liar's dice

text: If the current player challenges the previous bid, all dice are revealed. If the bid is valid (at least as many of the face value and any wild aces are showing as were bid), the bidder wins. Otherwise, the challenger wins. The player who loses a round loses one of their dice. The last player to still retain a die (or dice) is the winner. The loser of the last round starts the bidding on the next round. If the loser of the last round was eliminated, the next player starts the new round.


title: Liar's dice

text: For a given number of unknown dice "n", the probability that "exactly" a certain quantity "q" of any face value are showing, "P(q)", is


title: Liar's dice

text: Where "C(n,q)" is the number of unique subsets of "q" dice out of the set of "n" unknown dice. In other words, the number of dice with any particular face value follows the binomial distribution formula_2.


title: Liar's dice

text: For the same n, the probability "P'(q)" that "at least q" dice are showing a given face is the sum of "P(x)" for all "x" such that "q ≤ x ≤ n", or


title: Liar's dice

text: These equations can be used to calculate and chart the probability of exactly "q" and at least "q" for any or multiple "n". For most purposes, it is sufficient to know the following facts of dice probability:


title: Liar's dice

text: The "Common hand" version is for two players. The first caller is determined at random. Both players then roll their dice at the same time, and examine their hands. Hands are called in style similar to poker, and the game may be played with poker dice:


title: Liar's dice

text: One player calls their hand. The other player may either call a higher-ranking hand, call the bluff, or re-roll some or all of their dice. When a bluff is called, the accused bluffer reveals their dice and the winner is determined.


title: Sandinista!

text: Sandinista! is the fourth studio album by the English punk rock band the Clash. It was released on 12 December 1980 as a triple album containing 36 tracks, with 6 songs on each side. It crosses various genres including funk, reggae, jazz, gospel, rockabilly, folk, dub, rhythm and blues, calypso, disco, and rap. For the first time, the band's traditional songwriting credits of Strummer and Jones were replaced by a generic credit to the Clash. The band agreed to a decrease in album royalties in order to release the 3-LP at a low price.


title: Sandinista!

text: The title refers to the Sandinistas in Nicaragua, and its catalogue number, 'FSLN1', refers to the abbreviation of the party's Spanish name, "Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional".


title: Sandinista!

text: "Sandinista!" was mostly well received, however, there was criticism towards the large size of the triple album. "Sandinista!" is the lowest charting album for the Clash in their native United Kingdom. However, the album was influential in the punk rock movement with its experimental sound and was voted best album of the year in the Pazz & Jop critics poll in "The Village Voice". In 2020 it was ranked number 323 on the "Rolling Stone" list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time" and "Slant Magazine" listed the album at number 85 on its "Best Albums of the 1980s" list.


title: Sandinista!

text: The album was recorded over most of 1980, in London, Manchester, Jamaica and New York. It was produced by the band (primarily Mick Jones and Joe Strummer), recorded and mixed by Bill Price, and engineered by Jeremy "Jerry" Green (Wessex Sound Studios), J. P. Nichols (Electric Lady Studios), Lancelot "Maxie" McKenzie (Channel One Studios), and Bill Price (Pluto + Power Station Studios). Dub versions of some of the songs and toasting was done by Mikey Dread, who had first worked with the band for their 1980 single "Bankrobber". With "Sandinista!" the band reached beyond punk and reggae into dub, rhythm and blues, calypso, gospel and other genres. The album clearly displays the influence of reggae musician and producer Lee "Scratch" Perry (who had worked with the band on their 1977 single "Complete Control" and who had opened some of the band's shows during its stand at Bond's in New York in 1980), with a dense, echo-filled sound on even the straight rock songs.


title: Sandinista!

text: When recording began in New York, bass guitarist Paul Simonon was busy making a film called "Ladies and Gentlemen, The Fabulous Stains", and he was replaced briefly by Ian Dury and the Blockheads bassist Norman Watt-Roy; this later caused some bad feeling when Watt-Roy and keyboard player Mickey Gallagher, a fellow Blockhead, claimed they were responsible for co-composing the song "The Magnificent Seven", as the song was based on a tune of theirs. Dread, too, was upset that he was not credited as the album's producer, although he was credited with "Version Mix". Other guests on the album include singer Ellen Foley (Jones' partner at the time), guitarist Ivan Julian formerly of the Voidoids, former Eddie and the Hot Rods member Lew Lewis, and Strummer's old friend and musical collaborator Tymon Dogg, who plays violin, sings on and wrote the track "Lose This Skin"; he later joined Strummer's band the Mescaleros. Gallagher's children also made appearances: his two sons, Luke and Ben, singing a version of "Career Opportunities" from the band's first album, and his daughter Maria singing a snippet of "The Guns of Brixton", from "London Calling", at the end of the track "Broadway".


title: Sandinista!

text: This is also the only Clash album on which all four members have a lead vocal. Drummer Topper Headon made a unique lead vocal contribution on the song "Ivan Meets G.I. Joe", and Simonon sings lead on "The Crooked Beat".


title: Sandinista!

text: According to Joe Strummer, the decision to release a triple-LP was their way of mocking CBS for resisting their desire to release "London Calling" as a double album, then releasing Bruce Springsteen's double album "The River" less than a year later. Strummer took pleasure in the abundance, saying "It was doubly outrageous. Actually, it was triply outrageous." Mick Jones said, "I always saw it as a record for people who were, like, on oil rigs. Or Arctic stations. People that weren't able to get to the record shops regularly."


title: Sandinista!

text: The band's wish to release the album at a low price was also met with resistance, and they had to forgo any royalties on the first 200,000 copies sold in the UK and a 50% cut in royalties elsewhere.


title: Sandinista!

text: Four singles were released from the "Sandinista!" sessions in the UK: "Bankrobber" (which did not appear on the album), "The Call Up", "Hitsville UK", and "The Magnificent Seven". A single disc promotional sampler called "Sandinista Now!" was sent to press and radio. The side one track listing was "Police on My Back", "Somebody Got Murdered", "The Call Up", "Washington Bullets", "Ivan Meets G.I. Joe" and "Hitsville U.K.". The side two track listing was "Up in Heaven (Not Only Here)", "The Magnificent Seven", "The Leader", "Junco Partner", "One More Time" and "The Sound of Sinners".


title: Sandinista!

text: The song "Washington Bullets" was lyricist Joe Strummer's most extensive—and most specific—political statement to date. In it, Strummer name checks conflicts or controversies from around the world; namely in Chile, Nicaragua, Cuba, Afghanistan and Tibet. (In reference to the first three, Strummer seems to side with what he sees as popular leftist movements or governments, while in the latter two, he sharply criticises the policy of Moscow's and Beijing's communist governments for what he sees as their imperialist actions). The "Rolling Stone" review of "Sandinista!" calls "Washington Bullets", along with "The Equaliser" and "The Call Up", "the heart of the album".


title: Sandinista!

text: The original, 3-disc vinyl release of "Sandinista!" included a tri-fold lyric sheet titled "The Armagideon Times, no. 3" (a play on "Armagideon Time", the B-side from the single "London Calling".) "Armagideon Times", nos. 1 and 2 were Clash fanzines. The lyric sheet featured cartoons credited to Steve Bell, as well as hand-written (but still legible) lyrics of all the original songs. The 2-CD release contains a facsimile of the lyric sheet considerably reduced in size.


title: Sandinista!

text: The cover photo of the band was taken by Pennie Smith, in Camley Street, behind St Pancras railway station.


title: Sandinista!

text: John Piccarella, in a review for "Rolling Stone" headlined "The Clash Drop the Big One", argued that in effect, the band said "to hell with Clash style, there's a world out there." Some critics have argued that the album would have worked better as a less-ambitious, smaller project, while Piccarella (in his "Rolling Stone" review) and others think of the album as a breakthrough that deserves comparison to the Beatles' "White Album". Robert Christgau wrote in "The Village Voice", "If this is their worst—which it is, I think—they must be, er, the world's greatest rock and roll band".


title: Sandinista!

text: The triple album was included in several "best of the year" critics' polls in 1981. It was voted first place in "The Village Voice"s 1981 Pazz & Jop critics' poll. According to CMJ, "Sandinista!" was the second most-played album of 1981 on American college radio. Dave Marsh noted that it was a record whose topic was as many years ahead of its time as its sound. "Alternative Press" included "Sandinista!" on its 2000 list of the "10 Essential Political-Revolution Albums". In 2018, "Sandinista!" was ranked at number 144 on "Pitchfork"s list of the 200 best albums of the 1980s. In 2020, the album was ranked at number 323 on "Rolling Stone"s list of the 500 greatest albums of all time.


title: Sandinista!

text: "The Sandinista! Project", a tribute to the album featuring the Smithereens, Camper Van Beethoven, Jon Langford and Sally Timms (Mekons), Amy Rigby, Katrina Leskanich (of Katrina and the Waves), Wreckless Eric, Willie Nile, Matthew Ryan, Stew, Mark Cutler, Sex Clark Five, Sid Griffin & Coal Porters, Haale, the Blizzard of 78 featuring Mikey Dread, Ruby on the Vine, and many others, was released on 15 May 2007, on the 00:02:59 Records (a label named after a lyric from the "Sandinista!" song "Hitsville U.K."). The album also features a collaboration by Soul Food and Mickey Gallagher on "Midnight Log".


title: Sandinista!

text: "Sandinista!" is remembered as an important influence for the Chilean rock band Los Prisioneros. The band members discovered the album in the austral summer of 1981 through a special report in Radio Concierto. Jorge González recalls he found it "advanced" and "Martian" and that "it taught me to do music".


title: Sandinista!

text: The compact disc release has the first three sides on the first CD and the latter three sides on the second CD.


title: The Ring (magazine)

text: The Ring (often called The Ring magazine or Ring magazine) is an American boxing magazine that was first published in 1922 as a boxing and wrestling magazine. As the sporting legitimacy of professional wrestling came more into question, "The Ring" shifted to becoming exclusively a boxing-oriented publication. The magazine is currently owned by Oscar De La Hoya's Golden Boy Enterprises division of Golden Boy Promotions, which acquired it in 2007. "Ring" began publishing annual ratings of boxers in 1924.


title: The Ring (magazine)

text: "The Ring", founded and published by future International Boxing Hall of Fame member Nat Fleischer, has perpetrated boxing scandals, helped make unknown fighters famous worldwide and covered boxing's biggest events of all time. Dan Daniel was a co-founder and prolific contributor to "The Ring" through most of its history. It refers to itself (and is referred to by others) as "The Bible of Boxing." During the Fleischer years, the contents page or indicia of every issue carried the claim: ""The Ring" is a magazine which a man may take home with him. He may leave it on his library table safe in the knowledge that it does not contain one line of matter either in the text or the advertisements which would be offensive. The publisher of "The Ring" guards this reputation of his magazine jealously. It is entertaining and it is clean."


title: The Ring (magazine)

text: In 1972, following Fleischer's death, his son-in-law and managing editor Nat Loubet took over as publisher. In 1977, Loubet launched three international editions of the magazine. The Spanish version, "Ring En Español", was published in Venezuela and distributed to all Spanish-speaking countries and the United States (U.S.) until 1985. There was also a Japanese version published in Tokyo and a French version published in Paris.


title: The Ring (magazine)

text: In 1976, managing editor of "The Ring" Johnny Ort, fabricated records of selected boxers, and elevated their rankings, securing them lucrative fights on the American ABC television network, as part of the United States Championship Tournament orchestrated by promoter Don King. The deception was uncovered by boxing writer Malcolm "Flash" Gordon and ABC staffer Alex Wallau and the United States Championship tournament was cancelled by ABC.


title: The Ring (magazine)

text: In 1979, the magazine was purchased from Loubet by a group led by Dave DeBusschere and Bert Sugar took over as editor. In 1983 Sugar was succeeded by future New York boxing commissioner Randy Gordon. By 1984 the publication was reported to be over $1 million in debt and a number of top salaried employees, including Gordon, were let go. Nigel Collins of the Ring's defunct sister magazine "Boxing Illustrated" took over as editor. In 1989 "The Ring" was purchased by Stanley Weston's G.C. London Publishing (later known as Kappa Publishing Group), which also published "KO Magazine" and a number of wrestling publications. KO senior writer Steve Farhood became The Ring's editor. Weston was a sentimentalist and 52 years after joining "The Ring" magazine as a stock boy, Weston purchased the magazine that gave him his first job. He not only resurrected the magazine from its imminent collapse, he re-established the publication as the definitive source for boxing news. An outstanding boxing artist, Weston painted 57 covers for "The Ring" with his first cover, a painting of Billy Conn, for the December 1939 issue. Weston was also a photographer who, according to his own estimate, shot over 100,000 boxing photosthe majority of which are housed in the archives of "The Ring" magazine.


title: The Ring (magazine)

text: Sports and Entertainment Publications, LLC, a subsidiary of Oscar De La Hoya's Golden Boy Enterprises, acquired "The Ring", "KO Magazine", and "World Boxing" in 2007. The magazine's rankings are recognized as "official" by some in the U.S. media, particularly ESPN. While some may see a conflict of interest in a boxing promoter being paymaster of what is essentially a magazine/rankings organization that awards world titles and belts, De La Hoya says that is not the case. "These magazines will be held in an editorial trust where they will be operating totally independent of any influence from me or others from the Golden Boy Companies as it relates to editorial direction or content". Also there is a 35-member ratings advisory panel, which include many of the media that cover boxing, who would prevent Golden Boy Promotions from using the magazine for self gain.


title: The Ring (magazine)

text: "The Ring" was headquartered in Blue Bell, Pennsylvania until 2011 when it was relocated to Los Angeles.


title: The Ring (magazine)

text: The magazine had a sister publication named "The Ring Wrestling" which came about due to professional wrestling writer Bob Leonard contacting the magazine and expressing that it was too focused on boxing and not giving wrestling enough coverage. Nat Loubet served as the editor of the wrestling magazine as well.


title: The Ring (magazine)

text: Some of the boxers featured on the magazine covers have included Tommy Ryan, Salvador Sánchez, Jack Dempsey, Pancho Villa, Max Schmeling, Joe Louis, Sugar Ray Robinson, Jake LaMotta, Rocky Marciano, Willie Pep, Muhammad Ali, Alexis Argüello, Wilfred Benítez, Wilfredo Gómez, Roberto Durán, Larry Holmes, Marvin Hagler, Sugar Ray Leonard, Bud Taylor, Mike Tyson, Evander Holyfield, Floyd Mayweather Jr., Thomas Hearns, Roy Jones Jr., Bernard Hopkins, Julio César Chávez, Félix Trinidad, Manny Pacquiao, Oscar De La Hoya, Mauro Mina and Ricardo Mayorga. In 1978, boxer Cathy "Cat" Davis became the first woman ever to be on a cover of "The Ring", and she held the distinction of being the only woman featured on the cover of the magazine until January 2016, when Ronda Rousey joined her and also became the first mixed martial arts fighter featured on its cover. "The Ring" has used cover artwork created by famed artists such as LeRoy Neiman and Richard T. Slone.


title: The Ring (magazine)

text: "The Ring" has its own championship belt in a given weight class where "The Ring" champion holds a lineal reign to the throne, the man who beat the man. "The Ring" began awarding championship belts in 1922. The first "Ring" world title belt was awarded to heavyweight champion Jack Dempsey and the second was awarded to flyweight champion Pancho Villa. "The Ring" stopped giving belts to world champions in the 1990s, then reintroduced their titles in 2002.


title: The Ring (magazine)

text: "The Ring" stated that their title was "intended to reward fighters who, by satisfying rigid criteria, can justify a claim as the true and only world champion in a given weight class". It echoed many critics' arguments that the sanctioning bodies in charge of boxing championships had undermined the sport by pitting undeserving contenders against undeserving "champions" and forcing the boxing public to see mismatches for so-called "world championships". "The Ring" attempts to be more authoritative and open than the sanctioning bodies' rankings, with a page devoted to full explanations for ranking changes. A fighter pays no sanctioning fees to defend or fight for the title at stake, contrary to practices of the sanctioning bodies.


title: The Ring (magazine)

text: However, many boxing journalists complained that "The Ring" ignored the world championship lineage when they started awarding titles again. A controversy described by Cliff Rold of "BoxingScene.com" is for example, the "world" light-heavyweight title was considered vacant from the time Michael Spinks went up to heavyweight in 1985 until 1996. While the "Cyber Boxing Zone" and the International Boxing Research Organization considers Virgil Hill's defeat of Henry Maske (who were the two highest rated light-heavyweights) as the beginning of the new lineage, "The Ring" awarded their newly reintroduced title to Roy Jones. In 2002, "The Ring" editor, Nigel Collins, acknowledged that if their championship policy was in place in 1997, Dariusz Michalczewski, who defeated Hill, "probably would have been "The Ring" Champion."


title: The Ring (magazine)

text: Under the original version of the championship policy, there were only two ways that a boxer could win "The Ring"s title: defeat the reigning champion; or win a box-off between the magazine's number-one and number-two rated contenders (or, sometimes, number-one and number-three rated). A vacant "Ring" championship was filled when the number-one contender in a weight-division battles the number-two contender or the number-three contender (in cases where "The Ring" determined that the number-two and number-three contenders were close in abilities and records). The ratings are compiled by the magazine's editorial board, with the participation of "The Ring" Ratings Panel of boxing journalists from around the world. A fighter could not be stripped of the title unless he lost, decided to move to another weight division, or retired.


title: The Ring (magazine)

text: In May 2012, citing the number of vacancies in various weight classes as primary motivation, "The Ring" unveiled a new championship policy. Under the new policy, "The Ring" title can be awarded when the No. 1 and No. 2 fighters face one another or when the No. 1 and 2 contenders choose not to fight one another and either of them fights No. 3, No. 4 or No. 5, the winner may be awarded "The Ring" belt. In addition, there are now seven ways for a fighter to lose his title:


title: The Ring (magazine)

text: Many media outlets and members are extremely critical of the new championship policy and state that if this new policy is followed "The Ring" title will lose the credibility it once held. They then later changed the policy so vacant belts can only be awarded to the winner of No. 1 vs No. 2 or if No. 3 is deemed worthy by The Ring’s Editorial Board.


title: The Ring (magazine)

text: The purchase of "The Ring" magazine by Golden Boy Promotions in 2007, the dismissal of editor-in-chief Nigel Collins and several editorial staff in 2011 and a series of questionable ratings decisions by the new editors prompted many members of "The Ring" Ratings Advisory Panel to resign. This led to the formation of the Transnational Boxing Rankings Board in 2012 headed by boxing historians Springs Toledo, Cliff Rold and Tim Starks.


title: The Ring (magazine)

text: Golden Boy has publicized "The Ring"'s World Championship when the title is at stake in fights it promotes (such as Joe Calzaghe vs. Roy Jones Jr. in 2008).


title: Abde Ezzalzouli

text: Abdessamad "Abde" Ezzalzouli (; born 17 December 2001) is a Moroccan professional footballer who plays as a winger for La Liga club Osasuna, on loan from Barcelona. Born in Morocco and raised in Spain, he plays the Morocco national team at international level. He began his professional career playing for Hércules.


title: Abde Ezzalzouli

text: Born in Morocco, Ezzalzouli moved to Spain with his family at the age of seven to live and started his football youth career in the neighborhood of Carrús, in the city of Elche.


title: Abde Ezzalzouli

text: Ezzalzouli was part of the youth academies for Peña Ilicitana Raval CF, CD Pablo Iglesias, Kelme CF, Promesas Elche CF, and CD Cultural Carrús. He trialled at Elche CF, the main club in his hometown, but was not offered a place in their academy.


title: Abde Ezzalzouli

text: Ezzalzouli continued to play for neighbourhood clubs in Elche until Hércules B coach Antonio Moreno Domínguez offered him a contract, and Ezzalzouli subsequently joined the main club in the neighbouring city of Alicante. He moved to Hércules' reserves in 2016, where he began his senior career in 2019.


title: Abde Ezzalzouli

text: Ezzalzouli transferred to Barcelona B on 31 August 2021. He made his professional debut with Barcelona in a 1–1 La Liga draw with Alavés on 30 October 2021, coming on as a substitute in the 80th minute. Ezzalzouli thus became the first Moroccan-born player to feature for Barça's first team. He scored his first goal for Barcelona against Osasuna in a 2–2 draw.


title: Abde Ezzalzouli

text: In September 2022, he renewed his contract with Barcelona until 2026 and was ensuingly loaned to Osasuna. On 4 September, he made his first appearance for Osasuna against Rayo Vallecano after being subbed in the 81st minute, he managed to assist the winning goal in that game, which ended in a 2–1 victory.


title: Abde Ezzalzouli

text: Ezzalzouli represented the Morocco under-20 team at the 2020 Arab Cup U-20, scoring two goals in five games. On 20 December 2021, Abdessamad rejected Vahid Halilhodžić invitation to represent Morocco national team in the 2021 Africa Cup of Nations to focus on his club.


title: Abde Ezzalzouli

text: On 17 March 2022, Ezzalzouli was listed in the 26-man squad to face DR Congo in the 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification – CAF Third Round.


title: Abde Ezzalzouli

text: In September 2022, Ezzalzouli was called up to join the Morocco national team. He played his first match in a friendly against Chile at the RCDE Stadium in Cornellà de Llobregat, which ended in a 2–0 victory.


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: In economics and econometrics, the Cobb–Douglas production function is a particular functional form of the production function, widely used to represent the technological relationship between the amounts of two or more inputs (particularly physical capital and labor) and the amount of output that can be produced by those inputs. The Cobb–Douglas form was developed and tested against statistical evidence by Charles Cobb and Paul Douglas between 1927 and 1947; according to Douglas, the functional form itself was developed earlier by Philip Wicksteed.


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: Output elasticity measures the responsiveness of output to a change in levels of either labor or capital used in production, ceteris paribus. For example, if , a increase in capital usage would lead to approximately a increase in output.


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: Sometimes the term has a more restricted meaning, requiring that the function display constant returns to scale, meaning that doubling the usage of capital "K" and labor "L" will also double output "Y". This holds if


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: returns to scale are decreasing, means that a percentage increase in capital "K" and labor "L" will produce a smaller percentage increase in output "Y",


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: returns to scale are increasing, means that a percentage increase in capital "K" and labor "L" will produce a larger percentage increase in output "Y". Assuming perfect competition and , and can be shown to be capital's and labor's shares of output.


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: In its generalized form, the Cobb–Douglas function models more than two goods. The Cobb–Douglas function may be written as


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: Paul Douglas explained that his first formulation of the Cobb–Douglas production function was developed in 1927; when seeking a functional form to relate estimates he had calculated for workers and capital, he spoke with mathematician and colleague Charles Cobb, who suggested a function of the form , previously used by Knut Wicksell, Philip Wicksteed, and Léon Walras, although Douglas only acknowledges Wicksteed and Walras for their contributions. Not long after Knut Wicksell's death in 1926, Paul Douglas and Charles Cobb implemented the Cobb-Douglas function in their work covering the subject manner of producer theory for the first time. Estimating this using least squares, he obtained a result for the exponent of labour of 0.75—which was subsequently confirmed by the National Bureau of Economic Research to be 0.741. Later work in the 1940s prompted them to allow for the exponents on "K" and "L" to vary, resulting in estimates that subsequently proved to be very close to improved measure of productivity developed at that time.


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: A major criticism at the time was that estimates of the production function, although seemingly accurate, were based on such sparse data that it was hard to give them much credibility. Douglas remarked "I must admit I was discouraged by this criticism and thought of giving up the effort, but there was something which told me I should hold on." The breakthrough came in using US census data, which was cross-sectional and provided a large number of observations. Douglas presented the results of these findings, along with those for other countries, at his 1947 address as president of the American Economic Association. Shortly afterwards, Douglas went into politics and was stricken by ill health—resulting in little further development on his side. However, two decades later, his production function was widely used, being adopted by economists such as Paul Samuelson and Robert Solow. The Cobb–Douglas production function is especially notable for being the first time an aggregate or economy-wide production function had been developed, estimated, and then presented to the profession for analysis; it marked a landmark change in how economists approached macroeconomics from a microeconomics perspective.


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: The function has been criticised for its lack of foundation. Cobb and Douglas were influenced by statistical evidence that appeared to show that labor and capital shares of total output were constant over time in developed countries; they explained this by statistical fitting least-squares regression of their production function. There is now doubt over whether constancy over time exists.. The production function contains a principal assumption that may not always provide the most accurate representation of a country's productive capabilities and supply-side efficiencies. This assumption is a “constant share of labor in output”, which may not be effective when applied to cases of countries whose labor markets are growing at significant rates. Another issue within the fundamental composition the Cobb Douglas production function is the presence of simultaneous equation bias. When competition is presumed the simultaneous equation bias has impact on all function types involving firm decisions – including the Cobb Douglas function. In some cases this simultaneous equation bias doesn't appear. However, it is apparent when least squares asymptotic approximations are used.


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: The Cobb–Douglas production function was not developed on the basis of any knowledge of engineering, technology, or management of the production process. This rationale may be true given the definition of the Capital term. Labor hours and Capital need a better definition. If capital is defined as a building, labor is already included in the development of that building. A building is composed of commodities, labor and risks and general conditions. It was instead developed because it had attractive mathematical characteristics, such as diminishing marginal returns to either factor of production and the property that the optimal expenditure shares on any given input of a firm operating a Cobb–Douglas technology are constant. Initially, there were no utility foundations for it. In the modern era, some economists try to build models up from individual agents acting, rather than imposing a functional form on an entire economy. The Cobb–Douglas production function, if properly defined, can be applied at a micro-economic level, up to a macro- economic level.


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: However, many modern authors have developed models which give microeconomically based Cobb–Douglas production functions, including many New Keynesian models. It is nevertheless a mathematical mistake to assume that just because the Cobb–Douglas function applies at the microeconomic level, it also always applies at the macroeconomic level. Similarly, it is not necessarily the case that a macro Cobb–Douglas applies at the disaggregated level. An early microfoundation of the aggregate Cobb–Douglas technology based on linear activities is derived in Houthakker (1955). The Cobb–Douglas production function is inconsistent with modern empirical estimates of the elasticity of substitution between capital and labor, which suggest that capital and labor are gross complements. A 2021 meta-analysis of 3186 estimates concludes that "the weight of evidence accumulated in the empirical literature emphatically rejects the Cobb-Douglas specification."


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: The Cobb–Douglas function is often used as a utility function. Utility formula_4 is a function of the quantities formula_5 of the formula_6 goods consumed:


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: Utility functions represent ordinal preferences and do not have natural units, unlike production functions. As the result, a monotonic transformation of a utility function represents the same preferences. Unlike with a Cobb–Douglas production function, where the sum of the exponents determines the degree of economies of scale, the sum can be normalized to one for a utility function because normalization is a monotonic transformation of the original utility function. Thus, let us define formula_8 and formula_9, so formula_10, and write the utility function as:


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: The consumer maximizes utility subject to the budget constraint that the cost of the goods is less than her wealth formula_12. Letting formula_13 denote the goods' prices, she solves:


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: Since formula_16, the consumer spends fraction formula_17 of her wealth on good . Note that this is the solution for either formula_18 or formula_19 since the same preferences generate the same demand.


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: The indirect utility function can be calculated by substituting the demands formula_20 into the utility function. Define the constant formula_21) and we get:


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: which is a special case of the Gorman polar form. The expenditure function is the inverse of the indirect utility function:


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: The Cobb–Douglas function form can be estimated as a linear relationship using the following expression:


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: where "K" is capital and "L" is labor. When the model exponents sum to one, the production function is first-order homogeneous, which implies constant returns to scale—that is, if all inputs are scaled by a common factor greater than zero, output will be scaled by the same factor.


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: in which the limiting case corresponds to a Cobb–Douglas function, formula_31 with constant returns to scale.


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: The translog production function is an approximation of the CES function by a second-order Taylor polynomial in the variable formula_35 about formula_36, i.e. the Cobb–Douglas case. The name translog stands for 'transcendental logarithmic'. It is often used in econometrics for the fact that it is linear in the parameters, which means ordinary least squares could be used if inputs could be assumed exogenous.


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: where formula_38, formula_39, formula_40, formula_41, and formula_42 are defined appropriately. In the three factor case, the translog production function is:


title: Cobb–Douglas production function

text: where formula_44 = total factor productivity, formula_6 = labor, formula_46 = capital, formula_47 = materials and supplies, and formula_48 = output.


title: Digital Revolution

text: The Digital Revolution (also known as the Third Industrial Revolution) is the shift from mechanical and analogue electronic technology to digital electronics which began in the later half of the 20th century, with the adoption and proliferation of digital computers and digital record-keeping, that continues to the present day. Implicitly, the term also refers to the sweeping changes brought about by digital computing and communication technologies during this period. From analogies to the Agricultural Revolution (Neolithic) and the First Industrial Revolution (1770-1840), the Digital Revolution marked the beginning of the Information Age.


title: Digital Revolution

text: Central to this revolution is the mass production and widespread use of digital logic, MOSFETs (MOS transistors), integrated circuit (IC) chips, and their derived technologies, including computers, microprocessors, digital cellular phones, and the Internet. These technological innovations have transformed traditional production and business techniques.


title: Digital Revolution

text: underlying technology was invented in the later quarter of the 19th century, including Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine and the telegraph. Digital communication became economical for widespread adoption after the invention of the personal computer. Claude Shannon, a Bell Labs mathematician, is credited for having laid out the foundations of digitalization in his pioneering 1948 article, "A Mathematical Theory of Communication". The digital revolution converted technology from analog format to digital format. By doing this, it became possible to make copies that were identical to the original. In digital communications, for example, repeating hardware was able to amplify the digital signal and pass it on with no loss of information in the signal. Of equal importance to the revolution was the ability to easily move the digital information between media, and to access or distribute it remotely.


title: Digital Revolution

text: The turning point of the revolution was the change from analogue to digitally recorded music. During the 1980s the digital format of optical compact discs gradually replaced analog formats, such as vinyl records and cassette tapes, as the popular medium of choice.


title: Digital Revolution

text: In 1947, the first working transistor, the germanium-based point-contact transistor, was invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain while working under William Shockley at Bell Labs. This led the way to more advanced digital computers. From the late 1940s, universities, military, and businesses developed computer systems to digitally replicate and automate previously manually performed mathematical calculations, with the LEO being the first commercially available general-purpose computer.


title: Digital Revolution

text: Other important technological developments included the invention of the monolithic integrated circuit chip by Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959 (made possible by the planar process developed by Jean Hoerni), the first successful metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, or MOS transistor) by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, and the development of the complementary MOS (CMOS) process by Frank Wanlass and Chih-Tang Sah at Fairchild in 1963.


title: Digital Revolution

text: Following the development of MOS integrated circuit chips in the early 1960s, MOS chips reached higher transistor density and lower manufacturing costs than bipolar integrated circuits by 1964. MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by Moore's law, leading to large-scale integration (LSI) with hundreds of transistors on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips to computing was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a complete computer processor could be contained on a single MOS LSI chip. In 1968, Fairchild engineer Federico Faggin improved MOS technology with his development of the silicon-gate MOS chip, which he later used to develop the Intel 4004, the first single-chip microprocessor. It was released by Intel in 1971, and laid the foundations for the microcomputer revolution that began in the 1970s.


title: Digital Revolution

text: MOS technology also led to the development of semiconductor image sensors suitable for digital cameras. The first such image sensor was the charge-coupled device, developed by Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith at Bell Labs in 1969, based on MOS capacitor technology.


title: Digital Revolution

text: The public was first introduced to the concepts that led to the Internet when a message was sent over the ARPANET in 1969. Packet switched networks such as ARPANET, Mark I, CYCLADES, Merit Network, Tymnet, and Telenet, were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s using a variety of protocols. The ARPANET in particular led to the development of protocols for internetworking, in which multiple separate networks could be joined into a network of networks.


title: Digital Revolution

text: In the 1970s, the home computer was introduced, time-sharing computers, the video game console, the first coin-op video games, and the golden age of arcade video games began with Space Invaders. As digital technology proliferated, and the switch from analog to digital record keeping became the new standard in business, a relatively new job description was popularized, the data entry clerk. Culled from the ranks of secretaries and typists from earlier decades, the data entry clerk's job was to convert analog data (customer records, invoices, etc.) into digital data.


title: Digital Revolution

text: In developed nations, computers achieved semi-ubiquity during the 1980s as they made their way into schools, homes, business, and industry. Automated teller machines, industrial robots, CGI in film and television, electronic music, bulletin board systems, and video games all fueled what became the zeitgeist of the 1980s. Millions of people purchased home computers, making household names of early personal computer manufacturers such as Apple, Commodore, and Tandy. To this day the Commodore 64 is often cited as the best selling computer of all time, having sold 17 million units (by some accounts) between 1982 and 1994.


title: Digital Revolution

text: In 1984, the U.S. Census Bureau began collecting data on computer and Internet use in the United States; their first survey showed that 8.2% of all U.S. households owned a personal computer in 1984, and that households with children under the age of 18 were nearly twice as likely to own one at 15.3% (middle and upper middle class households were the most likely to own one, at 22.9%). By 1989, 15% of all U.S. households owned a computer, and nearly 30% of households with children under the age of 18 owned one. By the late 1980s, many businesses were dependent on computers and digital technology.


title: Digital Revolution

text: Motorola created the first mobile phone, Motorola DynaTac, in 1983. However, this device used analog communication - digital cell phones were not sold commercially until 1991 when the 2G network started to be opened in Finland to accommodate the unexpected demand for cell phones that was becoming apparent in the late 1980s.


title: Digital Revolution

text: "Compute!" magazine predicted that CD-ROM would be the centerpiece of the revolution, with multiple household devices reading the discs.


title: Digital Revolution

text: The first true digital camera was created in 1988, and the first were marketed in December 1989 in Japan and in 1990 in the United States. By the mid-2000s, they had eclipsed traditional film in popularity.


title: Digital Revolution

text: Digital ink was also invented in the late 1980s. Disney's CAPS system (created 1988) was used for a scene in 1989's "The Little Mermaid" and for all their animation films between 1990's "The Rescuers Down Under" and 2004's "Home on the Range".


title: Digital Revolution

text: The first public digital HDTV broadcast was of the 1990 World Cup that June; it was played in 10 theaters in Spain and Italy. However, HDTV did not become a standard until the mid-2000s outside Japan.


title: Digital Revolution

text: The World Wide Web became publicly accessible in 1991, which had been available only to government and universities. In 1993 Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina introduced Mosaic, the first web browser capable of displaying inline images and the basis for later browsers such as Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer. Stanford Federal Credit Union was the first financial institution to offer online internet banking services to all of its members in October 1994. In 1996 OP Financial Group, also a cooperative bank, became the second online bank in the world and the first in Europe. The Internet expanded quickly, and by 1996, it was part of mass culture and many businesses listed websites in their ads. By 1999, almost every country had a connection, and nearly half of Americans and people in several other countries used the Internet on a regular basis. However throughout the 1990s, "getting online" entailed complicated configuration, and dial-up was the only connection type affordable by individual users; the present day mass Internet culture was not possible.


title: Digital Revolution

text: Cell phones became as ubiquitous as computers by the early 2000s, with movie theaters beginning to show ads telling people to silence their phones. They also became much more advanced than phones of the 1990s, most of which only took calls or at most allowed for the playing of simple games.


title: Digital Revolution

text: Text messaging existed in the 1990s but was not widely used until the early 2000s, when it became a cultural phenomenon.


title: Digital Revolution

text: The digital revolution became truly global in this time as well - after revolutionizing society in the developed world in the 1990s, the digital revolution spread to the masses in the developing world in the 2000s.


title: Digital Revolution

text: By 2000, a majority of U.S. households had at least one personal computer and internet access the following year. In 2002, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported having a mobile phone.


title: Digital Revolution

text: In late 2005 the population of the Internet reached 1 billion, and 3 billion people worldwide used cell phones by the end of the decade. HDTV became the standard television broadcasting format in many countries by the end of the decade. In September and December 2006 respectively, Luxembourg and the Netherlands became the first countries to completely transition from analog to digital television. In September 2007, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported having broadband internet at home. According to estimates from the Nielsen Media Research, approximately 45.7 million U.S. households in 2006 (or approximately 40 percent of approximately 114.4 million) owned a dedicated home video game console, and by 2015, 51 percent of U.S. households owned a dedicated home video game console according to an Entertainment Software Association annual industry report. By 2012, over 2 billion people used the Internet, twice the number using it in 2007. Cloud computing had entered the mainstream by the early 2010s. In January 2013, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported owning a smartphone. By 2016, half of the world's population was connected and as of 2020, that number has risen to 67%.


title: Digital Revolution

text: In the late 1980s, less than 1% of the world's technologically stored information was in digital format, while it was 94% in 2007, with more than 99% by 2014.


title: Digital Revolution

text: It is estimated that the world's capacity to store information has increased from 2.6 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 1986, to some 5,000 exabytes in 2014 (5 zettabytes).


title: Digital Revolution

text: Conversion of below analog technologies to digital. (The decade indicated is the period when digital became dominant form.)


title: Digital Revolution

text: Disappearance of other technologies also attributed to digital revolution. (Analog–digital classification doesn't apply to these.)


title: Digital Revolution

text: The basic building block of the Digital Revolution is the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, or MOS transistor), which is the most widely manufactured device in history. It is the basis of every microprocessor, memory chip and telecommunication circuit in commercial use. MOSFET scaling (rapid miniaturization of MOS transistors) has been largely responsible for enabling Moore's law, which predicted that transistor counts would increase at an exponential pace.


title: Digital Revolution

text: Following the development of the digital personal computer, MOS microprocessors and memory chips, with their steadily increasing performance and storage, have enabled computer technology to be embedded into a huge range of objects from cameras to personal music players. Also important was the development of transmission technologies including computer networking, the Internet and digital broadcasting. 3G phones, whose social penetration grew exponentially in the 2000s, also played a very large role in the digital revolution as they simultaneously provide ubiquitous entertainment, communications, and online connectivity.


title: Digital Revolution

text: Positive aspects include greater interconnectedness, easier communication, and the exposure of information that in the past could have more easily been suppressed by totalitarian regimes. Michio Kaku wrote in his books Physics of the Future that the failure of the Soviet coup of 1991 was due largely to the existence of technology such as the fax machine and computers that exposed classified information.


title: Digital Revolution

text: The Revolutions of 2011 were enabled by social networking and smartphone technology; however these revolutions in hindsight largely failed to reach their goals as hardcore Islamist governments and in Syria a civil war have formed in the absence of the dictatorships that were toppled.


title: Digital Revolution

text: The economic impact of the digital revolution has been wide-ranging. Without the World Wide Web (WWW), for example, globalization and outsourcing would not be nearly as feasible as they are today. The digital revolution radically changed the way individuals and companies interact. Small regional companies were suddenly given access to much larger markets. Concepts such as on-demand software services and manufacturing and rapidly dropping technology costs made possible innovations in all aspects of industry and everyday life.


title: Digital Revolution

text: After initial concerns of an IT productivity paradox, evidence is mounting that digital technologies have significantly increased the productivity and performance of businesses.


title: Digital Revolution

text: The Digital transformation allowed technology to continuously adapt which resulted in a boost in the economy with an increase of productivity. With the increase of technical advances, digital revolution has created a demand for new job skills. Economically, retailers, trucking companies and banks have transitioned into digital format. In addition, the introduction of cryptocurrency like Bitcoin creates faster and secure transactions.


title: Digital Revolution

text: Negative effects include information overload, Internet predators, forms of social isolation, and media saturation. In a poll of prominent members of the national news media, 65 percent said the Internet is hurting journalism more than it is helping by allowing anyone no matter how amateur and unskilled to become a journalist; causing information to be muddier and the rise of conspiracy theory in a way it didn't exist in the past.


title: Digital Revolution

text: In some cases, company employees' pervasive use of portable digital devices and work related computers for personal use—email, instant messaging, computer games—were often found to, or perceived to, reduce those companies' productivity. Personal computing and other non-work related digital activities in the workplace thus helped lead to stronger forms of privacy invasion, such as keystroke recording and information filtering applications (spyware and content-control software).


title: Digital Revolution

text: Privacy in general became a concern during the digital revolution. The ability to store and utilize such large amounts of diverse information opened possibilities for tracking of individual activities and interests. Libertarians and privacy rights advocates feared the possibility of an Orwellian future where centralized power structures control the populace via automatic surveillance and monitoring of personal information in such programs as the CIA's Information Awareness Office. Consumer and labor advocates opposed the ability to direct market to individuals, discriminate in hiring and lending decisions, invasively monitor employee behavior and communications and generally profit from involuntarily shared personal information.


title: Digital Revolution

text: The Internet, especially the WWW in the 1990s, opened whole new avenues for communication and information sharing. The ability to easily and rapidly share information on a global scale brought with it a whole new level of freedom of speech. Individuals and organizations were suddenly given the ability to publish on any topic, to a global audience, at a negligible cost, particularly in comparison to any previous communication technology.


title: Digital Revolution

text: Large cooperative projects could be endeavored (e.g. Open-source software projects, SETI@home). Communities of like-minded individuals were formed (e.g. MySpace, Tribe.net). Small regional companies were suddenly given access to a larger marketplace.


title: Digital Revolution

text: In other cases, special interest groups as well as social and religious institutions found much of the content objectionable, even dangerous. Many parents and religious organizations became alarmed by pornography being more readily available to minors. In other circumstances the proliferation of information on such topics as child pornography, building bombs, committing acts of terrorism, and other violent activities were alarming to many different groups of people. Such concerns contributed to arguments for censorship and regulation on the WWW.


title: Digital Revolution

text: Copyright and trademark issues also found new life in the digital revolution. The widespread ability of consumers to produce and distribute exact reproductions of protected works dramatically changed the intellectual property landscape, especially in the music, film, and television industries.


title: Digital Revolution

text: The digital revolution, especially regarding privacy, copyright, censorship and information sharing, remains a controversial topic. As the digital revolution progresses it remains unclear to what extent society has been impacted and will be altered in the future.


title: Digital Revolution

text: With the advancement of digital technology, copyright infringements will become difficult to detect. They will occur more frequently, will be difficult to prove and the public will continue to find loopholes around the law. Digital recorders for example, can be used personally and private use making the distributions of copywritten material discreet.


title: Digital Revolution

text: While there have been huge benefits to society from the digital revolution, especially in terms of the accessibility of information, there are a number of concerns. Expanded powers of communication and information sharing, increased capabilities for existing technologies, and the advent of new technology brought with it many potential opportunities for exploitation. The digital revolution helped usher in a new age of mass surveillance, generating a range of new civil and human rights issues. Reliability of data became an issue as information could easily be replicated, but not easily verified. For example, the introduction of Cryptocurrency, opens possibility for illegal trade, such as the sale of drugs, guns and black market transaction. The digital revolution made it possible to store and track facts, articles, statistics, as well as minutiae hitherto unfeasible.


title: Digital Revolution

text: From the perspective of the historian, a large part of human history is known through physical objects from the past that have been found or preserved, particularly in written documents. Digital records are easy to create but also easy to delete and modify. Changes in storage formats can make recovery of data difficult or near impossible, as can the storage of information on obsolete media for which reproduction equipment is unavailable, and even identifying what such data is and whether it is of interest can be near impossible if it is no longer easily readable, or if there is a large number of such files to identify. Information passed off as authentic research or study must be scrutinized and verified.


title: Digital Revolution

text: These problems are further compounded by the use of digital rights management and other copy prevention technologies which, being designed to only allow the data to be read on specific machines, may well make future data recovery impossible. The Voyager Golden Record, which is intended to be read by an intelligent extraterrestrial (perhaps a suitable parallel to a human from the distant future), is recorded in analog rather than digital format specifically for easy interpretation and analysis.


title: Digital Revolution

text: The shift to digitization in the contemporary media world has created implications for traditional mass media products. With more technology advances, the more converged the realm of mass media will become with less need for traditional communication technologies. For example, the Internet has transformed many communication norms, creating more efficiency not only for individuals but also for businesses. However, McQuail suggests traditional media have also benefited greatly from new media, allowing more effective and efficient resources available.


title: Digital Revolution

text: The digital technology industry is one of the least sustainable and most environmentally damaging sectors in the modern world, due to its inextricable link to the electronics industry and the waste produced by it. Digitization facilitates the mass propagation of data, which requires the existence of data centers for processing and storage. These centers consume significant amounts of the electricity supply of a host country.


title: Walther P99

text: The Walther P99 () is a semi-automatic pistol developed by the German company Carl Walther GmbH Sportwaffen of Ulm for law enforcement, security forces and the civilian shooting market as a replacement for the Walther P5 and the P88. The P99 and its variants are also made under licence by Fabryka Broni Radom.


title: Walther P99

text: Design work on this new generation sidearm began in 1994, and the handgun was presented in 1997 with series production commencing that same year. The weapon was first introduced chambered in 9×19mm Parabellum.


title: Walther P99

text: The pistol is used by the German Police in North Rhine-Westphalia and Rhineland-Palatinate and has been ordered by Bremen, Hamburg and Schleswig-Holstein, the Polish Police and the Finnish Army's special forces and military police, where it carries the designation PIST 2003 ("Pistooli 2003"). The Walther P99Q was also chosen in 2012 to replace older pistols and revolvers of the Finnish Police, Customs and Border Guard. This gun has also been chosen to replace the Walther P5 of the Dutch Police in 2013. In 2014 the Walther P99Q was also chosen to replace the Makarov PM of the Estonian Police and Border Guard Board.


title: Walther P99

text: The Walther P99 was modified several times throughout its production history, as were the magazines. When the P99 was introduced the magazine capacities were 16 rounds for 9×19mm Parabellum and 12 rounds for .40 S&W. Magazines had witness holes on both sides. Later the magazine capacities were reduced to 15 rounds for 9×19mm Parabellum and 11 rounds for .40 S&W while witness holes were introduced at the rear of the magazine to view the loading condition.


title: Walther P99

text: Walther presented a redesigned second generation P99 in 2004, incorporating a modified trigger guard that eliminated the "ski hump", which is clearly visible in the accompanying first generation images. This was done to address user comfort concerns regarding the previous style. The first generation P99 pistols had a slide release at the left side of the frame while second generation guns may have optional ambidextrous slide stop release levers. Walther also took the opportunity to redesign the slide so the user could grip it more easily, and notably, change the proprietary accessory rail to a Weaver type.


title: Walther P99

text: Some models built in 2005 and all later models received one more design change, an elongated magazine release.


title: Walther P99

text: The Walther P99 is a short recoil-operated locked breech semi-automatic pistol that uses a modified Browning cam-lock system adapted from the Hi-Power pistol. The P99 has a glassfiber-reinforced polymer frame and steel slide assembly. It can be broken down into its main parts or field stripped with a take down catch without the help of tools.


title: Walther P99

text: It uses an internal striker as opposed to an external hammer, with a red-painted striker tip that protrudes from rear of the slide when the gun is cocked, as well as a loaded chamber indicator on the right side of the slide.


title: Walther P99

text: The original, first-generation P99 had a traditional Double-Action/Single-Action trigger with a decocker. When the slide is racked completely to the rear upon loading, the trigger remains in the forward position for the first shot and the Anti-Stress mode is activated, where the striker is cocked but the trigger has the length of pull of the double-action mode. The trigger travel is 14 mm (0.55 in) long in the Anti-Stress mode, but the most of the length is slack and is similar in feel to a two-stage rifle trigger. At the end of the anti-stress travel, the pressure noticeably increases to 4.5 pounds and the user experiences a crisp trigger break and an extremely short trigger reset of about .1 inches. All subsequent shots are fired in standard single action mode, where the slack on the trigger is much shorter, but the point of release feels the same. In order to deactivate Single-Action or Anti-Stress mode, the user can manipulate the decocker button on the top of the slide, just in front of the rear sights. When decocked from Single-Action mode, the trigger will reset to the full length of its pull. The pistol is now in Double-Action mode with a pull 7.9 pounds for the full length of the .55 inch pull. After firing the first shot in Double-Action, the pistol will be fired in Single-Action for all subsequent shots.


title: Walther P99

text: The striker protrudes visibly and palpably from the back of the slide when the firearm is in a constant partially cocked state.


title: Walther P99

text: It should however be noted that the striker of the second generation P99QA variant does not protrude from the back of the slide, unless fired, as the firearm is in a constant partially cocked state.


title: Walther P99

text: Ergonomics were a key focus in the design of the firearm, and as a result, three interchangeable grip backstraps are included (small, medium and large) to accommodate various hand shapes and sizes; this feature permits most shooters a comfortable and efficient grip on the firearm. This adaptable grip was innovative at the time the P99 was introduced.


title: Walther P99

text: The slide and other metal parts of the pistol are Tenifer treated (a nitriding process also used on Glock pistols). The Tenifer finish is between and in thickness, and is characterized by extreme resistance to wear and corrosion; it penetrates the metal, and treated parts have similar properties even below the surface to a certain depth. The Tenifer process produces a matte gray-colored, non-glare surface with a 64 Rockwell C hardness rating and a 99% resistance to salt water corrosion (which meets or exceeds stainless steel specifications), making the P99 particularly suitable for individuals carrying the pistol concealed as the highly chloride-resistant finish allows the pistol to better endure the effects of perspiration.


title: Walther P99

text: The P99 features four internal safeties, iron sights adjustable for both windage and elevation, tool-less take down, and an ambidextrous magazine release incorporated into the trigger guard. The lower forward edge of the frame also known as the dust cover has a mounting-bracket or rail interface system for attaching accessories, such as a tactical light or laser sight.


title: Walther P99

text: The P99 feeds from staggered-column or double-stack magazines of varying capacity. Walther also offers staggered-column magazines with a +2 baseplate that add 2 rounds to the magazine capacity at the expense of extending the grip and the pistol height by approximately .


title: Walther P99

text: The .40 S&W caliber models incorporate a slightly larger slide in order to preserve the same recoil spring assembly used in its 9mm counterpart. The P99 is available in 4 colorations; a black frame with a black slide, a black frame with a titanium-coated slide, a military olive-drab frame with a black slide, and a desert tan frame with black slide. All three of these finishes incorporate the same black grip inserts that come with every P99. The compact versions of the P99 are only available in all black.


title: Walther P99

text: Fixed metal 3-dot iron sights, fixed tritium night sights, adjustable sports iron sights, adjustable optic fibre iron sights, laser pointers, tactical lights, magazine flashlight adapters, holsters, magazines, magazine loaders, grip extenders and a suppressor kit with a 117 mm (4.6 in) barrel and protective cap for the muzzle threads and a silencer that reduces the sound signature by 33 dB(A) are offered as factory accessories.


title: Walther P99

text: Introduced in 2004, this variant comes closest to a traditional Double-Action/Single-Action trigger with a decocker. In Double-Action mode the internal striker is at rest with no pre-load and the trigger travel is 14 mm (0.55 in) long at approximately trigger pull. When the slide is racked completely to the rear upon (re)loading, the internal striker is manually pre-cocked to Single-Action mode and the trigger remains in the forward position for the first shot and the Anti Stress mode is activated. The trigger travel is 14 mm (0.55 in) long in the Anti Stress mode at approximately trigger pull. On all subsequent shots, the P99AS is automatically pre-cocked and the trigger travel is reduced to 8 mm (0.3 in) at the same trigger pull. For manually deactivating the Anti Stress mode and setting the pistol to Double-Action mode the P99AS features a decocking button recessed into the top of the slide, rather than a conventional lever usually found on the side. The Anti Stress mode can also be manually activated by moving the slide approximately 10 mm (0.4 in) back.


title: Walther P99

text: The P99DAO is similar to the previously produced P990 Double Action Only variant. The internal striker is at rest with no pre-load. The trigger travel is approximately 14 mm (0.55 in) with a trigger pull of approximately . The trigger pull is consistent in length and force from the first shot to the last and the striker returns to its de-cocked position after each shot.


title: Walther P99

text: This variant has a Glock style trigger system with a pre-loaded internal striker. When the trigger is pulled, the striker is fully cocked and released, firing the pistol. The trigger travel is approximately 8 mm (0.3 in) with a trigger pull of approximately . The trigger pull is consistent in length and force from the first shot to the last. The P99QA was announced in 2000 and discontinued in 2011.


title: Walther P99

text: The P99RAM is a training and simulation pistol, equipped with a CO blow-back system. It fires low-cost Paint- and Rubberball ammunition in caliber . In its design, controls, and handling, the P99RAM is indistinguishable from the original P99 pistol. Protective clothing is needed to adequately protect the users from Paint- and Rubberball hits during training.


title: Walther P99

text: The P99 RAD variant is made under license by Fabryka Broni Radom in Poland and marketed as a military sidearm proposition.


title: Walther P99

text: The P99 RAD grip shape and texture has been altered when compared to the P99 variants and an extended ambidextrous slide release and extended ambidextrous magazine release levers are fitted as a standard feature. Besides that the slide shape, dimensions and serrations have been altered. The standard sights are high-contrast 3 dot sights with contrast enhancements that have been painted with afterglow paint that can aid target acquisition under unfavourable lighting conditions. As an option the P99 RAD can also be fitted with self-luminous tritium night sights. The P99 RAD pistol is available with the DAO trigger mechanism with a trigger pull of approximately and the QA trigger mechanism with a trigger pull of approximately . The grip frame has an integrated mounting MIL-STD-1913 (Picatinny) rail for attaching tactical lights and laser sighting devices.


title: Walther P99

text: Many of the alterations found in the P99 RAD variant were applied in the Walther PPQ pistol introduced in 2011.


title: Walther P99

text: Many of the alterations found in the Fabryka Broni Radom P99 RAD variant were also applied in the Walther P99Q pistol. The P99Q is a designated police pistol, which has been certified according to the Technical Specifications (TR) of the German Police (Technische Richtlinie Pistolen im Kaliber 9mm x 19, Revision January 2008). The P99Q is exclusively manufactured for German and foreign police departments and is not available on the civilian market. The P99Q has a partially pre-loaded internal striker trigger mechanism that conforms to the Technical Specifications (TR) of the German Police. When the trigger is pulled, the striker is fully cocked and released, firing the pistol. Trigger travel is approximately with a trigger reset of and a trigger pull of approximately . The trigger pull is consistent in length and force from the first shot to the last. The Technical Specifications (TR 2008) of the German Police also demand an accuracy of fire for a 10-shot group with German Police certified 9×19mm Parabellum ammunition at (R) of ≤ . This equals an accuracy of fire of ≤ 22 minute of angle (MOA) or ≤ 6.4 mrad. The grip frame has an integrated mounting MIL-STD-1913 (Picatinny) rail for attaching tactical lights and laser sighting devices.


title: Walther P99

text: The Smith & Wesson SW99 is a joint venture between Walther, who produces a modified receiver in Germany, and Smith & Wesson, who fabricates the slides and barrels in the United States. Magazines can be interchanged between the two models, but the pistols are considered to be two separate types, and are easily distinguished from each other by the trigger guard, grip and slide design. The SW99 is also available in .45 ACP, while the P99 is not. The P99 was developed and introduced prior to the SW99. Walther introduced a color-coding system to denote the difference between early generation SW99 and P99 magazines, with the latest generation being bright blue.


title: Walther P99

text: All 9mm P99s have always been completely German made. Some P99 .40 components are manufactured under license by S&W. The barrel, slide and frame of all 100% German-manufactured P99s bear an "Eagle over N" proof mark of the German Proof House at Ulm. The mark indicates the pistol was test-fired with a Proof Load; the "N" stands for nitrocellulose.


title: Walther P99

text: The Magnum Research MR Eagle was another joint American/German venture, with Walther producing a black polymer frame with integral steel rails similar to the P99 series, only differing in grip texture and with the short magazine release paddles from the first gen P99. For its part, Magnum Research Inc. produced a 416 stainless steel slide and 4140 CrMo steel barrel in their Pillager, MN factory in the United States. The MR Eagle series pistols were available in 9×19mm Parabellum (MR9) and .40 S&W (MR40).


title: Tajikistani Civil War

text: The Tajikistani Civil War (; ), also known as the Tajik Civil War, began in May 1992 when regional groups from the Garm and Gorno-Badakhshan regions of Tajikistan rose up against the newly formed government of President Rahmon Nabiyev, which was dominated by people from the Khujand and Kulob regions. The rebel groups were led by a combination of liberal democratic reformers and Islamists, who would later organize under the banner of the United Tajik Opposition. The government was supported by Russian military and border guards.