title: House of Yi

text: After Korea's liberation in 1945, President Syngman Rhee suppressed the imperial family, in order to prevent the restoration of the monarchy, as he feared that its return would challenge his emerging authority as the new republic's founding father. (Ironically Rhee himself was of the House of YI; Rhee's family traced its lineage back to King Taejong of Joseon, and was a 16th-generation descendant of Grand Prince Yangnyeong.) Rhee seized and nationalized most of the family's properties, and the imperial family was also blamed on being responsible for the "collapse of the nation". According to the prince's 11th son, Yi Seok, his mother, Hong Chongsun, was forced to sell noodles as a street vendor to make a living. Stripped of most of their wealth and authority, some family members fled to the United States and Latin America, known descendants reside in New Jersey and New York. For instance, Amy Lee (Yi Haegyeong), the fifth daughter of Yi Kang, migrated to the United States in 1956 and worked for 27 years as a librarian at Columbia University in New York City. In September, 2012, she was 82 years old and described as "one of the last survivors of the Korean royal court". Among Prince Yi Kang's surviving four sons and seven daughters, four lost touch with the family after they left for the United States. The other family members held an ancestral ritual twice a year for Prince Yi Kang, but usually only two or three of the 11 surviving siblings attended the ceremonies.


title: House of Yi

text: Meanwhile, the Jeonju Lee Royal Family Association was founded in 1957, and the members consist of the descendants of the royal family from various cadet branches of the clan. It was only in 1963 that a new president, Park Chung-hee, allowed some of the imperial family members, including Princess Deokhye, to return to Korea. However, they could only stay at Nakseon Hall, a small residence in a corner of Changdeokgung in Seoul; the place was previously reserved for widowed queen/empress dowagers. Yi Un also became the director of the Jeonju Lee Royal Family Association, on 29 July 1966; the title would later pass down to his son in 1973. Yi Un died seven years later, in 1970, after a long illness resulting from strokes.


title: House of Yi

text: Yi Un's son, Yi Ku, was forced by other family members to divorce his American wife, Julia Mullock, in 1982 due to her sterility (the couple, however, had an adopted daughter). In 1998, it was reported that Yi Kang's eighth son died alone in a social center in eastern Seoul. Yi Seok, as mentioned above, became a lecturer at the Jeonju University as of 2005. A series of business failures left Yi Ku out of support, and he died alone at the Grand Prince Hotel Akasaka in Tokyo on July 16, 2005. The site of the hotel had been his birthplace 74 years prior. According to the Jeonju Lee Royal Family Association, the last meeting, on July 10, was made between the association and Yi Ku, who allowed Yi Won, his first cousin once removed (grandson of Prince Yi Kang and his father is , 9th son of Yi Kang), to be his heir, and he signed as the proof of his permission, through the process of traditional adoption to his line. Yi Ku had met Yi Won several times before the adoption, satisfied about his foreign language abilities, and Yi Won was therefore chosen to be his successor and the status was confirmed by the association as of 22 July 2005. Although, the adoption would be invalid by present Korean Law because Yi Ku died before the adoption process was completed.


title: House of Yi

text: After the death of Yi Ku, a dispute about the head of the royal family occurred. Yi Hae-won, second daughter of Yi Kang and a half-aunt of Yi Won, also made a counter-claim as the "Empress of Korea" in a private ceremony organized by her followers in a hotel room. She was enthroned as symbolic monarch of Korea on 29 September 2006 by a group called "Korean Imperial Family Association". She laid claim to the title of Empress of Korea and declared the restoration of Imperial House in her own succession ceremony in a hotel room. The private enthronement was not approved or supported by Korean politics. Yi Hae-won eventually died on 8 February 2020, aged 100.


title: House of Yi

text: Meanwhile, in 2005-06, Yi Seok, the 10th son of Yi Kang and a half-uncle of Yi Won, claimed that he was officially named heir apparent as [the late] Crown Princess Yi Bangja (the mother of Yi Ku and the wife of Yi Un) wrote a will, naming him as the "first successor”. As such, Yi Seok is referred as "king," "prince," and/or "last pretender" by some articles from


title: House of Yi

text: mainstream media. Later, American Internet entrepreneur Andrew Lee, accepted a nomination by Yi Seok, on 6 October 2018, to become the "Crown Prince" of Korea. Currently, South Korea has no monarchist organizations that associated with the House of Yi, demanding to replace the South Korean republic with a monarchy.


title: Kumar Gaurav

text: Kumar Gaurav (born Manoj Tuli; 11 July 1956) is an Indian businessman and former actor who worked in Hindi cinema. Son of actor Rajendra Kumar, Gaurav has appeared in several films such as "Love Story", "Teri Kasam", "Star", "Naam" and "Kaante".


title: Kumar Gaurav

text: Kumar Gaurav was born as Manoj Tuli. He is a son of actor Rajendra Kumar and Shukla (from Behl family of Hindi films). In 1984 after 2 years of dating, he married Namrata Dutt (1962) who is a sister of Sanjay Dutt and daughter of Sunil Dutt and actress Nargis. They have two daughters, Saachi Kumar who is married to producer Kamal Amrohi's grandson Bilal Amrohi and Siya Kumar who is married to Aditya.


title: Kumar Gaurav

text: Brothers of Kumar's mother Shukla, are director Ramesh Behl and director Shyam Behl. His cousins are Shayms's children actor Ravi Behl and actress Geeta Behl as well as Ramesh's son Goldie Behl are his nephew and niece respectively.


title: Kumar Gaurav

text: He made his film debut opposite fellow debutante actress Vijayta Pandit with "Love Story" (1981) which was produced by his father who also starred alongside him in the film. This film played at the box office for a long period of time; not only for its innovative story, but also its memorable music by Rahul Dev Burman and the fresh leading debutants. Many youngsters began to emulate his character in the film, directed by Rahul Rawail. His next film, the 1982 release "Teri Kasam" with actress Poonam Dhillon was an average grosser. That same year he starred in the musical "Star" which failed to do well but its music was popular.


title: Kumar Gaurav

text: In 1985, he starred in Mahesh Bhatt's television film "Janam". His understated performance in this film is still considered his career's best. In the following year he had his second box office hit with "Naam" (1986), again a Mahesh Bhatt film which was produced by his father and also starred his brother-in-law Sanjay Dutt in the lead role. Despite the success of "Naam", Gaurav's career declined as all of his subsequent films failed to do well at the box office.


title: Kumar Gaurav

text: Having produced his earlier films "Janam" and "Naam", his father tried to revive his career with the 1993 film "Phool" which had him paired with actress Madhuri Dixit. The film also had his father and father-in-law Sunil Dutt in supporting roles. He then took a long break from acting and only had two delayed films releasing in 1996. In 1999, he made appearances in a few television series.


title: Kumar Gaurav

text: In 2000, he was seen again on the big screen in the delayed release "Gang" which had been in production for nearly a decade due to director Mazhar Khan's ill health. In 2002, he played one of the six protagonists in the crime thriller "Kaante", directed by Sanjay Gupta and a remake of the American cult hit "Reservoir Dogs" (1992). "Kaante" was the third-highest-grossing film of 2002. "Kaante" remains his last Bollywood film to date.


title: Kumar Gaurav

text: In 2004, he appeared in his first American film, "Guiana 1838", directed by Rohit Jagessar. The film tells the story of Indians arriving in the British colony of British Guiana (present-day Guyana) as indentured laborers amidst the abolition of slavery during the nineteenth century.


title: Kumar Gaurav

text: In 2006, he starred in the silent film "My Daddy Strongest" which remains his last acting role to date. He now runs a construction company.


title: Demba Ba

text: Demba Ba (born 25 May 1985) is a former professional footballer. He serves as the chairman of National Independent Soccer Association side ASC San Diego.


title: Demba Ba

text: He made his first-team debut with French team Rouen in 2005 before moving to Mouscron and then 1899 Hoffenheim in Germany in 2007. In 2011, he moved to Premier League side West Ham United. He played only 12 games for West Ham and despite being their league top goal scorer in the 2010–11 season, they were relegated to the Championship and Ba moved to Newcastle United. In January 2013, he completed a move to Chelsea for an undisclosed fee, before joining Beşiktaş for €6 million 18 months later. After one season in Turkey, he moved to Shanghai Shenhua of the Chinese Super League.


title: Demba Ba

text: Born and raised in France, Ba was a full international for Senegal from 2007 to 2015 and represented the country at the 2012 Africa Cup of Nations. On 13 September 2021, he announced his retirement from football.


title: Demba Ba

text: Ba was born in Sèvres, Hauts-de-Seine and is the sixth child of seven. He grew up in Saint-Valery-en-Caux, Seine-Maritime. He joined the youth section of ES Mont-Gaillard, located in Le Havre, in 1992, before playing for Port Autonome between 1999 and 2000, and then for Frileuse between 2000 and 2001.


title: Demba Ba

text: In 2001, Ba returned to Châtillon and played for Montrouge. He played there until 2004, at which point he decided to concentrate on his football. Later that year, after unsuccessful trials at Lyon and Auxerre, Ba moved to the United Kingdom to seek a professional contract. He was recommended to Watford manager Ray Lewington through his friend Gauthier Diafutua, then a Watford player, but released shortly after Lewington's dismissal. Ba then spent a week on trial at Barnsley, and returned to France after two more unsuccessful trials at Football League sides Swansea City and Gillingham.


title: Demba Ba

text: Ba signed with manager Alain Michel because they were both moving to French club Rouen on a one-year contract, and Ba enjoyed a highly successful season with the club.


title: Demba Ba

text: Belgian club Mouscron beat off competition from numerous other clubs to win Ba's signature in 2006. Scoring in each of his first three games, he then picked up fractures in his tibia and fibula, and was out of action between August 2006 and April 2007. Following his eight-month recovery period he scored seven goals in nine games, and picked up his first international cap.


title: Demba Ba

text: On 29 August 2007, Ba moved to 2. Bundesliga side 1899 Hoffenheim for €3 million. Ba was an integral part of Hoffenheim's promotion to the Bundesliga and their successful first season in the Bundesliga, where they finished seventh after leading during the Christmas break. In that season he scored 14 goals, only missing one game all season. These goals included a hat-trick in a 3–3 game against Stuttgart on 24 February 2009. In all competitions Ba scored 40 goals in 103 appearances for TSG 1899 Hoffenheim.


title: Demba Ba

text: In July 2009, he was due to move to VfB Stuttgart, but the move fell through after he failed a medical. In December of that year Ba extended his contract at Hoffenheim to 2013.


title: Demba Ba

text: Ba left Hoffenheim for disputed reasons in January 2011. Claiming the club had gone back on an agreed transfer to a Premier League club, believed to be West Ham United, he refused to travel to Hoffenheim's winter training camp. In response, Hoffenheim's general manager said his contract would be cancelled, he would face legal action, and he would be fined and prevented from moving to another club for six months. The club also later claimed he travelled to England without permission in order to force a move, which they reluctantly agreed needs to happen due to Ba's actions. The club later agreed to a transfer to Stoke City for a reported fee of £7.1 million, but it fell through after Ba had agreed personal terms but failed his medical for undisclosed reasons. Expressing disappointment, Stoke City manager Tony Pulis said "Obviously they found something which could cause problems later".


title: Demba Ba

text: After leaving Hoffenheim, the club's general manager Ernst Tanner stated the club stand by their decision selling Ba.


title: Demba Ba

text: After the collapsed Stoke deal, Ba was sold to West Ham United for an undisclosed fee based on appearances. He signed a three-year contract on 28 January, on a pay as you play basis due to knee problems found in the Stoke medical. Ba's Premier League debut came on 6 February 2011, as a 75th-minute substitute for Robbie Keane during a 1–0 home defeat by Birmingham City. His first goals followed six days later during his full debut, scoring twice in a 3–3 draw against West Bromwich Albion. Despite finishing as their top scorer for the season with seven from twelve games including 2 in the last game, Ba's stay with West Ham proved to be short. Following their relegation to the Championship after a 3–2 loss away to Wigan Athletic he invoked a release clause in his contract allowing him to leave for free. He turned down a £50,000-a-week salary plus a bonus payment of £500,000 in order to stay in the Premier League with another club, triggering interest from both Everton and Newcastle United.


title: Demba Ba

text: On 17 June 2011, Ba signed for Newcastle United on a three-year deal, making his club debut on 13 August 2011 in the 0–0 draw against Arsenal. His first goals for the club came on 24 September 2011 with a hat-trick against Blackburn Rovers in a 3–1 home win. A second hat-trick came in a 3–1 away win at Stoke City, taking his league total to 8 and maintaining the club's 11 game unbeaten league start, taking them to 3rd in the league. Ba's goalscoring form continued despite Newcastle entering a downward spell, and saw him picked in ESPN.com's Premier League Best XI for the first half of the season, and named Premier League Player of the Month for December 2011.


title: Demba Ba

text: By the time Ba left to play in the January 2012 Africa Cup of Nations his league tally had reached 15, making him second top scorer in the league behind Arsenal's Robin van Persie. He left for the tournament on a high note, scoring the first in a 3–0 home win over Manchester United on 4 January 2012, the team's first victory against the league champions in over a decade. While at the Africa Cup of Nations tournament, Ba's Senegal teammate Papiss Cissé also signed for Newcastle. Ba and Cissé returned earlier than expected after Senegal finished bottom of their group, with Ba having missed three Premier League games and two FA Cup games, the second of which saw Newcastle knocked out of the cup. He returned to action against Aston Villa on their visit to St James' Park on 5 February 2012, his return proved to be a goal scoring one as he netted the opener in the game which Newcastle won 2–1. This would prove to be Ba's last goal of the season, as he moved to the left of a three pronged attack with Papiss Cissé leading the line, and grabbing 12 goals in the second half of the season. Despite this late season slump, Ba was voted as the best signing of the 2011–12 season by Premier League managers in March 2012. He finished the season as Newcastle's leading goal scorer, with 16 goals.


title: Demba Ba

text: Ba got his season off to a strong start scoring in a 1–0 win against Monaco, in Landsberg am Lech, Germany on 16 July 2012. He also scored in a 2–1 win against Braga which helped Newcastle win the Guadiana Trophy. In Newcastle's first league game against Tottenham, Ba opened the scoring with a fantastic volleyed effort in a 2–1 win. On 17 September 2012, he scored Newcastle's 1000th goal of the Premier League era, after scoring both goals in a 2–2 draw against Everton at Goodison Park. On 29 September, he scored for the third game in a row as he scored twice in a 2–2 draw away to Reading, the first a volley, the second however proved controversial as the ball struck his arm before going in.


title: Demba Ba

text: It was known that Ba had a release clause in his contract valued at £7 million causing speculation of him making a transfer to Chelsea. This speculation was confirmed by Newcastle manager Alan Pardew on 2 January 2013 who said that the transfer was "done" and Ba would "go to Chelsea with our blessing."


title: Demba Ba

text: On 4 January 2013, Ba joined Chelsea for an undisclosed fee. Ba signed a three-and-a-half-year contract, becoming the second ever Senegalese player to join the club, after Isaac Esposito. He received the vacant number 29 shirt.


title: Demba Ba

text: Ba made his debut against Southampton in the third round of the FA Cup on 5 January. He marked his first appearance for the club by scoring two goals in a 5–1 victory for Chelsea. He scored on his home league debut on 16 January in a 2–2 draw, also against Southampton.


title: Demba Ba

text: On 2 February 2013, Ba first played his former team Newcastle in a Premier League match at St. James' Park. In the 32nd minute of the match Ba had a chance to open the scoring but his initial attempt on goal was saved by Newcastle keeper Tim Krul. Ba managed to head the rebounded ball and in doing so collided with Coloccini. The collision resulted in a broken nose and Ba was substituted in the 43rd minute. Newcastle went on to win the game 3–2. After a run of seven games without scoring, Ba scored in a 1–0 win against West Bromwich Albion at Stamford Bridge on 2 March. On 1 April, Ba scored a goal from a long Juan Mata cross in the FA Cup quarter-final replay against Manchester United, giving Chelsea a 1–0 victory and a spot at Wembley against Manchester City in the semi-finals of the competition. He was cup-tied for Chelsea's victorious 2012–13 UEFA Europa League campaign.


title: Demba Ba

text: For the 2013–14 season, Ba's squad number was switched from 29 to 19, his squad number while at Newcastle. In the summer transfer window, Ba was linked with transfers to his former clubs Newcastle United and West Ham United. Ba was on the verge of joining Arsenal on a season-long loan, but the move fell through. It was later revealed that the move fell through thanks to Chelsea intervention, though Ba himself considered moving to Arsenal.


title: Demba Ba

text: He scored his first goal of the season after coming on as a substitute in Champions League match against Schalke in a 3–0 victory. Ba's first Premier League goal of the season sealed Chelsea's 3–1 victory over Southampton. He made his first Champions League start on 11 December 2013 and he scored the only goal of the game, as Chelsea won 1–0 against Steaua București. On 8 March 2014, he scored twice after coming on as a 76th-minute substitute in a 4–0 win over Tottenham Hotspur.


title: Demba Ba

text: On 8 April 2014, Ba scored an 87th-minute goal in the Champions League quarter-final second-leg against Paris Saint-Germain to send Chelsea through to the semi-finals. On 13 April, he scored the winning goal as Chelsea won 1–0 at Swansea City. On 27 April, during Chelsea's third final match against Liverpool, Steven Gerrard slipped over while receiving a pass which allowed Ba to score, resulting in Chelsea winning the game 2–0, helping them to stay in the race for the Premier League title. Having only scored 14 goals since his arrival in January 2013, Ba fell behind fellow strikers Samuel Eto'o and Fernando Torres, having spent most of the season being on the sidelines. After the arrival of Diego Costa in the summer, Chelsea decided to allow Ba to search for a new club despite his intention to stay for the 2014–15 season.


title: Demba Ba

text: On 16 July 2014, Beşiktaş J.K. of the Turkish Süper Lig signed Ba from Chelsea for €6 million. He was given the number 9 shirt.


title: Demba Ba

text: Ba made his official competitive debut for the club against Feyenoord in the first-leg of third qualifying round of the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League, coming on as a substitute for Oğuzhan Özyakup in the 59th minute, as the match ended 2–1 for Beşiktaş.


title: Demba Ba

text: In the second-leg in Istanbul, which was the first time he was in the starting eleven, Ba scored three goals, marking his first hat-trick with the Turkish club in which ended 3–1. On 19 August, Ba tried a straight shot right after the kick-off, which was saved by Arsenal keeper Wojciech Szczęsny at Play-off Round first leg, which ended 0–0.


title: Demba Ba

text: Ba made a great start to Turkish top flight and scored eight times in 10 games for Besiktas over the first twelve weeks of the season. In UEFA Europa League, Ba proved to be instrumental for Besiktas' success and managed to score five times in five games while Besiktas advanced for the knockout phase.


title: Demba Ba

text: On 28 June 2015, it was confirmed that Ba had signed a three-year deal with Chinese Super League club Shanghai Shenhua. He made his debut on 11 July, starting in a 1–1 draw at Tianjin Teda, and scored his first goal four days later in a 3–1 home win over Beijing Guoan. Ba finished the season with six goals in 11 games, including a hat-trick in the final game on 31 October, a 3–1 win over Jiangsu Sainty, also at the Hongkou Stadium. Although Shanghai lost to Jiangsu Sainty in the 2015 Chinese FA Cup final, Ba won the titles of 2015 Chinese FA Cup Most Valuable Player and Top Scorer.


title: Demba Ba

text: In Ba's second season at Shanghai Shenhua, he scored 14 goals in 18 Super League games, including hat-tricks in wins against Shijiazhuang Ever Bright on 3 April 2016, and Hangzhou Greentown on 19 June. On 17 July, Ba broke his leg during a match against Shanghai SIPG when he was knocked off balance by Sun Xiang and fell with his leg twisting under him. Shenhua coach Gregorio Manzano stated the injury could potentially "end his professional career." French doctor Olivier Bringer performed surgery on Ba's fractured leg successfully on 22 July. After the operation, Bringer affirmed that Ba would be able to play football in a few months.


title: Demba Ba

text: On 31 January 2017, Beşiktaş confirmed that Ba will join the club on loan from Shanghai Shenhua until May 2017. On 31 January 2018, Ba joined Turkish Süper Lig side Göztepe S.K. on a free transfer. Ba scored seven goals and assisted one goal in 13 matches before rejoining Shanghai Shenhua.


title: Demba Ba

text: Ba rejoined Shanghai Shenhua on 14 June 2018. On 18 July 2018, he made his return debut and scored the winning goal in a 1–0 home win over Tianjin TEDA.


title: Demba Ba

text: In January 2019, Ba terminated his contract with Shenhua by mutual consent and joined Turkish club İstanbul Başakşehir.


title: Demba Ba

text: On 19 July 2020, Ba became a champion of Turkey for a second time in his career as Başakşehir were crowned Süper Lig champions with a 1–0 win over Kayserispor. Ba netted in Başakşehir's 2–3 defeat to Kasımpaşa on the final day of the league season, finishing the campaign as the club's top league scorer with 13 goals.


title: Demba Ba

text: On 19 June 2021, Ba signed a one-year contract for Swiss Super League club FC Lugano on a free transfer. However, less than three months later on 13 September, Ba announced he had retired from professional football.


title: Demba Ba

text: Ba is a practising Muslim. In 2013, He refused, like Papiss Cissé, Hatem Ben Arfa and Cheick Tioté, to wear the new sponsor's name on their shirts because Wonga.com is a British payday loan firm, and according to Sharia law, Muslims must not benefit from either lending money or receiving money from another person - meaning that charging interest is prohibited.


title: Demba Ba

text: He observes fasting during the Islamic month of Ramadan, along with celebrating his goals by performing the Sujud by bowing towards Mecca.


title: Demba Ba

text: In 2014, when he played for Chelsea, Ba put his jersey up for sale at auction for financing Collective Against Islamophobia in France (CCIF). He declared after the Charlie Hebdo shooting:


title: Demba Ba

text: In 2017, He brings with Nicolas Anelka funding to the Pan-Africanist association created by Kémi Séba, an anti-colonial activist with several convictions for anti-Semitism. In August 2020, Ba called on football to condemn China's treatment of Uighurs.


title: Demba Ba

text: On 26 June 2017, Ba co-founded with Eden Hazard, Yohan Cabaye and Moussa Sow an expansion North American Soccer League franchise, San Diego 1904 FC, to begin playing in 2018. In 2021, San Diego 1904 FC merged with Albion San Diego, which made Ba the head owner of the newly merged team.


title: United States Department of Education

text: The United States Department of Education is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government. It began operating on May 4, 1980, having been created after the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare was split into the Department of Education and the Department of Health and Human Services by the Department of Education Organization Act, which President Jimmy Carter signed into law on October 17, 1979.


title: United States Department of Education

text: The Department of Education is administered by the United States Secretary of Education. It has 4,400 employees - the smallest staff of the Cabinet agencies - and an annual budget of $68 billion. The President's 2023 Budget request is for 88.3 billion, which includes funding for children with disabilities (IDEA), pandemic recovery, early childhood education, Pell Grants, Title I, work assistance, among other programs. Its official abbreviation is ED ("DoE" refers to the United States Department of Energy) but is also abbreviated informally as "DoEd".


title: United States Department of Education

text: Unlike the systems of many other countries, education in the United States is decentralized. Due to the courts and lawmakers' interpretation of the 10th Amendment, this means the federal government and Department of Education are not involved in determining curricula or educational standards or establishing schools or colleges. The Department of Defense Education Activity (DoDEA) oversees schools located on American military bases and the Department of the Interior's Bureau of Indian Education supports tribally-controlled schools. The quality of higher education institutions and their degrees are maintained through an informal private process known as accreditation, over which the Department of Education has no direct public jurisdictional control.


title: United States Department of Education

text: The Department of Education is a member of the United States Interagency Council on Homelessness, and works with federal partners to ensure proper education for homeless and runaway youth in the United States.


title: United States Department of Education

text: For 2006, the ED discretionary budget was $56 billion and the mandatory budget contained $23 billion. In 2009 it received additional ARRA funding of $102 billion. As of 2011, the discretionary budget is $70 billion.


title: United States Department of Education

text: The Department's origin goes back to 1867, when President Andrew Johnson signed legislation for a Department of Education. It was seen as a way to collect information and statistics about the nation's schools and provide advice to schools in the same way the Department of Agriculture helped farmers. The Department was originally proposed by Henry Barnard and leaders of the National Teachers Association (renamed the National Education Association). Barnard served as the first commissioner of education but resigned when the office was reconfigured as a bureau in the Department of Interior known as the United States Office of Education due to concerns it would have too much control over local schools.


title: United States Department of Education

text: Over the years, the office remained relatively small, operating under different titles and housed in various agencies, including the United States Department of the Interior and the former United States Department of Health Education and Welfare (DHEW) (now the United States Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS)). An unsuccessful attempt at creating a Department of Education, headed by a Secretary of Education, came with the Smith–Towner Bill in 1920.


title: United States Department of Education

text: In 1939, the organization (then a bureau) was transferred to the Federal Security Agency, where it was renamed as the Office of Education. After World War II, President Dwight D. Eisenhower promulgated "Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1953." The Federal Security Agency was abolished and most of its functions were transferred to the newly formed DHEW.


title: United States Department of Education

text: In 1979, President Carter advocated for creating a cabinet-level Department of Education. Carter's plan was to transfer most of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare's education-related functions to the Department of Education. Carter also planned to transfer the education-related functions of the departments of Defense, Justice, Housing and Urban Development, and Agriculture, as well as a few other federal entities. Among the federal education-related programs that were not proposed to be transferred were Headstart, the Department of Agriculture's school lunch and nutrition programs, the Department of the Interior's Native Americans' education programs, and the Department of Labor's education and training programs.


title: United States Department of Education

text: Upgrading Education to cabinet-level status in 1979 was opposed by many in the Republican Party, who saw the department as unconstitutional, arguing that the Constitution doesn't mention "education", and deemed it an unnecessary and illegal federal bureaucratic intrusion into local affairs. However, many see the department as constitutional under the Commerce Clause, and that the funding role of the department is constitutional under the Taxing and Spending Clause. The National Education Association supported the bill, while the American Federation of Teachers opposed it.


title: United States Department of Education

text: As of 1979, the Office of Education had 3,000 employees and an annual budget of $12 billion. Congress appropriated to the Department of Education an annual budget of $14 billion and 17,000 employees when establishing the Department of Education. During the 1980 presidential campaign, Gov. Reagan called for the total elimination of the U.S. Department of Education, severe curtailment of bilingual education, and massive cutbacks in the federal role in education. Once in office, President Reagan significantly reduced its budget.


title: United States Department of Education

text: The Republican Party platform of 1980 called for the elimination of the Department of Education created under Carter, and President Ronald Reagan promised during the 1980 presidential election to eliminate it as a cabinet post, but he was not able to do so with a Democratic House of Representatives. In the 1982 State of the Union Address, he pledged: "The budget plan I submit to you on Feb. 8 will realize major savings by dismantling the Department of Education."


title: United States Department of Education

text: By 1984 the GOP had dropped the call for elimination from its platform, and with the election of President George H. W. Bush in 1988, the Republican position evolved in almost lockstep with that of the Democrats, with Goals 2000 a virtual joint effort.


title: United States Department of Education

text: After the Newt Gingrich-led "revolution" in 1994 had taken control of both Houses of Congress, federal control of and spending on education soared. That trend continued unabated despite the fact that the Republican Party made abolition of the department a cornerstone of 1996 platform and campaign promises, calling it an inappropriate federal intrusion into local, state, and family affairs. The GOP platform read: "The Federal government has no constitutional authority to be involved in school curricula or to control jobs in the market place. This is why we will abolish the Department of Education, end federal meddling in our schools, and promote family choice at all levels of learning."


title: United States Department of Education

text: In 2000, the Republican Liberty Caucus passed a resolution to abolish the Department of Education. Abolition of the organization was not pursued under the George W. Bush administration, which made reform of federal education a key priority of the president's first term. In 2008 and 2012, presidential candidate Ron Paul campaigned in part on an opposition to the department.


title: United States Department of Education

text: Under President George W. Bush, the department primarily focused on elementary and secondary education, expanding its reach through the No Child Left Behind Act. The department's budget increased by $14 billion between 2002 and 2004, from $46 billion to $60 billion.


title: United States Department of Education

text: On March 23, 2007, President George W. Bush signed into law , which designates the ED Headquarters building as the Lyndon Baines Johnson Department of Education Building.


title: United States Department of Education

text: In December 2015 President Barack Obama instituted the Every Student Succeeds Act, which reauthorized the Elementary Secondary Education Act. “In December 2015, the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) was signed into law, reauthorizing the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) and replacing the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). ESEA, the federal law that authorizes federal funding for K-12 schools, represents the nation’s commitment to equal educational opportunity for all students and has influenced the education of millions of children."


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: Mathew Edward Fraser (born 1990) is a retired Canadian-American professional CrossFit athlete, competing from 2014 to 2020. Fraser is the first athlete to have won five CrossFit Games titles, winning the 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, and 2020 CrossFit Games consecutively. He is widely considered to be the most dominant and successful individual male athlete in the sport of CrossFit.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: Fraser has a background in Olympic weightlifting and was a junior national champion. He made his debut at the 2014 CrossFit Games and took second place after a strong performance. He was a favorite to win in 2015 with the retirement of four-time defending champion Rich Froning Jr., but was edged out in the final event by Ben Smith. The following year, Fraser took first place by a record margin, and won all the following four CrossFit Games. The 2020 Games were his final Games, which he won with a greatly extended record margin of victory of 545 points, and set a record of five consecutive championships wins.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: Mat Fraser was born to Canadian Olympic figure skaters Don Fraser and Candace Jones in Kingston, Ontario, Canada, and spent his early childhood in Sharbot Lake. His mother worked as a doctor while his father was a stay-at-home dad. The family moved to Colchester, Vermont in the United States in his early childhood. He was athletic from a young age, learning to swim when he was one, water-skiing at 18 months, downhill when two, and can walk on hands for a dozen paces when he was seven. He played football in middle school, but became interested in weightlifting when he was 12 years old after a coach saw him trying to compete with a friend lifting weights, and introduced him to a weightlifting coach who taught him how to lift weights with proper techniques. After graduating from Colchester High School, he started to train full time in Olympic weightlifting at the Olympic Training Center in Colorado Springs, Colorado as a resident athlete on scholarship.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: In 2009, a few weeks before he was due to compete in the Junior World Weightlifting Championship in Bucharest, Romania, he injured his back doing a clean-pull, which was further damaged in a squat after he was encouraged to train a week later. Although in pain, he went to compete in the Championships, but after returning home it was found that he had suffered two breaks in his L5 vertebra. It required him to wear a plastic brace on his torso for four months, but it failed to heal properly. He refused spinal fusion surgery because it would have ended his athletic career, and elected instead for experimental surgery to have his back re-broken, inserting a protein sponge to help heal the bone with two plates and six screws attached to his lower spine. The rehabilitation lasted a year, although he resumed training after four months.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: After his surgery, Fraser enrolled at the Olympic Education Center at Northern Michigan University to study math and physics while he was on his rehabilitation. He gave up weightlifting as a sport after two years in Michigan, and went to Rocky Mountain House in Alberta to work on the oil fields for four months, before returning to Vermont to start a double major course in mechanical engineering and engineering management and a double minor in math and business at the University of Vermont in Burlington. Fraser started training in a CrossFit gym when he was 22, and competed in CrossFit events in 2013, but initially, he competed only to earn some pocket money while he was studying. Although he had originally intended to pursue a career in engineering, a stint as a summer intern in an aerospace company in 2014 convinced him to focus on CrossFit. By the time he graduated with degrees in engineering and business in May 2016, he had established himself enough as a CrossFit athlete to commit to the sport full time.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: Fraser came from an Olympic weightlifting background where he earned his first national title in weightlifting when he was 13 years old and was the school age champion in 2003, 2005 and 2007. In 2009, he became the junior national champion (77 kg category). He injured his back in 2009, but not knowing that he had a broken vertebra, he went on to compete in the Junior World Weightlifting Championship in Bucharest, Romania, and ended up 15th out of 16 in the 77 kg men category. After spinal surgery and rehabilitation, he competed in two American Weightlifting Open competitions, placing third in the 77 kg men division in 2010, and fifth in 85 kg men in 2011. He was placed 8th in the 85 kg men category at the National Championships in 2012. He retired from the sport after his final competition as funding was cut in 2011 after Chicago lost its bid for 2016 Summer Olympics and he lost interest in weightlifting.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: Fraser started training in a CrossFit box (gym) while he was still competing in weightlifting – he was looking for a place to do Olympic lifts to keep himself fit when he was home in Vermont during a school break from Michigan. Although not interested in CrossFit, he chose a CrossFit box (Champlain Valley CrossFit) because CrossFit boxes have the equipment used by Olympic lifters in towns without dedicated Olympic facilities. When he returned to study in Vermont, he also trained at Champlain Valley, where he was introduced to CrossFit as a sport and was encouraged to compete in CrossFit events. Fraser started competing at the end of 2012 and early 2013 in local competitions, and with only a few months of experience in CrossFit, he finished fifth in the CrossFit North East Regionals, which was not high enough to qualify for the CrossFit Games. For a time he also competed as part of a team. He was with the New York Rhinos team in the NPGL in 2014, and in the Built By Bergeron team in 2015, which finished third in the CrossFit Team Series that year.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: In 2014, Fraser won the North East Regionals, which gained him some attention. In his first appearance at the CrossFit Games, he ended the competition as runner-up to Rich Froning. He had seven top 10 finishes in that year's events, tying for first place with Froning in the Overhead Squat, and finishing second in Midline March and Thick 'N Quick. He also won the Rookie of the Year award.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: In 2015, Froning had retired from individual competitions, and Fraser was widely expected to win the 2015 CrossFit Games. Although he started well, he performed poorly in several events during the third day of the competition, particularly in the Soccer Chipper event that he failed to finish but Ben Smith won. Fraser lost his large lead over Smith, which proved decisive in Smith's eventual victory in the competition. Fraser later described his second place as a "devastating loss" and his "biggest failure", a "lesson I will reflect on the rest of my life". He said: "I hated my 2015 medal. To me it just represented the cut corners, the slacking off, the thinking I could out-train a bad diet." He added: "If I had won in 2015 while carrying those bad habits, I would've kept those bad habits. I would've thought I could do this while eating terribly. I can do this while training sporadically."


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: At the 2016 CrossFit Games, Fraser performed consistently well in events he had previously struggled in. He started his campaign with a win in the 7k Ranch Trail Run even though he was not known for running or endurance. That was the only event he won, but he came second in seven events and top 10 in nearly all events, and the consistent all-round performance allowed him to dominate the field and emerge as the winner. He won with a 197-point lead over second-place Ben Smith, which was the biggest margin of victory in the history of the Games.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: The following year Fraser was again dominant at the 2017 CrossFit Games, winning four of the last eight events (Triple-G Chipper, Muscle-up Clean Ladder, Heavy 17.5, 2223 Intervals), the first time he won more than one event in a single Games. He finished in first place, extending his record margin of victory to 216 points over Brent Fikowski. He won the competition despite injuring his LCL on his knee while stretching after the first day of competition; he kept quiet on his injury and continued to compete the next three days.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: In 2018, Fraser's consistent performance again allowed him to defend his title at the 2018 CrossFit Games. He led from the third event, winning in two events (Fibonacci and Aeneas) with top 4 finishes in 10 of the 14 events and only one outside the top 10 – 11th on the Marathon Row. He won with a record 1,162 points, and a record margin of 220 points over the runner-up Patrick Vellner.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: Fraser qualified for the 2019 CrossFit Games by winning the first sanctioned event held in Dubai under the new qualification system. He also won the inaugural Rogue Invitational. At the CrossFit Games itself, Fraser faced a strong challenge from Noah Ohlsen despite winning 6 events in this Games. He started well with two wins, but stumbled on day 2 of the competition and trailed Ohlsen in points by the end of the day – a sandbag falling out of his bag in the 6k Ruck event near the end of the race resulted in a 60-second penalty and a 17th-place finish, followed by a worse 21st finish in Sprint Couplet. Fraser managed to claw back the deficit in the later events of the competition; a couple of first-place finishes (Split Triplet and Clean) and his second and first finishes on Ringer 1 and Ringer 2 in the last day gave him a small lead over Ohlsen. A win in the final event The Standard made him champion for the fourth time, but with the smallest winning margin in men's competition since 2010. This win equaled Froning's record of four consecutive wins.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic forced major changes to the 2020 CrossFit Games. The competition was separated into two stages. In the first stage, 30 men competed online and Fraser won four of the seven events. The field was then narrowed to the top 5 men who competed in person in the final stage. Fraser dominated this much-reduced group of athletes, winning ten of the twelve events and only dropping to second place in Swim 'N' Stuff and CrossFit Total. He won with a greatly-extended record margin. His points total of 1,150 was nearly double that of the runner-up Samuel Kwant (605). He also set records of most wins in a single Games (10 in stage two, 14 including stage one), most cumulative event wins (29), most consecutive event wins (6), the first continuous unbroken lead in the Games, and his fifth title surpassed Froning's record of four.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: Fraser released his HWPO ("Hard Work Pays Off") training program in April 2021, later extended to training for elite athletes, and delivered via his own platform. He also helped train other athletes and started providing individual coaching for athletes, including Mal O'Brien and Justin Medeiros. He partnered with the filmmakers Buttery Bros to announce the launch of a supplement company named Podium Nutrition with its product release scheduled in July 2021. Fraser started to program for a number of competitions in 2022.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: After switching to CrossFit, Fraser did not follow a set training routine due to the constantly varied movements found in CrossFit and the CrossFit Games. In his early years in CrossFit, he did not dedicate his training to CrossFit, with only 1–2 hours a day of training a few times a week. He did not maintain a special diet and would often eat an entire pint of ice cream or a half-dozen donuts. After coming in second to Ben Smith at the 2015 CrossFit Games, he committed to a better diet and dropped ten pounds, eating no "junk food" or soda, and little pre-packaged food. He does not adhere to a specific diet like paleo (he found that it gave him insufficient energy) or counting macros, which is common in CrossFit. In general, he eats what he wants and when he wants it, aside from avoiding junk food and ensuring that he eats well with enough calorific intake. Fraser tended to consume four to five big calorie-dense meals a day when training for competition, which were mainly meat and vegetables, along with sticky white rice. During training, he took supplements such as branched-chain amino acids, pre-workout (including beta-alanine), and cannabidiol (for sleep), and drinks protein shakes and smoothies, snacks on Snickers bars, gummies, and fruits during workout sessions, and Gatorade after the hardest session. During competitions, food intake was kept broadly similar, but the quantity changed—less before competition events to avoid competing on a full stomach—with an increase in carbohydrates and a decrease in protein. His food intake reached 6–7,000 calories daily at the peak of his training. In the off-season when he did not train, he sometimes ate only one or two meals a day.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: Fraser did not have a fixed set of training routines in the years when he competed, but he maintained some structure in his training. During a CrossFit season, his training varied over time, but he trained a minimum of two sessions a day four days a week. He typically had three track sessions, three or four weightlifting sessions, a couple of sessions swimming and one on road bike. The training may depend on what was done previously. A day concentrated on conditioning may be followed by strength work the next, and he tried to fit in conditioning, cardio, and technique work in a day. Every week one or two 40-minute EMOMs, a type of workout that is repeated every minute on the minute, were included in his training. He focused on his weaknesses, for example, after he struggled in flipping the pig (a rectangular block encased in rubber) in the 2015 Games which contributed to his failure to finish the event, he bought a "pig" so he could practice with it. Other weaknesses he focused on included sprinting after the 2015 Games, deadlift after the 2016 Games, and swimming after 2017. He always warmed up before and cooled down after his training. He did not train for many weeks in the off-season after the Games. When preparing for a competition, the training ramped up over a time period of 12 to 16 weeks, but he cut down on the training slightly approaching the competition (tapering), and avoided workouts that could adversely effect the following day. Fraser sees sleep as very important for recovery after training, and ensured that he had regular sleep of 9–10 hours when training or during competition.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: In Vermont, he trained at Champlain Valley CrossFit and a home gym in the basement of his parents' house. In 2017, he started moving to Froning's hometown of Cookeville, Tennessee, where he trained at CrossFit Mayhem and later at Calfkiller Crossfit, as well as in his own home gym.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: For many years he mostly trained alone, but when training with a partner in preparation for the Games, he preferred to train with female athletes as they are not direct competitors. Training partners included Katrín Davíðsdóttir and Tia-Clair Toomey. He trained with Toomey for the 2019 and 2020 CrossFit Games after she moved to Cookeville in 2018. Toomey's coach/husband Shane Orr also served as Fraser's coach these two seasons.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: Fraser lives with Sammy Moniz, who created the website "Feeding The Frasers" dedicated to food she cooks for Fraser. He is deaf in one ear and hard of hearing in the other due to a childhood ear infection. He does not drink alcohol, and has described his drinking problems as a teenager that led to his being sober from the age of 17. He has the Serenity Prayer tattooed on his left upper arm, inked by his brother Jesse who works as a tattoo artist.


title: Mat Fraser (athlete)

text: Fraser has sponsorship deals with a number of companies, including Nike, Rogue, Athletic Brewing, Gowod, and Beam. Fraser's Nike sportswear, such as his personal editions of Metcon cross-training shoes, features his motto "Hard Work Pays Off" or its acronym HWPO.


title: Marcel Sabitzer

text: Marcel Sabitzer (born 17 March 1994) is an Austrian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for club Bayern Munich and the Austria national team. Predominantly a central midfielder, he also plays in a multitude of roles, including attacking midfielder, second striker, winger and defensive midfielder.


title: Marcel Sabitzer

text: Sabitzer played for Admira Wacker Mödling between September 2010 and January 2013. He scored two goals in eight appearances during the 2010–11 Austrian Bundesliga.


title: Marcel Sabitzer

text: On 30 May 2014, Sabitzer signed a four-year contract with RB Leipzig, and was loaned for a season to FC Red Bull Salzburg.


title: Marcel Sabitzer

text: Sabitzer returned to RB Leipzig for the 2015–16 season, when he scored eight goals in 34 appearances. On 1 April 2016, Sabitzer extended his contract until 2021.


title: Marcel Sabitzer

text: He finished the 2016–17 season with nine goals in 33 appearances. In the 2017–18 season, he scored five goals in 34 appearances.


title: Marcel Sabitzer

text: In the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League, Sabitzer scored his first two goals in the competition in back-to-back matches against Zenit Saint Petersburg. On 10 March 2020, he scored twice in a 3–0 win over Tottenham Hotspur in the Champions League round of 16, to help earn Leipzig a 4–0 aggregate victory and a place in the quarter-finals of the competition for the first time in club's history. Leipzig eventually lost 0–3 to Paris Saint-Germain in a semi finals match on 18 August, and were knocked out of the tournament. Sabitzer finished the 2019–20 campaign with 16 goals and 11 assists in all competitions.


title: Marcel Sabitzer

text: On 30 August 2021, Sabitzer signed a four-year contract with Bayern Munich for a reported transfer fee of €16 million.


title: Marcel Sabitzer

text: He is a son of former Austria international Herfried Sabitzer, and the cousin of footballer Thomas Sabitzer.


title: Marcel Sabitzer

text: "Scores and results list Austria's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Sabitzer goal."


title: Because the Night

text: "Because the Night" is a rock song written by Bruce Springsteen and Patti Smith that was first released in 1978 as a single from the Patti Smith Group album, "Easter". This version rose to No. 13 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, as well as No. 5 in the United Kingdom, and helped propel sales of "Easter" to mainstream success.


title: Because the Night

text: The song has subsequently been covered by numerous artists, and at least two of these cover versions have been chart hits. A 1992 version of the song by Co.Ro was a hit in several countries in Europe and South America. It reached No. 1 in Spain and the Top 10 in Belgium, France, Greece and Italy. The following year, a live acoustic version was recorded by 10,000 Maniacs for "MTV Unplugged". This recording reached No. 11 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, making it the highest charting version of the song in the U.S.


title: Because the Night

text: In 1987, the song was ranked No. 116 on "NME" magazine's list of "The Top 150 Singles of All Time". It remains the best-known song of Smith's catalog. In 2021, "Rolling Stone" ranked it No. 358 on "Top 500 Greatest Songs of All Time". "The Independent" listed the song as one of the ten best new wave singles of 1978.


title: Because the Night

text: Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band recorded "Because the Night" at Atlantic Studios, New York on June 1, 1977, the first day of sessions for "Darkness on the Edge of Town", though the lyrics only consisted of the song title and some mumbling. Springsteen struggled with the song for almost four months until his engineer, Jimmy Iovine, got involved. At the time, Iovine was also producing the album "Easter" for Patti Smith at the Record Plant in New York, where "Darkness" was also being recorded.


title: Because the Night

text: Iovine says, "Now, Bruce was very understanding and very flexible, because he realized that this was my first real break as a producer. Anyway, one night whilst we were lounging around the Hotel Navarro in New York I told Bruce I desperately wanted a hit with Patti, that she deserved one. He agreed. As he had no immediate plans to put 'Because the Night' on an album, I said why not give it to Patti. Bruce replied, 'If she can do it, she can have it.'"


title: Because the Night

text: Springsteen later admitted he was not satisfied with the song, and he already knew he was not going to finish it since it was "a[nother] love song". Iovine brought Smith the last recording by Springsteen, from September 27, 1977. Smith added her own lyrics, recorded it, and scored her biggest hit single.


title: Because the Night

text: The song was first performed live at a Patti Smith concert at CBGB in New York City on December 30, 1977 (Smith's 31st birthday), with Springsteen joining on vocals and guitar. Though it was never released on any of Springsteen's studio albums, in concert beginning with his Darkness Tour Springsteen would often perform the song with his own lyrics.


title: Because the Night

text: The only two commercially released recordings of a Springsteen version of the song were in the 1986 box set "Live/1975–85", in which Smith is listed as co-writer; and the 2010 compilation album "The Promise" (using the original recording from the "Darkness on the Edge of Town" sessions with Smith's lyrics).


title: Because the Night

text: In 1992, Italian dance act CO.RO released a version that sold over 660,000 copies. It also samples the Depeche Mode song "Master and Servant" and was a hit in Europe, becoming gold record in France and reaching number-one in Spain. Additionally the single peaked within the top 10 in Belgium, France, Greece and Italy. On the Eurochart Hot 100, "Because the Night" reached number 15 in February 1993. It was also successful in Brazil, and became a big opening of a Eurodance explosion in the 1990s.


title: Because the Night

text: The song received favorable reviews from music critics. Larry Flick from "Billboard" wrote that it "gets a rave/pop treatment" and "urgent vocals by Tarlisa swerve around a looped sample from Depeche Mode's "Master & Servant"." He stated that it "ultimately works well and is better than many of the other covers". Alan Jones from "Music Week" gave it three out of five. He complimented the song as "actually quite endearing", adding that it combines DM samples with "a maverick bassline and a Smith soundalike. It could click."


title: Because the Night

text: An acoustic version was recorded by 10,000 Maniacs in 1993 for "MTV Unplugged", with a few lyrical alterations. The recording gained considerable radio airplay and reached No. 11 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. A live version with lead vocalist Mary Ramsey was also included on their 2016 album "Playing Favorites".


title: Because the Night

text: In 2008, Cascada recorded a version which appears on their second album "Perfect Day". The music video for the single premiered on YouTube on May 28, 2008. The single was released on July 18, 2008, in Germany.


title: Because the Night

text: In early 2013, Garbage and Screaming Females recorded a cover of "Because the Night" for an exclusive vinyl release on that year's Record Store Day; an annual celebration of independent record stores. Garbage had released two singles ("Blood for Poppies" and "Battle in Me") to mark the 2012 event, and were keen to release "something special" for the following year. The band decided to record "Because the Night" with Screaming Females following some well-received duets of the track at live dates during their North American tour. Marissa Paternoster of Screaming Females originally suggested covering "Because the Night" live. "We thought it'd be the perfect opportunity to solidify a recording and do something really special for the fans and for all the independent record stores," Garbage frontwoman Shirley Manson told "Billboard".


title: Because the Night

text: Screaming Females flew from their base in New Jersey to Los Angeles to record the track with Garbage, who had set up two complete sets of instruments in EastWest Studios for the session. Garbage drummer Butch Vig told "NME": "We did it old-school style. They came out to Hollywood and we went into a big tracking room and recorded Phil Spector style... We cut it live and did very few overdubs, did everything in a day and it came out pretty great. Marissa plays, I think, a 48-bar guitar solo at the end, that girl can shred like Eddie Van Halen, no kidding."


title: Because the Night

text: Garbage used social media to raise awareness of the release, and to Record Store Day in general. The band shot a video where they professed their love for independent stores, and stated their earliest memories of shopping in them, while Manson wrote a statement about the importance of the continued existence of these stores, and of vinyl records: "In a world like ours, where we live increasingly isolated lives behind the lonely glow of our computer screens, Record Store Day reminds us all that an independent record store is worth protecting and fighting for. They are a haven and a harbour for all curious and wandering souls." Manson also tipped her hat to Patti Smith in the run-up to RSD 2013: "She is absolutely, without a doubt, one of my greatest inspirations. When I think I can't do things, I think about her and what she's achieved and what she continues to achieve on her own terms—always. That really inspires me. I don't know if she's aware of the cover we're releasing, or if she's aware that I covered "Kimberly" with Angelfish."


title: Because the Night

text: "Because the Night" was pressed to a "Coke bottle-green" 10-inch vinyl and backed with "Love Like Suicide" and a fan remix of the album's opening track "Automatic Systematic Habit". An original Garbage song, "Love Like Suicide" had been previously released as bonus track exclusive to the Japan pressing of "Not Your Kind of People". Manson explained the song's inclusion to MySpace: "We're releasing it now because we wanted to give a nice gift for the fans." The remix of "Automatic..." was produced by Garbage fan Konstantin Khazev and won first prize in an amateur remix competition held through the Beatport website in 2012. The RSD package was limited to 5,000 units, with the sleeve artwork created by Marissa Paternoster.


title: Because the Night

text: The release of "Because the Night" in the United Kingdom was delayed due to problems with the record's distributor. The band made a statement via social media the evening before Record Store Day: "We are so pissed off and disappointed about this. And so sad that on Record Store Day in the UK our little jewel will not be available for sale." The UK release of "Because the Night" was rescheduled to May 13, 2013. The single debuted at number 100 on the Physical Singles chart, before shooting up to number 4 the following week.


title: Because the Night

text: On May 7, 2013, Garbage issued a digital single of "Because the Night" in the United States, which was followed a week later by an international digital release.


title: Because the Night

text: "Because the Night" would later be included on the deluxe edition bonus disc of Garbage's seventh album, "No Gods No Masters" and Screaming Females compilation album "Singles Too".


title: Because the Night

text: While Garbage and Screaming Females recorded at EastWest Studios, Sophie Muller shot black and white footage to document the sessions. On March 4, 2013, a teaser video was released to YouTube featuring clips of the band members. The full music video was subsequently released on April 17; ahead of Record Store Day.


title: Because the Night

text: The cover version of "Because the Night" was positively received by contemporary music critics in advance of Record Store Day. "Billboard" magazine's Hilary Hughes stated, "...the Garbage/Screaming Females release embodies the shifts brought on by Record Store Day that impact the music industry across the board-and the shaping trends that have fueled Record Store Day's meteoric rise from a community experiment to an international movement," referencing the pairing of artists and the independent label of release. Chris Martins of "Spin" wrote, "...the bands gel awesomely. The highlight comes when Paternoster starts to shred. We have a feeling Miss Smith will be proud."


title: John Rabe

text: John Heinrich Detlef Rabe (23 November 1882 – 5 January 1950) was a German businessman and Nazi Party member best known for his efforts to stop war crimes during the Japanese Nanjing Massacre (also known as Nanking) and his work to protect and help Chinese civilians during the massacre that ensued. The Nanking Safety Zone, which he helped to establish, sheltered approximately 250,000 Chinese people from being killed. He officially represented Germany and acted as senior chief of the European-U.S. establishment that remained in Nanjing, the Chinese capital at the time, when the city fell to the Japanese troops.


title: John Rabe

text: In 1908, he left for China, and between 1910 and 1938 worked for the Siemens AG China Corporation in Shenyang, Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai and later Nanjing. Rabe suffered from diabetes by the time he worked in Nanjing, requiring him to take regular doses of insulin. At the time of the Japanese attack on Nanjing, Rabe was a staunch Nazi and the party's local head, serving as a Deputy Group Leader in the Nazi Party.


title: John Rabe

text: Many Westerners were living in Nanjing, the Chinese capital city, until December 1937, with some conducting trade and others on missionary trips. As the Imperial Japanese Army approached Nanjing and initiated bombing raids on the city, all but 22 foreigners fled, with 15 American and European missionaries and businessmen forming part of the remaining group. As the Japanese Army advanced on Nanjing on 22 November 1937, Rabe, along with other foreign nationals, organized the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone and created the Nanking Safety Zone to provide Chinese refugees with food and shelter from the impending Japanese massacre. He explained his reasons as: "there is a question of morality here… I cannot bring myself for now to betray the trust these people have put in me, and it is touching to see how they believe in me". The zones were located in all of the foreign embassies and at Nanking University.


title: John Rabe

text: The committee was inspired by the establishment in November of a similar neutral zone in Shanghai which had protected approximately 450,000 civilians. Rabe was elected leader of the committee, in part because of his Nazi Party status and the German-Japanese bilateral Anti-Comintern Pact. The committee established the Nanking Safety Zone in the western quarter of the city. The Japanese government had agreed not to attack parts of the city that did not contain Chinese military forces and the members of the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone attempted to persuade the Chinese government to move all their troops out of the area. In this they were partly successful. On 1 December 1937, before fleeing the city, Nanjing Mayor Ma Chao-chun ordered all Chinese citizens remaining in Nanjing to move into the Safety Zone. When Nanjing fell on 13 December 1937, 500,000 non-combatants remained in the city. Rabe also opened up his properties to help 650 more refugees.


title: John Rabe

text: According to Rabe, the Nanking Massacre resulted in the deaths of 50,000 to 60,000 civilians. Rabe and his zone administrators tried frantically to stop the atrocities. Modern estimates of the death toll of the Nanking Massacre vary but some put the number of murdered civilians as high as 300,000. Rabe's appeals to the Japanese using his Nazi Party credentials often only delayed them but the delay allowed hundreds of thousands of refugees to escape. The documentary "Nanking" credited Rabe with saving the lives of 250,000 Chinese civilians; other sources suggest he saved 250,000 to 300,000. In his diary, Rabe documented Japanese atrocities committed during the assault on and occupation of the city.


title: John Rabe

text: In a series of lectures he gave in Germany after his return, Rabe would say that "We Europeans put the number [of civilian casualties] at about 50,000 to 60,000". Rabe was not the only person to record Japanese atrocities. By December 1937, after the defeat of the Chinese force, Japanese soldiers often went house-to-house in Nanjing, shooting any civilians they encountered. Additional evidence of these violent acts came from the diaries kept by some Japanese soldiers and by Japanese journalists appalled at what occurred.


title: John Rabe

text: On 28 February 1938, Rabe left Nanjing. He traveled first to Shanghai, returning to Berlin on 15 April 1938. He took with him a large number of source materials documenting Japanese atrocities in Nanjing. Rabe showed films and photographs of Japanese atrocities in lecture presentations in Berlin and wrote to Hitler, asking him to use his influence to persuade the Japanese to stop further violence. Rabe was detained and interrogated by the Gestapo; his letter was never delivered to Hitler. Due to the intervention of Siemens AG, Rabe was released. He was allowed to keep evidence of the massacre (excluding films) but not to lecture or write on the subject again. Rabe continued working for Siemens, which briefly posted him to the safety of Siemens AG in Afghanistan. Rabe subsequently worked in the company's Berlin headquarters until the end of the war.


title: John Rabe

text: After the war, Rabe was arrested first by the Soviet NKVD, then by the British Army. Both let him go after intense interrogation. He worked sporadically for Siemens, earning little. He was later denounced by an acquaintance for his Nazi Party membership, losing the work permit he had been given by the British Zone of Occupation. Rabe then had to undergo lengthy de-Nazification (his first attempt was rejected and he had to appeal) in the hope of regaining permission to work. He depleted his savings to pay for his legal defence.


title: John Rabe

text: Unable to work and with his savings spent, Rabe and his family survived in a one-room apartment by selling his Chinese art collection but it was insufficient to prevent their malnutrition. He was formally declared "de-Nazified" by the British on 3 June 1946 but continued to live in poverty. His family subsisted on wild seeds, his children eating soup and dry bread until running out of that as well. In 1948, Nanjing citizens learned of the Rabe family's dire circumstances and quickly raised a sum of money equivalent to $2,000 USD ($ in 2022). The city's mayor traveled to Germany via Switzerland, where he bought a large amount of food for the Rabe family. From mid-1948 until the communist takeover, the people of Nanjing also sent the family a food package each month, for which Rabe wrote many letters expressing deep gratitude.


title: John Rabe

text: On 5 January 1950, Rabe died of a stroke. In 1997, his tombstone was moved from Berlin to Nanjing, where it received a place of honour at the massacre memorial site and still stands today. In 2005, Rabe's former residence in Nanjing, the John Rabe House, was restored to its former state; it houses the John Rabe and International Safety Zone Memorial Hall, opened in 2006. The Austrian Service Abroad was later invited to send a Peace Servant there. Rabe's grave in Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Cemetery in Berlin-Charlottenburg was re-erected in 2013.


title: John Rabe

text: Rabe's wartime diaries were published in English as "The Good German of Nanking" (UK title) or "The Good Man of Nanking" (US title) (original German title: "Der gute Deutsche von Nanking").


title: 118th United States Congress

text: The 118th United States Congress is the next meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It is scheduled to meet in Washington, D.C., from January 3, 2023, to January 3, 2025, during the final two years of Joe Biden's first term of presidency.


title: 118th United States Congress

text: In the 2022 midterm elections, the Republicans won control of the House for the first time since the , while the Democrats gained one seat in the Senate, retaining control by going from 50–50 (with Vice President Kamala Harris serving as the tie breaker) to an outright 51–49 majority (with a coalition of 48 Democrats and three independents who caucus with them comprising the 51). This will mark the first split Congress since the , and the first Republican House–Democratic Senate split since the .


title: 118th United States Congress

text: With Republicans winning the House, the 118th Congress will end the federal government trifecta Democrats have held since January 20, 2021, and will feature the first female Senate president pro tempore (Patty Murray) and the first Black party leader (Hakeem Jeffries) in congressional history.


title: 118th United States Congress

text: Note: Democrats refer to themselves as a "Caucus"; Republicans refer to themselves as a "Conference".


title: 118th United States Congress

text: The numbers refer to their Senate classes. All class 3 seats were contested in the November 2022 elections. In this Congress, class 3 means their term commenced in the current Congress, requiring re-election in 2028; class 1 means their term ends with this Congress, requiring re-election in 2024; and class 2 means their term began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 2026.


title: 118th United States Congress

text: All 435 seats will be filled by election in November 2022. Additionally, six non-voting members will be elected from the American territories and Washington, D. C.


title: 118th United States Congress

text: The numbers refer to the congressional district of the given state in this Congress. Eight new congressional districts were created or re-created, while eight others were eliminated as a result of the 2020 United States census.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Thyroid hormones are any hormones produced and released by the thyroid gland, namely triiodothyronine (T) and thyroxine (T). They are tyrosine-based hormones that are primarily responsible for regulation of metabolism. T and T are partially composed of iodine. A deficiency of iodine leads to decreased production of T and T, enlarges the thyroid tissue and will cause the disease known as simple goitre.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: The major form of thyroid hormone in the blood is thyroxine (T), whose half-life of around one week is longer than that of T. In humans, the ratio of T to T released into the blood is approximately 14:1. T is converted to the active T (three to four times more potent than T) within cells by deiodinases (5′-deiodinase). These are further processed by decarboxylation and deiodination to produce iodothyronamine (Ta) and thyronamine (Ta). All three isoforms of the deiodinases are selenium-containing enzymes, thus dietary selenium is essential for T production.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: American chemist Edward Calvin Kendall was responsible for the isolation of thyroxine in 1915. In 2020, levothyroxine, a manufactured form of thyroxine, was the second most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 98million prescriptions. Levothyroxine is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: The thyroid hormones act on nearly every cell in the body. It acts to increase the basal metabolic rate, affect protein synthesis, help regulate long bone growth (synergy with growth hormone) and neural maturation, and increase the body's sensitivity to catecholamines (such as adrenaline) by permissiveness. The thyroid hormones are essential to proper development and differentiation of all cells of the human body. These hormones also regulate protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism, affecting how human cells use energetic compounds. They also stimulate vitamin metabolism. Numerous physiological and pathological stimuli influence thyroid hormone synthesis.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Thyroid hormone leads to heat generation in humans. However, the thyronamines function via some unknown mechanism to inhibit neuronal activity; this plays an important role in the hibernation cycles of mammals and the moulting behaviour of birds. One effect of administering the thyronamines is a severe drop in body temperature.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Both T and T are used to treat thyroid hormone deficiency (hypothyroidism). They are both absorbed well by the stomach, so can be given orally. Levothyroxine is the pharmaceutical name of the manufactured version of T, which is metabolised more slowly than T and hence usually only needs once-daily administration. Natural desiccated thyroid hormones are derived from pig thyroid glands, and are a "natural" hypothyroid treatment containing 20% T and traces of T, T and calcitonin.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Also available are synthetic combinations of T/T in different ratios (such as liotrix) and pure-T medications (INN: liothyronine).


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Levothyroxine Sodium is usually the first course of treatment tried. Some patients feel they do better on desiccated thyroid hormones; however, this is based on anecdotal evidence and clinical trials have not shown any benefit over the biosynthetic forms. Thyroid tablets are reported to have different effects, which can be attributed to the difference in torsional angles surrounding the reactive site of the molecule.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Thyronamines have no medical usages yet, though their use has been proposed for controlled induction of hypothermia, which causes the brain to enter a protective cycle, useful in preventing damage during ischemic shock.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Synthetic thyroxine was first successfully produced by Charles Robert Harington and George Barger in 1926.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Most people are treated with levothyroxine, or a similar synthetic thyroid hormone. Different polymorphs of the compound have different solubilities and potencies. Additionally, natural thyroid hormone supplements from the dried thyroids of animals are still available. Levothyroxine contains T only and is therefore largely ineffective for patients unable to convert T to T. These patients may choose to take natural thyroid hormone, as it contains a mixture of T and T, or alternatively supplement with a synthetic T treatment. In these cases, synthetic liothyronine is preferred due to the potential differences between the natural thyroid products. Some studies show that the mixed therapy is beneficial to all patients, but the addition of lyothyronine contains additional side effects and the medication should be evaluated on an individual basis. Some natural thyroid hormone brands are FDA approved, but some are not. Thyroid hormones are generally well tolerated. Thyroid hormones are usually not dangerous for pregnant women or nursing mothers, but should be given under a doctor's supervision. In fact, if a woman who is hypothyroid is left untreated, her baby is at a higher risk for birth defects. When pregnant, a woman with a low-functioning thyroid will also need to increase her dosage of thyroid hormone. One exception is that thyroid hormones may aggravate heart conditions, especially in older patients; therefore, doctors may start these patients on a lower dose and work up to a larger one to avoid risk of heart attack.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Thyroid hormones (T and T) are produced by the follicular cells of the thyroid gland and are regulated by TSH made by the thyrotropes of the anterior pituitary gland. The effects of T in vivo are mediated via T (T is converted to T in target tissues). T is three to five times as active than T.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Thyroxine (3,5,3′,5′-tetraiodothyronine) is produced by follicular cells of the thyroid gland. It is produced as the precursor thyroglobulin (this is "not" the same as thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG)), which is cleaved by enzymes to produce active T.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Thyroglobulin (Tg) is a 660 kDa, dimeric protein produced by the follicular cells of the thyroid and used entirely within the thyroid gland. Thyroxine is produced by attaching iodine atoms to the ring structures of this protein's tyrosine residues; thyroxine (T) contains four iodine atoms, while triiodothyronine (T), otherwise identical to T, has one less iodine atom per molecule. The thyroglobulin protein accounts for approximately half of the protein content of the thyroid gland. Each thyroglobulin molecule contains approximately 100–120 tyrosine residues, a small number of which (<20) are subject to iodination catalysed by thyroperoxidase. The same enzyme then catalyses "coupling" of one modified tyrosine with another, via a free-radical-mediated reaction, and when these iodinated bicyclic molecules are released by hydrolysis of the protein, T and T are the result. Therefore, each thyroglobulin protein molecule ultimately yields very small amounts of thyroid hormone (experimentally observed to be on the order of 5–6 molecules of either T or T per original molecule of thyroglobulin).


title: Thyroid hormones

text: More specifically, the monatomic anionic form of iodine, iodide (I), is actively absorbed from the bloodstream by a process called iodide trapping. In this process, sodium is cotransported with iodide from the basolateral side of the membrane into the cell, and then concentrated in the thyroid follicles to about thirty times its concentration in the blood. Then, in the first reaction catalysed by the enzyme thyroperoxidase, tyrosine residues in the protein thyroglobulin are iodinated on their phenol rings, at one or both of the positions "ortho" to the phenolic hydroxyl group, yielding monoiodotyrosine (MIT) and diiodotyrosine (DIT), respectively. This introduces 1–2 atoms of the element iodine, covalently bound, per tyrosine residue. The further coupling together of two fully iodinated tyrosine residues, also catalysed by thyroperoxidase, yields the peptidic (still peptide-bound) precursor of thyroxine, and coupling one molecule of MIT and one molecule of DIT yields the comparable precursor of triiodothyronine:


title: Thyroid hormones

text: (Coupling of DIT to MIT in the opposite order yields a substance, r-T, which is biologically inactive.) Hydrolysis (cleavage to individual amino acids) of the modified protein by proteases then liberates T and T, as well as the non-coupled tyrosine derivatives MIT and DIT. The hormones T and T are the biologically active agents central to metabolic regulation.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Thyroxine is believed to be a prohormone and a reservoir for the most active and main thyroid hormone T. T is converted as required in the tissues by iodothyronine deiodinase. Deficiency of deiodinase can mimic hypothyroidism due to iodine deficiency. T is more active than T, though it is present in less quantity than T.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) is released from hypothalamus by 6 – 8 weeks, and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion from fetal pituitary is evident by 12 weeks of gestation, and fetal production of thyroxine (T) reaches a clinically significant level at 18–20 weeks. Fetal triiodothyronine (T) remains low (less than 15 ng/dL) until 30 weeks of gestation, and increases to 50 ng/dL at term. Fetal self-sufficiency of thyroid hormones protects the fetus against e.g. brain development abnormalities caused by maternal hypothyroidism.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: If there is a deficiency of dietary iodine, the thyroid will not be able to make thyroid hormones. The lack of thyroid hormones will lead to decreased negative feedback on the pituitary, leading to increased production of thyroid-stimulating hormone, which causes the thyroid to enlarge (the resulting medical condition is called "endemic colloid goitre"; see goitre). This has the effect of increasing the thyroid's ability to trap more iodide, compensating for the iodine deficiency and allowing it to produce adequate amounts of thyroid hormone.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Most of the thyroid hormone circulating in the blood is bound to transport proteins, and only a very small fraction is unbound and biologically active. Therefore, measuring concentrations of free thyroid hormones is important for diagnosis, while measuring total levels can be misleading.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Despite being lipophilic, T and T cross the cell membrane via carrier-mediated transport, which is ATP-dependent.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Ta and Ta are positively charged and do not cross the membrane; they are believed to function via the trace amine-associated receptor (TAR1, TA1), a G-protein-coupled receptor located in the cytoplasm.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Another critical diagnostic tool is measurement of the amount of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) that is present.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Contrary to common belief, thyroid hormones cannot traverse cell membranes in a passive manner like other lipophilic substances. The iodine in "o"-position makes the phenolic OH-group more acidic, resulting in a negative charge at physiological pH. However, at least 10 different active, energy-dependent and genetically regulated iodothyronine transporters have been identified in humans. They guarantee that intracellular levels of thyroid hormones are higher than in blood plasma or interstitial fluids.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Little is known about intracellular kinetics of thyroid hormones. However, recently it could be demonstrated that the crystallin CRYM binds 3,5,3′-triiodothyronine in vivo.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: The thyroid hormones function via a well-studied set of nuclear receptors, termed the thyroid hormone receptors. These receptors, together with corepressor molecules, bind DNA regions called thyroid hormone response elements (TREs) near genes. This receptor-corepressor-DNA complex can block gene transcription. Triiodothyronine (T), which is the active form of thyroxine (T), goes on to bind to receptors. The deiodinase catalyzed reaction removes an iodine atom from the 5′ position of the outer aromatic ring of thyroxine's (T) structure. When triiodothyronine (T) binds a receptor, it induces a conformational change in the receptor, displacing the corepressor from the complex. This leads to recruitment of coactivator proteins and RNA polymerase, activating transcription of the gene. Although this general functional model has considerable experimental support, there remain many open questions.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: More recently genetic evidence has been obtained for a second mechanism of thyroid hormone action involving one of the same nuclear receptors, TRβ, acting rapidly in the cytoplasm through the PI3K. This mechanism is conserved in all mammals but not fish or amphibians, and regulates brain development and adult metabolism. The mechanism itself parallels the actions of the nuclear receptor in the nucleus: in the absence of hormone, TRβ binds to PI3K and inhibits its activity, but when hormone binds the complex dissociates, PI3K activity increases, and the hormone bound receptor diffuses into the nucleus.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Thyroxine and iodine stimulate the spectacular apoptosis of the cells of the larval gills, tail and fins in amphibian metamorphosis, and stimulate the evolution of their nervous system transforming the aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into the terrestrial, carnivorous frog. In fact, amphibian frog "Xenopus laevis" serves as an ideal model system for the study of the mechanisms of apoptosis.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Triiodothyronine (T) and thyroxine (T) can be measured as "free T" and "free T", which are indicators of their activities in the body. They can also be measured as "total T" and "total T", which depend on the amount that is bound to thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG). A related parameter is the free thyroxine index, which is "total T" multiplied by thyroid hormone uptake, which, in turn, is a measure of the unbound TBG. Additionally, thyroid disorders can be detected prenatally using advanced imaging techniques and testing fetal hormone levels.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Preterm births can suffer neurodevelopmental disorders due to lack of maternal thyroid hormones, at a time when their own thyroid is unable to meet their postnatal needs. Also in normal pregnancies, adequate levels of maternal thyroid hormone are vital in order to ensure thyroid hormone availability for the foetus and its developing brain. Congenital hypothyroidism occurs in every 1 in 1600–3400 newborns with most being born asymptomatic and developing related symptoms weeks after birth.


title: Thyroid hormones

text: Iodine uptake against a concentration gradient is mediated by a sodium–iodine symporter and is linked to a sodium-potassium ATPase. Perchlorate and thiocyanate are drugs that can compete with iodine at this point. Compounds such as goitrin, carbimazole, methimazole, propylthiouracil can reduce thyroid hormone production by interfering with iodine oxidation.


title: Eric Hobsbawm

text: Eric John Ernest Hobsbawm (; 9 June 1917 – 1 October 2012) was a British historian of the rise of industrial capitalism, socialism and nationalism. A life-long Marxist, his socio-political convictions influenced the character of his work. His best-known works include his tetralogy about what he called the "long 19th century" ("", "" and ""), "The Age of Extremes" on the short 20th century, and an edited volume that introduced the influential idea of "invented traditions".


title: Eric Hobsbawm

text: Hobsbawm was born in Alexandria, Egypt, and spent his childhood mainly in Vienna and Berlin. Following the death of his parents and the rise to power of Adolf Hitler, Hobsbawm moved to London with his adoptive family. After serving in the Second World War, he obtained his PhD in history at the University of Cambridge. In 1998, he was appointed to the Order of the Companions of Honour. He was president of Birkbeck, University of London, from 2002 until he died. In 2003, he received the Balzan Prize for European History since 1900, "for his brilliant analysis of the troubled history of 20th century Europe and for his ability to combine in-depth historical research with great literary talent."


title: Eric Hobsbawm

text: Eric Hobsbawm was born in 1917 in Alexandria, Egypt. His father was Leopold Percy Hobsbaum (né Obstbaum), a Jewish merchant from the East End of London of Polish Jewish descent. His mother was Nelly Hobsbaum (née Grün), who was from a middle-class Austrian Jewish family. Although both of his parents were Jewish, neither was observant. His early childhood was spent in Vienna, Austria and Berlin, Germany. A clerical error at birth altered his surname from Hobsbaum to Hobsbawm. Although the family lived in German-speaking countries, he grew up speaking English as his first language.


title: Eric Hobsbawm

text: In 1929, when Hobsbawm was 12, his father died, and he started contributing to his family's support by working as an au pair and English tutor. Upon the death of their mother in 1931, he and his sister Nancy were adopted by their maternal aunt, Gretl, and paternal uncle, Sidney, who married and had a son named Peter. Hobsbawm was a student at the Prinz Heinrich-Gymnasium Berlin (today Friedrich-List-School) when the Nazi Party came to power in 1933. That year the family moved to London, where Hobsbawm enrolled in St Marylebone Grammar School. His migration from Germany created the false belief that Hobsbawm was a refugee, which persisted throughout his life, while he was actually British by birth because of his father's nationality.


title: Eric Hobsbawm

text: Hobsbawm attended King's College, Cambridge, from 1936, where he joined the Communist Party of Great Britain "in the form of the university's Socialist Club." He took a double-starred first in History and was elected to the Cambridge Apostles. He received a doctorate (PhD) in History from Cambridge University for his dissertation on the Fabian Society. During the Second World War, he served in the Royal Engineers and the Army Educational Corps. He was prevented from serving overseas after he attracted the attention of the security services by using the wall newspaper he edited during his army training to argue for the opening up of a Second Front, which was a demand made by the Communist Party of Great Britain at the time. He applied to return to Cambridge as a research student, and was released from the military in 1946.


title: Eric Hobsbawm

text: MI5 opened a personal file on Hobsbawm in 1942 and their monitoring of his activities was to affect the progress of his career for many years. In 1945, he applied to the BBC for a full-time post making educational broadcasts to help servicemen adjust to civilian life after a long period in the forces and was considered "a most suitable candidate". The appointment was swiftly vetoed by MI5 who believed Hobsbawm was unlikely "to lose any opportunity he may get to disseminate propaganda and obtain recruits for the Communist party". In 1947, he became a lecturer in history at Birkbeck College, University of London which, unusually at the time, lacked any inclination towards anti-communism among staff or students. He became reader in 1959, professor between 1970 and 1982 and an emeritus professor of history in 1982. He was a Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, from 1949 to 1955. Hobsbawm said there was a weaker version of McCarthyism that took hold in Britain and affected Marxist academics: "you didn't get promotion for 10 years, but nobody threw you out". Hobsbawm was denied a lectureship at Cambridge by political enemies, and, given that he was also blocked for a time from a professorship at Birkbeck for the same reasons, spoke of his good fortune at having got a post at Birkbeck in 1948 before the Cold War really started to take off. Conservative commentator David Pryce-Jones has questioned the existence of such career obstacles.


title: Eric Hobsbawm

text: Hobsbawm helped found the academic journal "Past & Present" in 1952. He was a visiting professor at Stanford University in the 1960s. In 1970s, he was appointed professor and in 1976 he became a Fellow of the British Academy. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1971 and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 2006.


title: Eric Hobsbawm

text: Hobsbawm formally retired from Birkbeck in 1982, becoming Emeritus Professor of History, and was appointed as president of Birkbeck in 2002. He remained as visiting professor at The New School for Social Research in Manhattan between 1984 and 1997. He was, until his death, professor emeritus in the New School for Social Research in the Political Science Department. A polyglot, he spoke German, English, French, Spanish and Italian fluently, and read Portuguese and Catalan.


title: Eric Hobsbawm

text: Hobsbawm wrote extensively on many subjects as one of Britain's most prominent historians. As a Marxist historiographer he has focused on analysis of the "dual revolution" (the political French Revolution and the British Industrial Revolution). He saw their effect as a driving force behind the predominant trend towards liberal capitalism today. Another recurring theme in his work was social banditry, which Hobsbawm placed in a social and historical context, thus countering the traditional view of it being a spontaneous and unpredictable form of primitive rebellion. He coined the term "long nineteenth century", which begins with the French Revolution in 1789 and ends with the start of World War I in 1914.


title: Eric Hobsbawm

text: He published numerous essays in various intellectual journals, dealing with subjects such as barbarity in the modern age, the troubles of labour movements, and the conflict between anarchism and communism. Among his final publications were "Globalisation, Democracy and Terrorism" (2007), "On Empire" (2008) and the collection of essays "How to Change the World: Marx and Marxism 1840–2011" (2011).


title: Eric Hobsbawm

text: Outside his academic historical writing, Hobsbawm wrote a regular column about jazz for the "New Statesman" (under the pseudonym Francis Newton, taken from the name of Billie Holiday's communist trumpet player, Frankie Newton). He had become interested in jazz during the 1930s when it was frowned upon by the Communist Party. Hobsbawm occasionally wrote about other forms of popular music, such as in his 1963 article "Beatles and before", in which he predicts that the Beatles "are probably just about to begin their slow descent" and that "[i]n 29 years' time nothing of them will survive."


title: Eric Hobsbawm

text: Hobsbawm joined the "" (Association of Socialist Pupils), an offshoot of the Young Communist League of Germany, in Berlin in 1931, and the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) in 1936. He was a member of the Communist Party Historians Group from 1946 until its demise and subsequently president of its successor, the Socialist History Society, until his death. The Soviet invasion of Hungary in 1956 led thousands of its members to leave the British Communist Party – but Hobsbawm, unique among his colleagues, remained in the party but was mistrusted by its leadership and ceased political work by the end of the 1950s. Hobsbawm maintained some ties to former colleagues such as E. P. Thompson and John Saville, who had left the CPGB at this time and became leading lights of the New Left in Britain, occasionally contributing to New Left publications but also providing intelligence reports on the dissidents to CPGB headquarters. He later described the New Left as "a half-remembered footnote". He signed a historians' letter of protest against the Soviet invasion of Hungary and was firmly in favour of the Prague Spring.


title: Eric Hobsbawm

text: Hobsbawm was a leading light of the Eurocommunist faction in the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) that began to gather strength after 1968, when the CPGB criticised the Soviet crushing of the Prague Spring and the French Communist Party's failure to support the May 68 movement in Paris. In "The Forward March of Labour Halted?" (originally a Marx Memorial Lecture, "The British Working Class One Hundred Years after Marx", that was delivered to a small audience of fellow Marxists in March 1978 before being published in "Marxism Today" in September 1978), he argued that the working class was inevitably losing its central role in society, and that left-wing parties could no longer appeal only to this class; a controversial viewpoint in a period of trade union militancy. Hobsbawm supported Neil Kinnock's transformation of the British Labour Party from 1983 (the party received just 28 per cent of the vote in that year's elections, just 2 per cent more than the Social Democratic Party/Liberal Alliance), and, though not close to Kinnock, came to be referred to as "Neil Kinnock's Favourite Marxist". His interventions in Kinnock's remaking of the Labour Party helped prepare the ground for the Third Way, New Labour, and Tony Blair, whom Hobsbawm later derisively referred to as "Thatcher in trousers". Until the cessation of publication in 1991, he contributed to the magazine "Marxism Today". A third of the 30 reprints of "Marxism Today" feature articles that appeared in "The Guardian" during the 1980s were articles or interviews by or with Hobsbawm, making him by far the most popular of all contributors.