title: Property

text: That principle was carried to the United States. Under U.S. law, the principal limitations on whether and the extent to which the State may interfere with property rights are set by the Constitution. The Takings clause requires that the government (whether State or federal—for the 14th Amendment's due process clause imposes the 5th Amendment's takings clause on state governments) may take private property only for a public purpose after exercising due process of law, and upon making "just compensation." If an interest is not deemed a "property" right or the conduct is merely an intentional tort, these limitations do not apply, and the doctrine of sovereign immunity precludes relief. Moreover, if the interference does not almost completely make the property valueless, the interference will not be deemed a taking but instead a mere regulation of use. On the other hand, some governmental regulations of property use have been deemed so severe that they have been considered "regulatory takings." Moreover, conduct is sometimes deemed only a nuisance, or another tort has been held a taking of property where the conduct was sufficiently persistent and severe.


title: Property

text: There exist many theories of property. One is the relatively rare first possession theory of property, where ownership of something is seen as justified simply by someone seizing something before someone else does. Perhaps one of the most popular is the natural rights definition of property rights as advanced by John Locke. Locke advanced the theory that God granted dominion over nature to man through Adam in the book of Genesis. Therefore, he theorized that when one mixes one's labor with nature, one gains a relationship with that part of nature with which the labor is mixed, subject to the limitation that there should be "enough, and as good, left in common for others." (see Lockean proviso)


title: Property

text: From the RERUM NOVARUM, Pope Leo XIII wrote, "It is surely undeniable that, when a man engages in remunerative labor, the impelling reason and motive of his work is to obtain property, and after that to hold it as his very own."


title: Property

text: Anthropology studies the diverse ownership systems, rights of use and transfer, and possession under the term "theories of property." As mentioned, western legal theory is based on the owner of property being a legal person. However, not all property systems are founded on this basis.


title: Property

text: In every culture studied, ownership and possession are the subjects of custom and regulation, and "law" is where the term can meaningfully be applied. Many tribal cultures balance individual rights with the laws of collective groups: tribes, families, associations, and nations. For example, the 1839 Cherokee Constitution frames the issue in these terms:


title: Property

text: Communal property systems describe ownership as belonging to the entire social and political unit. Common ownership in a hypothetical communist society is distinguished from primitive forms of common property that have existed throughout history, such as Communalism and primitive communism, in that communist common ownership is the outcome of social and technological developments leading to the elimination of material scarcity in society.


title: Property

text: Corporate systems describe ownership as being attached to an identifiable group with an identifiable responsible individual. The Roman property law was based on such a corporate system. In a well-known paper that contributed to the creation of the field of law and economics in the late 1960s, the American scholar Harold Demsetz described how the concept of property rights makes social interactions easier:


title: Property

text: Different societies may have other theories of property for differing types of ownership. For example, Pauline Peters argued that property systems are not isolable from the social fabric, and notions of property may not be stated as such but instead may be framed in negative terms: for example, the taboo system among Polynesian peoples.


title: Property

text: In medieval and Renaissance Europe the term "property" essentially referred to land. After much rethinking, land has come to be regarded as only a special case of the property genus. This rethinking was inspired by at least three broad features of early modern Europe: the surge of commerce, the breakdown of efforts to prohibit interest (then called "usury"), and the development of centralized national monarchies.


title: Property

text: Urukagina, the king of the Sumerian city-state Lagash, established the first laws that forbade compelling the sale of property.


title: Property

text: Aristotle, in "Politics," advocates "private property." He argues that self-interest leads to neglect of the commons. "[T]hat which is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it. Everyone thinks chiefly of his own, hardly at all of the common interest, and only when he is himself concerned as an individual."


title: Property

text: In addition, he says that when property is common, there are natural problems that arise due to differences in labor: "If they do not share equally enjoyments and toils, those who labor much and get little will necessarily complain of those who labor little and receive or consume much. But indeed, there is always a difficulty in men living together and having all human relations in common, but especially in their having common property." ("Politics, 1261b34")


title: Property

text: Cicero held that there is no private property under natural law but only under human law. Seneca viewed property as only becoming necessary when men become avaricious. St. Ambrose later adopted this view and St. Augustine even derided heretics for complaining the Emperor could not confiscate property they had labored for.


title: Property

text: The canon law "Decretum Gratiani" maintained that mere human law creates property, repeating the phrases used by St. Augustine. St. Thomas Aquinas agreed with regard to the private consumption of property but modified patristic theory in finding that the private possession of property is necessary. Thomas Aquinas concludes that, given certain detailed provisions,


title: Property

text: The principal writings of Thomas Hobbes appeared between 1640 and 1651—during and immediately following the war between forces loyal to King Charles I and those loyal to Parliament. In his own words, Hobbes' reflection began with the idea of "giving to every man his own," a phrase he drew from the writings of Cicero. But he wondered: How can anybody call anything his own? He concluded: My own can only truly be mine if there is one unambiguously strongest power in the realm, and that power treats it as mine, protecting its status as such.


title: Property

text: A contemporary of Hobbes, James Harrington, reacted to the same tumult differently: he considered property natural but not inevitable. The author of "Oceana," he may have been the first political theorist to postulate that political power is a consequence, not the cause, of the distribution of property. He said that the worst possible situation is when the commoners have half a nation's property, with the crown and nobility holding the other half—a circumstance fraught with instability and violence. He suggested a much better situation (a stable republic) would exist once the commoners own most property.


title: Property

text: In later years, the ranks of Harrington's admirers included American revolutionary and founder John Adams.


title: Property

text: Another member of the Hobbes/Harrington generation, Sir Robert Filmer, reached conclusions much like Hobbes', but through Biblical exegesis. Filmer said that the institution of kingship is analogous to that of fatherhood, that subjects are still, children, whether obedient or unruly and that property rights are akin to the household goods that a father may dole out among his children—his to take back and dispose of according to his pleasure.


title: Property

text: In the following generation, John Locke sought to answer Filmer, creating a rationale for a balanced constitution in which the monarch had a part to play, but not an overwhelming part. Since Filmer's views essentially require that the Stuart family be uniquely descended from the patriarchs of the Bible, and even in the late 17th century, that was a difficult view to uphold, Locke attacked Filmer's views in his First Treatise on Government, freeing him to set out his own views in the Second Treatise on Civil Government. Therein, Locke imagined a pre-social world each of the unhappy residents which are willing to create a social contract because otherwise, "the enjoyment of the property he has in this state is very unsafe, very insecure," and therefore, the "great and chief end, therefore, of men's uniting into commonwealths, and putting themselves under government, is the preservation of their property." They would, he allowed, create a monarchy, but its task would be to execute the will of an elected legislature. "To this end" (to achieve the previously specified goal), he wrote, "it is that men give up all their natural power to the society they enter into, and the community put the Legislative power into such hands as they think fit, with this trust, that they shall be governed by declared laws, or else their peace, quiet, and property will still be at the same uncertainty as it was in the state of nature."


title: Property

text: Even when it keeps to proper legislative form, Locke held that there are limits to what a government established by such a contract might rightly do.


title: Property

text: Both "persons" and "estates" are to be protected from the arbitrary power of any magistrate, including legislative power and will." In Lockean terms, depredations against an estate are just as plausible a justification for resistance and revolution as are those against persons. In neither case are subjects required to allow themselves to become prey.


title: Property

text: In contrast to the figures discussed in this section thus far David Hume lived a relatively quiet life that had settled down to a relatively stable social and political structure. He lived the life of a solitary writer until 1763 when, at 52 years of age, he went off to Paris to work at the British embassy.


title: Property

text: In contrast, one might think to his polemical works on religion and his empiricism-driven skeptical epistemology, Hume's views on law and property were quite conservative.


title: Property

text: He did not believe in hypothetical contracts or the love of humanity in general and sought to ground politics upon actual human beings as one knows them. "In general," he wrote, "it may be affirmed that there is no such passion in the human mind, as the love of mankind, merely as such, independent of personal qualities, or services, or of relation to ourselves." Existing customs should not lightly be disregarded because they have come to be what they are due to human nature. With this endorsement of custom comes an endorsement of existing governments because he conceived of the two as complementary: "A regard for liberty, though a laudable passion, ought commonly to be subordinate to a reverence for established government."


title: Property

text: Therefore, Hume's view was that there are property rights because of and to the extent that the existing law, supported by social customs, secure them. He offered some practical home-spun advice on the general subject, though, as when he referred to avarice as "the spur of industry," and expressed concern about excessive levels of taxation, which "destroy industry, by engendering despair."


title: Property

text: "The property that every man has in his labour is the original foundation of all other property, so it is the most sacred and inviolable. The inheritance of a poor man lies in the strength and dexterity of his hands, and to hinder him from employing this strength and dexterity in what manner he thinks proper without injury to his neighbor, is a plain violation of this most sacred property. It is a manifest encroachment upon the just liberty of the workman and those who might be disposed to employ him. It hinders the one from working at what he thinks proper, so it hinders the others from employing whom they think proper. To judge whether he is fit to be employed may surely be trusted to the discretion of the employers whose interest it so much concerns. The affected anxiety of the law-giver lest they should employ an improper person is as impertinent as it is oppressive."


title: Property

text: By the mid 19th century, the industrial revolution had transformed England and the United States and had begun in France. As a result, the conventional conception of what constitutes property expanded beyond land to encompass scarce goods. In France, the revolution of the 1790s had led to large-scale confiscation of land formerly owned by the church and king. The restoration of the monarchy led to claims by those dispossessed to have their former lands returned.


title: Property

text: Section VIII, "Primitive Accumulation" of Capital involves a critique of Liberal Theories of property rights. Marx notes that under Feudal Law, peasants were legally entitled to their land as the aristocracy was to its manors. Marx cites several historical events in which large numbers of the peasantry were removed from their lands, then seized by the nobility. This seized land was then used for commercial ventures (sheep herding). Marx sees this "Primitive Accumulation" as integral to the creation of English Capitalism. This event created a sizeable un-landed class that had to work for wages to survive. Marx asserts that liberal theories of property are "idyllic" fairy tales that hide a violent historical process.


title: Property

text: Charles Comte, in "Traité de la propriété" (1834), attempted to justify the legitimacy of private property in response to the Bourbon Restoration. According to David Hart, Comte had three main points: "firstly, that interference by the state over the centuries in property ownership has had dire consequences for justice as well as for economic productivity; secondly, that property is legitimate when it emerges in such a way as not to harm anyone; and thirdly, that historically some, but by no means all, property which has evolved has done so legitimately, with the implication that the present distribution of property is a complex mixture of legitimately and illegitimately held titles."


title: Property

text: Comte, as Proudhon later did, rejected Roman legal tradition with its toleration of slavery. Instead, he posited a communal "national" property consisting of non-scarce goods, such as land in ancient hunter-gatherer societies. Since agriculture was so much more efficient than hunting and gathering, private property appropriated by someone for farming left remaining hunter-gatherers with more land per person and hence did not harm them. Thus this type of land appropriation did not violate the Lockean proviso – there was "still enough, and as good left." Later theorists would use Comte's analysis in response to the socialist critique of property.


title: Property

text: In his 1840 treatise "What is Property?", Pierre Proudhon answers with "Property is theft!". In natural resources, he sees two types of property, "de jure" property (legal title) and "de facto" property (physical possession), and argues that the former is illegitimate. Proudhon's conclusion is that "property, to be just and possible, must necessarily have equality for its condition."


title: Property

text: His analysis of the product of labor upon natural resources as property (usufruct) is more nuanced. He asserts that land itself cannot be property, yet it should be held by individual possessors as stewards of humanity, with the product of labor being the producer's property. Proudhon reasoned that any wealth gained without labor was stolen from those who labored to create that wealth. Even a voluntary contract to surrender the product of work to an employer was theft, according to Proudhon, since the controller of natural resources had no moral right to charge others for the use of that which he did not labor to create did not own.


title: Property

text: Proudhon's theory of property greatly influenced the budding socialist movement, inspiring anarchist theorists such as Mikhail Bakunin who modified Proudhon's ideas, as well as antagonizing theorists like Karl Marx.


title: Property

text: Frédéric Bastiat 's main treatise on property can be found in chapter 8 of his book "Economic Harmonies" (1850). In a radical departure from traditional property theory, he defines property, not as a physical object, but rather as a relationship between people concerning a thing. Thus, saying one owns a glass of water is merely verbal shorthand for "I may justly gift or trade this water to another person." In essence, what one owns is not the object but the object's value. By "value," Bastiat means "market value"; he emphasizes this is quite different from utility. "In our relations with one another, we are not owners of the utility of things, but their value, and value is the appraisal made of reciprocal services."


title: Property

text: Bastiat theorized that, as a result of technological progress and the division of labor, the stock of communal wealth increases over time; that the hours of work an unskilled laborer expends to buy e.g., 100 liters of wheat, decreases over time, thus amounting to "gratis" satisfaction. Thus, private property continually destroys itself, becoming transformed into communal wealth. The increasing proportion of communal wealth to private property results in a tendency toward equality of humanity. "Since the human race began in greatest poverty, that is, when there were the most obstacles to overcome, all that has been achieved from one era to the next is due to the spirit of property."


title: Property

text: This transformation of private property into the communal domain, Bastiat points out, does not imply that personal property will ever totally disappear. On the contrary, this is because man, as he progresses, continually invents new and more sophisticated needs and desires.


title: Property

text: Andrew J. Galambos (1924–1997) was an astrophysicist and philosopher who innovated a social structure that sought to maximize human peace and freedom. Galambos' concept of property was essential to his philosophy. He defined property as a man's life and all non-procreative derivatives of his life. (Because the English language is deficient in omitting the feminine from "man" when referring to humankind, it is implicit and obligatory that the feminine is included in the term "man.")


title: Property

text: Galambos taught that property is essential to a non-coercive social structure. He defined freedom as follows: "Freedom is the societal condition that exists when every individual has full (100%) control over his property." Galambos defines property as having the following elements:


title: Property

text: Property includes all non-procreative derivatives of an individual's life; this means children are not the property of their parents. and "primary property" (a person's own ideas).


title: Property

text: Galambos repeatedly emphasized that actual government exists to protect property and that the State attacks property.


title: Property

text: For example, the State requires payment for its services in the form of taxes whether or not people desire such services. Since an individual's money is his property, the confiscation of money in the form of taxes is an attack on property. Military conscription is likewise an attack on a person's primordial property.


title: Property

text: Contemporary political thinkers who believe that natural persons enjoy rights to own property and enter into contracts espouse two views about John Locke. On the one hand, some admire Locke, such as William H. Hutt (1956), who praised Locke for laying down the "quintessence of individualism." On the other hand, those such as Richard Pipes regard Locke's arguments as weak and think that undue reliance thereon has weakened the cause of individualism in recent times. Pipes has written that Locke's work "marked a regression because it rested on the concept of Natural Law" rather than upon Harrington's sociological framework.


title: Property

text: Hernando de Soto has argued that an essential characteristic of the capitalist market economy is the functioning state protection of property rights in a formal property system which records ownership and transactions. These property rights and the whole legal system of property make possible:


title: Property

text: According to de Soto, all of the above enhance economic growth. Academics have criticized the capitalist frame through which property is viewed pointing to the fact that commodifying property or land by assigning it monetary value takes away from the traditional cultural heritage, particularly from first nation inhabitants. These academics point to the personal nature of property and its link to identity being irreconcilable with wealth creation that contemporary Western society subscribes to.


title: Lodestone

text: Lodestones are naturally magnetized pieces of the mineral magnetite. They are naturally occurring magnets, which can attract iron. The property of magnetism was first discovered in antiquity through lodestones. Pieces of lodestone, suspended so they could turn, were the first magnetic compasses, and their importance to early navigation is indicated by the name "lodestone", which in Middle English means "course stone" or "leading stone",


title: Lodestone

text: Lodestone is one of only a very few minerals that is found naturally magnetized. Magnetite is black or brownish-black, with a metallic luster, a Mohs hardness of 5.5–6.5 and a black streak.


title: Lodestone

text: The process by which lodestone is created has long been an open question in geology. Only a small amount of the magnetite on the Earth is found magnetized as lodestone. Ordinary magnetite is attracted to a magnetic field like iron and steel is, but does not tend to become magnetized itself; it has too low a magnetic coercivity (resistance to demagnetization) to stay magnetized for long. Microscopic examination of lodestones has found them to be made of magnetite (FeO) with inclusions of maghemite (cubic FeO), often with impurity metal ions of titanium, aluminium, and manganese. This inhomogeneous crystalline structure gives this variety of magnetite sufficient coercivity to remain magnetized and thus be a permanent magnet.


title: Lodestone

text: The other question is how lodestones get magnetized. The Earth's magnetic field at 0.5 gauss is too weak to magnetize a lodestone by itself. The leading theory is that lodestones are magnetized by the strong magnetic fields surrounding lightning bolts. This is supported by the observation that they are mostly found near the surface of the Earth, rather than buried at great depth.


title: Lodestone

text: One of the earliest known references to lodestone's magnetic properties was made by 6th century BC Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus, whom the ancient Greeks credited with discovering lodestone's attraction to iron and other lodestones. The name "magnet" may come from lodestones found in Magnesia, Anatolia.


title: Lodestone

text: The earliest Chinese literary reference to magnetism occurs in the 4th-century BC "Book of the Devil Valley Master" ("Guiguzi").


title: Lodestone

text: In the chronicle "Lüshi Chunqiu", from the 2nd century BC, it is explicitly stated that "the lodestone makes iron come or it attracts it." The earliest mention of a needle's attraction appears in a work composed between 20 and 100 AD, the "Lunheng" ("Balanced Inquiries"): "A lodestone attracts a needle." In the 2nd century BC, Chinese geomancers were experimenting with the magnetic properties of lodestone to make a "south-pointing spoon" for divination. When it is placed on a smooth bronze plate, the spoon would invariably rotate to a north–south axis. While this has been shown to work, archaeologists have yet to discover an actual spoon made of magnetite in a Han tomb.


title: Lodestone

text: Based on his discovery of an Olmec artifact (a shaped and grooved magnetic bar) in North America, astronomer John Carlson suggests that lodestone may have been used by the Olmec more than a thousand years prior to the Chinese discovery. Carlson speculates that the Olmecs, for astrological or geomantic purposes, used similar artifacts as a directional device, or to orient their temples, the dwellings of the living, or the interments of the dead. Detailed analysis of the Olmec artifact revealed that the "bar" was composed of hematite with titanium lamellae of FeTiO that accounted for the anomalous remanent magnetism of the artifact.


title: Lodestone

text: "A century of research has pushed back the first mention of the magnetic compass in Europe to Alexander Neckam about +1190, followed soon afterwards by Guyot de Provins in +1205 and Jacques de Vitry in +1269. All other European claims have been excluded by detailed study..."


title: Lodestone

text: Lodestones have frequently been displayed as valuable or prestigious objects. The Ashmolean Museum in Oxford contains a lodestone adorned with a gilt coronet that was donated by Mary Cavendish in 1756, possibly to secure her husband's appointment as Chancellor of Oxford University. Isaac Newton's signet ring reportedly contained a lodestone which was capable of lifting more than 200 times its own weight. And in 17th century London, the Royal Society displayed a six-inch spherical lodestone (a "terrella" or 'little Earth'), which was used to illustrate the Earth's magnetic fields and the function of mariners' compasses. One contemporary writer, the satirist Ned Ward, noted how the "terrella" "made a paper of Steel Filings prick up themselves one upon the back of another, that they stood pointing like the Bristles of a "Hedge-Hog"; and gave such Life and Merriment to a Parcel of Needles, that they danc'd [...] as if the devil were in them."


title: Greater Iran

text: Greater Iran () refers to a region covering parts of Western Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, Xinjiang, and the Caucasus, where both Iranian culture and Iranian languages have had a significant presence and impact. Historically, this was a region long-ruled by the dynasties of various Iranian empires, under whose rule the local populace incorporated considerable aspects of Persian culture through extensive inter-contact, or alternatively where sufficient Iranian peoples settled to still maintain communities who patronize their respective cultures; it roughly corresponds geographically to the Iranian plateau and its bordering plains. The Encyclopædia Iranica uses the term "Iranian Cultural Continent" to describe this region.


title: Greater Iran

text: In addition to the modern state of Iran, the term "Greater Iran" includes all of the territory ruled by various Iranian peoples throughout history, including in Mesopotamia, the eastern half of Anatolia, the South Caucasus, and Central Asia. The concept of Greater Iran has its source in the history of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, particularly in the region of Persis (modern-day Fars Province), and overlaps to a certain extent with the history of Iran proper.


title: Greater Iran

text: In recent centuries, Iran lost many of the territories conquered under the Safavid and Qajar dynasties, including most of Iraq to the Ottoman Turks (via the Treaty of Amasya in 1555 and the Treaty of Zuhab in 1639), western Afghanistan to the British (via the Treaty of Paris in 1857 and the MacMahon Arbitration in 1905), and Caucasus territories to the Russians (via the Russo-Persian Wars of the 17th and 19th centuries). The Treaty of Gulistan in 1813 saw Iran cede the regions of modern-day Dagestan, Georgia, and most of Azerbaijan to the Russian Empire. The Turkmanchey Treaty of 1828 between the Russians and the Iranians decisively ended centuries of Iranian rule over its Caucasian provinces, and forced Iran to cede modern-day Armenia, the remainder of Azerbaijan, as well as Iğdır (in eastern Turkey), and set modern boundaries of Iran along the Aras River.


title: Greater Iran

text: On the occasion of Nowruz in 1935, the endonym of "Iran" was adopted as the official international name of Persia by its erstwhile ruler, Reza Shah Pahlavi. However, in 1959, the government of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi announced that both "Persia" and "Iran" could be used interchangeably to refer to the country on a formal basis.


title: Greater Iran

text: The name "Iran", meaning "land of the Aryans", is the New Persian continuation of the old genitive plural "aryānām" (proto-Iranian, meaning "of the Aryans"), first attested in the Avesta as "airyānąm" (the text of which is composed in Avestan, an old Iranian language spoken in northeastern Greater Iran, or in what are now Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan). The proto-Iranian term "aryānām" is present in the term "Airyana Vaēǰah", the homeland of Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism, near the provinces of Sogdiana, Margiana, Bactria, etc., listed in the first chapter of the Vidēvdād. The Avestan evidence is confirmed by Greek sources: Arianē is spoken of as being between Persia and the Indian subcontinent. However, this is a Greek pronunciation of the name Haroyum/Haraiva (Herat), which the Greeks called 'Aria' (a land listed separately from the homeland of the Aryans).


title: Greater Iran

text: While up until the end of the Parthian period in the 3rd century CE, the idea of "Irān" had an ethnic, linguistic, and religious value, it did not yet have a political import. The idea of an "Iranian" empire or kingdom in a political sense is a purely Sasanian one. It was the result of a convergence of interests between the new dynasty and the Zoroastrian clergy, as we can deduce from the available evidence. This convergence gave rise to the idea of an Ērān-šahr "Kingdom of the Iranians", which was "ēr" (Middle Persian equivalent of Old Persian "ariya" and Avestan "airya").


title: Greater Iran

text: Richard Nelson Frye defines Greater Iran as including "much of the Caucasus, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Central Asia, with cultural influences extending to China and western India." According to Frye, "Iran means all lands and peoples where Iranian languages were and are spoken, and where in the past, multi-faceted Iranian cultures existed."


title: Greater Iran

text: Richard Foltz notes that while "A general assumption is often made that the various Iranian peoples of 'greater Iran'—a cultural area that stretched from Mesopotamia and the Caucasus into Khwarizm, Transoxiana, Bactria, and the Pamirs and included Persians, Medes, Parthians and Sogdians among others—were all 'Zoroastrians' in pre-Islamic times... This view, even though common among serious scholars, is almost certainly overstated." Foltz argues that "While the various Iranian peoples did indeed share a common pantheon and pool of religious myths and symbols, in actuality a variety of deities were worshipped—particularly Mitra, the god of covenants, and Anahita, the goddess of the waters, but also many others—depending on the time, place, and particular group concerned".


title: Greater Iran

text: According to J. P. Mallory and Douglas Q. Adams most of Western "greater Iran" spoke Southwestern Iranian languages in the Achaemenid era while the Eastern territory spoke Eastern Iranian languages related to Avestan.


title: Greater Iran

text: George Lane also states that after the dissolution of the Mongol Empire, the Ilkhanids became rulers of greater Iran and Uljaytu, according to Judith G. Kolbas, was the ruler of this expanse between 1304 and 1317 A.D.


title: Greater Iran

text: Primary sources, including Timurid historian Mir Khwand, define Iranshahr (Greater Iran) as extending from the Euphrates to the Oxus


title: Greater Iran

text: Traditionally, and until recent times, ethnicity has never been a defining separating criterion in these regions. In the words of Richard Nelson Frye:


title: Greater Iran

text: Only in modern times did western colonial intervention and ethnicity tend to become a dividing force between the provinces of Greater Iran. As Patrick Clawson states, "ethnic nationalism is largely a nineteenth-century phenomenon, even if it is fashionable to retroactively extend it." "Greater Iran" however has been more of a cultural super-state, rather than a political one to begin with.


title: Greater Iran

text: The "Cambridge History of Iran" takes a geographical approach in referring to the "historical and cultural" entity of "Greater Iran" as "areas of Iran, parts of Afghanistan, and Chinese and Soviet Central Asia". A detailed list of these territories follows in this article.


title: Greater Iran

text: Greater Iran is called "Iranzamin" () which means "Iranland" or "The Land of Iran". "Iranzamin" was in the mythical times as opposed to the "Turanzamin" the Land of Turan, which was located in the upper part of Central Asia.


title: Greater Iran

text: In the pre-Islamic period, Iranians distinguished two main regions in the territory they ruled, one Iran and the other "Aniran". By Iran they meant all the regions inhabited by ancient Iranian peoples, this region was more extensive in the past. This notion of "Iran" as a territory (opposed to "Aniran") can be seen as the core of early Greater Iran. Later many changes occurred in the boundaries and areas where Iranians lived but the languages and culture remained the dominant medium in many parts of Greater Iran.


title: Greater Iran

text: As an example, the Persian language (referred to, in Persian, as "Farsi") was the main literary language and the language of correspondence in Central Asia and the Caucasus prior to the Russian occupation, Central Asia being the birthplace of modern Persian language. Furthermore, according to the British government, Persian language was also used in Iraqi Kurdistan, prior to the British Occupation and Mandate in 1918–1932.


title: Greater Iran

text: With Imperial Russia continuously advancing south in the course of two wars against Persia, and the treaties of Turkmenchay and Gulistan in the western frontiers, plus the unexpected death of Abbas Mirza in 1833, and the murdering of Persia's Grand Vizier (Mirza AbolQasem Qa'im Maqām), many Central Asian khanates began losing hope for any support from Persia against the Tsarist armies. The Russian armies occupied the Aral coast in 1849, Tashkent in 1864, Bukhara in 1867, Samarkand in 1868, and Khiva and Amudarya in 1873.


title: Greater Iran

text: In the 8th century, Iran was conquered by the Abbassids who ruled from Baghdad. The territory of Iran at that time was composed of two portions: "Persian Iraq" (western portion) and "Khorasan" (eastern portion). The dividing region was mostly the cities of Gurgan and Damaghan. The Ghaznavids, Seljuqs and Timurids divided their empires into Iraqi and Khorasani regions. This point can be observed in many books such as Abul Fazl Bayhqi's ""Tārīkhi Baïhaqī"", Al-Ghazali's "Faza'ilul al-anam min rasa'ili hujjat al-Islam" and other books. Transoxiana and Chorasmia were mostly included in the Khorasanian region.


title: Greater Iran

text: The "Ajam" and "Huwala" are ethnic communities of Bahrain of Persian origin. The Persians of Bahrain are a significant, influential ethnic community whose ancestors arrived in Bahrain within the last 1,000 years as laborers, merchants and artisans. They have traditionally been merchants living in specific quarters of Manama and Muharraq. Bahrain's Persians who adhere to the Shia sect of Islam are called Ajam and the Persians who adhere to the Sunni sect are called the Huwala; who migrated from Larestan in Iran to the Persian Gulf in the seventeenth and eighteenth century.


title: Greater Iran

text: The immigration of Persians to Bahrain began with the fall of the Greek Seleucid kingdom, which ruled the island at the time. The Persian Empire successfully invaded, but it is often believed that mass immigration began much later, during the 1600s, when the Safavid shah Abbas the Great conquered Bahrain. After settlement, some of the Persians were effectively Arabized. They usually settled in areas inhabited by the indigenous Baharna, probably because they share the same Shia Muslim faith, however, some Sunni Persians settled in areas mostly inhabited by Sunni Arab immigrants such as Hidd and Galali. In Muharraq, they have their own neighborhood called "Fareej Karimi" named after a rich Persian man called Ali Abdulla Karimi.


title: Greater Iran

text: From the 6th century BC to the 3rd century BC, Bahrain was a prominent part of the Persian Empire by the Achaemenids dynasty. It was referred to by the Greeks as "Tylos", the centre of pearl trading, when Nearchus discovered it while serving under Alexander the Great. From the 3rd century BC to the arrival of Islam in the 7th century AD, the island was controlled by two other Iranian dynasties, the Parthians and the Sassanids.


title: Greater Iran

text: In the 3rd century AD, the Sassanids succeeded the Parthians and controlled the area for four centuries until the Arab conquest. Ardashir, the first ruler of the Iranian Sassanid dynasty marched to Oman and Bahrain and defeated Sanatruq (or Satiran), probably the Parthian governor of Bahrain. He appointed his son Shapur I as governor. Shapur constructed a new city there and named it Batan Ardashir after his father. At this time, it incorporated the southern Sassanid province covering the Persian Gulf's southern shore plus the archipelago of Bahrain. The southern province of the Sassanids was subdivided into three districts; Haggar (now al-Hafuf province, Saudi Arabia), Batan Ardashir (now al-Qatif province, Saudi Arabia), and Mishmahig (now Bahrain Island) (In Middle-Persian/Pahlavi it means "ewe-fish").


title: Greater Iran

text: By about 130 BC, the Parthian dynasty brought the Persian Gulf under their control and extended their influence as far as Oman. Because they needed to control the Persian Gulf trade route, the Parthians established garrisons along the southern coast of the Persian Gulf.


title: Greater Iran

text: The influence of Iran was further undermined at the end of the 18th century when the ideological power struggle between the Akhbari-Usuli strands culminated in victory for the Usulis in Bahrain.


title: Greater Iran

text: An Afghan uprising led by Hotakis of Kandahar at the beginning of the 18th century resulted in the near-collapse of the Safavid state. In the resultant power vacuum, Oman invaded Bahrain in 1717, ending over one hundred years of Persian hegemony in Bahrain. The Omani invasion began a period of political instability and a quick succession of outside rulers took power with consequent destruction. According to a contemporary account by theologian, Sheikh Yusuf Al Bahrani, in an unsuccessful attempt by the Persians and their Bedouin allies to take back Bahrain from the Kharijite Omanis, much of the country was burnt to the ground. Bahrain was eventually sold back to the Persians by the Omanis, but the weakness of the Safavid empire saw Huwala tribes seize control.


title: Greater Iran

text: In 1730, the new Shah of Persia, Nadir Shah, sought to re-assert Persian sovereignty in Bahrain. He ordered Latif Khan, the admiral of the Persian navy in the Persian Gulf, to prepare an invasion fleet in Bushehr. The Persians invaded in March or early April 1736 when the ruler of Bahrain, Shaikh Jubayr, was away on hajj. The invasion brought the island back under central rule and to challenge Oman in the Persian Gulf. He sought help from the British and Dutch, and he eventually recaptured Bahrain in 1736. During the Qajar era, Persian control over Bahrain waned and in 1753, Bahrain was occupied by the Sunni Persians of the Bushire-based Al Madhkur family, who ruled Bahrain in the name of Persia and paid allegiance to Karim Khan Zand.


title: Greater Iran

text: During most of the second half of the eighteenth century, Bahrain was ruled by Nasr Al-Madhkur, the ruler of Bushehr. The Bani Utibah tribe from Zubarah exceeded in taking over Bahrain after war broke out in 1782. Persian attempts to reconquer the island in 1783 and in 1785 failed; the 1783 expedition was a joint Persian-Qawasim invasion force that never left Bushehr. The 1785 invasion fleet, composed of forces from Bushehr, Rig, and Shiraz was called off after the death of the ruler of Shiraz, Ali Murad Khan. Due to internal difficulties, the Persians could not attempt another invasion. In 1799, Bahrain came under threat from the expansionist policies of Sayyid Sultan, the Sultan of Oman, when he invaded the island under the pretext that Bahrain did not pay taxes owed. The Bani Utbah solicited the aid of Bushire to expel the Omanis on the condition that Bahrain would become a tributary state of Persia. In 1800, Sayyid Sultan invaded Bahrain again in retaliation and deployed a garrison at Arad Fort, in Muharraq island and had appointed his twelve-year-old son Salim, as Governor of the island.


title: Greater Iran

text: Many names of villages in Bahrain are derived from the Persian language. These names were thought to have been as a result influences during the Safavid rule of Bahrain (1501–1722) and previous Persian rule. Village names such as Karbabad, Salmabad, Karzakan, Duraz, Barbar were originally derived from the Persian language, suggesting that Persians had a substantial effect on the island's history. The local Bahrani Arabic dialect has also borrowed many words from the Persian language. Bahrain's capital city, Manama is derived from two Persian words meaning 'I' and 'speech'.


title: Greater Iran

text: In 1910, the Persian community funded and opened a private school, Al-Ittihad school, that taught Farsi amongst other subjects.


title: Greater Iran

text: Historian Nasser Hussain says that many Iranians fled their native country in the early 20th century due to a law king Reza Shah issued which banned women from wearing the hijab, or because they feared for their lives after fighting the English or to find jobs. They were coming to Bahrain from Bushehr and the Fars province between 1920 and 1940. In the 1920s, local Persian merchants were prominently involved in the consolidation of Bahrain's first powerful lobby with connections to the municipality in an effort to contest the municipal legislation of British control.


title: Greater Iran

text: Bahrain's local Persian community has heavily influenced the country's local food dishes. One of the most notable local delicacies of the people in Bahrain is mahyawa, consumed in Southern Iran as well, is a watery earth brick coloured sauce made from sardines and consumed with bread or other food. Bahrain's Persians are also famous in Bahrain for bread-making. Another local delicacy is "pishoo" made from rose water (golab) and agar agar. Other food items consumed are similar to Persian cuisine.


title: Greater Iran

text: Throughout history, Iran always had strong cultural ties with the region of present-day Iraq. Mesopotamia is considered the cradle of civilization and the place where the first empires in history were established. These empires, namely the Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian, dominated the ancient middle east for millennia, which explains the great influence of Mesopotamia on the Iranian culture and history, and it is also the reason why the later Iranian and Greek dynasties chose Mesopotamia to be the political center of their rule. For a period of around 500 years, what is now Iraq formed the core of Iran, with the Iranian Parthian and Sasanian empire having their capital in what is modern-day Iraq for the same centuries-long time span. (Ctesiphon)


title: Greater Iran

text: Testimony to the close relationship shared by Iraq and western Iran during the Abbasid era and later centuries, is the fact that the two regions came to share the same name. The western region of Iran (ancient Media) was called 'Irāq-e 'Ajamī ("Persian Iraq"), while central-southern Iraq (Babylonia) was called 'Irāq al-'Arabī ("Arabic Iraq") or Bābil ("Babylon").


title: Greater Iran

text: For centuries the two neighbouring regions were known as "The Two Iraqs" ("al-'Iraqain"). The 12th century Persian poet Khāqāni wrote a famous poem "Tohfat-ul Iraqein" ("The Gift of the Two Iraqs"). The city of Arāk in western Iran still bears the region's old name, and Iranians still traditionally call the region between Tehran, Isfahan and Īlām "ʿErāq".


title: Greater Iran

text: During the medieval ages, Mesopotamian and Iranian peoples knew each other's languages because of trade, and because Arabic was the language of religion and science at that time. The Timurid historian Ḥāfeẓ-e Abru (d. 1430) wrote of Iraq:


title: Greater Iran

text: Iraqis share religious and certain cultural ties with Iranians. The majority of Iranians are Twelver Shia (an Islamic sect established in Iraq), although the majority of Iranians were Sunni Muslims and did not convert to Shia until the Safavids forced Shi'ism in Iran.


title: Greater Iran

text: Iraqi culture has commonalities with the culture of Iran. The Mesopotamian cuisine also has similarities to the Persian cuisine, including common dishes and cooking techniques. The Iraqi dialect has absorbed many words from the Persian language.


title: Greater Iran

text: There are still cities and provinces in Iraq where the Persian names of the city are still retained – e.g., ’Anbār and Baghdad. Other cities of Iraq with originally Persian names include "Nokard" (نوكرد) --> Haditha, "Suristan" (سورستان) --> Kufa, "Shahrban" (شهربان) --> Muqdadiyah, "Arvandrud" (اروندرود) --> Shatt al-Arab, and "Asheb" (آشب) --> Amadiya, "Peroz-Shapur" --> Anbar (town)


title: Greater Iran

text: In the modern era, the Safavid dynasty of Iran briefly reasserted hegemony over Iraq in the periods of 1501–1533 and 1622–1638, losing Iraq to the Ottoman Empire on both occasions (via the Treaty of Amasya in 1555 and the Treaty of Zuhab in 1639). Ottoman hegemony over Iraq was reconfirmed in the Treaty of Kerden in 1746.


title: Greater Iran

text: Following the fall of the Ba'athist regime in 2003 and the empowerment of Iraq's majority Shī'i community, relations with Iran have flourished in all fields. Iraq is today Iran's largest trading partner in regard to non-oil goods.


title: Greater Iran

text: Many Iranians were born in Iraq or have ancestors from Iraq, such as the Chairman of Iran's Parliament Ali Larijani, the former Chief Justice of Iran Mahmoud Hashemi Shahroudi, and the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Iran Ali Akbar Salehi, who were born in Najaf and Karbala respectively. In the same way, many Iraqis were born in Iran or have ancestors from Iran, such as Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, who was born in Mashhad.


title: Greater Iran

text: Culturally and historically Kurdistan has been a part of what is known as Greater Iran. Kurds speak a Northwestern Iranian language known as Kurdish. Many aspects of Kurdish culture are related to the other peoples of Greater Iran, examples include Newroz and Simurgh. Some historians and linguists, such as Vladimir Minorsky, have suggested that the Medes, an Iranian people who inhabited much of western Iran, including Azerbaijan and Kurdistan, might have been forefathers of modern Kurds.


title: Greater Iran

text: Dagestan remains the bastion of Persian culture in the North Caucasus with fine examples of Iranian architecture like the Sassanid citadel in Derbent, the strong influence of Persian cuisine, and common Persian names amongst the ethnic peoples of Dagestan. The ethnic Persian population of the North Caucasus, the Tats, remain, despite strong assimilation over the years, still visible in several North Caucasian cities. Even today, after decades of partition, some of these regions retain Iranian influences, as seen in their old beliefs, traditions and customs (e.g. Norouz).


title: Greater Iran

text: According to Tadeusz Swietochowski, the territories of Iran and the republic of Azerbaijan usually shared the same history from the time of ancient Media (ninth to seventh centuries b.c.) and the Persian Empire (sixth to fourth centuries b.c.).


title: Greater Iran

text: Intimately and inseparably intertwined histories for millennia, Iran irrevocably lost the territory that is nowadays Azerbaijan in the course of the 19th century. With the Treaty of Gulistan of 1813 following the Russo-Persian War (1804-1813) Iran had to cede eastern Georgia, its possessions in the North Caucasus and many of those in what is today the Azerbaijan Republic, which included the khanates of Baku, Shirvan, Karabakh, Ganja, Shaki, Quba, Derbent, and parts of Talysh. These Khanates comprise most of what is today the Republic of Azerbaijan and Dagestan in Southern Russia. In the Treaty of Turkmenchay of 1828 following the Russo-Persian War (1826-1828), the result was even more disastrous, and resulted in Iran being forced to cede the remainder of the Talysh Khanate, the khanates of Nakhichevan and Erivan, and the Mughan region to Russia. All these territories together, lost in 1813 and 1828 combined, constitute all of the modern-day Republic of Azerbaijan, Armenia, and southern Dagestan. The area to the North of the river Aras, among which the territory of the contemporary republic of Azerbaijan were Iranian territory until they were occupied by Russia in the course of the 19th century.


title: Greater Iran

text: Many localities in this region bear Persian names or names derived from Iranian languages and Azerbaijan remains by far Iran's closest cultural, religious, ethnic, and historical neighbor. Azerbaijanis are by far the second-largest ethnicity in Iran, and comprise the largest community of ethnic Azerbaijanis in the world, vastly outnumbering the number in the Republic of Azerbaijan. Both nations are the only officially Shia majority in the world, with adherents of the religion comprising an absolute majority in both nations. The people of nowadays Iran and Azerbaijan were converted to Shiism during exactly the same time in history. Furthermore, the name of "Azerbaijan" is derived through the name of the Persian satrap which ruled the contemporary region of Iranian Azerbaijan and minor parts of the Republic of Azerbaijan in ancient times. In 1918, the Azerbaijani Musavat party adopted the name for the nation upon the independence of the former territories under the Russian Empire.


title: Greater Iran

text: Early in antiquity, Narseh of Persia is known to have had fortifications built here. In later times, some of Persia's literary and intellectual figures from the Qajar period have hailed from this region. Under intermittent Iranian suzerainty since antiquity, it was also separated from Iran in the mid-19th century, by virtue of the Gulistan Treaty and Turkmenchay Treaty.


title: Greater Iran

text: Khwarazm is one of the regions of "Iran-zameen", and is the home of the ancient Iranians, Airyanem Vaejah, according to the ancient book of the Avesta. Modern scholars believe Khwarazm to be what ancient Avestic texts refer to as "Ariyaneh Waeje" or Iran vij. "Iranovich" These sources claim that Urgandj, which was the capital of ancient Khwarazm for many years, was actually "Ourva": the eighth land of Ahura Mazda mentioned in the Pahlavi text of Vendidad. Others such as University of Hawaii historian Elton L. Daniel believe Khwarazm to be the "most likely locale" corresponding to the original home of the Avestan people, while Dehkhoda calls Khwarazm "the cradle of the Aryan people" (مهد قوم آریا). Today Khwarazm is split between several central Asian republics.


title: Greater Iran

text: Superimposed on and overlapping with Chorasmia was Khorasan which roughly covered nearly the same geographical areas in Central Asia (starting from Semnan eastward through northern Afghanistan roughly until the foothills of Pamir, ancient Mount Imeon). Current day provinces such as Sanjan in Turkmenia, Razavi Khorasan Province, North Khorasan Province, and Southern Khorasan Province in Iran are all remnants of the old Khorasan. Until the 13th century and the devastating Mongol invasion of the region, Khorasan was considered the cultural capital of Greater Iran.


title: Greater Iran

text: The national anthem in Tajikistan, "Surudi Milli", attests to the Perso-Tajik identity, which has seen a large revival, after the breakup of the USSR. Their language is almost identical to that spoken in Afghanistan and Iran, and their cities have Persian names, e.g. Dushanbe, Isfara, Rasht Valley, Garm, Murghab, Vahdat, Zar-afshan river, Shurab, and Kulob, Rudaki, considered by many as the father of modern Persian poetry, was from the modern day region of Tajikistan.


title: Greater Iran

text: Turkmenistan was the home of the Parthian Empire (Nisa). Merv is also where the half-Persian caliph al-Mamun put his capital. The city of Eshgh Abad (some claim that the word is actually the transformed form of "Ashk Abad" literally meaning "built by Ashk", the head of Arsacid dynasty) is yet another Persian word meaning "city of love", and like East Iran, Afghanistan, and Uzbekistan, it was once part of Airyanem Vaejah.


title: Greater Iran

text: Uzbekistan has a significant local Tajik population. The famous Persian cities of Afrasiab, Bukhara, Samarkand, Shahrisabz, Andijan, Khiveh, Navā'i, Shirin, Termez, and Zar-afshan are located here. These cities are the birthplace of the Islamic era Persian literature. The Samanids, who claimed inheritance to the Sassanids, had their capital built here.


title: Greater Iran

text: The modern state of Afghanistan was part of Sistan and Greater Khorasan regions, and hence was recognized with the name Khorasan (along with regions centered on Merv and Nishapur), which in Pahlavi means "The Eastern Land" (خاور زمین in Persian).


title: Greater Iran

text: Nowadays, the region of Afghanistan is where Balkh is located, home of Rumi, Rabi'a Balkhi, Sanāī Ghaznawi, Jami, Khwaja Abdullah Ansari and was many other notables in Persian literature came from.


title: Greater Iran

text: The Tashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County regions of China harbored a Tajik population and culture. Chinese Tashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County was always counted as a part of the Iranian cultural & linguistic continent with Kashgar, Yarkand, and Hotan bound to the Iranian history.


title: Greater Iran

text: There is considerable influence of Iranian-speaking peoples in Pakistan. The region of Baluchistan is split between Pakistan and Iran and Baluchi, the majority of languages of the Baluchistan province of Pakistan are also spoken in Southeastern Iran. In fact, the Chagai Hills and the western part of Makran district were part of Iran till the Durand Line was drawn in the late 1800s.


title: Greater Iran

text: Pashto which is spoken in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA of Pakistan and Afghanistan is an Iranian language.


title: Kunal Kapoor (actor, born 1977)

text: Kunal Kishore Kapoor (born 18 October 1977) is an Indian actor, model, film producer, writer, entrepreneur and co-founder of Ketto Online Crowdfunding. Kunal works predominantly in Hindi films. He is best known for playing Sam in Shah Rukh Khan's "Don 2" (2011).


title: Kunal Kapoor (actor, born 1977)

text: Kapoor was born in Mumbai on 18 October 1977. His father, Kishore Kapoor was in the construction business and his mother, Kanan is a singer and homemaker. His parents are originally from Amritsar, Punjab. He is the youngest of three children, with two sisters Geeta and Reshma.


title: Kunal Kapoor (actor, born 1977)

text: In February 2015, Kapoor married Naina Bachchan, niece of Amitabh Bachchan, in a private family ceremony in Seychelles. A celebration dinner was held on 11 April 2015 in New Delhi. On 31 January 2022 the couple announced the birth of a baby boy.


title: Kunal Kapoor (actor, born 1977)

text: Kapoor trained for an acting career under Barry John, and became a part of "Motley," a theatre group run by acting legend Naseeruddin Shah. He began his career as an assistant director of "Aks," which starred Manoj Bajpayee and in which Amitabh Bachchan played a major character.


title: Kunal Kapoor (actor, born 1977)

text: Kapoor made his movie debut as the male lead opposite Tabu in "" (2004) which was helmed by painter MF Hussain. His next film was the Aamir Khan starrer "Rang De Basanti" (2006), for which he received a nomination in the Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award category. The film was successful both critically and commercially, and it was nominated in the Best Foreign Film category at the 2007 BAFTA Awards.


title: Kunal Kapoor (actor, born 1977)

text: Yash Raj Films (YRF) studio subsequently signed Kapoor for a three-film contract. He appeared in films like "Laaga Chunari Mein Daag" (2007), "Aaja Nachle" (2007) and "Bachna Ae Haseeno" (2008). After this, Kapoor took a break for two years, and then appeared in national award winner Rahul Dholakia's "Lamhaa" (2010) starring Sanjay Dutt. The film didn't do well but Kapoor received accolades for his performance as a young Kashmiri politician. Critics hailed it as "One of the most powerful performances of the year". That same year, Kapoor voiced the Indian God Rama in "Mahayoddha Rama", an animation film made by Raizada Rohit Jaising Vaid. In 2011, he appeared in the Shahrukh Khan starrer "Don 2," where his performance was appreciated.


title: Kunal Kapoor (actor, born 1977)

text: In 2012, Kapoor played the lead role in Sameer Sharma's light-hearted comedy film "Luv Shuv Tey Chicken Khurana" which he co-wrote. The film received positive reviews and was hailed by critics as being amongst the ten best films of the year. The "New York Times" reviewed it favourably and called Kapoor the Indian Matthew McConaughey. In 2014, he appeared in the off-beat comedy film "Kaun Kitne Paani Mein".


title: Kunal Kapoor (actor, born 1977)

text: Kapoor's next films to release were the epic action trilingual film, "Veeram", directed by National Award winner Jayaraj, Gauri Shinde's next and Tigmanshu Dhulia's war drama "Raagdesh" based on the Indian National Army trials. In 2017, he starred in "Gold" based on the first Indian hockey team to win a Gold at the Olympics, the film saw him pairing up with Akshay Kumar for the first time. It was released on 15 August 2018.


title: Kunal Kapoor (actor, born 1977)

text: In 2021 Kapoor had three releases. The first one was the T series production 'Koi Jaane Na' Followed by Disney Hotstars show 'The Empire' The show which is the most expensive series to come out of India, was a huge success and Kapoor received a lot of critical acclaim for it. He received an award as Best Actor on OTT for his performance. This was followed by the Netflix anthology 'Ankahi Kahaniyan' for which he once again received a lot of critical acclaim.


title: Kunal Kapoor (actor, born 1977)

text: Kapoor has endorsed popular brands like Thums Up, Indian Terrain, Ray-Ban, Pepsico brand Kurkure and Save the Children charity along with Gwyneth Paltrow.


title: Kunal Kapoor (actor, born 1977)

text: In 2009, Kapoor started writing weekly columns for "HT City", the lifestyle supplement of the "Hindustan Times". These columns ended in November 2009 but still appear online on the social network Desimartini.


title: Kunal Kapoor (actor, born 1977)

text: He is a trained pilot and rally car driver. In 2014, he started training for the Formula Three. He co-founded Asia's largest crowdfunding platform called Ketto, which raises money for social and individual causes. To date, the platform has raised close to 120 million dollars.


title: Kunal Kapoor (actor, born 1977)

text: He is also known for his style and has been voted amongst the most stylish men in the country. He was on GQ's list of the top ten stylish men in the country.


title: Culiacán

text: Culiacán, officially Culiacán Rosales, is a city in northwestern Mexico, the capital and largest city of both the Culiacán Municipality and the state of Sinaloa. The city was founded on 29 September 1531, by the Spanish conquerors Lázaro de Cebreros and Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán under the name of "Villa de San Miguel", referring to its patron saint, Michael the Archangel.


title: Culiacán

text: As of the 2020 INEGI census, Culiacán had an estimated population of 808,416, placing it as the 21st most populous city in Mexico, while its metropolitan area had a population of 1,003,530, being the 17th most populous metropolitan area in Mexico.


title: Culiacán

text: The city is in a valley on the slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental, at the confluence of the Tamazula and Humaya Rivers, where both join to form the Culiacán River 55 m above sea level.


title: Culiacán

text: The genuine Aztec name of the Nahuatl language is Colhuacán or Culhuacán, which is from "colhua" or "culhua" and "can", which is a place, and its meaning varies according to different historians:


title: Culiacán

text: The most respected theory is "place of the colhuas", that is "inhabited by the colhua tribe", and the most frequent meaning is "place of worshiping the god Coltzin".


title: Culiacán

text: In ancient times, there was an indigenous settlement called Huey Colhuacan that dated back to Tecpatl, which corresponds to the year 628 CE. The Aztecs built it during their pilgrimage. Its exact location is unknown, but it is assumed that it was close to the current town of Culiacáncito. The ancient settlers were called Culichis.


title: Culiacán

text: The city that we know today as Culiacán was co-founded in 1531 by conquistadors Lázaro de Cebreros and Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán under the name of "Villa de San Miguel". Upon their arrival in the 16th century, the Spanish found the existence of farmhouses organized in indigenous nations by the tribe of the Tahues, which brought together a group of people of the same origin and language who had a common tradition.


title: Culiacán

text: Other indigenous peoples that inhabited the original territory of Culiacán were the Tebacas, Pacaxes, Sabaibo and Achires.


title: Culiacán

text: After their war of conquest, in 1531, de Cebreros and de Guzmán organized the territories acquired into three provinces. One of them was Culiacán, which was delimited to the South by the Elota River and to the North by the Mocorito River, depending on the Kingdom of Nueva Galicia. Organized in this way, the territory lasted until 1786, the year in which the administration system was implemented, with Sonora and Sinaloa forming the province of Arizpe and the older province of Culiacán remaining the same.


title: Culiacán

text: On 6 October 1821, independence was sworn in Culiacán. Culiacán was granted the category of city, on 21 July 1823, when the provinces of Sonora and Sinaloa separated by decree from Congress. In 1824, by the Constitutive Act of the Mexican Federation, Sinaloa and Sonora met again, forming the state of the West. On 13 October 1830, the provinces of Sonora and Sinaloa were definitively separated by decree, with the city of Culiacán designated capital of the state of Sinaloa. In 1861, during the conservative government of the French Intervention, prefectures were installed and the Municipalities Law was decreed that divided the Districts into City Councils. The Badiraguato District was suppressed and became part of the Culiacán District as a Municipality.


title: Culiacán

text: From 1859 to 1873, the capital of Sinaloa was moved from Culiacán to Mazatlán. In the Restored Republic, Governor Eustaquio Buelna confronted the merchants of the port. He returned to Culiacán and the Local Congress gave it the status of capital of the state.


title: Culiacán

text: In 1878, Culiacán had three City Halls, whose headwaters were Culiacán, Quilá and Badiraguato. It remained that way until 1880, when Badiraguato returned to being a district with the limits that previously corresponded to it.


title: Culiacán

text: 1912 was the year in which the Municipalities were established by law as a new form of internal government, but it wasn't until 1915 that this law coming into force and Political Directories were suppressed, causing the Districts to become free municipalities.


title: Culiacán

text: Culiacán was established as a Municipality by decree on 8 April 1915. Within its original limits was the current Municipality of Navolato, which was segregated from Culiacán on 27 August 1982, depriving the city of of valley agriculture.


title: Culiacán

text: Some time later, the State Congress approved the extension of the name of the capital city, giving it its current official name of Culiacán de Rosales. "Rosales" honors the great Mexican military man Antonio Rosales, who fought in the second French Intervention and the Reform War, along with serving as the governor of Sinaloa.


title: Culiacán

text: Beginning in the late 1950s, Culiacán became the birthplace of an incipient underground economy based on illicit drugs exported to the United States. The completion of the Pan-American Highway and the regional airport in the 1960s accelerated the expansion of workable distribution infrastructure for the enterprising few families that would later come to dominate the international drug cartels along Mexico's Pacific Northwest. The Sinaloa Cartel made Culiacán its primary base.


title: Culiacán

text: On 17 October 2019, after an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to arrest one of the cartel leaders, widespread gunfights broke out across the city, leading to multiple deaths, in what has been called the "Battle of Culiacán". One of Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán's relatives, Ovidio Guzmán, was arrested by police, but were forced to release him.


title: Culiacán

text: The coat of arms of the municipality and the city of Culiacán in Sinaloa, Mexico, has various elements that represent the history of the municipality yesterday and today.


title: Culiacán

text: Rolando Arjona Amábilis was the artist behind the official coat of arms of the Municipality of Culiacán, which was made official through municipal decree number 13 May 26, 1960 and published in number 90 of the Official Newspaper of the State of Sinaloa on 30 July 1960.


title: Culiacán

text: Its shape is square with rounded corners, ending in a point. The entire face of the shield is covered with a carmine color. In the center is a hieroglyph representing a hill with a human head inclined forward. This glyph alludes to Coltzin, "the crooked god", an authentic figure of Nahuatl mythology, who gave its name to the Nahuatlaca-Colhua tribe and, in turn, to the town of its residence, Colhuacán or Teocolhuacán.


title: Culiacán

text: Across the face of the shield, there are symbols of water referring to rivers. In the central part and towards the left side, a cross is followed by a path on which footprints can be observed that end in a small construction. These motifs symbolize the missionaries of San Miguel de Culiacán left for the North, and they are invoked as an obligatory tribute to the goodness and heroism of the missionaries.


title: Culiacán

text: On the carmine border, the word "Culiacán" can be read in its upper part, and in its lower part the word "Colhuacán", which corresponds to the true name of the place in the Nahuatl language. In the upper part of the shield, there is a hill with a germinating seed and the figure of a golden sun, alluding both to the tropical climate of this region and to the fundamentally agricultural effort of its inhabitants.


title: Culiacán

text: The government of the municipality of Culiacán corresponds to its City Council, this is elected a universal, direct and secret vote for a period of three years that are not renewable for the immediate period but if not continuously and that begins to exercise its position on the day 1 January of the year following your election; The city council is integrated by the Municipal President into a Procurator Trustee and the body of councilors made up of 18 representatives, once they are elected by relative majority and seven by the principle of proportional representation.


title: Culiacán

text: For its internal regime, the municipality is subdivided into 17 receiverships, which in turn are divided into police stations, the 17 receiverships of the municipality are: El Salado, Higueras de Abuya, Baila, Aguaruto, Emiliano Zapata, Adolfo López Mateos (El Tamarindo), Jesús María, Las Tapias, Quilá, Sanalona, San Lorenzo, Tacuichamona, Tepuche, Imala, Costa Rica, Culiacáncito and Eldorado.


title: Culiacán

text: Culiacán is located in the central region of the State of Sinaloa, forming part of the Northwest of Mexico. The coordinates that correspond to it are 24 ° 48'15 "N (latitude) by 107 ° 25'52" W (West), with an altitude of 54 meters above sea level.


title: Culiacán

text: The city is located from Mexico City. From Culiacán to Tepic is only 502 km; to Durango, 536 km; to Hermosillo, 688 km; to Guadalajara, 708 km; to Monterrey, 1,118 km; to Chihuahua, 1,159 km; to Tijuana, 1,552 km; and to Matamoros, 1,434 km.


title: Culiacán

text: The relief of the municipality is well defined by a mountainous part and the coastal plain. The mountainous part corresponds to the physiographic region of the highlands, part of the Pacific slope of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range with elevations of 300 to 2,100 meters above sea level. The coastal plain lies to the West and is crossed by four regional rivers: the Humaya, Tamazula, Culiacán and San Lorenzo. The Humaya has its origin in the State of Durango, entering Sinaloa through Badiraguato; its waters are controlled by the Licenciado Adolfo López Mateos dam. The Tamazula River arises in the Sierra Madre Occidental near the Topia Valley; its waters are controlled by the Sanalona dam. The Humaya and Tamazula Rivers unite in front of the city of Culiacán to form the Culiacán River, which empties into the Gulf of California. The San Lorenzo is borne from the Sierra Madre Occidental within the State of Durango, enters Sinaloa through Cosalá and empties into the Gulf of California.


title: Culiacán

text: Culiacán has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen: "BSh"), despite receiving an annual rainfall over , due to its hot temperatures and high evaporation. It closely borders the tropical savannah climate (Köppen: "Aw"). Summers are very hot and humid, shade temperatures can reach and high humidity can produce heat indices of , with the risk of heavy rainfall from decaying tropical cyclones also present. Winters are much milder with less humidity and an average high of 27 °C, with warm nights.


title: Culiacán

text: The Municipality of Culiacán has a total population of 858,638 inhabitants, this according to the 2010 Population and Housing Census carried out by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI). It has a population density of 166.8 inhabitants / km2, the Municipality concentrates 31% of the population in the State of Sinaloa, with 422,507 men and 436,131 women, with a ratio of 96.9 men for every 100 women.


title: Culiacán

text: The city of Culiacán Rosales occupies only a part of the municipality of Culiacán and in 2010 had an urban area of 65 km2, being the largest in the state of Sinaloa and has a population of 675,773 inhabitants (of which 329,608 are men and 346,165 are women), according to the 2010 Population and Housing Census carried out by the (INEGI), resulting in a population density of 10,396.5 inhabitants / km2. concentrating 78.7% of the total urban population of the Municipality. The ethnic groups most represented in the Municipality are the Mixtec and Nahuatl, the total population of indigenous language speakers (HLI population) is 13,081 people. On the other hand, in the urban area of Culiacán, there are only 3,536 indigenous people, representing a very low percentage with respect to the total; Furthermore, these indigenous groups are not native to the municipality or the entity, since they were exterminated, displaced or assimilated by the mestizo population.


title: Culiacán

text: The city ranks 20th in number of foreign population, which amounts to 6,693 inhabitants, which represent almost 1% of the total population; Among the main nationalities we find Americans, Canadians, Spanish, Italians, Greeks, Argentines, Cubans, Colombians, Brazilians, Chinese, Japanese, Russians, Ukrainians, Venezuelans, Dominicans, Germans, among others.


title: Culiacán

text: The presence of people of Greek origin that occurred in the 1940s and 1950s coincided with the incipient but flourishing emergence of agriculture. This attracted a lot of Hellenic labor for the tillage of the land, and seeing that it was a profitable business, they communicated it to their family and friends. This attracted a greater number of people; today they have inherited a legacy to their children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren that make up the few thousand people who continue to live in the city. It is believed that the Greek community is the largest in Mexico and the best organized, the president of said community is in charge of Basilio Karamanos Pérez.


title: Culiacán

text: The total number of dwellings that exist in the city are 221,144 of which only 176,799 dwellings are occupied with an average of 3.81 inhabitants per inhabited dwelling. In general, cement roofs, walls and floors are used for the construction of the house, although homes or buildings do not cease to exist, most of them have sheet roofs and earth floors, this occurs mainly in the area peripheral to the south of the city, where the humble settlements of new inhabitants who arrive with the hope of obtaining a better quality of life proliferate.


title: Culiacán

text: Of the 176,799 occupied dwellings, 173,704 have electricity; 171,614 have piped water; 171,489 have drainage and 169,550 have the 3 services simultaneously.


title: Culiacán

text: The city has many buildings, among the most noteworthy are, Torre Tres Ríos, Torre Santa María, Torre Tres Afluencias, Mileto 4 Ríos, Estela Corporate Center, Ceiba, BioInnova Building, Tower 120 and Dafi, all located in one of the most important districts of the city, the Tres Ríos Urban Development.


title: Culiacán

text: The Historical Center of Culiacán is the original area of the city, in which most of the buildings of the Spanish colonization between the 16th and 19th centuries are found, it comprises a territorial extension of approximately 247,123 ha (2,471 km²). From the '70s onwards, there was a process of depopulation of the area due to the high costs of rents, the bustle of the main streets and avenues and the priority of having more commercial spaces, but in recent years there has been a process of repopulation of the same with the construction of apartments in the periphery of the Center and a project of urban reorganization in which it is intended to have a higher population density.


title: Culiacán

text: Las Colonias, which are the first settlements that were populating the perimeter around the original urban area by people from different social strata to have a largely wide space close to the Center; Among the best known and with the largest number of population we find: Infonavit Humaya, Tierra Blanca, 6 January, Stase, Juntas de Humaya, Almada, Miguel Alemán, Centro Sinaloa, Morelos, Palmito, El Barrio, Aurora, etc.


title: Culiacán

text: The subdivisions for their part are places divided by different construction companies, in which there are in certain sections, the same style of housing, housing people of lower middle class, middle and upper middle class, among the best known are: La Conquista, Villas del Rio, Valle Alto, Los Pinos, Villa Verde and Villa Fontana.


title: Culiacán

text: Residentials are considered to be areas strategically built for people with high purchasing power, with spacious houses, large green areas and in most cases, they are delimited as private, and we find: Tres Ríos, Chapultepec, Los Álamos, Guadalupe, Lomas de Guadalupe, Colinas de San Miguel, Montebello, La Campiña, Las Quintas, Isla Musalá and La Primavera.


title: Culiacán

text: Independent of these areas, we find one that stands out for its extension and its level of influence at the state level: the Tres Ríos Urban Development, which was started in 1990 with the aim of creating a better commercial, residential and entertainment area. for the city, in addition to taking advantage of the lands adjacent to the Culiacán, Humaya and Tamazula rivers, in addition to embellishing the banks with vegetation and a new boardwalk.


title: Culiacán

text: The green areas are located in different areas of the city; In recent years, the municipal and state government have been concerned with protecting, safeguarding, and increasing green lungs, to provide a better quality of life for Culiacán and tourists; it has the following:


title: Culiacán

text: Parque Las Riberas (in Spanish) is the area attached to the Tamazula and Humaya rivers. Different species of trees such as willows, poplars, guamúchiles, and eucalyptus, can be seen. The White Bimodal bridge, which connects the park with the city center, facilitates access for pedestrians and at night it becomes a light show that contrasts with the Black Bridge in Culiacán.


title: Culiacán

text: Located to the east of the city, this area comprises 10 ha and is home to different ecosystems and hundreds of plant and tree species. The Culiacán Botanical Garden has a variety of more than 2,000 plants. It is known because here runners and cyclists choose to take the morning walk, the prohibition of dogs on the path of plants stands out. Many photographers flock to this garden to capture young quinceañeras and newlyweds.


title: Culiacán

text: Orabá Island, as its name indicates, is an island between the confluence of the Tamazula River and the Humaya River, where the Culiacán River is born. It is part of a series of parks and gardens that have been built on the banks of the three rivers. From very early on, many people come to exercise, walk, run, ride a bicycle or simply take a walk among the large trees.


title: Culiacán

text: Located next to the heart of the city, forming part of the Civic Center Constitución with an extension of 13.5 hectares; which houses 1,400 animals belonging to more than 450 species including mammals, reptiles and birds. It was built on 14 December 1950, as part of the Development Plan of the Sinaloa State Government, which contemplated the need to create a natural area that would contribute to promoting the education of flora and fauna existing in this region under the mandate of the State Governor. General Gabriel Leyva Velásquez, supported by Emilio Aguerreverre, Municipal President of Culiacán.


title: Culiacán

text: The Tres Ríos Water Park is a recreational space that was built at the confluence of the Humaya and Tamazula rivers, precisely where the Culiacán River is born.


title: Culiacán

text: This park is very close to Parque Las Riberas. It is the largest and most visited park in the northwest of the country.


title: Culiacán

text: The dancing or dancing fountains of Culiacán are a spectacle of hundreds of independent fountains programmed to "dance" to the sound of typical Sinaloan music. This show is presented every day in an area of the 3 Ríos Project where the flagpole is located, more specifically, at the mere confluence of the Humaya and Tamazula rivers.


title: Culiacán

text: Located on Av. México 68, República Mexicana. The park has as attractions, slides, swimming pools, zip lines, the garden of peace.


title: Culiacán

text: Located next to the Rosalina house, which has diverse vegetation, it is a space with colonial architecture.


title: Culiacán

text: Culiacán's economy is mainly agricultural and commerce, being a trade center for produce, meat, and fish. Among other industries, Culiacán represents 32 percent of the state economy.


title: Culiacán

text: The Terminal de Autobuses de Culiacán or Central de Autobuses Culiacán Millenium is a bus terminal located west of the city of Culiacán, Sinaloa, Mexico. The station is built in front of the Country Club. This plant replaced the old plant that was to the south, in front of Blvd. Gabriel Leyva Solano.


title: Culiacán

text: At present, Culiacán has just over 68 urban transport routes, which serve about one million users. The Culiacán urban transport is operated by RedPlus.


title: Culiacán

text: The city has a train station, operated by Ferromex, and it is used only to transport freight. It is connected to south with Mazatlán and north with Guaymas.


title: Culiacán

text: Culiacán uses the "Central Internacional de Autobuses "Millennium"" ("Millennium" International Buses Station) to travel across all Mexico (north, central, and south) and to the United States (Arizona and California). This replaced the old bus terminal in the southern city.


title: Culiacán

text: Though several high-speed roads have been built, most of the city's streets are rather narrow and traffic jams are common at rush hours. Now, 300,000 cars are in Culiacán, making the per capita number of cars one of the highest in the country considering the 745,000 inhabitants.


title: Culiacán

text: Culiacán has several roads (avenues, boulevards, streets, etc.), but some of these are the main quick connection to other points of the city.


title: Culiacán

text: The city has a total of 13 bridges: six across the Tamazula River, two spanning the Humaya River, and the longest one with other four crossing the Culiacán River. Efforts to solve traffic problems have been made, but most of the city streets and bridges are now crowded and insufficient to handle regular and rush hours traffic; a 40-km/h speed limit in most parts of the city worsens the situation.


title: Culiacán

text: Also, Culiacán has bridges in streets conforming to high transit systems in places where the rush hour is common.


title: Culiacán

text: On 17 February 2014, investigators from Mexico and the United States learned that Joaquín Guzmán Loera, or El Chapo, was using underground sewage tunnels in Culiacán by constructing hatches connecting to the drainage network in the bathtubs of his city "stash houses".


title: Culiacán

text: On at least one occasion, authorities chased Guzman into the tunnels, but lost him. An AP reporter said some of the tunnels were well lit, had wood paneling, and were air-conditioned.


title: Culiacán

text: Culiacán is a rail junction and is located on the Panamerican Highway that runs north to the United States and south to Guadalajara and Mexico City, and the Benito Juárez Highway or Maxipista, which is a toll road that runs parallel to the toll-free federal highway. It is connected to the north with Los Mochis and to the south with Mazatlán, Tepic, and Guadalajara with the Federal Highway 15.


title: Culiacán

text: Culiacán is linked to the satellite city of Navolato by an excellent freeway that now reaches Altata, in the Pacific Ocean coast. Culiacán is also linked to Tamazula de Victoria in Durango state.


title: Culiacán

text: Culiacán is served by Federal de Bachigualato International Airport , the most important domestic gateway in the state of Sinaloa, and the second in international operations after Mazatlán International Airport. It is located south of downtown; it is also the 10th Mexican Air Force base.


title: Culiacán

text: The city is home to three professional league sport teams: baseball with the Tomateros de Culiacán from the Liga Mexicana del Pacífico, two championships in Caribbean series in 1996 and 2002; and football with Dorados de Sinaloa, who play at the Estadio Banorte (Estadio Carlos González) and basketball with the Caballeros de Culiacán from the CIBACOPA. Duck, dove, and goose hunting season goes from early November through March. Culiacán also holds a yearly international marathon.


title: Porsche 924

text: The Porsche 924 is a sports car produced by Porsche in Neckarsulm, Germany,from 1976 until 1988. A two-door, 2+2 coupé, the 924 replaced the 912E and 914 as the company's entry-level model.


title: Porsche 924

text: Although the 928 was designed first, the 924 was the first production road-going Porsche to use water cooling and a front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout. It was also the first Porsche to be offered with a conventional fully automatic transmission.


title: Porsche 924

text: The 924 made its public debut in November 1975 and a turbocharged version was introduced in 1978. In response to increasing competition, Porsche introduced an upgraded and re-engined version as the 944, which replaced the 924 in the U.S. in 1983. In 1985, Audi discontinued the engine used in the 924, prompting Porsche to use a slightly detuned 944 engine in the 924, rename the vehicle as the 924S, and reintroduce it in the U.S. The 924 was a sales success, with just over 150,000 produced.


title: Porsche 924

text: The 924 was originally a joint project of Volkswagen and Porsche created by the Vertriebsgesellschaft (VG), the joint sales and marketing company funded by Porsche and VW to market and sell sports cars (Ludvigsen: "Porsche, Excellence was Expected"). For Volkswagen, it was intended to be that company's flagship coupé sports car and was dubbed "Project 425" during its development. For Porsche, it was to be its entry-level sports car replacing the 914. At the time, Volkswagen lacked a significant internal research and design division for developing sports cars; further, Porsche had been doing the bulk of the company's development work anyway, per a deal that went back to the 1940s. In keeping with this history, Porsche was contracted to develop a new sporting vehicle with the caveat that this vehicle must work with an existing VW/Audi inline-four engine. Porsche chose a rear-wheel drive layout and a rear-mounted transaxle for the design to help provide 48/52 front/rear weight distribution; this slight rear weight bias aided both traction and brake balance.


title: Porsche 924

text: The 1973 oil crisis, a series of automobile-related regulatory changes enacted during the 1970s and a change of directors at Volkswagen made the case for a Volkswagen sports car less striking and the 425 project was put on hold. After serious deliberation at VW, the project was scrapped entirely after a decision was made to move forward with the cheaper, more practical, Golf-based Scirocco model instead. Porsche, which needed a model to replace the 914, made a deal with Volkswagen leadership to buy the design back. The 914 was discontinued before the 924 entered production, which resulted in the reintroduction of the Porsche 912 to the North American market as the 912E for one year to fill the gap.


title: Porsche 924

text: The deal specified that the car would be built at the ex-NSU factory in Neckarsulm located north of the Porsche headquarters in Stuttgart, Volkswagen becoming the subcontractor. Hence, Volkswagen employees would do the actual production line work (supervised by Porsche's own production specialists) and that Porsche would own the design. It made its debut at a November 1975 press launch at the harbour at La Grande Motte, Camargue in the south of France rather than a motor show. The relative cheapness of building the car made it both profitable and fairly easy for Porsche to finance. While criticised for its performance, it nevertheless became one of Porsche's best-selling models.


title: Porsche 924

text: The original design used an Audi-sourced four-speed manual transmission from a front wheel drive car but now placed and used as a rear transaxle. It was mated to VW's EA831 2.0 L I4 engine, variants of which were used in the Audi 100 and the Volkswagen LT van (common belief is that 'the engine originated in the LT van', but it first appeared in the Audi car and in 924 form has a Porsche-designed cylinder head). The Audi engine, equipped with a Weber/Holley carburetor, was also used in the 1977–1979 AMC Gremlin, Concord, and Spirit, as well as the AMC postal jeeps. The 924 engine used Bosch K-Jetronic fuel injection, producing in North American trim. This was brought up to in mid-1977 with the introduction of a catalytic converter, which reduced the need for power-robbing smog equipment. The four-speed manual was the only transmission available for the initial 1976 model, later this was replaced by a five-speed dog-leg unit. An Audi three-speed automatic was offered starting with the 1977.5 model. In 1980, the five-speed transmission was changed to a conventional H-pattern, with reverse now on the right beneath fifth gear.


title: Porsche 924

text: In 1980, the model received some minor changes including a three-way catalyst and slightly higher compression, which brought power up to . Nonetheless, the strong Deutsche Mark and US inflation severely hampered sales, as a well equipped 924 now easily could cost twice as much as the considerably more powerful Nissan 280ZX.


title: Porsche 924

text: European models, which did not require any emissions equipment, made . They also differed visually from the US spec model by not having the US cars' low-speed impact bumpers and the round reflectors plus side-marker lamps on each end of the body.


title: Porsche 924

text: The 924 was sold in Japan at Mizwa Motors dealerships that specialize in North American and European vehicles, with left hand drive for its entire generation. Sales were helped by the fact that it was in compliance with Japanese Government dimension regulations with regards to its engine displacement and exterior dimensions.


title: Porsche 924

text: A five-speed transmission, available in normally aspirated cars (type 016) starting in 1979 and standard on all turbos (type G31), was a dog-leg shift pattern Porsche unit, with first gear below reverse on the left side. This was robust, but expensive due to some 915 internal parts, and was replaced for 1980 with a normal H-pattern Audi five-speed on all non-turbo cars. This lighter duty design was originally not used on the more powerful 924 Turbo. The brakes were solid discs at the front and drums at the rear. The car was criticized in "Car and Driver" magazine for this braking arrangement, which was viewed as a step backward from the 914's standard four-wheel disc brakes. However, four-wheel disc brakes, five stud hubs and alloys from the 924 Turbo were available on the base 924 as an "S" package starting with the 1980 model year. Also, standard brakes could be optioned on the turbo as a cost-saving measure.


title: Porsche 924

text: The overall styling was created by Dutch designer Harm Lagaay, a member of the Porsche styling team, with the folding headlights, sloping bonnet line and grille-less nose giving the car its popular wedge shape. The car went on sale in the US in July 1976 as a 1977 model with a base price of $9,395. Porsche made small improvements to the 924 each model year between 1977 and 1985, but nothing major was changed on non-turbo cars. Turbo charged variants received many different, non-VW sourced parts, throughout the drive train, and when optioned with the M471 disc brake package and forged 16" wheels, the car was twice as expensive as a standard model. Its appearance has been credited as the inspiration for the second generation Mazda RX-7.


title: Porsche 924

text: While the car was praised for its styling, handling, fuel economy, and reliability, it was harshly written up in the automotive press for its very poor performance, especially with the US spec cars. With only 95–110 hp, rapid acceleration was simply not an option, but the Porsche name carried with it higher expectations. When the 924 Turbo models came out, "Car and Driver" magazine proclaimed the car "Fast...at Last!" The later 924S had performance on par with the Turbo, but with much improved reliability, and at less cost. The 1981 and 1982 Turbos and the associated special variants are garnering interest in collector circles, and while many still exist, excellent examples of the cars are quite scarce as of today.


title: Porsche 924

text: The 924 was discontinued in 1988, with Porsche concentrating on producing the faster 944 as its entry-level model.


title: Porsche 924

text: Porsche executives soon recognised the need for a higher-performance version of the 924 that could take advantage of the models excellent balance and bridge the gap between the standard 924 and the 911. Having already found the benefits of turbochargers on several race cars and the 1975 911 Turbo (930), Porsche chose to use this technology for the 924, eventually introducing the 924 Turbo in 1978.


title: Porsche 924

text: On release the 924 Turbo was met with high praise from the automotive community and journalists alike. It was celebrated for its supercar-like performance and impeccable handling, with build quality, general attention to proportion and more purposeful aesthetics garnering universal approval. Some criticised the turbocharged I4 for its coarseness, but critics forgave it in exchange for its economy and remarkable power increase over the naturally-aspirated car. In their comparison against the Aston Martin V8, Porsche 928, Porsche 911 3.0SC, BMW 635 CSI and Lotus Eclat 523, Motor Magazine found the 924 Turbo to be joint second in top-speed (achieving an average of 142 mph) and second in 0-60 mph acceleration (achieving a time of 6,9 seconds) being topped only by the Aston V8 at 145 mph and Porsche 911 at 6.5 seconds respectively, a remarkable feat considering the difference in displacement and price between the models.


title: Porsche 924

text: To power the 924 Turbo, Porsche heavily revised the VW EA831 2.0 L I4 motor already used in the n/a 924, opting to hand assemble the engine at the Porsche factory in Zuffenhausen, Stuttgart. Porsche engineers designed and equipped it with a revised crankcase, connecting rods, cylinder-head gasket, crankshaft and an all new aluminium-silicon alloy cylinder head. With the use of dished combustion chambers and specially shaped pistons the compression ratio was reduced to 7.5:1, this helped better accommodate the KK&K K-26 turbocharger without inducing pre-ignition. Platinum tipped spark plugs were also used and exhaust valve diameter was increased over the n/a engine. With of boost, output increased to at 5,500 rpm and of torque at 3,500 rpm. The 924 Turbo's engine assembly weighed about more, so front spring rates and anti-roll bars were revised. Weight distribution was now 49/51 compared to the original 924 figure of 48/52 front to rear.


title: Porsche 924

text: In order to aid cooling, as well as to distinguish it from the standard 924, Porsche added a NACA duct in the hood, this helped heat escape when stationary and caused hot air to be drawn out of the engine compartment due to low pressure induced by the louvred alloy engine under-tray when on the move. In addition to the NACA duct, four slotted air vents were installed in the badge panel, with open ducts added to either side the front valance so to aid cooling of the front brakes. 15-inch spoke-style alloy wheels, four-wheel disc brakes with five-stud hubs and a five-speed racing pattern 'dog-leg' transmission was fitted as standard. Power was transferred from the clutch plate to the gearbox through a larger diameter torque tube. Forged 16-inch flat wheels of the style used on the 928 were optional, but fitment specification was that of the 911 which the 924 shared wheel offsets with. A rubber duck-tail spoiler was fitted to the rear hatch, reducing the already low drag coefficient from .36 to .33. Internally, Porsche called the 924 Turbo the "931", much like the 911 Carrera Turbo which had been known as "Type 930". Although right hand drive specific parts were denoted by the prefix "932" both left hand drive and right hand drive cars are referred to as "931", this designation remains in common use by Porsche enthusiasts today.


title: Porsche 924

text: The turbocharged VW EA831 engine allowed the 924's performance to match that of the bigger, more powerful Porsche 928 and come surprisingly close to that of the 911 SC (), thanks in part to a lighter curb weight, but it also brought reliability problems as was often seen in other turbocharged cars of the era. This was mostly due to the fact that the general public did not know how to operate or care for such an early oil cooled turbo setup. Allowing the engine to idle and turbo to cool before shutdown helps prevent turbo seal and component failure and as such greatly extends the turbo's lifespan.


title: Porsche 924

text: For the 1981 model year Porsche released a revised 924 Turbo Series 2 (although badging still read "924 turbo"). By using a revised turbocharger with a larger compressor and a smaller turbine running at increased boost, slightly higher compression of 8:1 and an improved fuel injection system with DITC (Digital Ignition Timing Control) ignition triggered by the flywheel, peak power rose to .


title: Porsche 924

text: In North America, the 924 Turbo arrived in late 1979 for the 1980 model year. It was saddled with extra weight compared to Euro-spec cars, due to the federally mandated large bumpers and other safety equipment, and less power due to stringent emissions controls. Power was , nearly twenty percent down on the European model. For the 1981 model year, power increased slightly to and the transmission was switched to one with a regular H-pattern layout (North America only).


title: Porsche 924

text: The 924 Turbo also saw success in Motorsport, mainly in rally guise, preceding the introduction of the 924 Carrera GT. Between 1977 and 1980 Jürgen Barth and Roland Kussmaul headed a project to develop a competition specification 924 Turbo. The competition cars were based on prototype 931s purchased from the factory by the Porsche head of motorsport Peter Falk, modifications included but were not limited to a wider track, Rallye arches and auxiliary light pods. The car first competed in the 1979 Monte Carlo Rally and with Barth and his co-driver Kussmaul at the helm, the car finished 4th in the GT4 class, despite being de-specced due to homologation requirements. The 1979 season continued with the same car and drivers taking part in the famous 19,000 km 1979 Round Australia Trial. Impressively the car won its class, completing the trial with accumulated penalties of 13 hours and 9 minutes across the 134 stages.


title: Porsche 924

text: The 1981 season saw the 924 Turbo make history when it carried a JVC camera inside the cabin, capturing the first ever in car footage of the famous Monte Carlo Rally. This was its final season, retiring to make way for the intercooled 924 Carrera GT.