title: Earthship

text: Current Earthship designs like the global module have a "double greenhouse" where the outside glass is angled towards the equator, and an internal glass wall forms a walk way or hallway as you step into the Earthship. This greenhouse is primarily used to grow food; it also creates a barrier for the 'comfort zone' inside the house.


title: Earthship

text: Earthships structures have a natural ventilation system based on convection. A pipe extends from the interior of the house under the berm, cooling the air by the time it gets to the comfort zone. As the hot air rises, the system creates a steady airflow - of cooler air coming in, and warmer air blowing out though a smaller vented window in the greenhouse.


title: Earthship

text: The first earthship in South Africa was built by Angel and Yvonne Kamp between 1996 and 1998. They rammed a total of 1,500 tires for the walls. The Earthship, near Hermanus, is located in a 60 hectare private nature reserve which is part of a 500 hectare area enclosed in a game fence and borders the Walker Bay Nature Reserve.


title: Earthship

text: The second earthship in South Africa is a recycling centre in Khayelitsha run as a swop shop concept. The centre was finished in December 2010. Another low cost house built with tires is in development in Bloemfontein.


title: Earthship

text: A project nearing completion in South Africa is a combined living quarters and the Sonskip / Aardskip open air museum in Orania. This earthship is based on the global earthship model and is built with a foundation of tires, has roof bearing walls built with earthbags, and interior walls built with cob, cans and plastic bottles. This earthship adheres to all six principles of an earthship. This is the largest earthbag earthship in the world.


title: Earthship

text: In 2011, construction began on the Goderich Waldorf School of Sierra Leone. The school was the first educational institution to use earthship architecture. Although Mike Reynolds and a team of interns helped complete the first two classrooms, the majority of the building was built by community members who had been trained in Reynolds' building techniques.


title: Earthship

text: A new project was scheduled to commence in Malawi in October 2013.During that first visit, the team was able to complete two of the intended 8 rooms. Biotechure Planet Earth came back to collaborate on the Malawi project in 2015 in order to complete the community center for the rural village. The crew was made up of a group of volunteers as well as locals all made up to create an 8 room building made out of tires, cans and bottles. Finally, in a webpost uploaed on February 2020, it was confirmed that the community structure in Kapita, Malawi was able to be finished.


title: Earthship

text: Earthship Ironbank was built by Martin and Zoe Freney south-east of Adelaide in South Australia and is the first earthship constructed with council permission in Australia.


title: Earthship

text: In 2000, Michael Reynolds and his team came to build the first residential earthship in Boingt (Belgium). While water, power module, solar panels and the team were on their way to Europe, the mayor of Boingt put his veto on the building permit. Josephine Overeem, the woman who wanted to build the earthship, and Michael Reynolds decided to do a demonstration model in her back yard at her residence in Strombeek (Belgium). CLEVEL invited Reynolds from Belgium to Brighton in the UK, and orchestrated plans for the earthship in Brighton, started in 2003. This was the beginning of a series of trips made by Reynolds and the construction of earthships in the UK, France and the Netherlands.


title: Earthship

text: In 2004, the very first Earthship in the UK was opened at Kinghorn Loch in Fife, Scotland. It was built by volunteers of the SCI charity. In 2005, the first earthship in England was established in Stanmer Park, Brighton with the Low Carbon Trust. In 2007, CLEVEL and Earthship Biotecture obtained planning permission to build on a development site overlooking the Brighton Marina in the UK. The application followed a six-month feasibility study, orchestrated by Daren Howarth, Kevan Trott and Michael Reynolds and funded by the UK Environment Agency and the Energy Savings Trust. The successful application was for sixteen one, two, and three-bedroom earthship homes on this site, expected to have a sale price of 250 - 400,000 pounds. The homes are all designed according to basic earthship principles developed in the United States and adapted to the UK. 15,000 tires will be recycled to construct these homes (the UK burns approximately 40 million tires each year). The plans include the enhancement of habitats on the site for lizards that already live there, which is the reasoning behind entitling the project "The Lizard". This would have been the first development of its kind in Europe.


title: Earthship

text: The first official Earthship home in mainland Europe with official planning permission approval was built in a small French village called Ger. The home, which was owned by Kevan and Gillian Trott, was built in April 2007 by Kevan, Mike Reynolds and an Earthship Crew from Taos, it was sold to a family in 2014. The design was modified for a European climate and is seen as the first of many for the European arena. It is currently used as a holiday home for eco-tourists.


title: Earthship

text: Further adaptation to the European context was undertaken by Daren Howarth and Adrianne Nortje in Brittany, France. They obtained full planning permission in 2007 and finished the Brittany Groundhouse as their own home during 2009. The build experience and learning is documented in the UK Grand Designs series and in their book.


title: Earthship

text: Earthships have been built or are being built in Portugal, Spain, France, Belgium, The Netherlands, United Kingdom, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Estonia and Czech Republic.


title: Earthship

text: The first official earthship district (23 earthships) in Europe was developed in Olst (the Netherlands). Building started in Spring 2012 and completed in December, 2014. In Belgium, 1 earthship hybrid is also being built, intended as demonstration buildings. Since it is illegal to use tires in Belgium (for risk of leaking toxic metals like lead and zinc), the project uses earthbags instead.


title: Earthship

text: The Earthships built in Europe by Michael Reynolds have to be adapted to perform as intended. Some showed problems with moisture and mould. Some research into thermal performance was done by the University of Brighton on the Brighton Earthship. The first successful construction of an Earthship in Germany (Tempelhof/Kreßberg, 2015/16) used fewer thermal bridges but increased insulation in cooperation with a Fraunhofer Institute to prevent any mould problems.


title: Earthship

text: An earthship was constructed in 2015 by the Atkinson family in southern Belize. It featured on the June 2015 UK Channel 4 TV programme Escape to the Wild, season 1, episode 3.


title: Earthship

text: The first Earthship in South America was built in January 2014 in the town of Ushuaia, Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. Today this building functions as a visitor center and example of self-sustainable living.


title: Earthship

text: In March 2016, an Earthship school was built in Jaureguiberry, Uruguay. In May 2018, another Earthship school was built in Mar Chiquita, Argentina.


title: Earthship

text: An earthship has been built by Dawn and Lance Kirtlan near Ashburton, Canterbury. They were inspired by Mike Reynold's books and worked with a local architect and engineer, reporting that the local council were very supportive of the project.


title: Earthship

text: The film "Garbage Warrior" is about Earthships and Reynolds' struggle with obtaining permits to build out of unconventional material and off the grid.


title: Earthship

text: The television series "Building Off the Grid" which aired on the DIY Network featured a home construction episode on building an Earthship.


title: Zach Randolph

text: Zachary McKenley Randolph (born July 16, 1981) is an American former professional basketball player. Nicknamed "Z-Bo", the 2-time NBA All-Star played college basketball for the Michigan State Spartans before being drafted in the 2001 NBA draft by the Portland Trail Blazers. He played for five teams over the course of his professional career, making the All-NBA Third Team in 2011 with the Memphis Grizzlies. He also played with the New York Knicks and Los Angeles Clippers and Sacramento Kings before retiring in December 2019. Randolph later came out of retirement in 2020 to join the Big3.


title: Zach Randolph

text: Randolph grew up in Marion, Indiana, and attended Marion High School, where his coach was Moe Smedley. As a sophomore, he helped lead the Marion Giants to the 1998 Indiana Class 4A Championship Game. As a senior, he again led his team to the state championship game in which Marion High School won its seventh state basketball championship. He finished second in Indiana's "Mr. Basketball" voting that year behind Jared Jeffries, who played for the team the Giants beat in the state championship game and would later become Randolph's teammate with the Knicks. During the 2000 McDonald's All-American Game, Randolph was named MVP, finishing with 23 points and 15 rebounds.


title: Zach Randolph

text: After high school, Randolph attended and played basketball for Michigan State University coached by Tom Izzo. His teammates at MSU included Jason Richardson and Charlie Bell. In his single season at Michigan State, he averaged 10.8 points and 6.7 rebounds per game over 33 games, with a team that finished with a 28–5 record and advanced to its third straight NCAA Final Four. After his freshman season, he entered the 2001 NBA draft.


title: Zach Randolph

text: He was drafted by the Blazers in the first round (19th overall) in 2001. Continuing on from his college career, he remained in the power forward position. Randolph's tenure on the Trail Blazers proved tumultuous, and included off-court incidents such as being arrested for underage drinking in 2002 and on-court incidents such as punching teammate Ruben Patterson after arguing with teammate Qyntel Woods in 2003. However, Randolph was not the only member of the Trail Blazers with well-documented outbursts, as the team's reputation as being full of trouble makers was so notable that they were dubbed the "Jail Blazers".


title: Zach Randolph

text: In the 2003 NBA Playoffs, Randolph averaged 13.9 points and 8.7 rebounds in a seven game series loss to the Dallas Mavericks, during which he twice recorded the highest single game rebound totals of any players on either team. In 2004, he won the NBA's Most Improved Player award, after which he signed a 6-year, $84-million extension with the Blazers.


title: Zach Randolph

text: Randolph averaged 23.6 points and 10.1 rebounds per game in the 2006–07 season, which was cut short in March 2007 due to a hand injury. In what would turn out to be his final game as a Trail Blazer, he accumulated a career high 43 points and 17 rebounds. In his six seasons with Portland, he averaged 16.0 points and 7.7 rebounds per game.


title: Zach Randolph

text: On June 28, 2007, Randolph, along with Dan Dickau, Fred Jones and the draft rights to Demetris Nichols, was traded to the New York Knicks in a draft day deal for Steve Francis, Channing Frye, and a 2008 2nd round draft pick. On July 2, 2007, Randolph was introduced at a press conference in New York, where he revealed he would wear the jersey #50. He played 69 games with the Knicks during the 2007–08 season, averaging a double-double, with 17.6 points and 10.3 rebounds per game. However, Randolph then played only 11 games in New York the next year, before being traded to the Clippers early in the 2008–09 season. In his time in New York, Randolph averaged 18.0 points and 10.6 rebounds per game.


title: Zach Randolph

text: On November 21, 2008, after playing 11 games with the Knicks in the 2008–09 season, Randolph was traded to the Los Angeles Clippers along with Mardy Collins in exchange for Cuttino Mobley and Tim Thomas. During a game against the Phoenix Suns on February 17, 2009, Randolph was ejected, and subsequently suspended two games, for punching Louis Amundson in the jaw. Randolph finished the 2008–09 season with the Clippers before being traded again. In his 39 games with the Clippers, he averaged 20.9 points and 9.4 rebounds per game.


title: Zach Randolph

text: On July 17, 2009, he was traded to the Memphis Grizzlies in exchange for Quentin Richardson. Randolph was selected for his first NBA All Star Game in 2010 and helped the Grizzlies improve despite failing to make it to the 2010 playoffs.


title: Zach Randolph

text: The Grizzlies made the playoffs in 2011 as the eighth seed and eliminated the top-seeded San Antonio Spurs in the first round, just the second time the eighth seed defeated the first seed since the league expanded to a seven-game first-round series. The series marked the first four wins in franchise playoff history for the Grizzlies and the first time the franchise won a playoff series. In the decisive sixth game, Randolph scored a then playoff career-high 31 points, including 17 in the fourth quarter.


title: Zach Randolph

text: On April 18, 2011, Randolph agreed to a four-year extension with the Grizzlies worth $71 million, with $66 million guaranteed. Later, Randolph was named to the All-NBA Third Team for the first time in his career.


title: Zach Randolph

text: Randolph then led the Grizzlies to an opening game win in their second-round playoff series, posting a playoff-career-high 34 points as the Grizzlies defeated the Oklahoma City Thunder 114–101. However, the Grizzlies fell in the second round after losing game 7 to the Thunder, 105–90.


title: Zach Randolph

text: In 2012, Randolph and the Grizzlies faced the Los Angeles Clippers in the first round of the playoffs. The Grizzlies lost the series in seven games.


title: Zach Randolph

text: Randolph was named to his second All-Star game during the 2012–13 season. On May 15, 2013, Randolph helped lead the Grizzlies to victory over Oklahoma City to advance for the first time in franchise history to the Western Conference Finals. In the close out game against the Thunder, Randolph scored a team-high 28 points and grabbed 14 rebounds.


title: Zach Randolph

text: In the 2013–14 season, the Grizzlies finished as the 7th seed in the West. Their first round playoff match-up was once again Kevin Durant and the Oklahoma City Thunder. The Grizzlies went on to lose the series in seven games. Randolph was suspended for Game 7 after punching Steven Adams in the jaw midway through the 4th quarter of game 6.


title: Zach Randolph

text: On June 30, 2014, Randolph exercised his player option for the 2014–15 season and signed a two-year, $20 million contract extension with the Grizzlies. The Grizzlies advanced past Portland in the first round of the playoffs, but fell to eventual NBA champions, the Golden State Warriors, in the Conference Semifinals.


title: Zach Randolph

text: On March 19, 2016, Randolph recorded his first career triple-double with 28 points, 11 rebounds, and 10 assists in a 113–102 win over the Los Angeles Clippers. The Grizzlies again qualified for the playoffs in 2016, but were swept out of the first round by the San Antonio Spurs.


title: Zach Randolph

text: On November 2, 2016, in a win over the New Orleans Pelicans, Randolph passed Pau Gasol (3,324) to become the Grizzlies' all-time leader in made field goals. On November 23, 2016, in a win over the Philadelphia 76ers, Randolph passed Vlade Divac for 46th on the NBA's all-time leading rebounder list. On December 6, 2016, he played in his 1,000th career game, becoming the 121st NBA player to reach that mark. He returned to the team to face the Philadelphia 76ers after missing seven games following the death of his mother, Mae, on November 24. On January 6, 2017, Randolph scored 27 points off the bench in a 128–119 overtime win over the Golden State Warriors. It was his highest total scored off the bench since 2006. On January 28, 2017, he scored a season-high 28 points in a 102–95 win over the Utah Jazz.


title: Zach Randolph

text: On July 10, 2017, Randolph signed a two-year, $24 million contract with the Sacramento Kings. Prior to Randolph's signing with the Kings, the Grizzlies announced that #50 would never be worn again by another Grizzly, and would eventually be retired in the future. On December 8, 2017, he recorded a season-high 35 points and 13 rebounds in a 116–109 overtime win over the New Orleans Pelicans. He made two of his career-high five 3-pointers to start overtime. On December 20, 2017, Randolph had 21 points and eight rebounds against the Brooklyn Nets, surpassing 10,000 career rebounds.


title: Zach Randolph

text: Randolph fell out of the rotation in 2018–19 due to the Kings' youth movement. He did not play for the team in his second season with the Kings and was traded, along with Justin Jackson, to the Dallas Mavericks in exchange for Harrison Barnes on February 6, 2019. After acquiring Randolph, the Mavericks' president of basketball operations Donnie Nelson said that there were no expectations for Randolph playing for the team, and he was waived by the Mavericks two days later.


title: Zach Randolph

text: Randolph's final NBA game was played on March 19, 2018 in a 90 - 106 loss to the Detroit Pistons where he recorded 4 points, 3 assists and 2 rebounds as the Kings' starting Center.


title: Zach Randolph

text: On December 27, 2019, Randolph announced his retirement from professional basketball. In a ceremony at FedExForum on December 11, 2021, Randolph's #50 jersey was retired by the Memphis Grizzlies, the team with which he enjoyed his best success.


title: Incantation

text: An incantation, a spell, a charm, an enchantment or a bewitchery, is a magical formula intended to trigger a magical effect on a person or objects. The formula can be spoken, sung or chanted. An incantation can also be performed during ceremonial rituals or prayers. In the world of magic, wizards, witches, and fairies allegedly perform incantations.


title: Incantation

text: In medieval literature, folklore, fairy tales, and modern fantasy fiction, enchantments are charms or spells. This has led to the terms "enchanter" and "enchantress" for those who use enchantments. The English language borrowed the term "incantation" from Old French in the late 14th century; the corresponding Old English term was "gealdor" or "galdor", "song, spell", cognate to ON galdr. The weakened sense "delight" (compare the same development of "charm") is modern, first attested in 1593 (OED).


title: Incantation

text: Words of incantation are often spoken with inflection and emphasis on the words being said. The tone and rhyme of how the words are spoken and the placement of words used in the formula may differ depending on the desired outcome of the magical effect.


title: Incantation

text: Surviving written records of historical magic spells were largely obliterated in many cultures by the success of the major monotheistic religions (Islam, Judaism, and Christianity), which label some magical activity as immoral or associated with evil.


title: Incantation

text: The Latin "incantare", which means "to consecrate with spells, to charm, to bewitch, to ensorcel", forms the basis of the word "enchant", with deep linguistic roots going back to the Proto-Indo-European "kan-" prefix. So it can be said that an enchanter or enchantress casts magic spells, or utters incantations.


title: Incantation

text: The words that are similar to incantations such as enchantment, charms and spells are the effects of reciting an incantation. To be enchanted is to be under the influence of an enchantment, usually thought to be caused by charms or spells.


title: Incantation

text: Magic words or words of power are words which have a specific, and sometimes unintended, effect. They are often nonsense phrases used in fantasy fiction or by stage prestidigitators. Frequently such words are presented as being part of a divine, adamic, or other secret or empowered language. Certain comic book heroes use magic words to activate their powers.


title: Incantation

text: Examples of traditional magic words include "Abracadabra", "Alakazam", "Hocus Pocus", "Open Sesame" and "Sim Sala Bim".


title: Incantation

text: In Mesopotamian mythology, Udug Hul incantations are used to exorcise demons (evil Udug) who bring misfortune or illnesses, such as mental illness or anxiety. These demons can create horrible events such as divorce, loss of property, or other catastrophes.


title: Incantation

text: In traditional fairy tales magical formulas are sometimes attached to an object. When the incantation is uttered, it helps transform the object. In such stories, incantations are attached to a magic wand used by wizards, witches and fairy godmothers. One example is the spell that Cinderella's Fairy Godmother used to turn a pumpkin into a coach, "Bibbidi-Bobbidi-Boo", a nonsense rhyme which echoes more serious historical incantations.


title: Incantation

text: The performance of magic almost always involves the use of language. Whether spoken out loud or unspoken, words are frequently used to access or guide magical power. In "The Magical Power of Words" (1968), S. J. Tambiah argues that the connection between language and magic is due to a belief in the inherent ability of words to influence the universe. Bronisław Malinowski, in "Coral Gardens and their Magic" (1935), suggests that this belief is an extension of man's basic use of language to describe his surroundings, in which "the knowledge of the right words, appropriate phrases and the more highly developed forms of speech, gives man a power over and above his own limited field of personal action." Magical speech is therefore a ritual act and is of equal or even greater importance to the performance of magic than non-verbal acts.


title: Incantation

text: Not all speech is considered magical. Only certain words and phrases or words spoken in a specific context are considered to have magical power. Magical language, according to C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards's (1923) categories of speech, is distinct from scientific language because it is emotive and it converts words into symbols for emotions; whereas in scientific language words are tied to specific meanings and refer to an objective external reality. Magical language is therefore particularly adept at constructing metaphors that establish symbols and link magical rituals to the world.


title: Incantation

text: Malinowski argues that "the language of magic is sacred, set and used for an entirely different purpose to that of ordinary life." The two forms of language are differentiated through word choice, grammar, style, or by the use of specific phrases or forms: prayers, spells, songs, blessings, or chants, for example. Sacred modes of language often employ archaic words and forms in an attempt to invoke the purity or "truth" of a religious or a cultural "golden age". The use of Hebrew in Judaism is an example.


title: Incantation

text: Another potential source of the power of words is their secrecy and exclusivity. Much sacred language is differentiated enough from common language that it is incomprehensible to the majority of the population and it can only be used and interpreted by specialized practitioners (magicians, priests, shamans, even mullahs). In this respect, Tambiah argues that magical languages violate the primary function of language: communication. Yet adherents of magic are still able to use and to value the magical function of words by believing in the inherent power of the words themselves and in the meaning that they must provide for those who do understand them. This leads Tambiah to conclude that "the remarkable disjunction between sacred and profane language which exists as a general fact is not necessarily linked to the need to embody sacred words in an exclusive language."


title: Aircraft engine

text: An aircraft engine, often referred to as an aero engine, is the power component of an aircraft propulsion system. Most aircraft engines are either piston engines or gas turbines, although a few have been rocket powered and in recent years many small UAVs have used electric motors.


title: Aircraft engine

text: In commercial aviation the major Western manufacturers of turbofan engines are Pratt & Whitney (a subsidiary of Raytheon Technologies), General Electric, Rolls-Royce, and CFM International (a joint venture of Safran Aircraft Engines and General Electric). Russian manufacturers include the United Engine Corporation, Aviadvigatel and Klimov. Aeroengine Corporation of China was formed in 2016 with the merger of several smaller companies.


title: Aircraft engine

text: The largest manufacturer of turboprop engines for general aviation is Pratt & Whitney. General Electric announced in 2015 entrance into the market.


title: Aircraft engine

text: In this entry, for clarity, the term "inline engine" refers only to engines with a single row of cylinders, as used in automotive language, but in aviation terms, the phrase "inline engine" also covers V-type and opposed engines (as described below), and is not limited to engines with a single row of cylinders. This is typically to differentiate them from radial engines. A straight engine typically has an even number of cylinders, but there are instances of three- and five-cylinder engines. The greatest advantage of an inline engine is that it allows the aircraft to be designed with a low frontal area to minimize drag. If the engine crankshaft is located above the cylinders, it is called an inverted inline engine: this allows the propeller to be mounted high up to increase ground clearance, enabling shorter landing gear. The disadvantages of an inline engine include a poor power-to-weight ratio, because the crankcase and crankshaft are long and thus heavy. An in-line engine may be either air-cooled or liquid-cooled, but liquid-cooling is more common because it is difficult to get enough air-flow to cool the rear cylinders directly. Inline engines were common in early aircraft; one was used in the Wright Flyer, the aircraft that made the first controlled powered flight. However, the inherent disadvantages of the design soon became apparent, and the inline design was abandoned, becoming a rarity in modern aviation.


title: Aircraft engine

text: "For other configurations of aviation inline engine, such as X-engines, U-engines, H-engines, etc., see Inline engine (aeronautics)."


title: Aircraft engine

text: Cylinders in this engine are arranged in two in-line banks, typically tilted 60–90 degrees apart from each other and driving a common crankshaft. The vast majority of V engines are water-cooled. The V design provides a higher power-to-weight ratio than an inline engine, while still providing a small frontal area. Perhaps the most famous example of this design is the legendary Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, a 27-litre (1649 in) 60° V12 engine used in, among others, the Spitfires that played a major role in the Battle of Britain.


title: Aircraft engine

text: A horizontally opposed engine, also called a flat or boxer engine, has two banks of cylinders on opposite sides of a centrally located crankcase. The engine is either air-cooled or liquid-cooled, but air-cooled versions predominate. Opposed engines are mounted with the crankshaft horizontal in airplanes, but may be mounted with the crankshaft vertical in helicopters. Due to the cylinder layout, reciprocating forces tend to cancel, resulting in a smooth running engine. Opposed-type engines have high power-to-weight ratios because they have a comparatively small, lightweight crankcase. In addition, the compact cylinder arrangement reduces the engine's frontal area and allows a streamlined installation that minimizes aerodynamic drag. These engines always have an even number of cylinders, since a cylinder on one side of the crankcase “opposes” a cylinder on the other side.


title: Aircraft engine

text: Opposed, air-cooled four- and six-cylinder piston engines are by far the most common engines used in small general aviation aircraft requiring up to per engine. Aircraft that require more than per engine tend to be powered by turbine engines.


title: Aircraft engine

text: An H configuration engine is essentially a pair of horizontally opposed engines placed together, with the two crankshafts geared together.


title: Aircraft engine

text: This type of engine has one or more rows of cylinders arranged around a centrally located crankcase. Each row generally has an odd number of cylinders to produce smooth operation. A radial engine has only one crank throw per row and a relatively small crankcase, resulting in a favorable power-to-weight ratio. Because the cylinder arrangement exposes a large amount of the engine's heat-radiating surfaces to the air and tends to cancel reciprocating forces, radials tend to cool evenly and run smoothly. The lower cylinders, which are under the crankcase, may collect oil when the engine has been stopped for an extended period. If this oil is not cleared from the cylinders prior to starting the engine, serious damage due to hydrostatic lock may occur.


title: Aircraft engine

text: Most radial engines have the cylinders arranged evenly around the crankshaft, although some early engines, sometimes called semi-radials or fan configuration engines, had an uneven arrangement. The best known engine of this type is the Anzani engine, which was fitted to the Bleriot XI used for the first flight across the English Channel in 1909. This arrangement had the drawback of needing a heavy counterbalance for the crankshaft, but was used to avoid the spark plugs oiling up.


title: Aircraft engine

text: In military aircraft designs, the large frontal area of the engine acted as an extra layer of armor for the pilot. Also air-cooled engines, without vulnerable radiators, are slightly less prone to battle damage, and on occasion would continue running even with one or more cylinders shot away. However, the large frontal area also resulted in an aircraft with an aerodynamically inefficient increased frontal area.


title: Aircraft engine

text: Rotary engines have the cylinders in a circle around the crankcase, as in a radial engine, (see above), but the crankshaft is fixed to the airframe and the propeller is fixed to the engine case, so that the crankcase and cylinders rotate. The advantage of this arrangement is that a satisfactory flow of cooling air is maintained even at low airspeeds, retaining the weight advantage and simplicity of a conventional air-cooled engine without one of their major drawbacks.


title: Aircraft engine

text: The first practical rotary engine was the Gnome Omega designed by the Seguin brothers and first flown in 1909. Its relative reliability and good power to weight ratio changed aviation dramatically. Before the first World War most speed records were gained using Gnome-engined aircraft, and in the early years of the war rotary engines were dominant in aircraft types for which speed and agility were paramount. To increase power, engines with two rows of cylinders were built.


title: Aircraft engine

text: However, the gyroscopic effects of the heavy rotating engine produced handling problems in aircraft and the engines also consumed large amounts of oil since they used total loss lubrication, the oil being mixed with the fuel and ejected with the exhaust gases. Castor oil was used for lubrication, since it is not soluble in petrol, and the resultant fumes were nauseating to the pilots. Engine designers had always been aware of the many limitations of the rotary engine so when the static style engines became more reliable and gave better specific weights and fuel consumption, the days of the rotary engine were numbered.


title: Aircraft engine

text: The Wankel is a type of rotary engine. The Wankel engine is about one half the weight and size of a traditional four-stroke cycle piston engine of equal power output, and much lower in complexity. In an aircraft application, the power-to-weight ratio is very important, making the Wankel engine a good choice. Because the engine is typically constructed with an aluminium housing and a steel rotor, and aluminium expands more than steel when heated, a Wankel engine does not seize when overheated, unlike a piston engine. This is an important safety factor for aeronautical use. Considerable development of these designs started after World War II, but at the time the aircraft industry favored the use of turbine engines. It was believed that turbojet or turboprop engines could power all aircraft, from the largest to smallest designs. The Wankel engine did not find many applications in aircraft, but was used by Mazda in a popular line of sports cars. The French company Citroën had developed Wankel powered helicopter in 1970's.


title: Aircraft engine

text: In modern times the Wankel engine has been used in motor gliders where the compactness, light weight, and smoothness are crucially important.


title: Aircraft engine

text: The now-defunct Staverton-based firm MidWest designed and produced single- and twin-rotor aero engines, the MidWest AE series. These engines were developed from the motor in the Norton Classic motorcycle. The twin-rotor version was fitted into ARV Super2s and the Rutan Quickie. The single-rotor engine was put into a Chevvron motor glider and into the Schleicher ASH motor-gliders. After the demise of MidWest, all rights were sold to Diamond of Austria, who have since developed a MkII version of the engine.


title: Aircraft engine

text: As a cost-effective alternative to certified aircraft engines some Wankel engines, removed from automobiles and converted to aviation use, have been fitted in homebuilt experimental aircraft. Mazda units with outputs ranging from to can be a fraction of the cost of traditional engines. Such conversions first took place in the early 1970s; and as of 10 December 2006 the National Transportation Safety Board has only seven reports of incidents involving aircraft with Mazda engines, and none of these is of a failure due to design or manufacturing flaws.


title: Aircraft engine

text: The most common combustion cycle for aero engines is the four-stroke with spark ignition. Two-stroke spark ignition has also been used for small engines, while the compression-ignition Diesel engine is seldom used.


title: Aircraft engine

text: Starting in the 1930s attempts were made to produce a practical aircraft diesel engine. In general, Diesel engines are more reliable and much better suited to running for long periods of time at medium power settings. The lightweight alloys of the 1930s were not up to the task of handling the much higher compression ratios of diesel engines, so they generally had poor power-to-weight ratios and were uncommon for that reason, although the Clerget 14F Diesel radial engine (1939) has the same power to weight ratio as a gasoline radial. Improvements in Diesel technology in automobiles (leading to much better power-weight ratios), the Diesel's much better fuel efficiency and the high relative taxation of AVGAS compared to Jet A1 in Europe have all seen a revival of interest in the use of diesels for aircraft. Thielert Aircraft Engines converted Mercedes Diesel automotive engines, certified them for aircraft use, and became an OEM provider to Diamond Aviation for their light twin. Financial problems have plagued Thielert, so Diamond's affiliate — Austro Engine — developed the new AE300 turbodiesel, also based on a Mercedes engine. Competing new Diesel engines may bring fuel efficiency and lead-free emissions to small aircraft, representing the biggest change in light aircraft engines in decades.


title: Aircraft engine

text: While military fighters require very high speeds, many civil airplanes do not. Yet, civil aircraft designers wanted to benefit from the high power and low maintenance that a gas turbine engine offered. Thus was born the idea to mate a turbine engine to a traditional propeller. Because gas turbines optimally spin at high speed, a turboprop features a gearbox to lower the speed of the shaft so that the propeller tips don't reach supersonic speeds. Often the turbines that drive the propeller are separate from the rest of the rotating components so that they can rotate at their own best speed (referred to as a free-turbine engine). A turboprop is very efficient when operated within the realm of cruise speeds it was designed for, which is typically 200 to 400 mph (320 to 640 km/h).


title: Aircraft engine

text: Turboshaft engines are used primarily for helicopters and auxiliary power units. A turboshaft engine is similar to a turboprop in principle, but in a turboprop the propeller is supported by the engine and the engine is bolted to the airframe: in a turboshaft, the engine does not provide any direct physical support to the helicopter's rotors. The rotor is connected to a transmission which is bolted to the airframe, and the turboshaft engine drives the transmission. The distinction is seen by some as slim, as in some cases aircraft companies make both turboprop and turboshaft engines based on the same design.


title: Aircraft engine

text: A number of electrically powered aircraft, such as the QinetiQ Zephyr, have been designed since the 1960s. Some are used as military drones. In France in late 2007, a conventional light aircraft powered by an 18 kW electric motor using lithium polymer batteries was flown, covering more than , the first electric airplane to receive a certificate of airworthiness.


title: Aircraft engine

text: On 18 May 2020, the Pipistrel E-811 was the first electric aircraft engine to be awarded a type certificate by EASA for use in general aviation. The E-811 powers the Pipistrel Velis Electro.


title: Aircraft engine

text: Limited experiments with solar electric propulsion have been performed, notably the manned Solar Challenger and Solar Impulse and the unmanned NASA Pathfinder aircraft.


title: Aircraft engine

text: Many big companies, such as Siemens, are developing high performance electric engines for aircraft use, also, SAE shows new developments in elements as pure Copper core electric motors with a better efficiency. A hybrid system as emergency back-up and for added power in take-off is offered for sale by Axter Aerospace, Madrid, Spain.


title: Aircraft engine

text: Reaction engines generate the thrust to propel an aircraft by ejecting the exhaust gases at high velocity from the engine, the resultant reaction of forces driving the aircraft forwards. The most common reaction propulsion engines flown are turbojets, turbofans and rockets. Other types such as pulsejets, ramjets, scramjets and pulse detonation engines have also flown. In jet engines the oxygen necessary for fuel combustion comes from the air, while rockets carry oxygen in some form as part of the fuel load, permitting their use in space.


title: Aircraft engine

text: A turbojet is a type of gas turbine engine that was originally developed for military fighters during World War II. A turbojet is the simplest of all aircraft gas turbines. It consists of a compressor to draw air in and compress it, a combustion section where fuel is added and ignited, one or more turbines that extract power from the expanding exhaust gases to drive the compressor, and an exhaust nozzle that accelerates the exhaust gases out the back of the engine to create thrust. When turbojets were introduced, the top speed of fighter aircraft equipped with them was at least 100 miles per hour faster than competing piston-driven aircraft. In the years after the war, the drawbacks of the turbojet gradually became apparent. Below about Mach 2, turbojets are very fuel inefficient and create tremendous amounts of noise. Early designs also respond very slowly to power changes, a fact that killed many experienced pilots when they attempted the transition to jets. These drawbacks eventually led to the downfall of the pure turbojet, and only a handful of types are still in production. The last airliner that used turbojets was the Concorde, whose Mach 2 airspeed permitted the engine to be highly efficient.


title: Aircraft engine

text: A turbofan engine is much the same as a turbojet, but with an enlarged fan at the front that provides thrust in much the same way as a ducted propeller, resulting in improved fuel efficiency. Though the fan creates thrust like a propeller, the surrounding duct frees it from many of the restrictions that limit propeller performance. This operation is a more efficient way to provide thrust than simply using the jet nozzle alone, and turbofans are more efficient than propellers in the transsonic range of aircraft speeds and can operate in the supersonic realm. A turbofan typically has extra turbine stages to turn the fan. Turbofans were among the first engines to use multiple "spools"—concentric shafts that are free to rotate at their own speed—to let the engine react more quickly to changing power requirements. Turbofans are coarsely split into low-bypass and high-bypass categories. Bypass air flows through the fan, but around the jet core, not mixing with fuel and burning. The ratio of this air to the amount of air flowing through the engine core is the bypass ratio. Low-bypass engines are preferred for military applications such as fighters due to high thrust-to-weight ratio, while high-bypass engines are preferred for civil use for good fuel efficiency and low noise. High-bypass turbofans are usually most efficient when the aircraft is traveling at 500 to 550 miles per hour (800 to 885 km/h), the cruise speed of most large airliners. Low-bypass turbofans can reach supersonic speeds, though normally only when fitted with afterburners.


title: Aircraft engine

text: Pulse jets are mechanically simple devices that—in a repeating cycle—draw air through a no-return valve at the front of the engine into a combustion chamber and ignite it. The combustion forces the exhaust gases out the back of the engine. It produces power as a series of pulses rather than as a steady output, hence the name. The only application of this type of engine was the German unmanned V1 flying bomb of World War II. Though the same engines were also used experimentally for ersatz fighter aircraft, the extremely loud noise generated by the engines caused mechanical damage to the airframe that was sufficient to make the idea unworkable.


title: Aircraft engine

text: A few aircraft have used rocket engines for main thrust or attitude control, notably the Bell X-1 and North American X-15.


title: Aircraft engine

text: Rocket engines are not used for most aircraft as the energy and propellant efficiency is very poor, but have been employed for short bursts of speed and takeoff. Where fuel/propellant efficiency is of lesser concern, rocket engines can be useful because they produce very large amounts of thrust and weigh very little.


title: Aircraft engine

text: For very high supersonic/low hypersonic flight speeds, inserting a cooling system into the air duct of a hydrogen jet engine permits greater fuel injection at high speed and obviates the need for the duct to be made of refractory or actively cooled materials. This greatly improves the thrust/weight ratio of the engine at high speed.


title: Aircraft engine

text: It is thought that this design of engine could permit sufficient performance for antipodal flight at Mach 5, or even permit a single stage to orbit vehicle to be practical. The hybrid air-breathing SABRE rocket engine is a pre-cooled engine under development.


title: Aircraft engine

text: At the April 2018 ILA Berlin Air Show, Munich-based research institute presented a high-efficiency composite cycle engine for 2050, combining a geared turbofan with a piston engine core.


title: Aircraft engine

text: The 2.87 m diameter, 16-blade fan gives a 33.7 ultra-high bypass ratio, driven by a geared low-pressure turbine but the high-pressure compressor drive comes from a piston-engine with two 10 piston banks without a high-pressure turbine, increasing efficiency with non-stationary isochoric-isobaric combustion for higher peak pressures and temperatures.


title: Aircraft engine

text: Its cruise TSFC would be 11.5 g/kN/s (0.406 lb/lbf/hr) for an overall engine efficiency of 48.2%, for a burner temperature of , an overall pressure ratio of 38 and a peak pressure of .


title: Aircraft engine

text: Sponsored by the European Commission under Framework 7 project , Bauhaus Luftfahrt, MTU Aero Engines and GKN Aerospace presented the concept in 2015, raising the overall engine pressure ratio to over 100 for a 15.2% fuel burn reduction compared to 2025 engines.


title: Aircraft engine

text: On multi-engine aircraft, engine positions are numbered from left to right from the point of view of the pilot looking forward, so for example on a four-engine aircraft such as the Boeing 747, engine No. 1 is on the left side, farthest from the fuselage, while engine No. 3 is on the right side nearest to the fuselage.


title: Aircraft engine

text: In the case of the twin-engine English Electric Lightning, which has two fuselage-mounted jet engines one above the other, engine No. 1 is below and to the front of engine No. 2, which is above and behind.


title: Aircraft engine

text: In the Cessna 337 Skymaster, a push-pull twin-engine airplane, engine No. 1 is the one at the front of the fuselage, while engine No. 2 is aft of the cabin.


title: Aircraft engine

text: Aircraft reciprocating (piston) engines are typically designed to run on aviation gasoline. Avgas has a higher octane rating than automotive gasoline to allow higher compression ratios, power output, and efficiency at higher altitudes. Currently the most common Avgas is 100LL. This refers to the octane rating (100 octane) and the lead content (LL = low lead, relative to the historic levels of lead in pre-regulation Avgas).


title: Aircraft engine

text: Refineries blend Avgas with tetraethyllead (TEL) to achieve these high octane ratings, a practice that governments no longer permit for gasoline intended for road vehicles. The shrinking supply of TEL and the possibility of environmental legislation banning its use have made a search for replacement fuels for general aviation aircraft a priority for pilots’ organizations.


title: Aircraft engine

text: Turbine engines and aircraft diesel engines burn various grades of jet fuel. Jet fuel is a relatively less volatile petroleum derivative based on kerosene, but certified to strict aviation standards, with additional additives.


title: Aircraft engine

text: Model aircraft typically use nitro engines (also known as "glow engines" due to the use of a glow plug) powered by glow fuel, a mixture of methanol, nitromethane, and lubricant. Electrically powered model airplanes and helicopters are also commercially available. Small multicopter UAVs are almost always powered by electricity, but larger gasoline-powered designs are under development.


title: Sasha Mitchell

text: Sasha Mitchell (born July 27, 1967) is an American actor best known for his television roles as James Beaumont on "Dallas" and Cody Lambert on "Step by Step" as well as playing David Sloane in three installments of the original Kickboxer franchise. Mitchell has a black belt in taekwondo.


title: Sasha Mitchell

text: Mitchell was born on 27 July 1967 in Los Angeles, California, the son of a garment manufacturer. Mitchell is Jewish, with Russian origins. In 1990, he married Jeannette Robbins. The two had four children together before divorcing in 1997.


title: Sasha Mitchell

text: During Mitchell's marriage to Robbins, police were called to the couple's home to investigate reports of domestic abuse. In 1996, Mitchell was convicted of misdemeanor battery, spousal abuse and child endangerment stemming from an altercation with his wife. He was given three years’ probation and ordered to perform community service and attend counseling classes for spousal abusers. After violating his probation, he was sentenced to 30 days in jail. In 2002, Mitchell spoke of the incident on "Entertainment Tonight", claiming that he was protecting his children from his ex-wife, who was addicted to drugs at the time of the arrests. Mitchell ended up getting custody of their four children, with his ex-wife given limited visitation.


title: Sasha Mitchell

text: In December 2010, Mitchell married his second wife Rachel, also known as Sharmaine Rayner. He filed for divorce in spring 2015.


title: Sasha Mitchell

text: From 1989 to 1991, Mitchell appeared on the hit CBS prime time soap opera "Dallas", as James Beaumont, the illegitimate first-born son of J. R. Ewing and his long-ago girlfriend Vanessa Beaumont. He made guest appearances on other series, including "Rags to Riches".


title: Sasha Mitchell

text: He had the title role in the 1988 film "Spike of Bensonhurst" and in 1994's "". He starred in "" and the third and fourth installments of the film series. He also appeared in a "3 Musketeers" commercial in 1989.


title: Sasha Mitchell

text: His best-known role came on the ABC sitcom "Step by Step", where he played Cody Lambert, the nephew of actor Patrick Duffy's character Frank Lambert. Duffy had also played the uncle of Mitchell's character on "Dallas". Mitchell's character Cody was based on his personal life experiences.


title: Sasha Mitchell

text: In the early 2000s, Mitchell acted in several films and made guest appearances on "JAG", "NYPD Blue", and "ER".


title: Assam tea

text: Assam tea is a black tea named after the region of its production, Assam, India. It is manufactured specifically from the plant "Camellia sinensis" var. "assamica" (Masters). The Assam tea plant is indigenous to Assam—initial efforts to plant the Chinese varieties in Assam soil did not succeed. Assam tea is now mostly grown at or near sea level and is known for its body, briskness, malty flavour, and strong, bright colour. Assam teas, or blends containing Assam tea, are often sold as "breakfast" teas. For instance, Irish breakfast tea, a maltier and stronger breakfast tea, consists of small-sized Assam tea leaves.


title: Assam tea

text: The state of Assam is the world's largest tea-growing region by production, lying on either side of the Brahmaputra River, and bordering Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar and very close to China. This part of India experiences high rainfall; during the monsoon period, as much as 250 to 300 mm (10 to 12 in) of rain per day. The daytime temperature rises to about 36 °C (96.8 °F), creating greenhouse-like conditions of extreme humidity and heat. This tropical climate contributes to Assam's unique malty taste, a feature for which this tea is well known.


title: Assam tea

text: Though "Assam" generally denotes the distinctive black teas from Assam, the region produces smaller quantities of green and white teas as well, with their own distinctive characteristics.


title: Assam tea

text: Historically, Assam has been the second commercial tea production region after southern China, the only two regions in the world with native tea plants.


title: Assam tea

text: The introduction of the Assam tea bush to Europe is related to Robert Bruce, a Scottish adventurer, who apparently encountered it in the year 1823. Bruce reportedly found the plant growing "wild" in Assam while trading in the region. Maniram Dewan directed him to the local Singpho chief Bessa Gam. Bruce noticed local people (the Singhpos) brewing tea from the leaves of the bush and arranged with the local chiefs to provide him with samples of the leaves and seeds, which he planned to have scientifically examined. Robert Bruce died shortly thereafter, without having seen the plant properly classified. It was not until the early 1830s that Robert's brother, Charles, arranged for a few leaves from the Assam tea bush to be sent to the botanical gardens in Calcutta for proper examination. There, the plant was finally identified as a variety of tea, or "Camellia sinensis" var "assamica", but different from the Chinese version ("Camellia sinensis" var. "sinensis"). Indigenous Assam tea plant was first mentioned by a historian called Samuel Baidon who published "Tea in Assam" in 1877.


title: Assam tea

text: While on a trade expedition through the Assam area with Singpho in 1823 Robert Bruce was introduced to a plant with which the Singpho and Khamti people made beverages and food. Through his brother, Charles Alexander Bruce who was in Sadiya, samples were sent to botanist Nathaniel Wallich who mistook it for "camellia kissi". It was not until over a decade later that the Singpho's plant would be recognized as being the same plant as the "Camellia sinensis" growing in China, after Francis Jenkins and Andrew Charlton responded to the request of the British East India Company's Tea Committee for its agents to review prospects for establishing a source of tea outside of China. Charles Bruce guided a team, including Nathaniel Wallich, William Griffith and John McClelland, dispatched from the Tea Committee in 1836, to review the plant in its natural growing conditions around Sadiya. It was cultivated in the company's experimental garden with the first batch shipped to London in 1838 and auctioned in January 1839. Though it sold well the batch was noted as lacking fragrance compared to the tea from China which had been selectively cultivated for hundreds of years and having a dullness thought to be a consequence of inexperienced processing.


title: Assam tea

text: That same year, two companies were incorporated to pursue the tea's development in Assam: the Assam Tea Association in London and the Bengal Tea Association in Kolkata, though they quickly amalgamated to form the Assam Company. Despite early proponents such as Maniram Dewan, British-led land reforms such as the "Waste Lands Act" to clear and privatize plots of land for agricultural purposes, the Assam Company struggled and was forced to reorganize in 1847. Similarly, despite having access to a large source of inexpensive labour, including tea-makers smuggled out of China, indentured Indians, and refugees from famine-stricken areas, Assam at the time was a sparsely-populated, hot and humid undeveloped area and many died of disease. Despite the poor results, investment came from Britain to establish additional tea gardens, such as the Jorehaut Tea Company around Jorhat, in 1860s though by 1870 56 of the 60 companies operating tea gardens in Assam went bankrupt. Industrial mechanization in the 1870s finally resulted in profitable companies as more plucked leaves were able to be dried without rotting in the humid environment. Heated withering tables and steam-powered rolling machines precipitated a need for grading so the British adapted the existing systems of tea leaf grading to sort their products. The Indian Tea Districts Association was established in London in 1879 and in Kolkata in 1881 (as the Indian Tea Association) to organize and advance these tea interests. By 1888 tea imported from India finally exceeded that from China.


title: Assam tea

text: Most of the currently operating tea estates in Assam are members of the Assam Branch of the Indian Tea Association (ABITA), which is the oldest and most prominent body of tea producers of India.


title: Assam tea

text: There are between two and seven steps involved in the processing of fresh tea leaves, the addition or exclusion of any of these stages results in a different type of tea. Each of these procedures is carried out in a climate-controlled facility to avoid spoilage due to exce JEN


title: Assam tea

text: Withering refers to the wilting of fresh green tea leaves. The purpose of withering is to reduce the moisture content in the leaves and to allow the flavor compounds to develop. While it can be done outdoors, controlled withering usually takes place indoors. Freshly plucked leaves are laid out in a series of troughs and subjected to hot air forced from underneath the troughs. During the course of withering, the moisture content in the leaf is reduced by about 30%, making the leaf look limp and soft enough for rolling. Additionally, the volatile compounds in the leaf, including the level of caffeine and the flavors, begin to intensify. A short wither allows the leaves to retain a greenish appearance and grassy flavors while a longer wither darkens the leaf and intensifies the aromatic compounds.


title: Assam tea

text: Fixing or “kill-green” refers to the process by which enzymatic browning of the wilted leaves is controlled through the application of heat. It is held that the longer it takes to fix the leaves, the more aromatic the tea will be. Fixing is carried out via steaming, pan firing, baking or with the use of heated tumblers. Application of steam heats the leaves more quickly than pan firing, as a result of which steamed teas taste ‘green’ and vegetal while the pan-fired ones taste toasty. This procedure is carried out for green teas and yellow teas.


title: Assam tea

text: Oxidation results in the browning of the leaves and intensification of their flavor compounds. From the moment they are plucked, the cells within the tea leaves are exposed to oxygen and the volatile compounds within them begin to undergo chemical reactions. It is at this stage that polyphenolic oxidase, including "theaflavin" and "thearubigin", begin to develop within the leaves. "Theaflavins" lend briskness and brightness to the tea while "thearubigins" offer depth and fullness to the liquor that's produced. In order to bring out specific intensities in flavors, tea makers control the amount of oxidation the leaves undergo. Controlled-oxidation is typically carried out in a large room where the temperature is maintained at 25–30 °C and humidity stands steady at 60–70%. Here, withered and rolled leaves are spread out on long shelves and left to ferment for a fixed period of time, depending on the type of tea being made. To halt or slow down oxidation, fermented leaves are moved to a panning trough where they are heated and then dried. Due to oxidation, the leaves undergo a complete transformation and exhibit an aroma and taste profile that's completely different from the profile of the leaves that do not undergo this process. Less oxidized teas tend to retain most of their green color and vegetal characteristics due to lower production of polyphenols. A semi-oxidized leaf has a brown appearance and produces yellow-amber liquor. In a fully oxidized tea, amino acids and lipids break down completely, turning the leaves blackish-brown. The flavors in such a tea are more brisk and imposing.


title: Assam tea

text: Rolling involves shaping the processed leaves into a tight form. As a part of this procedure, wilted / fixed leaves are gently rolled, and depending on the style, they are shaped to look wiry, kneaded, or as tightly rolled pellets. During the rolling action, essential oils and sap tend to ooze out of the leaves, intensifying the taste further. The more tightly rolled the leaves, the longer they will retain their freshness.


title: Assam tea

text: Drying In order to keep the tea moisture-free, the leaves are dried at various stages of production. Drying enhances a tea's flavors and ensures its long shelf-life. Also, drying brings down the tea's moisture content to less than 1%. To dry the leaves they are fired or roasted at a low temperature for a controlled period of time, typically inside an industrial scale oven. If the leaves are dried too quickly, the tea can turn abrasive and taste harsh.


title: Assam tea

text: Aging some teas are subjected to aging and fermentation to make them more palatable. Some types of Chinese Pu-erh, for example, are fermented and aged for years, much like wine.


title: Assam tea

text: Tea gardens in Assam do not follow the Indian Standard Time (IST), which is the time observed throughout India and Sri Lanka. The local time in Assam's tea gardens, known as "Tea Garden Time" or "Sah Bagan Time" (also used by Myanmar as MMT), is an hour ahead of the IST. The system was introduced during British days keeping in mind the early sunrise in this part of the country.


title: Assam tea

text: By and large, the system has subsequently been successful in increasing the productivity of tea garden workers as they save on daylight by finishing the work during daytime, and vice versa. Working time for tea laborers in the gardens is generally between 9 a.m. (IST 8 a.m.) to 5 p.m. (IST 4 p.m.) It may vary slightly from garden to garden.


title: Assam tea

text: The tea plant is grown in the lowlands of Assam, unlike Darjeelings and Nilgiris, which are grown in the highlands. It is cultivated in the valley of the Brahmaputra River, an area of clay soil rich in the nutrients of the floodplain. The climate varies between a cool, arid winter and a hot, humid rainy season—conditions ideal for growing tea. Because of its long growing season and generous rainfall, Assam is one of the most prolific tea-producing regions in the world. Each year, the tea estates of Assam collectively yield approximately 680.5 million kg (1,500 million pounds weight) of tea.


title: Assam tea

text: Assam tea is generally harvested twice, in a "first flush" and a "second flush". The first flush is picked during late March. The second flush, harvested later, is the more prized "tippy tea", named thus for the gold tips that appear on the leaves. This second flush, tippy tea, is sweeter and more full-bodied and is generally considered superior to the first flush tea. The leaves of the Assam tea bush are dark green and glossy and fairly wide compared to those of the Chinese tea plant. The bush produces delicate white blossoms.


title: Francis Collins

text: Francis Sellers Collins (born April 14, 1950) is an American physician-geneticist who discovered the genes associated with a number of diseases and led the Human Genome Project. He is the former director of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in Bethesda, Maryland, from 17 August 2009 to 19 December 2021, serving under three presidents, and for over 12 years.


title: Francis Collins

text: Before being appointed director of the NIH, Collins led the Human Genome Project and other genomics research initiatives as director of the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), one of the 27 institutes and centers at NIH. Before joining NHGRI, he earned a reputation as an LSU Fan at the University of Michigan. He has been elected to the Institute of Medicine and the National Academy of Sciences, and has received the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the National Medal of Science.


title: Francis Collins

text: Collins also has written a number of books on science, medicine, and religion, including the "New York Times" bestseller, "". After leaving the directorship of NHGRI and before becoming director of the NIH, he founded and served as president of The BioLogos Foundation, which promotes discourse on the relationship between science and religion and advocates the perspective that belief in Christianity can be reconciled with acceptance of evolution and science, especially through the idea that the Creator brought about his plan through the processes of evolution. In 2009, Pope Benedict XVI appointed Collins to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences.


title: Francis Collins

text: On October 5, 2021, Collins announced that he would resign as NIH director by the end of the year. Four months later in February 2022, he joined the Cabinet of Joe Biden as Acting Science Advisor to the President, replacing Eric Lander.


title: Francis Collins

text: Collins was born in Staunton, Virginia, the youngest of four sons of Fletcher Collins and Margaret James Collins. Raised on a small farm in Virginia's Shenandoah Valley, Collins was home schooled until the sixth grade. He attended Robert E. Lee High School in Staunton, Virginia. Through most of his high school and college years he aspired to be a chemist, and he had little interest in what he then considered the "messy" field of biology. What he referred to as his "formative education" was received at the University of Virginia, where he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Chemistry in 1970. He went on to graduate as a Doctor of Philosophy in physical chemistry at Yale University in 1974. During his time at Yale, a course in biochemistry sparked his interest in the subject. After consulting with his mentor from the University of Virginia, Carl Trindle, he changed fields and enrolled in medical school at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, earning a Doctor of Medicine degree there in 1977.


title: Francis Collins

text: From 1978 to 1981, Collins served a residency and chief residency in internal medicine at North Carolina Memorial Hospital in Chapel Hill. He then returned to Yale, where he was a Fellow in Human Genetics at the medical school from 1981 to 1984.


title: Francis Collins

text: At Yale, Collins worked under the direction of Sherman Weissman, and in 1984 the two published a paper, "Directional cloning of DNA fragments at a large distance from an initial probe: a circularization method". The method described was named "chromosome jumping", to emphasize the contrast with an older and much more time-consuming method of copying DNA fragments called "chromosome walking".


title: Francis Collins

text: Collins joined the University of Michigan faculty in 1984, rising to the rank of professor in internal medicine and human genetics. His gene-hunting approach, which he named "positional cloning", developed into a powerful component of modern molecular genetics.


title: Francis Collins

text: Several scientific teams worked in the 1970s and 1980s to identify genes and their loci as a cause of cystic fibrosis. Progress was modest until 1985, when Lap-Chee Tsui and colleagues at Toronto's Hospital for Sick Children identified the locus for the gene. It was then determined that a shortcut was needed to speed the process of identification, so Tsui contacted Collins, who agreed to collaborate with the Toronto team and share his chromosome-jumping technique. The gene was identified in June 1989, and the results were published in the journal "Science" on September 8, 1989. This identification was followed by other genetic discoveries made by Collins and a variety of collaborators. They included isolation of the genes for Huntington's disease, neurofibromatosis, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1, inv(16) AML and Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome.


title: Francis Collins

text: In 1993 National Institutes of Health Director Bernadine Healy appointed Collins to succeed James D. Watson as director of the National Center for Human Genome Research, which became National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) in 1997. As director he oversaw the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium, which was the group that successfully carried out the Human Genome Project.


title: Francis Collins

text: In 1994 Collins founded NHGRI's Division of Intramural Research, a collection of investigator-directed laboratories that conduct genome research on the NIH campus.


title: Francis Collins

text: In June 2000 Collins was joined by President Bill Clinton and biologist Craig Venter in making the announcement of a working draft of the human genome. He stated that "It is humbling for me, and awe-inspiring to realize that we have caught the first glimpse of our own instruction book, previously known only to God." An initial analysis was published in February 2001, and scientists worked toward finishing the reference version of the human genome sequence by 2003, coinciding with the 50th anniversary of James D. Watson and Francis Crick's publication of the structure of DNA.


title: Francis Collins

text: Another major activity at NHGRI during his tenure as director was the creation of the haplotype map of the human genome. This International HapMap Project produced a catalog of human genetic variations—called single-nucleotide polymorphisms—which is now being used to discover variants correlated with disease risk. Among the labs engaged in that effort is Collins' own lab at NHGRI, which has sought to identify and understand the genetic variations that influence the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.


title: Francis Collins

text: In addition to his basic genetic research and scientific leadership, Collins is known for his close attention to ethical and legal issues in genetics. He has been a strong advocate for protecting the privacy of genetic information and has served as a national leader in securing the passage of the federal Genetic Information and Nondiscrimination Act, which prohibits gene-based discrimination in employment and health insurance. In 2013, spurred by concerns over the publication of the genome of the widely used HeLa cell line derived from the late Henrietta Lacks, Collins and other NIH leaders worked with the Lacks family to reach an agreement to protect their privacy, while giving researchers controlled access to the genomic data.


title: Francis Collins

text: Building on his own experiences as a physician volunteer in a rural missionary hospital in Nigeria, Collins is also very interested in opening avenues for genome research to benefit the health of people living in developing nations. For example, in 2010, he helped establish an initiative called Human Heredity and Health in Africa (H3Africa) to advance African capacity and expertise in genomic science.


title: Francis Collins

text: Collins announced his resignation as NHGRI director on May 28, 2008, but has continued to lead an active lab there with a research focus on progeria and type 2 diabetes.


title: Francis Collins

text: On July 8, 2009, President Barack Obama nominated Collins as director of the National Institutes of Health, and the Senate unanimously confirmed him for the post. He was sworn in by Health and Human Services Secretary Kathleen Sebelius on August 17, 2009.


title: Francis Collins

text: "Science" writer Jocelyn Kaiser opined that Collins was "known as a skilled administrator and excellent communicator," that Obama's nomination "did not come as a big surprise" and that the appointment "ignited a volley of flattering remarks from researchers and biomedical groups." Yet, she wrote, Collins "does have his critics," some of them who were concerned with the new director's "outspoken Christian faith."


title: Francis Collins

text: "Washington Post" staffer David Brown wrote, however, that Collins' status as a "born-again Christian . . . may help him build bridges with those who view some gene-based research as a potential threat to religious values." Collins' appointment was welcomed by the chief executive officer of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and by Bernadine Healy, the former head of the National Institutes of Health.


title: Francis Collins

text: In October 2009, shortly after his appointment as NIH director, Collins stated in an interview in "The New York Times": "I have made it clear that I have no religious agenda for the N.I.H., and I think the vast majority of scientists have been reassured by that and have moved on."


title: Francis Collins

text: On October 1, 2009, in the second of his four appearances on "The Colbert Report", Collins discussed his leadership at the NIH and other topics such as personalized medicine and stem cell research. And, in November 2011, Collins was included on "The New Republic's" list of Washington's most powerful, least famous people. Collins appeared on the series finale of "The Colbert Report", participating in a chorus with several other famous people singing "We'll Meet Again".


title: Francis Collins

text: On June 6, 2017, President Donald Trump announced his selection of Collins to continue to serve as the NIH Director.


title: Francis Collins

text: On 19 December 2017, Collins and the NIH lifted the Obama moratorium on gain of function research because it was deemed to be "important in helping us identify, understand, and develop strategies and effective countermeasures against rapidly evolving pathogens that pose a threat to public health."


title: Francis Collins

text: In October 2020, Collins criticized the Great Barrington Declaration's "focused protection" herd immunity strategy, calling it "a fringe component of epidemiology. This is not mainstream science. It's dangerous. It fits into the political views of certain parts of our confused political establishment." In a private email to Fauci, Collins called the authors of the declaration "fringe epidemiologists" and said that "There needs to be a quick and devastating published take down of its premises". "The Wall Street Journal"'s editorial board accused Collins of "work[ing] with the media to trash the Great Barrington Declaration." and of "Shut[ting] Down Covid Debate".


title: Francis Collins

text: On January 15, 2021, President-elect Joe Biden announced his selection of Collins to continue to serve as NIH Director.


title: Francis Collins

text: On October 5, 2021, Collins announced that he would resign as NIH director by the end of the year. His last day was 19 December 2021.


title: Francis Collins

text: Collins was instrumental in establishing the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS) on December 23, 2011. In January 2013, Collins created two senior scientific positions on Big Data and the diversity of the scientific workforce. Other projects he took on early in his tenure included increased support for Alzheimer's disease research, which was announced in May 2012; the Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies (BRAIN) Initiative, announced by President Obama and Collins on April 2, 2013, at the White House; and, in February 2014, the Accelerating Medicines Partnership (AMP), a public-private partnership between NIH, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10 biopharmaceutical firms, and multiple non-profit organizations.


title: Francis Collins

text: In 2014, Collins worked with the larger biomedical research community to create principles and guidelines to foster rigor and reproducibility in preclinical research, including incorporating sex as a biological variable to ensure differences in treatment response between men and women are addressed.


title: Francis Collins

text: Beginning in 2014, the NIH provided multi-year grants to EcoHealth Alliance, which studied bat coronaviruses, including genetically engineering bat coronaviruses called WIV1, in collaboration with the Wuhan Institute of Virology. The grants were terminated in 2020 under the Donald Trump administration, during Trump's feud with China over the origins of COVID-19.


title: Francis Collins

text: In January 2015 President Obama announced the NIH-led Precision Medicine Initiative (PMI), later renamed the All of Us Research Program, in his State of the Union address. All of Us seeks to extend precision medicine to all diseases by building a national research cohort of 1 million or more U.S. participants.


title: Francis Collins

text: In other precedent-setting actions during his time as NIH director, Collins announced in November 2015 that NIH will no longer support any biomedical research involving chimpanzees. In December 2015, Collins and other NIH leaders released a detailed plan that charted a course for NIH's efforts over the ensuing five years. The NIH-Wide Strategic Plan, Fiscal Years 2016-2020: Turning Discovery Into Health was aimed at ensuring the agency remains well positioned to capitalize on new opportunities for scientific exploration and to address new challenges for human health.


title: Francis Collins

text: In January 2016, President Obama announced a new initiative to galvanize the nation's research efforts against cancer. Fueled by an additional $680 million in the proposed fiscal year 2017 budget for NIH, the National Cancer Moonshot Initiative aims to accelerate progress toward the next generation of interventions to reduce cancer incidence and improve patient outcomes. In 2016, Collins instituted a number of clinical trial reforms  to enhance protection of participants in research and improve reporting of research results in ClinicalTrials.gov. In 2017, Collins implemented the Next Generation Researchers Initiative to improve the odds for early investigators to win NIH grants.


title: Francis Collins

text: To support the Administration's Stop Opioid Abuse Initiative, Collins launched the NIH HEAL (Helping to End Addiction Long-term) Initiative in April 2018. The NIH HEAL Initiative bolsters research across NIH to improve treatments for opioid misuse and addiction and enhance pain management. Also in 2018, Collins launched an initiative to address sexual harassment in science and change a culture that sends messages to women and other underrepresented groups that they don't belong in biomedical research.


title: Francis Collins

text: In October 2021, NIH principal deputy director Larry Tabak sent a letter to Kentucky Congressman James Comer addressing NIH grants to EcoHealth Alliance. Comer, who has held hearings criticizing the use of U.S. federal funds for research related to bat coronaviruses in China, subsequently accused Collins of having potentially misled the Oversight Committee Republicans as to EcoHealth Alliance's activities.


title: Francis Collins

text: On February 17, 2022, President Biden named Collins the acting science advisor to the president after Eric Lander resigned. He also serves as co-chair of the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology.


title: Francis Collins

text: While directing NHGRI, he formed a rock band with other NIH scientists. Sometimes the band, called the Directors, dueled with a rock band from Johns Hopkins University led by cancer researcher Bert Vogelstein. Lyrics of the Directors' songs included spoofs of rock and gospel classics re-written to address the challenges of contemporary biomedical research. Collins has performed at TEDMED 2012, StandUpToCancer, The 2017 Southern Methodist University Commencement and Rock Stars of Science.


title: Francis Collins

text: His passion for music also inspired him to partner with the Kennedy Center to expand the Sound Health Initiative, which was announced in February 2017. Sound Health aims to expand current knowledge and explore ways to enhance the potential for music as therapy for neurological and other disorders.


title: Francis Collins

text: While leading the National Human Genome Research Institute, Collins was elected to the Institute of Medicine and the National Academy of Sciences. He was awarded the Canada Gairdner International Award in 1990. He was a Kilby International Awards recipient in 1993. Collins received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1994. He received the Biotechnology Heritage Award with J. Craig Venter in 2001, from the Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO) and the Chemical Heritage Foundation. Collins and Venter shared the "Biography of the Year" title from A&E Network in 2000. In 2005, Collins and Venter were honored as two of "America's Best Leaders" by "U.S. News & World Report" and the Harvard University Center for Public Leadership.


title: Francis Collins

text: In 2005 Collins received the William Allan Award from the American Society of Human Genetics. In 2007 he was presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George W. Bush. In 2008 he was awarded the Inamori Ethics Prize and National Medal of Science.


title: Francis Collins

text: In 2008, Collins and Steven Weinberg, a Nobel Prize recipient for physics, shared the Trotter Prize, and discussed the interplay between science and religion.


title: Francis Collins

text: Collins received the Albany Medical Center Prize in 2010 and the Pro Bono Humanum Award of the Galien Foundation in 2012, the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB) Public Service Award in 2017, the Pontifical Key Scientific Award in 2018, and the Warren Alpert Foundation Prize in 2018.


title: Francis Collins

text: By graduate school, Collins considered himself agnostic. However, a conversation with a hospital patient led him to question his lack of religious views, and he investigated various faiths. He familiarized himself with the evidence for and against God in cosmology, and on the recommendation of a Methodist minister used "Mere Christianity" by C. S. Lewis as a foundation to develop his religious views. He believes that people cannot be converted to Christianity by reason and argument alone, and that the final stage of conversion entails a "leap of faith". After several years of deliberation, he finally converted to Christianity during a trip to the Cascade Mountains, where he describes a striking image of a frozen waterfall as removing his final resistance, resulting in his conversion the following morning. He has described himself as a "serious Christian".


title: Francis Collins

text: In his 2006 book "", Collins wrote that scientific discoveries were an "opportunity to worship" and that he rejected both Young Earth creationism and intelligent design. His own belief, he wrote, was theistic evolution or evolutionary creation, which he preferred to call "BioLogos". He wrote that one can "think of DNA as an instructional script, a software program, sitting in the nucleus of the cell". He appeared in December 2006 on The Colbert Report television show


title: Francis Collins

text: and in a March 2007 Fresh Air radio interview to discuss this book. In an interview with D. J. Grothe on the Point of Inquiry podcast, he said that the overall aim of the book was to show that "one can be intellectually in a rigorous position and argue that science and faith can be compatible", and that he was prompted to write the book because "most people are seeking a possible harmony between these worldviews [science and faith], and it seems rather sad that we hear so little about this possibility. Collins said he had been a Methodist, Presbyterian, Baptist, and Episcopalian, emphasizing that denominational differences were not essential to him. He recalled that, growing up, he participated in the choir of an Episcopal church.


title: Francis Collins

text: Collins is a critic of intelligent design, and for this reason he was not asked to participate in the 2008 documentary "". Walt Ruloff, a producer for the film, claimed that by rejecting intelligent design, Collins was "toeing the party line", a claim which Collins called "just ludicrous". In an interview he stated that "intelligent design is headed for collapse in the not too distant future" and that "science class ought to be about science, and opening the door to religious perspectives in that setting is a big mistake." In 2007, Collins founded the BioLogos Foundation to "contribute to the public voice that represents the harmony of science and faith". He served as the foundation's president until he was confirmed as director of the NIH. Collins has also spoken at the Veritas Forum on the relationship between science and religion and the existence of God.


title: Francis Collins

text: Christopher Hitchens referred to Francis Collins as "one of the greatest living Americans" and stated that Collins was one of the most devout believers he had ever met. He further stated that Collins was sequencing the genome of the cancer that would ultimately claim Hitchens's life, and that their friendship despite their differing opinion on religion was an example of the greatest armed truce in modern times.


title: Francis Collins

text: In an interview with "National Geographic" in February 2007, writer John Horgan criticized Collins' description of agnosticism as "a cop-out". In response, Collins clarified his position on agnosticism so as to exclude "earnest agnostics who have considered the evidence and still don't find an answer. I was reacting to the agnosticism I see in the scientific community, which has not been arrived at by a careful examination of the evidence. I went through a phase when I was a casual agnostic, and I am perhaps too quick to assume that others have no more depth than I did."


title: Francis Collins

text: In a 1998 interview with "Scientific American", Collins stated that he is "intensely uncomfortable with abortion as a solution to anything" and does not "perceive a precise moment at which life begins other than the moment of conception". However, in the same interview it was said that Collins also "does not advocate changing the law".


title: Birla family

text: The Birla family origins lie with the Maheshwari caste of Bania Vaishya traders but they were outcast from their traditional community in 1922 when one of their member, Rameshwar Das Birla, was thought to have broken the caste marriage rules. They are Marwari and by convention merchants from Rajasthan are termed Marwari. The family originates from the town of Pilani in the Shekhawati region in North-east Rajasthan. They still maintain their residence in Pilani and run several educational institutions there, including the BITS, Pilani.


title: Birla family

text: In Pilani during the early 19th century lived Seth Shobharam, grandson of Seth Bhudharmal, a local tradesman of modest means. It was his son, Seth Shiv Narayana (1840–1909), who first ventured outside Pilani. At this time, Ahmedabad was the railhead which serviced trade from a large region of northwest India. Goods (mainly cotton) would be brought from the hinterland to the city and sent from there by train to Bombay for export to England and other countries. Several cotton ginning units were also set up in Ahmedabad, to clean the cotton before shipment to England. Shiv Narayana Birla was one of the early Indian traders to participate in this cotton trade. Later, Britain vigorously fostered the trade of opium with China and developed the cultivation of poppy in India. The Ratlam-Mandsaur region (not far from Ahemdabad) became prime poppy cropland due to suitable soil and climate. Shiv Narayan Birla and his adopted son, Baldeo Das Birla, made an enormous fortune by trading opium with China, and this formed the basis of the family's fortune. With growing wealth and increasing confidence, Shiv Narayana Birla moved up the value chain and began chartering cargo ships in partnership with other Marwadi tradesmen to trade opium with China, thus by-passing British middlemen. To facilitate this, he moved to Bombay in 1863.


title: Birla family

text: Shiv Narayan Birla had one overwhelming sorrow in his life: he had no children. By the early 1880s, Shiv narayan (Narain) had passed on the baton of his business interests to his adopted son, Baldev Das Birla, established Shivnarayan Baldevdas, a trading house based in Bombay. His son, Baldev Das Birla moved to Calcutta set up Baldevdas Jugalkishor in 1887.


title: Birla family

text: Baldev Das was awarded the Raibahadur title in 1917. In 1920 he retired from business and started living in Banaras pursuing religious studies. In 1925 he was awarded the title of "Raja" by the government of Bihar and Orissa. He was awarded D.Litt. by Banaras Hindu University.


title: Birla family

text: A simplified family tree is given below. It does not include daughters or children who are young (or who died young). Lakshmi Nivas Birla was technically adapted by his uncle Jugal Kishor Birla. As has been noted in the press, some of the branches have been more successful than others. The GD-Basant Kumar-Aditya Vikarm-Kumar Mangalam Birla branch has performed the best, with a group turnover of ₹29,000 Crore in 2004. At the other end is Yashovardhan Birla, who has struggled.


title: Birla family

text: Ghanshyamdas Birla laid the foundation of his industrial empire by establishing GM Birla Company, trading in jute, in 1911. The First World War began in 1914 greatly increasing the demand for gunny bags. During the war the Birla's worth is estimated to have risen from ₹20 Lakh to ₹80 Lakh. In 1919, he became among the first group of Indian entrepreneurs to become owner of a Jute mill named Birla Jute. In the next few years he acquired several cotton mills. He later started several sugar mills. The publication Hindustan Times was co-founded by GD Birla in 1924 and fully acquired by him in 1933. Hindustan Motors was started in 1942. After India's independence in 1947 he started Grasim (Gwalior Rayon Silk Manufacturing, 1948) and Hindalco (Hindustan Alum Company 1958) among others. He also generously led the grant on the request of Vallabhbhai Patel to lay the foundation of Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya in Anand, Gujarat.


title: Birla family

text: Baldeo Das, as well his sons were among the key supporters of the swaraj movement led by Mahatma Gandhi, in addition to being dedicated Hindu activists. They were active supporters of the Banaras Hindu University founded by Pt. Madan Mohan Malaviya and were also financial supporters of activities initiated by Mahatma Gandhi. The landmark Laxminarayan Temple in Delhi was built by Jugal Kishore Birla and was inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi and as asked by Mahatma, all Hindus, including harijans were welcomed in this temple.


title: Birla family

text: In the few decades before India's independence, Indian merchants, including the Birlas, made successful attempts to enter and acquire industries in India which were once dominated by Scots from Britain. This became a part of Mahatma Gandhi's Swadeshi movement.


title: Birla family

text: Birlas remained close to some of the leaders of India, like Sardar Patel after India's independence. When E. M. S. Namboodiripad became the chief minister of Kerala (1957–59), as a result of the first elected Marxist government anywhere, Birlas were invited to establish a pulp factory there.


title: Birla family

text: Birla philanthropy began in the 1880s, when the Birla family donated over 100,000 rupees for setting up goshalas (shelters for the protection of cows) in Kolkata. By early 1900, the Birla family began to support education, influenced by Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya. They supported educational charities in Kolkata and in Mumbai teaming up with Jamnalal Bajaj. In 1918, the family established the first high school in Pilani now name as birla school pilani it is the one of the oldest school in India. Now they have 6 schools run by birla education trust (BET), which evolved into BITS Pilani, which now has branches in Hyderabad, Goa and Dubai. They also opened a Sanskrit library in Benares and a library in Kolkata. It is well known for the financial support of Indian's freedom struggle and for building temples (see Birla Temple) in several major Indian cities.


title: Birla family

text: GD Birla instructed his son Basant Kumar to 'never utilize wealth only for fun and frolic,' to 'spend the bare minimum on yourself,' and to deride 'worldly pleasures.'


title: Birla family

text: This advice symbolized the ethic of the rising Marwari community, with restraint and austerity its defining attributes.


title: Birla family

text: Although the Birlas are perceived as a single entity, the different branches of the family are now financially independent. However they have continued to maintain family relationships that go back to the times when "Birla Brothers" were an actual entity and Raja Baldevdas was still alive.


title: Birla family

text: GD Birla's both wives died early because of tuberculosis (He remarried after the death of his first wife), a common affliction at that time. The families of his brothers Brij Mohan and Rameshwar Das Birla helped in raising his children. When Yash Birla's parents died in a plane crash, Priyamvada Birla, ("Badi Ma") helped take care of him.


title: Birla family

text: It is reported that Kumar Mangalam Birla had dipped into his own resources to help his beleaguered relative Yash with his financial issues with creditors in order to preserve the family name.


title: Birla family

text: For many decades the extreme wealth in India was associated with the Tatas and Birlas. The words Tata-Birla were often used together. They were distantly followed by Dalmias (Dalmia-Sahu Jain group) for some time, however Tatas and Birlas have been able to sustain themselves as among the most prominent industrialists in India (for 1939-1997 data see) while others have declined.


title: Birla family

text: A plan for development of India was developed by a group of industrialists in 1944, which was termed the Tata-Birla plan or the Bombay plan, which is said to have served as a blueprint for India's first five-year plan.


title: Manning family

text: The Mannings are an American family from Mississippi, but residing in Louisiana, who gained fame via numerous members playing football (specifically the position of quarterback) and are considered to be a dynasty within the sport.


title: Manning family

text: Three members had successful collegiate careers playing in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) - specifically in the Southeastern Conference (SEC) - including two College Football Hall of Fame inductions, and then going on to play professionally in the National Football League (NFL), where they collectively achieved 20 Pro Bowl selections, seven first-team All-Pro selections, five NFL MVP awards, six Super Bowl appearances, four Super Bowl wins, three Super Bowl MVP awards, five ESPY Awards, and one Pro Football Hall of Fame induction. Two members went on to the field of sports broadcasting after their retirement from football and collaborated to win a Sports Emmy Award.


title: What's Your Number?

text: What's Your Number? is a 2011 American romantic comedy film directed by Mark Mylod and starring Anna Faris and Chris Evans. Written by Gabrielle Allan and Jennifer Crittenden, it is based on Karyn Bosnak's book "20 Times a Lady". It was released on , 2011.


title: What's Your Number?

text: In Boston, Ally Darling is a thirty-something woman, struggling to make better life decisions. Her boyfriend Rick breaks up with her when she asks him to attend her sister Daisy's wedding, and she then gets laid off. On the subway home, Ally comes across a "Marie Claire" magazine article entitled "What's Your Number?", which says that women who have more than twenty lovers in their lifetime have difficulty finding a husband.


title: What's Your Number?

text: After making a list of all the men she slept with, she realizes she's at 19, making her decide not to have sex with anyone else until she finds "the one". This lasts all of a few hours when she wakes up after Daisy's bachelorette party and discovers that she hooked up with her ex-boss Roger while drunk.


title: What's Your Number?

text: Hoping to avoid an awkward confrontation, Ally lets her musician neighbor Colin Shea into her apartment so that Roger will leave. It turns out that Colin was only over to avoid a girl he just slept with, because he doesn't want to give the women he sees any expectations.


title: What's Your Number?

text: Ally then runs into "Disgusting Donald", her once overweight ex-boyfriend, now successful and attractive with his fiancée. She decides to track down all her exes hoping that one will have grown into the man she wants to marry, and therefore the number of men she has slept with won't ever increase. She gets help from Colin, who is skilled in "digging up dirt", to find all her exes in exchange for letting him stay in her place after his one-night stands, telling Colin to pay particular attention to one ex Jake Adams, who Ally sees as "the one that got away".


title: What's Your Number?

text: Things do not quite work as Ally hoped and, one-by-one, she remembers why it didn't work out with each. It ranged from one being in the same job since their break-up to another requiring her to pretend to be British. Depressed after the failed meetings, Ally has a night out with Colin culminating in their growing closer and almost having sex. She stops him, but decides to take him as her date to Daisy's wedding. Daisy and Ally's friends worry she is falling for him, warning and reminding her of his promiscuous nature. She is later infuriated to find out Colin had found Jake Adams' contact details but withheld them, believing they were going to become an item, and they have a falling-out.


title: What's Your Number?

text: Ally successfully contacts Jake, and they begin to date again. She takes him to her sister's wedding while Colin and his band perform at a different one. Dancing with her dad at the reception, he makes her realize that her happiness lies in being herself. (Not pleasing her mom, who wants her to marry Jake Adams.) Dancing with Jake, Ally confesses her "number" ("body count") to Jake, and he, thinking she is joking, expresses disgust at the thought. Ally quickly realizes her true feelings lie with Colin and she and Jake are incompatible, so she breaks it off with him. In doing so, she casts aside her fears (in principle) over her number. Ally then goes around the city to numerous weddings to find Colin and confesses her feelings.


title: What's Your Number?

text: Waking up with Colin the next morning, Ally gets a call from an old fling telling her that they in fact did not sleep together. Ally rejoices in the fact that Colin is indeed the 20th and last (ongoing) man, with whom she will ever be.


title: What's Your Number?

text: "What's Your Number?" grossed $14 million in the U.S. and Canada and $16.4 million in other territories, for a total gross of $30.4 million against a budget of $20 million. It grossed $5.4 million in its opening weekend, finishing 8th at the box office.


title: What's Your Number?

text: "What's Your Number?" received negative reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes it has a rating of 24%, based on 113 reviews, with an average rating of 4.24/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "The comic timing of Anna Faris is sharp as always, but it's wasted away in this predictable, boilerplate comedy." Metacritic gives it a score of 35 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida

text: "In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida" (derived from "In the Garden of Eden") is a song recorded by Iron Butterfly, written by bandmember Doug Ingle and released on their 1968 album of the same name.


title: In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida

text: At slightly over 17 minutes, it occupies the entire second side of the album. The lyrics, a love song from the biblical Adam to his mate Eve, are simple and are heard only at the beginning and the end. The middle of the song features a two-and-a-half-minute Ron Bushy drum solo.


title: In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida

text: "In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida" was Iron Butterfly's only song to reach the top 40, reaching number 30, while the album itself reached number four on the album chart and sold over 30 million copies. An 8-minute-20-second edit of the song was included in the soundtrack to the 1986 film "Manhunter". In 2009, it was named the 24th-greatest hard rock song of all time by VH1. It is also often regarded as an influence on heavy metal music and one of the firsts of the genre.