title: Mexicali

text: In addition, Ciudad Deportiva is the location of Farmacias Sta Maria formally known as Estadio B'Air, where the Águilas de Mexicali play, competing in winter baseball's Mexican Pacific League (LMP). The Centinelas de Mexicali are a professional team which plays in the North Sonora League, the main development league for the LMP. Young Mexicali baseball players have played in the Little League World Series five times; first in 1985, with the Félix Arce Little League representing the United States West region, and then in 2005, 2007, 2011 and 2015 the Seguro Social Little League representing Mexicali.


title: Mexicali

text: Mexicali is located at a Junction of major interstates and federal highways. These include Interstate 8, leading from San Diego to the Arizona Sun Corridor where the cities of Phoenix and Tucson dominate, Federal Highway 2, which leads east to San Luis Río Colorado and west to Tijuana, and Federal Highway 5 connecting San Felipe with Mexicali. Other roads lead southwest to Ensenada or north to the Imperial Valley.


title: Mexicali

text: The road system in the city of Mexicali and its conurbation is very complex. Over the urban area long boulevards are traversed from one end of which most are 6 lanes with a median of 2 lanes. The backbone of the city is the Lazaro Cardenas Boulevard extending from east to west. Other important boulevards include: Adolfo Lopez Mateos, Benito Juárez, Anáhuac, Justo Sierra, Venustiano Carranza, Manuel Gómez Morin, Francisco L. Montejano, Cetys, Héctor Terán Terán, Independencia and Heroico Colegio Militar, among others. There are two corridors within the city: New River Ecological Corridor, which is guided in the ancient New River bed, and the Palaco Industrial Corridor, this crosses the southern Industrial zone of Mexicali. There is also the beltway, located in the east of the city, connecting the Lazaro Cardenas Blvd. with Islas Agrarias Blvd. and the road to Colonia Abasolo, and this in turn with the Airport Road.


title: Mexicali

text: The city is linked to other Mexican cities by Mexicali International Airport, which serves the city and the surrounding towns.


title: Mexicali

text: There are over 40 bus routes across the city and its urban area, where companies like Atusa Plus, Getusmex, among others, offer this service.


title: Forza Horizon

text: Forza Horizon is a 2012 racing video game developed by Playground Games and published by Microsoft Studios for the Xbox 360 on 23 October 2012. The game is the fifth instalment of the "Forza" series, having originally spun-off from Turn 10 Studios' "Forza Motorsport" series. Taking place during the fictitious Horizon Festival, a street racing event set in the state of Colorado, the aim is to progress via winning races, while also increasing the popularity level by performing stunts. Players can drive off-road in select areas while others are limited by guardrails or other means.


title: Forza Horizon

text: "Forza Horizon" was released to critical acclaim and has since spawned its own series, with four additional sequels to date: "Forza Horizon 2" in 2014, "Forza Horizon 3" in 2016, "Forza Horizon 4" in 2018, and "Forza Horizon 5" in 2021. The game was delisted from the Xbox 360 Marketplace on October 24, 2016, following the expiration of its car branding licenses. The online servers have been offline since 2022, but no official announcement has been made regarding the online service's closure.


title: Forza Horizon

text: Forza Horizon focuses specifically on casual street racing, rather than professionally on race tracks, as it takes place on a map of temporarily closed public roads. It features multiple types of races, from drift to rally and point-to-point races. The roads feature both AI traffic and when playing online, other festival drivers. Players may challenge the other racers they encounter in a one-on-one race to a given location. The races start at the current location, and finish at a randomly generated way-point, usually more than 500 metres away from the player and their opponent. A skill system is implemented in the game; players earn popularity during races by driving aggressively. Acts such as drifting, jumping over obstacles and getting a car on two wheels all contribute to the player's popularity level. These can be chained together in a combo, which in turn affects the money players are paid at the end of a given race. As a player's popularity level increases new special events are unlocked, such as races against helicopters and planes.


title: Forza Horizon

text: In an interview with Turn 10's creative director Dan Greenawalt, he stated the game was developed in close relation to real music festivals—namely Coachella—and that he envisioned a more relaxed game-play experience than other games in the Forza series, while keeping a more realistic handling style. Being the main theme of the game, a large focus of the game is on the festival itself and activities surrounding it, rather than just racing.


title: Forza Horizon

text: Speed traps are present in the game, and players can challenge each other for the top speed in a given area. Cameras record player times, which can then be shared among rivals. Those rivals can then attempt to beat the shared time. A photography mode is also included. In addition to races, the map is scattered with barn find cars, rare classical vehicles that can be restored and added to the players garage.


title: Forza Horizon

text: Other aspects of game-play include an auto-show, in which the player can buy or sell cars; a garage, in which the player can manually or automatically upgrade their cars, and a paint shop, in which players can create custom paints, liveries, and paint presets for their vehicles. When free-roaming, the player may encounter discount signs which, when smashed, give a price reduction on all upgrades from that point forwards.


title: Forza Horizon

text: "Forza Horizon" was developed by UK-based Playground Games, which is composed of employees who formerly worked at various studios renowned for earlier racing titles and series such as "Project Gotham Racing", "Driver", "", "Colin McRae Rally", "" and "Burnout". When asked about Playground Games' involvement, Dan Greenawalt said, "I wouldn't trust this partner as much as I do if I didn't expect them to surprise me and surprise our players. I have respect for their ability to come up with great ideas. So I think yes, they are challenged by the customers the same way we are to surprise them with innovation. That's how they see themselves, that's how we see them, it's how they see us. It's really a shared goal."


title: Forza Horizon

text: Though "Forza Horizon" is in the hands of an outside developer, Dan Greenawalt believes such risks are needed to meet the vision for the franchise.


title: Forza Horizon

text: Development of the environment began with research on almost 30 real-world locations. After initial research, creative director Ralph Fulton stated that there was "one clear winner", Colorado, USA. Trips were made to the state to take footage and over 50,000 still photos for reference. The goal, stated Fulton, was to "build our own take on Colorado". Initial world design began with a 2D layout which then evolved into multiple areas created with 3D models. The game features several types of landscape including snow-covered mountain roads, plains, foothills, and an area inspired by Colorado's Red Rocks Park; all are featured in a fictitious form alongside the game's Horizon festival location. The developers stated that finding ways to transition between these areas was one of the greatest challenges. Flora and fauna are also visible in the game for increased realism and depth.


title: Forza Horizon

text: A partial reveal of the vehicle list began on Forza's Twitter and Facebook pages on 23 August 2012. The list includes a 1969 Pontiac GTO Judge, a 2012 Hennessey Venom GT, and a Lamborghini Countach LP500 QV, among many others. A season pass was confirmed for future downloadable content (DLC) on 25 September 2012. It allows players to download the first six car packs, consisting of six cars each, gives players five exclusive cars, and will grant access to the game's rally racing expansion pack slated for 18 December 2012 release. Vehicle selections vary between monthly instalments, and each vehicle can be purchased individually if players so choose. These vehicles include the Lamborghini Aventador J, Gumpert Apollo Enraged, Alfa Romeo 8C Spider, 2011 Ford F-150 SVT Raptor Halo Edition and the 1993 McLaren F1. Unicorn cars — cars that are rare and unobtainable through conventional means — can be given to players by the developer for community involvement in both in and out-of-game situations and events.


title: Forza Horizon

text: The 1000 Club was released on 16 April 2013, as a free DLC pack in the Xbox Marketplace. It was designed to extend the gameplay of "Forza Horizon" by adding new achievements and in-game medals. It includes two free cars, the Ruf CTR2 and the Ford F100. With the 1000 Club, each car in the game has about five or six in-game achievements that can be unlocked. By completing some of these achievements, players can unlock Xbox achievements.


title: Forza Horizon

text: "Forza Horizon" was rated a 12 by PEGI and T by the ESRB; it is the only game in the "Forza" franchise to ever receive these ratings.


title: Forza Horizon

text: Community Manager of the series, Brian Ekberg, announced in September 2016 that the game has reached the "End of Life" status, meaning that the game and all its DLC has been removed from storefront effective 20 October 2016. However, on 30 April 2022, the game was unexpectedly relisted on the Xbox Games Store for a few hours before being delisted again, although the DLC was not relisted during this time.


title: Forza Horizon

text: In March 2018, Microsoft released an update for the game under the Enhanced for Xbox One X program, allowing the game to run under 4K resolution on supported consoles.


title: Forza Horizon

text: The game's soundtrack contains several dubstep tracks, with a demonstration showing a variation of Avicii's ""Levels"" remixed by American music producer Skrillex. Three fictional radio stations are featured, all catering to different styles and genres of music. Some featured songs are from highly popular producers, while some are from lesser-known artists, and multiple Australian artists, such as Cut Copy and Empire of the Sun. Playground Games also worked with Bestival founder and DJ Rob da Bank. He curated the featured songs and design of the festival, giving a more authentic experience. In an interview with DJMag, he said, "I was brought on board right at the start as a sort of creative consultant. Not just overseeing the music soundtrack, but also the design of the festival within the game, how the radio stations work in the car, and loads of other bits — including how you never put toilets near the food areas.[...]"


title: Forza Horizon

text: "Forza Horizon" received "favorable" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. Scores range from two perfect scores given by Jeff Gerstmann of Giant Bomb and David Wahlström of "Eurogamer Sweden" to a 60% approval from Philip Kollar of "Polygon". The majority of scores were of an 80% approval rating or higher. It ranked in the top 20 Xbox LIVE titles for the first two months following its release.


title: Forza Horizon

text: "Eurogamer" deputy editor Oli Welsh called "Horizon" "a big, exciting game that finally brings car enthusiasts together with the realistic open roads they crave." Welsh noted that the control scheme and realistic handling allows players to enjoy driving even the slowest of cars. GamesRadar's Sterling McGarvey felt that sometimes the cars lacked precise handling, but gave high marks for the game's environment and vast amount of activities to do. Matthew Kato of "Game Informer" praised the game's visuals. He gave high marks for the dynamic day/night cycle and the detailed environment and vehicles. He also praised the online multiplayer, including the game's Cat and Mouse multiplayer chase mode. Kato did note that much of the open world is blocked by guardrails, thus blocking a player's ability to chart their own paths during events such as a race against a plane.


title: Forza Horizon

text: In a more critical review "Polygon"s Philip Kollar noted that he felt the open-world environment felt empty. He further criticized the game's aggressive and expensive DLC plan. He stated that while the content is not forced on the player "it feels like the game is desperate to squeeze your wallet empty." Kollar said that "Forza Horizon" "is at its best when it drops the sim pretence and embraces its arcade nature".


title: Forza Horizon

text: Non-video game publications gave high praise for the game also. "The Digital Fix" gave it nine out of ten, saying that it "marks a new direction for the series and one that deserves your attention. Not only does it provide top notch visuals, a fantastic summer soundtrack and a wealth of racing options, it makes a traditionally sterile racing simulator just down right "[sic]" fun." "The Daily Telegraph" gave it a score of four stars out of five, calling it "a thrilling, charismatic, feel-good racer. They are the definitions that matter." "The Globe and Mail" also gave it a score of eight out of ten, calling it "a refreshing take on the racing genre that successfully straddles the line between serious car porn simulation and arcade-like bang 'em up games (including its voracious hunger for your "quarters")." "Digital Spy" similarly gave it four stars out of five, saying, "It will be interesting to see how "Forza Horizon" fares against "", Criterion's new open world racer that is out next month. But in the absence of that review, it is clear that Playground Games has seriously raised the bar in all areas for the non-linear racing genre with Forza Horizon, and others will now have to play catchup." "The Guardian" likewise gave it four stars out of five, praising its "RPG-like popularity engine" that encourages players to perform stunts and make riskier decisions rather than to simply follow racing lines.


title: Forza Horizon

text: In Japan, "Famitsu" gave it a total score of 36 out of 40. One reviewer said, "The way you participate in events and run races on public roads serves well as a new direction for the series. Earning popularity for things like drifting and other stuff makes it fun to just drive around, but I still wish there was something more unique to this game. I have to give top marks to the graphics and ease of play, though." Another reviewer stated, "This used to be a really stoic racing simulator, but this is more of a driving game designed to be easy to pick up. I feel like the controls are more forgiving, too, and the open-world freedom makes the whole thing a lot more approachable."


title: Christina's World

text: Christina's World is a 1948 painting by American painter Andrew Wyeth and one of the best-known American paintings of the mid-20th century. It is a tempera work done in a realist style, depicting a woman semi-reclining on the ground in a treeless, mostly tawny field, looking up at a gray house on the horizon; a barn and various other small outbuildings are adjacent to the house. It is held by the Museum of Modern Art, in New York.


title: Christina's World

text: The woman in the painting is Anna Christina Olson (May 3, 1893 – January 27, 1968). Anna had a degenerative muscular disorder which meant that she had not been able to walk since she was about 30 years old. She was firmly against using a wheelchair, so she would crawl everywhere. Wyeth was inspired to create the painting when he saw her crawling across a field while he was watching from a window in the house. He had a summer home in the area and was on friendly terms with Olson, using her and her younger brother as the subjects of paintings from 1940 to 1968. Olson was the inspiration and subject of the painting, but she was not the primary model; Wyeth's wife Betsy posed as the torso of the painting. Olson was 55 at the time that Wyeth created the work.


title: Christina's World

text: The house depicted in the painting is known as the Olson House in Cushing, Maine, and is open to the public, operated by the Farnsworth Art Museum. It is a National Historic Landmark and has been restored to match its appearance in the painting, although Wyeth separated the house from its barn and changed the lay of the land for the painting.


title: Christina's World

text: "Christina's World" was first exhibited at the Macbeth Gallery in Manhattan in 1948. It received little attention from critics at the time, but Alfred Barr, the founding director of the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), bought the painting for $1,800 (equivalent to $ in dollars). He promoted it at MoMA and it gradually grew in popularity over the years. Today, it is considered an icon of American art and is rarely loaned out by the museum.


title: Christina's World

text: In Arthur C. Clarke's novel "", "Christina's World" is one of the two paintings (the other one being Vincent van Gogh's "Bridge at Arles") hanging on the living room wall of "an elegant, anonymous hotel suite" to which the astronaut David Bowman is transported after passing through the Star Gate. It does not appear in directed by Stanley Kubrick. The painting is also part of the sci-fi film "Oblivion" (2013), paying homage to the book "2001: A Space Odyssey".


title: Christina's World

text: The life of Olson and her encounter with Wyeth is portrayed in the novel "A Piece of the World" by Christina Baker Kline.


title: Christina's World

text: A scene in the 1994 film "Forrest Gump" was inspired by the painting. When Jenny returns home, she throws herself on the ground and mirrors Olson's pose in reverse.


title: Christina's World

text: The painting was used as inspiration for the "Farmhouse" chapter in the 2020 video game "The Last of Us Part II".


title: The Dagda

text: The Dagda (Old Irish: "In Dagda," , ) is an important god in Irish mythology. One of the Tuatha Dé Danann, the Dagda is portrayed as a father-figure, king, and druid. He is associated with fertility, agriculture, manliness and strength, as well as magic, druidry and wisdom. He can control life and death, the weather and crops, as well as time and the seasons.


title: The Dagda

text: He is often described as a large bearded man or giant wearing a hooded cloak. He owns a magic staff, club, or mace (the "lorg mór" or "lorg anfaid"), of dual nature: it kills with one end and brings to life with the other. He also owns a cauldron (the "coire ansic") which never runs empty, and a magic harp ("uaithne") which can control men's emotions and change the seasons. He is said to dwell in Brú na Bóinne (Newgrange). Other places associated with or named after him include Uisneach, Grianan of Aileach,Lough Neagh and Knock Iveagh. The Dagda is said to be husband or lover of the Morrígan and Boann. His children include Aengus, Brigit, Bodb Derg, Cermait, Aed, and Midir.


title: The Dagda

text: The Dagda's name is thought to mean "the good god" or "the great god". His other names include "Eochu" or "Eochaid Ollathair" ("horseman, great father"), and "Ruad Rofhessa" ("mighty one/lord of great knowledge"). There are indications "Dáire" was another name for him. The death and ancestral god Donn may originally have been a form of the Dagda, and he also has similarities with the later harvest figure Crom Dubh. Several tribal groupings saw the Dagda as an ancestor and were named after him, such as the Uí Echach and the Dáirine.


title: The Dagda

text: The Dagda has been likened to the Germanic god Odin, the Gaulish god Sucellos, and the Roman god Dīs Pater.


title: The Dagda

text: The Old Irish name "Dagda" is generally believed to stem from , meaning "the good god" or "the great god".


title: The Dagda

text: The name Eochu is a diminutive form of Eochaid, which also has spelling variants of Eochaidh and Echuid. The death and ancestral god Donn may originally have been a form of the Dagda, who is sometimes called Dagda Donn.


title: The Dagda

text: Tales depict the Dagda as a figure of immense power. He is said to own a magic staff, club or mace which could kill nine men with one blow; but with the handle he could return the slain to life. It was called the "lorg mór" ("the great staff/club/mace") or the "lorg anfaid" ("the staff/club/mace of wrath"). His magic cauldron was known as the "coire ansic" ("the un-dry cauldron") and was said to be bottomless, from which no man left unsatisfied. It was said to have a ladle so big that two people could fit in it. Uaithne, also known as "the Four Angled Music", was a richly ornamented magic harp made of oak which, when the Dagda played it, put the seasons in their correct order; other accounts tell of it being used to command the order of battle. He possessed two pigs, one of which was always growing whilst the other was always roasting, and ever-laden fruit trees. He also described as being the owner of a black-maned heifer that was given to him for his labours prior to the Second Battle of Moytura. When the heifer calls her calf, all the cattle of Ireland taken by the Fomorians as tribute graze.


title: The Dagda

text: The Dagda was one of the kings of the Tuatha De Danann. The Tuatha Dé Danann are the race of supernatural beings who conquered the Fomorians, who inhabited Ireland previously, prior to the coming of the Milesians. The Mórrígan is often described as his wife, his daughter was Brígh, and his lover was Boann, after whom the River Boyne is named, though she was married to Elcmar. Prior to the battle with the Fomorians, he coupled with the goddess of war, the Mórrígan, on Samhain in exchange for a plan of battle.


title: The Dagda

text: Despite his great power and prestige, the Dagda is sometimes depicted as oafish and crude, even comical, wearing a short, rough tunic that barely covers his rump, dragging his great penis on the ground. Such features are thought to be the additions of Christian redactors for comedic purposes. The Middle Irish language "Coir Anmann" (The Fitness of Names) paints a less clownish picture: "He was a beautiful god of the heathens, for the Tuatha Dé Danann worshipped him: for he was an earth-god to them because of the greatness of his (magical) power."


title: The Dagda

text: The Dagda has similarities with the later harvest figure Crom Dubh. He also has similarities with the Gaulish god Sucellos, who is depicted with a hammer and a pot, and the Roman god Dīs Pater.


title: The Dagda

text: The Dagda is said to be husband of the Morrígan, who is called his "envious wife". His children include Aengus, Cermait, and Aed (often called the three sons of the Dagda), Brigit and Bodb Derg. He is said to have two brothers, Nuada and Ogma, but this may be an instance of the tendency to triplicate deities. Elsewhere the Dagda is linked exclusively with Ogma, and the two are called "the two brothers." In the Dindsenchas, the Dagda is given a daughter named Ainge, for whom he makes a twig basket or tub that always leaks when the tide is in and never leaks when it is going out. The Dagda's father is named Elatha son of Delbeath. Englec, the daughter of Elcmar, is named as a consort of the Dagda and the mother of his "swift son". Echtgi the loathesome is another daughter of the Dagda's named in the Banshenchas.


title: The Dagda

text: Before the Second Battle of Mag Tuired the Dagda builds a fortress for Bres called Dún Brese and is also forced by the Fomorian kings Elatha, Indech, and Tethra to build raths. In the lead up to the Second Battle of Mag Tuired, when Lugh asks Dagda what power he will wield over the Fomorian host, he responds that he "will take the side of the men of Erin both in mutual smiting and destruction and wizardry. Their bones under my club will be as many as hailstones under feet of herds of horses".


title: The Dagda

text: The Dagda has an affair with Boann, the goddess of the River Boyne. She lives at Brú na Bóinne with her husband Elcmar. The Dagda impregnates her after sending Elcmar away on a one-day errand. To hide the pregnancy from Elcmar, the Dagda casts a spell on him, making "the sun stand still" so he will not notice the passing of time. Meanwhile, Boann gives birth to Aengus, who is also known as Maccán Óg ('the young son'). Eventually, Aengus learns that the Dagda is his true father and asks him for a portion of land. In some versions of the tale, the Dagda helps Aengus take ownership of the Brú from Elcmar. Aengus asks and is given the Brú for "láa ocus aidche"; because in Old Irish this could mean either "a day and a night" or "day and night", Aengus claims it forever. Other versions have Aengus taking over the Brú from the Dagda himself by using the same trick.


title: The Dagda

text: It has been suggested that this tale represents the winter solstice illumination of Newgrange at Brú na Bóinne, during which the sunbeam (the Dagda) enters the inner chamber (the womb of Boann) when the sun's path stands still. The word "solstice" (Irish "grianstad") means sun-standstill. The conception of Aengus may represent the 'rebirth' of the sun at the winter solstice, him taking over the Brú from an older god representing the growing sun taking over from the waning sun.


title: The Dagda

text: In a poem about Mag Muirthemne, the Dagda banishes an octopus with his "mace of wrath" using the following words: "Turn thy hollow head! Turn thy ravening body! Turn thy resorbent forehead! Avaunt! Begone!", the sea receded with the creature and the plain of Mag Muirthemne was left behind.


title: The Dagda

text: In the "Dindsenchas" the Dagda is described as swift with a poison draught and as a justly dealing lord. He is also called a King of Erin with hosts of hostages, a noble, slender prince, and the father of Cermait, Aengus, and Aed.


title: The Dagda

text: He is credited with a seventy- or eighty-year reign (depending on source) over the Tuatha Dé Danann, before dying at Brú na Bóinne, finally succumbing to a wound inflicted by Cethlenn during the battle of Mag Tuired.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: In materials science, creep (sometimes called cold flow) is the tendency of a solid material to move slowly or deform permanently under the influence of persistent mechanical stresses. It can occur as a result of long-term exposure to high levels of stress that are still below the yield strength of the material. Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat for long periods and generally increases as they near their melting point.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: The rate of deformation is a function of the material's properties, exposure time, exposure temperature and the applied structural load. Depending on the magnitude of the applied stress and its duration, the deformation may become so large that a component can no longer perform its function – for example creep of a turbine blade could cause the blade to contact the casing, resulting in the failure of the blade. Creep is usually of concern to engineers and metallurgists when evaluating components that operate under high stresses or high temperatures. Creep is a deformation mechanism that may or may not constitute a failure mode. For example, moderate creep in concrete is sometimes welcomed because it relieves tensile stresses that might otherwise lead to cracking.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Unlike brittle fracture, creep deformation does not occur suddenly upon the application of stress. Instead, strain accumulates as a result of long-term stress. Therefore, creep is a "time-dependent" deformation.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: The temperature range in which creep deformation may occur differs in various materials. Creep deformation generally occurs when a material is stressed at a temperature near its melting point. While tungsten requires a temperature in the thousands of degrees before creep deformation can occur, lead may creep at room temperature, and ice will creep at temperatures below . Plastics and low-melting-temperature metals, including many solders, can begin to creep at room temperature. Glacier flow is an example of creep processes in ice. The effects of creep deformation generally become noticeable at approximately 35% of the melting point (in Kelvin) for metals and at 45% of melting point for ceramics.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: In primary, or transient, creep, the strain rate is a function of time. In Class M materials, which include most pure materials, strain rate decreases over time. This can be due to increasing dislocation density, or it can be due to evolving grain size. In class A materials, which have large amounts of solid solution hardening, strain rate increases over time due to a thinning of solute drag atoms as dislocations move.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: In the secondary, or steady-state, creep, dislocation structure and grain size have reached equilibrium, and therefore strain rate is constant. Equations that yield a strain rate refer to the steady-state strain rate. Stress dependence of this rate depends on the creep mechanism.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: In tertiary creep, the strain rate exponentially increases with stress. This can be due to necking phenomena, internal cracks, or voids, which all decrease the cross-sectional area and increase the true stress on the region, further accelerating deformation and leading to fracture.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Depending on the temperature and stress, different deformation mechanisms are activated. Though there are generally many deformation mechanisms active at all times, usually one mechanism is dominant, accounting for almost all deformation.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: At low temperatures and low stress, creep is essentially nonexistent and all strain is elastic. At low temperatures and high stress, materials experience plastic deformation rather than creep. At high temperatures and low stress, diffusional creep tends to be dominant, while at high temperatures and high stress, dislocation creep tends to be dominant.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Deformation mechanism maps provide a visual tool categorizing the dominant deformation mechanism as a function of homologous temperature, shear modulus-normalized stress, and strain rate. Generally, two of these three properties (most commonly temperature and stress) are the axes of the map, while the third is drawn as contours on the map.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: To populate the map, constitutive equations are found for each deformation mechanism. These are used to solve for the boundaries between each deformation mechanism, as well as the strain rate contours.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Deformation mechanism maps can be used to compare different strengthening mechanisms, as well as compare different types of materials.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: where "ε" is the creep strain, "C" is a constant dependent on the material and the particular creep mechanism, "m" and "b" are exponents dependent on the creep mechanism, "Q" is the activation energy of the creep mechanism, "σ" is the applied stress, "d" is the grain size of the material, "k" is Boltzmann's constant, and "T" is the absolute temperature.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: At high stresses (relative to the shear modulus), creep is controlled by the movement of dislocations.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: For dislocation creep, "Q" = "Q"(self diffusion), 4 ≤ "m" ≤ 6, and "b" < 1. Therefore, dislocation creep has a strong dependence on the applied stress and the intrinsic activation energy and a weaker dependence on grain size. As grain size gets smaller, grain boundary area gets larger, so dislocation motion is impeded.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Some alloys exhibit a very large stress exponent ("m" > 10), and this has typically been explained by introducing a "threshold stress," "σ", below which creep can't be measured. The modified power law equation then becomes:


title: Creep (deformation)

text: where "A", "Q" and "m" can all be explained by conventional mechanisms (so 3 ≤ "m" ≤ 10), and "R" is the gas constant. The creep increases with increasing applied stress, since the applied stress tends to drive the dislocation past the barrier, and make the dislocation get into a lower energy state after bypassing the obstacle, which means that the dislocation is inclined to pass the obstacle. In other words, part of the work required to overcome the energy barrier of passing an obstacle is provided by the applied stress and the remainder by thermal energy.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Nabarro–Herring (NH) creep is a form of diffusion creep, while dislocation glide creep does not involve atomic diffusion. Nabarro–Herring creep dominates at high temperatures and low stresses. As shown in the figure on the right, the lateral sides of the crystal are subjected to tensile stress and the horizontal sides to compressive stress. The atomic volume is altered by applied stress: it increases in regions under tension and decreases in regions under compression. So the activation energy for vacancy formation is changed by ±"σΩ", where "Ω" is the atomic volume, the positive value is for compressive regions and negative value is for tensile regions. Since the fractional vacancy concentration is proportional to , where "Q" is the vacancy-formation energy, the vacancy concentration is higher in tensile regions than in compressive regions, leading to a net flow of vacancies from the regions under compression to the regions under tension, and this is equivalent to a net atom diffusion in the opposite direction, which causes the creep deformation: the grain elongates in the tensile stress axis and contracts in the compressive stress axis.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: In Nabarro–Herring creep, "k" is related to the diffusion coefficient of atoms through the lattice, "Q" = "Q"(self diffusion), "m" = 1, and "b" = 2. Therefore, Nabarro–Herring creep has a weak stress dependence and a moderate grain size dependence, with the creep rate decreasing as the grain size is increased.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Nabarro–Herring creep is strongly temperature dependent. For lattice diffusion of atoms to occur in a material, neighboring lattice sites or interstitial sites in the crystal structure must be free. A given atom must also overcome the energy barrier to move from its current site (it lies in an energetically favorable potential well) to the nearby vacant site (another potential well). The general form of the diffusion equation is


title: Creep (deformation)

text: where "D" has a dependence on both the attempted jump frequency and the number of nearest neighbor sites and the probability of the sites being vacant. Thus there is a double dependence upon temperature. At higher temperatures the diffusivity increases due to the direct temperature dependence of the equation, the increase in vacancies through Schottky defect formation, and an increase in the average energy of atoms in the material. Nabarro–Herring creep dominates at very high temperatures relative to a material's melting temperature.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Coble creep is the second form of diffusion controlled creep. In Coble creep the atoms diffuse along grain boundaries to elongate the grains along the stress axis. This causes Coble creep to have a stronger grain size dependence than Nabarro–Herring creep, thus, Coble creep will be more important in materials composed of very fine grains. For Coble creep "k" is related to the diffusion coefficient of atoms along the grain boundary, "Q" = "Q"(grain boundary diffusion), "m" = 1, and "b" = 3. Because "Q"(grain boundary diffusion) is less than "Q"(self diffusion), Coble creep occurs at lower temperatures than Nabarro–Herring creep. Coble creep is still temperature dependent, as the temperature increases so does the grain boundary diffusion. However, since the number of nearest neighbors is effectively limited along the interface of the grains, and thermal generation of vacancies along the boundaries is less prevalent, the temperature dependence is not as strong as in Nabarro–Herring creep. It also exhibits the same linear dependence on stress as Nabarro–Herring creep. Generally, the diffusional creep rate should be the sum of Nabarro–Herring creep rate and Coble creep rate. Diffusional creep leads to grain-boundary separation, that is, voids or cracks form between the grains. To heal this, grain-boundary sliding occurs. The diffusional creep rate and the grain boundary sliding rate must be balanced if there are no voids or cracks remaining. When grain-boundary sliding can not accommodate the incompatibility, grain-boundary voids are generated, which is related to the initiation of creep fracture.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Solute drag creep is one of the mechanisms for power-law creep (PLC), involving both dislocation and diffusional flow. Solute drag creep is observed in certain metallic alloys. In these alloys, the creep rate increases during the first stage of creep (Transient creep) before reaching a steady-state value. This phenomenon can be explained by a model associated with solid-solution strengthening. At low temperatures, the solute atoms are immobile and increase the flow stress required to move dislocations. However, at higher temperatures, the solute atoms are more mobile and may form atmospheres and clouds surrounding the dislocations. This is especially likely if the solute atom has a large misfit in the matrix. The solutes are attracted by the dislocation stress fields and are able to relieve the elastic stress fields of existing dislocations. Thus the solutes become bound to the dislocations. The concentration of solute, "C", at a distance, "r", from a dislocation is given by the Cottrell atmosphere defined as


title: Creep (deformation)

text: where "C" is the concentration at "r" = ∞ and "β" is a constant which defines the extent of segregation of the solute. When surrounded by a solute atmosphere, dislocations that attempt to glide under an applied stress are subjected to a back stress exerted on them by the cloud of solute atoms. If the applied stress is sufficiently high, the dislocation may eventually break away from the atmosphere, allowing the dislocation to continue gliding under the action of the applied stress. The maximum force (per unit length) that the atmosphere of solute atoms can exert on the dislocation is given by Cottrell and Jaswon


title: Creep (deformation)

text: When the diffusion of solute atoms is activated at higher temperatures, the solute atoms which are "bound" to the dislocations by the misfit can move along with edge dislocations as a "drag" on their motion if the dislocation motion or the creep rate is not too high. The amount of "drag" exerted by the solute atoms on the dislocation is related to the diffusivity of the solute atoms in the metal at that temperature, with a higher diffusivity leading to lower drag and vice versa. The velocity at which the dislocations glide can be approximated by a power law of the form


title: Creep (deformation)

text: where "m" is the effective stress exponent, "Q" is the apparent activation energy for glide and "B" is a constant. The parameter "B" in the above equation was derived by Cottrell and Jaswon for interaction between solute atoms and dislocations on the basis of the relative atomic size misfit "ε" of solutes to be


title: Creep (deformation)

text: where "k" is Boltzmann's constant, and "r" and "r" are the internal and external cut-off radii of dislocation stress field. "c" and "D" are the atomic concentration of the solute and solute diffusivity respectively. "D" also has a temperature dependence that makes a determining contribution to "Q".


title: Creep (deformation)

text: If the cloud of solutes does not form or the dislocations are able to break away from their clouds, glide occurs in a jerky manner where fixed obstacles, formed by dislocations in combination with solutes, are overcome after a certain waiting time with support by thermal activation. The exponent "m" is greater than 1 in this case. The equations show that the hardening effect of solutes is strong if the factor "B" in the power-law equation is low so that the dislocations move slowly and the diffusivity "D" is low. Also, solute atoms with both high concentration in the matrix and strong interaction with dislocations are strong gardeners. Since misfit strain of solute atoms is one of the ways they interact with dislocations, it follows that solute atoms with large atomic misfit are strong gardeners. A low diffusivity "D" is an additional condition for strong hardening.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Solute drag creep sometimes shows a special phenomenon, over a limited strain rate, which is called the Portevin–Le Chatelier effect. When the applied stress becomes sufficiently large, the dislocations will break away from the solute atoms since dislocation velocity increases with the stress. After breakaway, the stress decreases and the dislocation velocity also decreases, which allows the solute atoms to approach and reach the previously departed dislocations again, leading to a stress increase. The process repeats itself when the next local stress maximum is obtained. So repetitive local stress maxima and minima could be detected during solute drag creep.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Dislocation climb-glide creep is observed in materials at high temperature. The initial creep rate is larger than the steady-state creep rate. Climb-glide creep could be illustrated as follows: when the applied stress is not enough for a moving dislocation to overcome the obstacle on its way via dislocation glide alone, the dislocation could climb to a parallel slip plane by diffusional processes, and the dislocation can glide on the new plane. This process repeats itself each time when the dislocation encounters an obstacle. The creep rate could be written as:


title: Creep (deformation)

text: where "A" includes details of the dislocation loop geometry, "D" is the lattice diffusivity, "M" is the number of dislocation sources per unit volume, "σ" is the applied stress, and "Ω" is the atomic volume. The exponent "m" for dislocation climb-glide creep is 4.5 if "M" is independent of stress and this value of "m" is consistent with results from considerable experimental studies.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Harper–Dorn creep is a climb-controlled dislocation mechanism at low stresses that has been observed in aluminum, lead, and tin systems, in addition to nonmetal systems such as ceramics and ice. It was first observed by Harper and Dorn in 1957. It is characterized by two principal phenomena: a power-law relationship between the steady-state strain rate and applied stress at a constant temperature which is weaker than the natural power-law of creep, and an independent relationship between the steady-state strain rate and grain size for a provided temperature and applied stress. The latter observation implies that Harper–Dorn creep is controlled by dislocation movement; namely, since creep can occur by vacancy diffusion (Nabarro–Herring creep, Coble creep), grain boundary sliding, and/or dislocation movement, and since the first two mechanisms are grain-size dependent, Harper–Dorn creep must therefore be dislocation-motion dependent. The same was also confirmed in 1972 by Barrett and co-workers where FeAl precipitates lowered the creep rates by 2 orders of magnitude compared to highly pure Al, thus, indicating Harper–Dorn creep to be a dislocation based mechanism.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Harper–Dorn creep is typically overwhelmed by other creep mechanisms in most situations, and is therefore not observed in most systems. The phenomenological equation which describes Harper–Dorn creep is


title: Creep (deformation)

text: where "ρ" is dislocation density (constant for Harper–Dorn creep), "D" is the diffusivity through the volume of the material, "G" is the shear modulus and "b" is the Burgers vector, "σ", and "n" is the stress exponent which varies between 1 and 3.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Twenty-five years after Harper and Dorn published their work, Mohamed and Ginter made an important contribution in 1982 by evaluating the potential for achieving Harper–Dorn creep in samples of Al using different processing procedures. The experiments showed that Harper–Dorn creep is achieved with stress exponent "n" = 1, and only when the internal dislocation density prior to testing is exceptionally low. By contrast, Harper–Dorn creep was not observed in polycrystalline Al and single crystal Al when the initial dislocation density was high.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: However, various conflicting reports demonstrate the uncertainties at very low stress levels. One report by Blum and Maier, claimed that the experimental evidence for Harper–Dorn creep is not fully convincing. They argued that the necessary condition for Harper–Dorn creep is not fulfilled in Al with 99.99% purity and the steady-state stress exponent "n" of the creep rate is always much larger than 1.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: The subsequent work conducted by Ginter et al. confirmed that Harper–Dorn creep was attained in Al with 99.9995% purity but not in Al with 99.99% purity and, in addition, the creep curves obtained in the very high purity material exhibited regular and periodic accelerations. They also found that the creep behavior no longer follows a stress exponent of "n" = 1 when the tests are extended to very high strains of >0.1 but instead there is evidence for a stress exponent of "n" > 2.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Harper–Dorn creep is considered as a distinct mechanism under some conditions. But more definitive experiments are needed both to more fully establish the precise requirements for observing this process and to provide detailed information used to develop a more appropriate theoretical flow mechanism.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: At high temperatures, it is energetically favorable for voids to shrink in a material. The application of tensile stress opposes the reduction in energy gained by void shrinkage. Thus, a certain magnitude of applied tensile stress is required to offset these shrinkage effects and cause void growth and creep fracture in materials at high temperature. This stress occurs at the "sintering limit" of the system.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: The stress tending to shrink voids that must be overcome is related to the surface energy and surface area-volume ratio of the voids. For a general void with surface energy "γ" and principle radii of curvature of "r" and "r", the sintering limit stress is


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Below this critical stress, voids will tend to shrink rather than grow. Additional void shrinkage effects will also result from the application of a compressive stress. For typical descriptions of creep, it is assumed that the applied tensile stress exceeds the sintering limit.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Creep also explains one of several contributions to densification during metal powder sintering by hot pressing. A main aspect of densification is the shape change of the powder particles. Since this change involves permanent deformation of crystalline solids, it can be considered a plastic deformation process and thus sintering can be described as a high temperature creep process. The applied compressive stress during pressing accelerates void shrinkage rates and allows a relation between the steady-state creep power law and densification rate of the material. This phenomenon is observed to be one of the main densification mechanisms in the final stages of sintering, during which the densification rate (assuming gas-free pores) can be explained by:


title: Creep (deformation)

text: in which "ρ̇" is the densification rate, "ρ" is the density, "P" is the pressure applied, "n" describes the exponent of strain rate behavior, and "A" is a mechanism-dependent constant. "A" and "n" are from the following form of the general steady-state creep equation,


title: Creep (deformation)

text: where "ε̇" is the strain rate, and "σ" is the tensile stress. For the purposes of this mechanism, the constant "A" comes from the following expression, where "A"′ is a dimensionless, experimental constant, "μ" is the shear modulus, "b" is the Burgers vector, "k" is Boltzmann's constant, "T" is absolute temperature, "D" is the diffusion coefficient, and "Q" is the diffusion activation energy:


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Creep can occur in polymers and metals which are considered viscoelastic materials. When a polymeric material is subjected to an abrupt force, the response can be modeled using the Kelvin–Voigt model. In this model, the material is represented by a Hookean spring and a Newtonian dashpot in parallel. The creep strain is given by the following convolution integral:


title: Creep (deformation)

text: where "σ" is applied stress, "C" is instantaneous creep compliance, "C" is creep compliance coefficient, "τ" is retardation time, and "f"("τ") is the distribution of retardation times.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: When subjected to a step constant stress, viscoelastic materials experience a time-dependent increase in strain. This phenomenon is known as viscoelastic creep.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: At a time "t", a viscoelastic material is loaded with a constant stress that is maintained for a sufficiently long time period. The material responds to the stress with a strain that increases until the material ultimately fails. When the stress is maintained for a shorter time period, the material undergoes an initial strain until a time "t" at which the stress is relieved, at which time the strain immediately decreases (discontinuity) then continues decreasing gradually to a residual strain.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Viscoelastic creep data can be presented in one of two ways. Total strain can be plotted as a function of time for a given temperature or temperatures. Below a critical value of applied stress, a material may exhibit linear viscoelasticity. Above this critical stress, the creep rate grows disproportionately faster. The second way of graphically presenting viscoelastic creep in a material is by plotting the creep modulus (constant applied stress divided by total strain at a particular time) as a function of time. Below its critical stress, the viscoelastic creep modulus is independent of the stress applied. A family of curves describing strain versus time response to various applied stress may be represented by a single viscoelastic creep modulus versus time curve if the applied stresses are below the material's critical stress value.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Additionally, the molecular weight of the polymer of interest is known to affect its creep behavior. The effect of increasing molecular weight tends to promote secondary bonding between polymer chains and thus make the polymer more creep resistant. Similarly, aromatic polymers are even more creep resistant due to the added stiffness from the rings. Both molecular weight and aromatic rings add to polymers' thermal stability, increasing the creep resistance of a polymer.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Both polymers and metals can creep. Polymers experience significant creep at temperatures above around ; however, there are three main differences between polymeric and metallic creep. In metals, creep is not linearly viscoelastic, it is not recoverable, and it is only present at high temperatures.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Polymers show creep basically in two different ways. At typical work loads (5% up to 50%) ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (Spectra, Dyneema) will show time-linear creep, whereas polyester or aramids (Twaron, Kevlar) will show a time-logarithmic creep.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Wood is considered as an orthotropic material, exhibiting different mechanical properties in three mutually perpendicular directions. Experiments show that the tangential direction in solid wood tend display a slightly higher creep compliance than in the radial direction. In the longitudinal direction, the creep compliance is relatively low and usually do not show any time-dependency in comparison to the other directions.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: It has also been shown that there is a substantial difference in viscoelastic properties of wood depending on loading modality (creep in compression or tension). Studies have shown that certain Poisson's ratios gradually go from positive to negative values during the duration of the compression creep test, which does not occur in tension.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: The creep of concrete, which originates from the calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) in the hardened Portland cement paste (which is the binder of mineral aggregates), is fundamentally different from the creep of metals as well as polymers. Unlike the creep of metals, it occurs at all stress levels and, within the service stress range, is linearly dependent on the stress if the pore water content is constant. Unlike the creep of polymers and metals, it exhibits multi-months aging, caused by chemical hardening due to hydration which stiffens the microstructure, and multi-year aging, caused by long-term relaxation of self-equilibrated microstresses in the nanoporous microstructure of the C-S-H. If concrete is fully dried it does not creep, though it is difficult to dry concrete fully without severe cracking.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Though mostly due to the reduced yield strength at higher temperatures, the collapse of the World Trade Center was due in part to creep from increased temperature.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: The creep rate of hot pressure-loaded components in a nuclear reactor at power can be a significant design constraint, since the creep rate is enhanced by the flux of energetic particles.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Creep in epoxy anchor adhesive was blamed for the Big Dig tunnel ceiling collapse in Boston, Massachusetts, that occurred in July 2006.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: The design of tungsten light bulb filaments attempts to reduce creep deformation. Sagging of the filament coil between its supports increases with time due to the weight of the filament itself. If too much deformation occurs, the adjacent turns of the coil touch one another, causing an electrical short and local overheating, which quickly leads to failure of the filament. The coil geometry and supports are therefore designed to limit the stresses caused by the weight of the filament, and a special tungsten alloy with small amounts of oxygen trapped in the crystallite grain boundaries is used to slow the rate of Coble creep.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Creep can cause gradual cut-through of wire insulation, especially when stress is concentrated by pressing insulated wire against a sharp edge or corner. Special creep-resistant insulations such as Kynar (polyvinylidene fluoride) are used in wirewrap applications to resist cut-through due to the sharp corners of wire wrap terminals. Teflon insulation is resistant to elevated temperatures and has other desirable properties, but is notoriously vulnerable to cold-flow cut-through failures caused by creep.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: In steam turbine power plants, pipes carry steam at high temperatures () and pressures (above ). In jet engines, temperatures can reach up to and initiate creep deformation in even advanced-design coated turbine blades. Hence, it is crucial for correct functionality to understand the creep deformation behavior of materials.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Creep deformation is important not only in systems where high temperatures are endured such as nuclear power plants, jet engines and heat exchangers, but also in the design of many everyday objects. For example, metal paper clips are stronger than plastic ones because plastics creep at room temperatures. Aging glass windows are often erroneously used as an example of this phenomenon: measurable creep would only occur at temperatures above the glass transition temperature around . While glass does exhibit creep under the right conditions, apparent sagging in old windows may instead be a consequence of obsolete manufacturing processes, such as that used to create crown glass, which resulted in inconsistent thickness.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Fractal geometry, using a deterministic Cantor structure, is used to model the surface topography, where recent advancements in thermoviscoelastic creep contact of rough surfaces are introduced. Various viscoelastic idealizations are used to model the surface materials, including the Maxwell, Kelvin–Voigt, standard linear solid and Jeffrey models.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: The practice of tinning stranded wires to facilitate the process of connecting the wire to a screw terminal, though having been prevalent and considered standard practice for quite a while, has been discouraged by professional electricians, owing to the fact that the solder is likely to creep under the pressure exerted on the tinned wire end by the screw of the terminal, causing the joint to lose tension and hence create a loose contact over time. The accepted practice when connecting stranded wire to a screw terminal is to use a wire ferrule on the end of the wire.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Generally, materials have better creep resistance if they have higher melting temperatures, lower diffusivity, and higher shear strength. Close-packed structures are usually more creep resistant as they tend to have lower diffusivity than non-close-packed structures. Common methods to reduce creep include:


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Materials operating in high-performance systems, such as jet engines, often reach extreme temperatures surpassing , necessitating specialized material design. Superalloys based on cobalt, nickel, and iron have been engineered to be highly resistant to creep. The term ‘superalloy’ generally refers to austenitic nickel-, iron-, or cobalt-based alloys that use either γ′ or γ″ precipitation strengthening to maintain strength at high temperature.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: The γ′ phase is a cubic L1-structure Ni(Al,Ti,Ta,Nb) phase that produces cuboidal precipitates. Superalloys often have a high (60–75%) volume fraction of γ′ precipitates. γ′ precipitates are coherent with the parent γ phase, and are resistant to shearing due to the development of an anti-phase boundary when the precipitate is sheared. The γ″ phase is a tetragonal NiNb or NiV structure. The γ″ phase, however, is unstable above , so γ″ is less commonly used as a strengthening phase in high temperature applications. Carbides are also used in polycrystalline superalloys to inhibit grain boundary sliding.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Many other elements can be added to superalloys to tailor their properties. They can be used for solid solution strengthening, to reduce the formation of undesirable brittle precipitates, and to increase oxidation or corrosion resistance. Nickel-based superalloys have found widespread use in high-temperature, low stress applications. Iron-based superalloys are generally not used at high temperatures as the γ′ phase is not stable in the iron matrix, but are sometimes used at moderately high temperatures, as iron is significantly cheaper than nickel. Cobalt-based γ′ structure was found in 2006, allowing the development of cobalt-based superalloys, which are superior to nickel-based superalloys in corrosion resistance. However, in the base (cobalt–tungsten–aluminum) system, γ′ is only stable below , and cobalt-based superalloys tend to be weaker than their Ni counterparts.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Based on the description of creep mechanisms and its three different stages mentioned earlier, creep resistance generally can be accomplished by using materials in which their tertiary stage is not active since, at this stage, the strain rate increases significantly by increasing stress. Therefore, a sound component design should satisfy the primary stage of creep, which has a relatively high initial creep rate that decreases with increasing exposure time, leading to the second stage of creep, in which the creep rate in the material is decelerated and reaches its minimum value via work hardening. The minimum value of creep rate is actually a constant creep rate, which plays a crucial role in designing a component, and its magnitude depends on temperature and stress. The minimum value of creep rate that is commonly applied to alloys is based on two norms: (1) the stress required to produce a creep rate of and (2) the stress required to produce a creep rate of , which takes roughly about 11.5 years. The former standard has widely been used in the component design of turbine blades, while the latter is frequently used in designing steam turbines. One of the primary goals of creep tests is to determine the minimum value of the creep rate at the secondary stage and also to investigate the time required for an ultimate failure of a component. However, when it comes to ceramic applications, there are no such standards to determine their minimum creep rates, but it's safe to say that ceramics are usually picked up to operate at high-temperature applications under loads mainly because they possess a long lifetime. However, by acquiring information obtained from creep tests, proper ceramic material(s) can be selected for desired application to assure the safe service and evaluate the time period of secure service in high-temperature environments that the structural thermostability is essential. Therefore, by making the proper choice, suitable ceramic components may be selected, capable of operating at various conditions of high temperature and creep deformation.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Generally speaking, the structure of materials is different from one another. Metallic materials have different structures compared to polymer or ceramics, and even within the same class of materials, different structures might have existed at different temperatures. The difference in the structure includes the difference in grains (for example, their sizes, shapes, distributions), their crystalline or amorphous nature, and even dislocation and/or vacancy contents that are prone to change following a deformation. So, since creep is a time-dependent process and differs from one material to another, all these parameters must be considered in materials selection for a specific application. For instance, materials with low-dislocation content are among the suitable candidates for creep resistance. In other words, the dislocation glide and climb can be reduced if the proper material is selected (for example, ceramic materials are very popular in this case). In terms of vacancies, it's noteworthy to mention that the vacancy content not only depends on the chosen material but also on the component's service temperature. Vacancy-diffusion-controlled processes that promote creep can be categorized into grain boundary diffusion (Coble creep) and lattice diffusion (Nabarro–Herring creep). Therefore, the properties of dislocations and vacancies, their distributions throughout the structure, and their potential change due to long-time exposure to stress and temperature must be considered seriously in materials selection for components design. Therefore, the role of dislocations, vacancies, wide range of obstacles that can retard the dislocation motion, including grain boundaries in polycrystalline materials, solute atoms, precipitates, impurities, and strain fields originating from other dislocations or their pile-ups which increase the lifetime of materials and make them more resistive with respect to creep are always at the top list of materials selection and component design. For instance, different types of vacancies in ceramic materials have different charges stemming from their dominant chemical boding. So, existing or newly-formed vacancies must be charge-balanced to maintain the overall neutrality of the final structure. Besides paying attention to individual dislocation and vacancy contents, the correlation between them is also worth exploring since dislocation's ability to climb depends heavily on how many vacancies are available in its vicinity. To recap, materials must be selected and developed that possess low dislocation and vacancy contents to have a practical creep resistance component.


title: Creep (deformation)

text: Creep is a phenomenon that is related to a material's melting point (Tm). Generally, a high lifetime is expected when we have a higher melting point, and the reason behind selecting materials with high melting points originates from the fact that diffusion processes are related to temperature-dependent vacancy concentrations. The diffusion rate is slower in high-temperature materials. Ceramic materials are well known for having high melting points, and that's the reason why ceramics gravitated considerable attention to creep resistance applications. Although it's widely known that creep starts at a temperature equal to 0.5Tm, the safe temperature to avoid the initiation of creep is 0.3Tm. Creep that starts below or at 0.5Tm is called "low temperature creep" because diffusion is not very progressive at such low temperatures, and the kind of creep that occurs is not diffusion-dominant and is related to other mechanisms.<br>


title: Creep (deformation)

text: As mentioned previously, creep is a time-dependent deformation. Fortunately, creep doesn't occur suddenly in brittle materials as it does under tension and other forms of deformation, and it's an advantage for designers. Over time, creep strain develops in a material that is exposed to stress at the temperature of the application, and it depends on the duration of the exposure. Thus, besides temperature and stress, the creep rate is also a function of time, and it can be generalized as this function ε = F(t, T, σ) that tells the designer all the three parameters, including time, temperature, and stress acting in concert, and all of them must be considered if a successful creep-resistance component is to be attained.


title: Werwolf

text: Werwolf (, German for "werewolf") was a Nazi plan which began development in 1944, to create a resistance force which would operate behind enemy lines as the Allies advanced through Germany, in parallel with the "Wehrmacht" fighting in front of the lines. It is widely misconstrued as having been intended to be a guerrilla force to harass Allied forces after the defeat of Germany, but this misconception was created by Joseph Goebbels through propaganda disseminated through his "Radio Werwolf", which was not actually connected in any way with the military unit.


title: Werwolf

text: How and by whom the name was chosen is unknown, but it may have alluded to the title of Hermann Löns' novel, "Der Wehrwolf", first published in 1910. Set in the Celle region (Lower Saxony) during the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), the novel concerns a peasant named Harm Wulf. After marauding soldiers kill his family, Wulf organises his neighbors into a militia who pursue the soldiers and mercilessly execute any they capture, while referring to themselves as "Wehrwölfe". Löns wrote that the title was a dual reference to the fact that the peasants put up a fighting defense ("sich wehren", see "Bundeswehr" – Federal Defense) and to the protagonist's surname of "Wulf", but it also had obvious parallels with the word "Werwölfe" in that Wulf's men came to enjoy killing. While Löns was not himself a Nazi (he died in 1914), his work became popular with the German far right, and the Nazis celebrated it. Indeed, Celle's local newspaper began serialising "Der Wehrwolf" in January 1945.


title: Werwolf

text: In 1942, Adolf Hitler named the OKW and OKH field headquarters, at Vinnytsia in Ukraine, "Werwolf", and Hitler on a number of occasions had used "Wolf" as a pseudonym for himself. (The etymology of the name "Adolf" itself carries connotations of noble ("adal"; Modern German "Adel") wolf, while Hitler referred to his first World War II Eastern Front military headquarters as "Wolfsschanze," commonly rendered in English as "Wolf's Lair" (literally "Wolf's Sconce").)


title: Werwolf

text: In late summer/early autumn 1944, Heinrich Himmler initiated "Unternehmen Werwolf" (Operation Werwolf), ordering "SS Obergruppenführer" Hans-Adolf Prützmann to begin organising an elite troop of volunteer forces to operate secretly behind enemy lines. As initially conceived, these Werwolf units were intended to be legitimate uniformed military or paramilitary formations trained to engage in clandestine operations behind enemy lines in the same manner as Allied Special Forces such as Commandos. They were never intended to act outside of the control of the German High Command (OKW), or to fight in civilian clothes, and they expected to be treated as soldiers if they were captured.


title: Werwolf

text: Prützmann was named "Generalinspekteur für Spezialabwehr" (General Inspector of Special Defence) and assigned the task of setting up the force's headquarters in Berlin and organising and instructing the force. Prützmann had studied the guerrilla tactics used by Soviet partisans while he was stationed in the occupied territories of Ukraine, and the idea was to teach these tactics to the members of Operation Werwolf. According to German officers who were interrogated after the war, those who were familiar with Prützmann's central office said that it was, like its commanding officer, inefficient, weak, and uninspired, and that Prützmann himself was, in addition, "vain, idle and boastful". Walter Schellenberg, Heinrich Himmler's head of foreign intelligence, claimed to have told Himmler that the whole operation was "criminal and stupid".


title: Werwolf

text: Rumors of a secret Nazi guerrilla organization began to surface soon after the Allied invasion of Normandy. "Time" ran an article containing speculation that the Germans would try to prolong the war indefinitely by going underground after their defeat. The 27 January 1945 issue of "Collier's Weekly" featured a detailed article by Major Edwin Lessner, stating that elite SS and Hitler Youth were being trained to attack Allied forces and opening with a 1944 quote from Joseph Goebbels: "The enemy (invading German territory) will be taken in the rear by the fanatical population, which will ceaselessly worry him, tie down strong forces and allow him no rest or exploitation of any possible success."


title: Werwolf

text: On 23 March 1945 Goebbels gave a speech known as the "Werwolf speech", in which he urged every German to fight to the death. The partial dismantling of the organised Werwolf, combined with the effects of the Werwolf speech, caused considerable confusion about which subsequent attacks were carried out by Werwolf members, as opposed to solo acts by fanatical Nazis or small groups of SS.


title: Werwolf

text: The Werwolf propaganda station ""Radio Werwolf"" broadcast from Nauen near Berlin, beginning on 1 April 1945. Broadcasts began with the sound of a wolf howling, and a song featuring the lyrics, "My werewolf teeth bite the enemy / And then he's done and then he's gone / Hoo, hoo hoo." The initial broadcast stated that the Nazi Party was ordering every German to "stand his ground and do or die against the Allied armies, who are preparing to enslave Germans." Every Bolshevik, every Englishman, every American on our soil must be a target for our movement ... Any German, whatever his profession or class, who puts himself at the service of the enemy and collaborates with him will feel the effect of our avenging hand ... A single motto remains for us: 'Conquer or die.' "


title: Werwolf

text: Historian Hugh Trevor-Roper, writing not long after the end of the war, asserts that Radio Werwolf had no actual connection to the Werwolf military unit, and was instead organized and run by Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels, possibly in the hope of seizing control of the unit, which Goebbels deemed to be not radical enough. Trevor-Roper assesses Goebbels' Radio Werwolf as propagating "an ideological nihilism" which was not consonant with the limited aims of the actual unit. This disconnect between the broadcasts of Radio Werwolf and the purpose and actions of the military unit is, according to Trevor-Roper, the reason for popular misconceptions about the actual purpose of the unit, which was to attack the Allies from behind their lines, in parallel with the Germany Army fighting the Allies from the front, not to be a guerilla-style resistance unit once Germany was defeated.


title: Werwolf

text: British and American newspapers widely reported the text of Radio Werwolf broadcasts, fueling rumors among occupation forces. Armed Forces Radio claimed that


title: Werwolf

text: Every friendly German civilian is a disguised soldier of hate. Armed with the inner conviction that the Germans are still superior ... [they believe] that one day it will be their destiny to destroy you. Their hatred and their anger ... are deeply buried in their blood. A smile is their weapon by which to disarm you ... In heart, body and spirit every German is Hitler.


title: Werwolf

text: According to Belgian Resistance operatives, the Werwolf name held clout in the general population in Northern Austria. Using an alleged link with the group as cover they were able to reroute a train of "refugees" (Belgian and French Nazi collaborators running away from justice) from Innsbruck back to Switzerland and then Brussels.


title: Werwolf

text: "Gauleiters" were to suggest suitable recruits, who would then be trained at secret locations in the Rhineland and Berlin. The chief training centre in the West was at Hülchrath Castle near Erkelenz, which by early 1945 was training around 200 recruits mostly drawn from the Hitler Youth.


title: Werwolf

text: Werwolf originally had about five thousand members recruited from the SS and the Hitler Youth. These recruits were specially trained in guerrilla tactics. Operation Werwolf went so far as to establish front companies to ensure continued fighting in those areas of Germany that were occupied (all of the "front companies" were discovered and shut down within eight months). However, as it became clear that the reputedly impregnable Alpine Fortress, from which operations were to be directed by the Nazi leadership if the rest of Germany was occupied, was yet another delusion, Werwolf was converted into a terrorist organisation in the last few weeks of the war.


title: Werwolf

text: Werwolf agents were supposed to have at their disposal a vast assortment of weapons, from fire-proof coats to silenced Walther pistols but in reality, this was merely on paper; Werwolf never actually had the necessary equipment, organisation, morale or coordination. Given the dire supply situation German forces were facing in 1945, the commanding officers of existing "Wehrmacht" and SS units were unwilling to turn over what little equipment they still had for the sake of an organization whose actual strategic value was doubtful.


title: Werwolf

text: Attempts were made to bury explosives, ammunition and weapons around the country (mainly in the pre-1939 German–Polish border region) to be used by Werwolf in resistance fighting after the defeat of Germany, but not only were the quantities of material to be buried very low, by that point the movement itself was so disorganised that few actual members or leaders knew where the materials were. A large portion of these "depots" were found by the Soviets, and little of the material was actually used by Werwolf.


title: Werwolf

text: The tactics available to the organisation included sniping attacks, arson, sabotage, and assassination. Training was to cover such topics as the production of home-made explosives, manufacturing detonators from everyday articles such as pencils and "a can of soup", and every member was to be trained in how to jump into a guard tower and strangle a sentry in one swift movement, using only a metre of string.


title: Werwolf

text: In the early months of 1945, SS Obersturmbannführer Otto Skorzeny was involved in training recruits for the Werwolfs, but he soon discovered that the number of Werwolf cells had been greatly exaggerated and that they would be ineffective as a fighting force. Knowing, like many other Nazi leaders, that the war was lost, he decided that the Werwolfs would instead be used as part of a Nazi "underground railroad," facilitating travel along escape routes called "ratlines" that allowed thousands of SS officers and other Nazis to flee Germany after the fall of the Third Reich.


title: Werwolf

text: On 28 April 1945 Staff Sergeant Ib Melchior of the US Counter-Intelligence Corps captured six German officers and 25 enlisted men dressed in civilian clothes, who claimed to constitute a Werwolf cell under the command of Colonel Paul Krüger, operating in Schönsee, Bavaria. The group was captured while hiding in a tunnel network which contained communications equipment, weapons, explosives and several months' food supplies. Two vehicles were hidden in the forest nearby. Documents discovered in the tunnels listed US military commanders as targets for assassination, including General Dwight D. Eisenhower. Krüger stated that in 1943 a school was created in Poland to train men in guerrilla warfare. On 16 September 1944, it was relocated to the town of Thürenberg, Czechoslovakia. Krüger claimed that a total of 1,200 men completed Werwolf training in the school in less than two years. On 1 April 1945, the school was moved to Schönsee and a subterranean base was constructed. The students were instructed to "stay behind, evade capture, and then harass and destroy supply lines of United States troops ... Special emphasis was put on gasoline and oil supplies." According to the G-2 report:


title: Werwolf

text: Operations were to begin three or four weeks after being overrun by US troops. The plan was for each unit to receive designated targets from the headquarters. Bands of from 10 to 20 men were then to be sent out to destroy the target and to return immediately to their unit. No targets were to be located nearer than fifteen kilometers to the unit. Secrecy and camouflage were relied upon for security and all personnel had strict orders to conceal themselves if US troops came into their area and under no circumstances to open fire in the bivouac area. No routes of escape had been planned. Members of the unit usually wore the Wehrmacht uniform, but a few members disguised themselves as foresters and were used as outposts to report any approaching danger. Their ordnance supplies consisted of mortars, machine guns, sub-machine guns, rifles, and various types of side arms. Each man was issued a Liliput pistol which could be very easily concealed on the person. The ammunition supply for each type weapon was ample for four months of ordinary operations. The unit had one civilian type sedan and one Wehrmacht motorcycle which were well hidden in the woods, and 120 horses which were dispersed on farms throughout the vicinity. Food consisting of canned meat, biscuits, crackers, chocolate, and canned vegetables was sufficient for over four months. Additional food supplies such as bread, potatoes, fresh vegetables, and smoked sausages were obtained from local sources. The unit was supplied with water by a brook passing through the area. Dugouts were constructed in such a manner as not to destroy the live trees around them. The dugouts were located on the slope of a hill which was densely covered with fir trees ... The entrance to the dugout was a hole approximately 24 inches in diameter and four to five feet deep. Approximately two feet down, this hole extended horizontally to a length of eight to ten feet. The dugout has a capacity of three men and has a wooden floor and a drainage ditch. Walls and roof are reinforced with lumber.


title: Werwolf

text: The following day a CIC unit led by Captain Oscar M. Grimes of the 97th Infantry Division captured about two hundred Gestapo officers and men in hiding near Hof, Bavaria. They were in possession of American army uniforms and equipment but had decided to surrender.


title: Werwolf

text: In May 1945 CIC Major John Schwartzwalder arrested members of a Werwolf cell in Bremen whose leader had fled. Schwartzwalder believed that the Werwolf never constituted a threat to Allied personnel:


title: Werwolf

text: ...the Bremen group of the Jugend had received its orders to organize as a Werwolf cell only about four days before the fall of the city. By that time the Wehrmacht had taken all but the halt and the lame, and the Volkssturm had taken most of the rest. Nevertheless an organization had been started using the younger boys but it had not progressed to accumulating either weapons or supplies before the entry of the Allied troops...The only remaining fraction of the Werwolf that was of any importance was a residue of veterans of the last war who were physically ineligible for service in this one and who had weapons concealed here and there. These were not too hard to dispose of.


title: Werwolf

text: After it became clear, by March 1945, that the remaining German forces had no chance of stopping the Allied advance, Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels seized upon the idea of "Werwolf," and began to foster the notion, primarily broadcasts of Radio Werwolf, that "Werwolf" was a clandestine guerrilla organization comprising irregular German partisans, similar to the many insurgency groups which the Germans had encountered in the nations they occupied during the war. Despite such propaganda, however, this was never the actual nature of "Werwolf," which in reality was always intended to be a commando unit comprising uniformed troops. Another popular myth about "Werwolf" is that it was intended to continue fighting underground even after the surrender of the Nazi government and the German military.


title: Werwolf

text: No officially recognized effort was ever made by the Nazi leadership to develop an insurgency to continue fighting in the event of defeat, in no small measure because Adolf Hitler, as well as other Nazi leaders, regarded anyone who even discussed the possibility as defeatists and traitors. As a result, no contingency plans to deal with defeat were ever authorized in the official, public record. However, as a result of Goebbels' efforts, "Werwolf" had, and in many cases continues to have, a mythological reputation as having been an underground Nazi resistance movement, with some even claiming that "Werwolf" attacks continued for months, or even years, after the end of the war—in particular, sources cited by West Coast radio broadcaster Dave Emory, for instance in this archived program on audio, following a brief first segment. Its perceived influence went far beyond its actual operations, especially after the dissolution of the Nazi regime.


title: Werwolf

text: Historians Antony Beevor and Earl F. Ziemke have argued that Werwolf never amounted to a serious threat, and furthermore propose that the plan barely existed. According to a study by former Ambassador James Dobbins and a team of RAND Corporation researchers, there were no American combat casualties after the German surrender.


title: Werwolf

text: German historian Golo Mann, in his "The History of Germany Since 1789" (1984) also states that "The [Germans'] readiness to work with the victors, to carry out their orders, to accept their advice and their help was genuine; of the resistance which the Allies had expected in the way of 'werwolf' units and nocturnal guerrilla activities, there was no sign."


title: Werwolf

text: Perry Biddiscombe has offered a somewhat different view. In his books "Werwolf!: The History of the National Socialist Guerrilla Movement, 1944–1946" (1998) and "The Last Nazis: SS Werwolf Guerrilla Resistance in Europe, 1944–1947" (2000), Biddiscombe asserts that after retreating to the Black Forest and the Harz mountains, the Werwolf continued resisting the occupation until at least 1947, possibly until 1949–50. However, he characterizes German post-surrender resistance as "minor", and calls the post-war Werwolfs "desperadoes" and "fanatics living in forest huts". He further cites U.S. Army intelligence reports that characterized Nazi partisans as "nomad bands" and judged them as less serious threats than attacks by foreign slave laborers and considered their sabotage and subversive activities to be insignificant. He also notes that: "The Americans and British concluded, even in the summer of 1945, that, as a nationwide network, the original Werwolf was irrevocably destroyed, and that it no longer posed a threat to the occupation."


title: Werwolf

text: Biddiscombe also says that Werwolf violence failed to mobilize a spirit of popular national resistance, that the group was poorly-led, poorly-armed, and poorly-organized, and that it was doomed to failure given the war-weariness of the populace and the hesitancy of young Germans to sacrifice themselves on the funeral pyre of the former Nazi regime. He concludes that the only significant achievement of the Werwolfs was to spark distrust of the German populace in the Allies as they occupied Germany, which caused them in some cases to act more repressively than they might have done otherwise, which in turn fostered resentments that helped to enable far right ideas to survive in Germany, at least in pockets, into the post-war era.


title: Werwolf

text: Nevertheless, says Biddiscombe, "The Werewolves were no bit players"; they caused tens of millions of dollars of property damage at a time when the European economies were in an already desperate state, and they were responsible for the killing of thousands of people.


title: Werwolf

text: According to Biddiscombe "the threat of Nazi partisan warfare had a generally unhealthy effect on broad issues of policy among the occupying powers. As well, it prompted the development of draconian reprisal measures that resulted in the destruction of much German property and the deaths of thousands of civilians and soldiers". Ian Kershaw states that fear of Werwolf activities may have motivated atrocities against German civilians by Allied troops during and immediately after the war.


title: Werwolf

text: However, collective punishment for acts of resistance, such as fines and curfews, was still being imposed as late as 1948. Biddiscombe estimates the total death toll as a direct result of Werewolf actions and the resulting reprisals as 3,000–5,000.


title: Werwolf

text: In the Soviet occupation zone, thousands of youths were arrested as "Werwolves". Evidently, arrests were arbitrary and in part based on denunciations. The arrested boys were either executed or interned in NKVD special camps. On 22 June 1945, Deputy Commissar of the NKVD Ivan Serov reported to the head of the NKVD Lavrentiy Beria the arrest of "more than 600" alleged Werwolf members, mostly aged 15 to 17 years.


title: Werwolf

text: The report, though referring to incidents where Soviet units came under fire from the woods, asserts that most of the arrested had not been involved in any action against the Soviets, which Serov explained with interrogation results allegedly showing that the boys had been "waiting" for the right moment and in the meantime focused on attracting new members. In October 1945, Beria reported to Joseph Stalin the "liquidation" of 359 alleged Werwolf groups. Of those, 92 groups with 1,192 members were "liquidated" in Saxony alone. On 5 August 1946, Soviet minister for internal affairs Sergei Nikiforovich Kruglov reported that in the Soviet occupation zone, 332 "terrorist diversion groups and underground organizations" had been disclosed and "liquidated". A total of about 10,000 youths were interned in NKVD special camps, half of whom did not return. Parents as well as the East German administration and political parties, installed by the Soviets, were denied any information on the whereabouts of the arrested youths. The Red Army's torching of Demmin, which resulted in the suicide of hundreds of people, was blamed on alleged preceding Werwolf activities by the East German regime.


title: Werwolf

text: Eisenhower believed he would be faced with extensive guerrilla warfare, based on the Alpine Redoubt. The fear of Werwolf activity believed to be mustering around Berchtesgaden in the Alps also led to the switch in U.S. operational targets in the middle of March 1945 away from the drive towards Berlin and instead shifted the thrust towards the south and on linking up with the Russians first. An intelligence report stated "We should ... be prepared to undertake operations in Southern Germany in order to overcome rapidly any organised resistance by the German Armed Forces or by guerrilla movements which may have retreated to the inner zone and to this redoubt". On March 31 Eisenhower told Roosevelt, "I am hopeful of launching operations that should partially prevent a guerrilla control of any large area such as the southern mountain bastions".


title: Werwolf

text: Eisenhower had previously also requested that the occupation directive JCS 1067 not make him responsible for maintaining living conditions in Germany under the expected circumstances; "... probably guerrilla fighting and possibly even civil war in certain districts ... If conditions in Germany turn out as described, it will be utterly impossible effectively to control or save the economic structure of the country ... and we feel we should not assume the responsibility for its support and control." The British were "mortified by such a suggestion", but the War Department took considerable account of Eisenhower's wishes.


title: Werwolf

text: In April 1945 Churchill announced that the Allies would incarcerate all captured German officers for as long as a guerrilla threat existed. Hundreds of thousands of German last-ditch troops were kept in the makeshift Rheinwiesenlager for months, "mainly to prevent Werwolf activity". In addition, civilians held by the U.S. climbed from 1,000 in late March to 30,000 in late June, and more than 100,000 by the end of 1945. Conditions were often poor in the camps for civilians.


title: Werwolf

text: Prior to the occupation SHAEF investigated the reprisal techniques the Germans had used in order to maintain control over occupied territories since they felt the Germans had had good success. Directives were loosely defined and implementation of reprisal was largely left to the preferences of the various armies, with the British seeming uncomfortable with those involving bloodshed. Rear-Admiral H.T. Baillie Grohman for example stated that killing hostages was "not in accordance with our usual methods". Thanks to feelings such as this, and relative light guerrilla activity in their area, relatively few reprisals took place in the UK zone of operations.


title: Werwolf

text: From 1946 onward, Allied intelligence officials noted resistance activities by an organisation which had appropriated the name of the anti-Nazi resistance group, the "Edelweiss Piraten" (Edelweiss Pirates). The group was reported to be composed mainly of former members and officers of Hitler Youth units, ex-soldiers and drifters, and was described by an intelligence report as "a sentimental, adventurous, and romantically anti-social [movement]". It was regarded as a more serious menace to order than the Werwolf by US officials.


title: Werwolf

text: A raid in March 1946 captured 80 former German officers who were members, and who possessed a list of 400 persons to be liquidated, including Wilhelm Hoegner, the prime minister of Bavaria. Further members of the group were seized with caches of ammunition and even anti-tank rockets. In late 1946 reports of activities gradually died away.


title: Werwolf

text: In 2015 Danish police uncovered files in their archives outlining the Danish part of Operation Werwolf under the command of Horst Paul Issel who was caught in Germany in 1949 before being handed over to Denmark. A total of 130 stashes of weapons and explosives were placed around Denmark and personnel were inserted into strategically important parts of society.


title: Werwolf

text: The Iraqi insurgency was initially compared to the history of Werwolf by the Bush Administration and other Iraq War supporters. In speeches given on 25 August 2003 to the Veterans of Foreign Wars by National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice and Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld parallels were drawn between the resistance faced by the Multi-National Force – Iraq's occupation forces in Iraq to that encountered by occupation forces in post-World War II Germany, asserting that the Iraqi insurgency would ultimately prove to be as futile in realizing its objectives as had the Werwolfs.


title: Werwolf

text: Former Clinton-era National Security Council staffer Daniel Benjamin published a riposte in "Slate" magazine on 29 August 2003, entitled "Condi's Phony History: Sorry, Dr. Rice, postwar Germany was nothing like Iraq" in which he took Rice and Rumsfeld to task for mentioning Werwolf, writing that the reality of postwar Germany bore no resemblance to the occupation of Iraq, and made reference to Antony Beevor's "" and the US Army's official history, "The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany 1944–1946", where the Werwolf were only mentioned twice in passing. This did not prevent his political opponents from disagreeing with him, using Biddiscombe's book as a source.


title: Remi Wolf

text: Remi Francis Wolf (born February 2, 1996) is an American singer and songwriter from California. As a senior at Palo Alto High School, she appeared as a contestant on "American Idol" in 2014. After completing her studies at USC Thornton School of Music in 2018, she made her solo debut with the self-released extended play "You're A Dog!" in October 2019. Wolf subsequently released her second EP and major-label debut, "I'm Allergic To Dogs!", on Island Records and Virgin EMI Records in June 2020, followed by her debut studio album, "Juno", in October 2021.


title: Remi Wolf

text: Wolf was born in Palo Alto, California on February 2, 1996, to a Sicilian mother and a Russian-Persian father. At around the age of eight she became interested in competitive skiing, and represented the US in alpine skiing at the Youth Olympic Games for two consecutive years. When she was 14, she formed her first band with a friend called Remi and Chloe (later, Remi, Chloe, & The Extracts). As a senior in high school, Wolf appeared as a contestant during the audition rounds on the thirteenth season of "American Idol" in 2014, but without any formal dismissal, did not reappear later on in the show. At age 17, she moved to Los Angeles, where she attended the USC Thornton School of Music, graduating in 2018.


title: Remi Wolf

text: Wolf met producer Jared Solomon (also known as Solomonophonic) while in college and began collaborating with him thereafter. Her first single, "Guy," was produced by Solomon and was released in 2019. Off the success of that song, Wolf opened for Still Woozy on his tour in April of that year. She also toured with Cautious Clay and performed at both the "Los Angeles Times" Festival of Books and Viva Pomona! later in 2019. She released her first EP, "You're a Dog!", in September 2019. She was later signed to Island Records, a division of the Universal Music Group.


title: Remi Wolf

text: Her first single as an Island signee, "Woo!", was released in April 2020. That was followed by the singles "Photo ID" and "Disco Man". Those tracks would go on to appear on Wolf's second EP, "I'm Allergic to Dogs", released in June 2020 via Island. "Photo ID" accrued numerous streams and shares on TikTok throughout 2020. In November 2020, her single, "Hello Hello Hello" was featured in an ad for the iPhone 12. In May 2021, she released, "We Love Dogs!", a remix EP with guest appearances from acts like Sylvan Esso, Beck, Dominic Fike, Hot Chip, and others.


title: Remi Wolf

text: Later in 2021, Wolf began releasing new singles, including "Liquor Store," "Grumpy Old Man," and "Quiet on Set." These would appear on her major label debut studio album, "Juno", released via Island in October 2021. In March 2022, she released the single, "Pool," with Still Woozy. Later that year, Wolf opened for Lorde on the North American leg of her "Solar Power" tour. In June 2022, Wolf released a "deluxe" version of "Juno" with 4 additional tracks. That month, she toured throughout Europe, including a stop at the Firenze Rocks festival in Florence, Italy where she performed with the Red Hot Chili Peppers and Nas. Those dates constituted the first leg of Wolf's "GWINGLE GWONGLE" tour, which had stops across North America later in the fall of 2022. In August 2022 in collaboration with Spotify, Wolf released the "Live at Electric Lady" EP, a collection of six live songs, including a cover of Frank Ocean's "Pink + White." In November 2022, Wolf announced her first tour of Australia and New Zealand during which she is scheduled to play multiple festivals and a handful of headlining shows in December 2022 and January 2023.


title: Remi Wolf

text: Musically, Wolf performs in what she describes as a "funky soul pop" genre. In a 2021 interview, she stated she wants to "constantly try to innovate the sound of pop music" and "erase the rules of pop". "The New York Times" wrote that she turns the genre bedroom pop into "hypercolored explosions". She cites Still Woozy, SZA, and John Mayer as musical influences.


title: Remi Wolf

text: Wolf is bisexual. She has been based in Los Angeles, California, since circa 2014. In June 2020, she was checked into rehab for alcoholism issues. She claims to have been sober ever since, and that in past instances she frequently drank to the point of blacking out, and although she could easily function in daily life, she had started fighting with family, friends and collaborators.


title: Instagram egg

text: The Instagram egg is a photo of an egg posted by the account @world_record_egg on the social media platform Instagram. It became a global phenomenon and an internet meme within days of its creation. It is the second most-liked Instagram post and is the former most-liked Instagram post, until it was overtaken on December 20, 2022, by Lionel Messi's post showing him and his teammates celebrating after Argentina won the 2022 FIFA World Cup. The owner of the account was revealed to be Chris Godfrey, an advertising creative, who later worked with his two friends Alissa Khan-Whelan and CJ Brown on a Hulu commercial featuring the egg, intended to raise awareness of mental health.


title: Instagram egg

text: The photo was originally taken by Serghei Platanov, who then posted it to Shutterstock on 23 June 2015 with the title "eggs isolated on white background".