title: Sampling (signal processing)

text: Audio is typically recorded at 8-, 16-, and 24-bit depth, which yield a theoretical maximum signal-to-quantization-noise ratio (SQNR) for a pure sine wave of, approximately, 49.93 dB, 98.09 dB and 122.17 dB. CD quality audio uses 16-bit samples. Thermal noise limits the true number of bits that can be used in quantization. Few analog systems have signal to noise ratios (SNR) exceeding 120 dB. However, digital signal processing operations can have very high dynamic range, consequently it is common to perform mixing and mastering operations at 32-bit precision and then convert to 16- or 24-bit for distribution.


title: Sampling (signal processing)

text: Speech signals, i.e., signals intended to carry only human speech, can usually be sampled at a much lower rate. For most phonemes, almost all of the energy is contained in the 100 Hz – 4 kHz range, allowing a sampling rate of 8 kHz. This is the sampling rate used by nearly all telephony systems, which use the G.711 sampling and quantization specifications.


title: Sampling (signal processing)

text: Standard-definition television (SDTV) uses either 720 by 480 pixels (US NTSC 525-line) or 720 by 576 pixels (UK PAL 625-line) for the visible picture area.


title: Sampling (signal processing)

text: High-definition television (HDTV) uses 720p (progressive), 1080i (interlaced), and 1080p (progressive, also known as Full-HD).


title: Sampling (signal processing)

text: In digital video, the temporal sampling rate is defined the frame rate or rather the field rate rather than the notional pixel clock. The image sampling frequency is the repetition rate of the sensor integration period. Since the integration period may be significantly shorter than the time between repetitions, the sampling frequency can be different from the inverse of the sample time:


title: Sampling (signal processing)

text: Video digital-to-analog converters operate in the megahertz range (from ~3 MHz for low quality composite video scalers in early games consoles, to 250 MHz or more for the highest-resolution VGA output).


title: Sampling (signal processing)

text: When analog video is converted to digital video, a different sampling process occurs, this time at the pixel frequency, corresponding to a spatial sampling rate along scan lines. A common pixel sampling rate is:


title: Sampling (signal processing)

text: Spatial sampling in the other direction is determined by the spacing of scan lines in the raster. The sampling rates and resolutions in both spatial directions can be measured in units of lines per picture height.


title: Sampling (signal processing)

text: The process of volume rendering samples a 3D grid of voxels to produce 3D renderings of sliced (tomographic) data. The 3D grid is assumed to represent a continuous region of 3D space. Volume rendering is common in medical imaging, X-ray computed tomography (CT/CAT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET) are some examples. It is also used for seismic tomography and other applications.


title: Sampling (signal processing)

text: When a bandpass signal is sampled slower than its Nyquist rate, the samples are indistinguishable from samples of a low-frequency alias of the high-frequency signal. That is often done purposefully in such a way that the lowest-frequency alias satisfies the Nyquist criterion, because the bandpass signal is still uniquely represented and recoverable. Such undersampling is also known as "bandpass sampling", "harmonic sampling", "IF sampling", and "direct IF to digital conversion."


title: Sampling (signal processing)

text: Oversampling is used in most modern analog-to-digital converters to reduce the distortion introduced by practical digital-to-analog converters, such as a zero-order hold instead of idealizations like the Whittaker–Shannon interpolation formula.


title: Sampling (signal processing)

text: Complex sampling (or I/Q sampling) is the simultaneous sampling of two different, but related, waveforms, resulting in pairs of samples that are subsequently treated as complex numbers.  When one waveformformula_1  is the Hilbert transform of the other waveformformula_2  the complex-valued function,  formula_3  is called an analytic signal,  whose Fourier transform is zero for all negative values of frequency. In that case, the Nyquist rate for a waveform with no frequencies ≥ "B" can be reduced to just "B" (complex samples/sec), instead of 2"B" (real samples/sec). More apparently, the equivalent baseband waveform,  formula_4  also has a Nyquist rate of "B", because all of its non-zero frequency content is shifted into the interval [-B/2, B/2).


title: Sampling (signal processing)

text: Although complex-valued samples can be obtained as described above, they are also created by manipulating samples of a real-valued waveform. For instance, the equivalent baseband waveform can be created without explicitly computing formula_5  by processing the product sequenceformula_6  through a digital low-pass filter whose cutoff frequency is "B"/2. Computing only every other sample of the output sequence reduces the sample-rate commensurate with the reduced Nyquist rate. The result is half as many complex-valued samples as the original number of real samples. No information is lost, and the original s(t) waveform can be recovered, if necessary.


title: Harry Gregson-Williams

text: Harry Gregson-Williams (born 13 December 1961) is a British composer, conductor, orchestrator, and record producer. He has composed music for video games, television and films including the "Metal Gear" series, "Spy Game", "Phone Booth", "Man on Fire", "", "Déjà Vu", "", "The Martian", "Antz", "The Tigger Movie", "Chicken Run", the "Shrek" franchise, "", "Flushed Away", "Arthur Christmas", "Early Man", and "Catch-22". He is the older brother of composer Rupert Gregson-Williams.


title: Harry Gregson-Williams

text: Gregson-Williams won a musical scholarship to St John's College School in Cambridge at the age of seven. He was a child chorister at the school and later attended Stowe School, a boarding independent school in the civil parish of Stowe in Buckinghamshire, where he was a music scholar. He next went to the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in London.


title: Harry Gregson-Williams

text: He learned to play the piano as a child on a Broadwood piano which his father had bought with the winnings from a hundred-to-one bet during the Grand National.


title: Color photography

text: Color photography is photography that uses media capable of capturing and reproducing colors. By contrast, black-and-white or gray-monochrome photography records only a single channel of luminance (brightness) and uses media capable only of showing shades of gray.


title: Color photography

text: In color photography, electronic sensors or light-sensitive chemicals record color information at the time of exposure. This is usually done by analyzing the spectrum of colors into three channels of information, one dominated by red, another by green and the third by blue, in imitation of the way the normal human eye senses color. The recorded information is then used to reproduce the original colors by mixing various proportions of red, green and blue light (RGB color, used by video displays, digital projectors and some historical photographic processes), or by using dyes or pigments to remove various proportions of the red, green and blue which are present in white light (CMY color, used for prints on paper and transparencies on film).


title: Color photography

text: Monochrome images which have been "colorized" by tinting selected areas by hand or mechanically or with the aid of a computer are "colored photographs", not "color photographs". Their colors are not dependent on the actual colors of the objects photographed and may be inaccurate.


title: Color photography

text: The foundation of all practical color processes, the three-color method was first suggested in an 1855 paper by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, with the first color photograph produced by Thomas Sutton for a Maxwell lecture in 1861. Color photography has been the dominant form of photography since the 1970s, with monochrome photography mostly relegated to niche markets such as art photography.


title: Color photography

text: Color photography was attempted beginning in the 1840s. Early experiments were directed at finding a "chameleon substance" which would assume the color of the light falling on it. Some encouraging early results, typically obtained by projecting a solar spectrum directly onto the sensitive surface, seemed to promise eventual success, but the comparatively dim image formed in a camera required exposures lasting for hours or even days. The quality and range of the color was sometimes severely limited mainly to primary colors, as in the chemically complicated "Hillotype" process invented by American daguerreotypist Levi Hill around 1850. Other experimenters, such as Edmond Becquerel, achieved better results but could find no way to prevent the colors from quickly fading when the images were exposed to light for viewing. Over the following several decades, renewed experiments along these lines periodically raised hopes and then dashed them, yielding nothing of practical value.


title: Color photography

text: The three-color method, which is the foundation of virtually all practical color processes whether chemical or electronic, was first suggested in an 1855 paper on color vision by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell.


title: Color photography

text: It is based on the Young–Helmholtz theory that the normal human eye sees color because its inner surface is covered with millions of intermingled cone cells of three types: in theory, one type is most sensitive to the end of the spectrum we call "red", another is more sensitive to the middle or "green" region, and a third which is most strongly stimulated by "blue". The named colors are somewhat arbitrary divisions imposed on the continuous spectrum of visible light, and the theory is not an entirely accurate description of cone sensitivity. But the simple description of these three colors coincides enough with the sensations experienced by the eye that when these three colors are used the three cones types are adequately and unequally stimulated to form the illusion of various intermediate wavelengths of light.


title: Color photography

text: In his studies of color vision, Maxwell showed, by using a rotating disk with which he could alter the proportions, that any visible hue or gray tone could be made by mixing only three pure colors of light – red, green and blue – in proportions that would stimulate the three types of cells to the same degrees under particular lighting conditions. To emphasize that each type of cell by itself did not actually see color but was simply more or less stimulated, he drew an analogy to black-and-white photography: if three colorless photographs of the same scene were taken through red, green and blue filters, and transparencies ("slides") made from them were projected through the same filters and superimposed on a screen, the result would be an image reproducing not only red, green and blue, but all of the colors in the original scene.


title: Color photography

text: The first color photograph made according to Maxwell's prescription, a set of three monochrome "color separations", was taken by Thomas Sutton in 1861 for use in illustrating a lecture on color by Maxwell, where it was shown in color by the triple projection method. The test subject was a bow made of ribbon with stripes of various colors, apparently including red and green. During the lecture, which was about physics and physiology, not photography, Maxwell commented on the inadequacy of the results and the need for a photographic material more sensitive to red and green light. A century later, historians were mystified by the reproduction of any red at all, because the photographic process used by Sutton was for all practical purposes totally insensitive to red light and only marginally sensitive to green. In 1961, researchers found that many red dyes also reflect ultraviolet light, coincidentally transmitted by Sutton's red filter, and surmised that the three images were probably due to ultra-violet, blue-green and blue wavelengths, rather than to red, green and blue.


title: Color photography

text: Creating colors by mixing colored lights (usually red, green and blue) in various proportions is the additive method of color reproduction. LCD, LED, plasma and CRT (picture tube) color video displays all use this method. If one of these displays is examined with a sufficiently strong magnifier, it will be seen that each pixel is actually composed of red, green and blue sub-pixels which blend at normal viewing distances, reproducing a wide range of colors as well as white and shades of gray. This is also known as the RGB color model.


title: Color photography

text: The same three images taken through red, green and blue filters which are used for additive color synthesis may also be used to produce color prints and transparencies by the subtractive method, in which colors are subtracted from white light by dyes or pigments. In photography, the dye colors are normally cyan, a greenish-blue which absorbs red; magenta, a purplish-pink which absorbs green; and yellow, which absorbs blue. The red-filtered image is used to create a cyan dye image, the green-filtered image to create a magenta dye image, and the blue-filtered image to create a yellow dye image. When the three dye images are superimposed they form a complete color image.


title: Color photography

text: This is also known as the CMYK color model. The "K" is a black component normally added in ink-jet and other mechanical printing processes to compensate for the imperfections of the colored inks used, which ideally should absorb or transmit various parts of the spectrum but not reflect any color, and to improve image definition.


title: Color photography

text: At first it may seem that each image ought to be printed in the color of the filter used in making it, but by following any given color through the process the reason for printing in complementary colors should become apparent. A red object, for example, will be very pale in the red-filtered image but very dark in the other two images, so the result will be an area with just a trace of cyan, absorbing just a bit of red light, but a large amount of magenta and yellow, which together absorb most of the green and blue light, leaving mainly red light to be reflected back from the white paper in the case of a print, or transmitted through a clear support in the case of a transparency.


title: Color photography

text: Before the technical innovations of the years 1935 to 1942, the only way to create a subtractive full-color print or transparency was by means of one of several labor-intensive and time-consuming procedures. Most commonly, three pigment images were first created separately by the so-called carbon process and then carefully combined in register. Sometimes, related processes were used to make three gelatin matrices which were dyed and assembled or used to transfer the three dye images into a single layer of gelatin coated on a final support. Chemical toning could be used to convert three black-and-white silver images into cyan, magenta and yellow images which were then assembled. In a few processes, the three images were created one on top of another by repeated coating or re-sensitizing, negative registration, exposure and development operations. A number of variations were devised and marketed during the first half of the 20th century, some of them short-lived, others, such as the Trichrome Carbro process, enduring for several decades. Because some of these processes allow very stable and light-fast coloring matter to be used, yielding images which can remain virtually unchanged for centuries, they are still not quite completely extinct.


title: Color photography

text: The production of photographic three-color prints on paper was pioneered by Louis Ducos du Hauron, whose comprehensive 1868 French patent also included the basic concepts of most of the color photographic processes which were subsequently developed. For making the three color-filtered negatives required, he was able to develop materials and methods which were not as completely blind to red and green light as those used by Thomas Sutton in 1861, but they were still very insensitive to those colors. Exposure times were impractically long, the red or orange-filtered negative requiring hours of exposure in the camera. His earliest surviving color prints are "sun prints" of pressed flowers and leaves, each of the three negatives having been made without a camera by exposing the light-sensitive surface to direct sunlight passing first through a color filter and then through the vegetation. His first attempts were based on the red-yellow-blue colors then used for pigments, with no color reversal. Later he used the primary colors of light with color reversal.


title: Color photography

text: As long as photographic materials were usefully sensitive only to blue-green, blue, violet and ultraviolet, three-color photography could never be practical. In 1873 German chemist Hermann Wilhelm Vogel discovered that the addition of small amounts of certain aniline dyes to a photographic emulsion could add sensitivity to colors which the dyes absorbed. He identified dyes which variously sensitized for all the previously ineffective colors except true red, to which only a marginal trace of sensitivity could be added. In the following year, Edmond Becquerel discovered that chlorophyll was a good sensitizer for red. Although it would be many more years before these sensitizers (and better ones developed later) found much use beyond scientific applications such as spectrography, they were quickly and eagerly adopted by Louis Ducos du Hauron, Charles Cros and other color photography pioneers. Exposure times for the "problem" colors could now be reduced from hours to minutes. As ever-more-sensitive gelatin emulsions replaced the old wet and dry collodion processes, the minutes became seconds. New sensitizing dyes introduced early in the 20th century eventually made so-called "instantaneous" color exposures possible.


title: Color photography

text: Making color separations by reloading the camera and changing the filter between exposures was inconvenient, added delays to the already long exposure times and could result in the camera being accidentally shifted out of position. To improve the actual picture-taking, a number of experimenters designed one or more special cameras for color photography. They were usually of two main types.


title: Color photography

text: The first type used a system of partially reflecting surfaces to divide the light coming through the lens into three parts, each part passing through a different color filter and forming a separate image, so that the three images could be photographed at the same time on three plates (flexible film had not yet replaced glass plates as the support for the emulsion) or different areas of one plate. Later known as "one-shot" cameras, refined versions continued to be used as late as the 1950s for special purposes such as commercial photography for publication, in which a set of color separations was ultimately required in order to prepare printing plates.


title: Color photography

text: The second type, known variously as a multiple back, repeating back or drop back camera, still exposed the images one at a time but used a sliding holder for the filters and plates which allowed each filter and the corresponding unexposed area of emulsion to be quickly shifted into place. German photochemistry professor Adolf Miethe designed a high-quality camera of this type which was commercially introduced by Bermpohl in 1903. It was probably this Miethe-Bermpohl camera which was used by Miethe's pupil Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii to make his now-celebrated color photographic surveys of Russia before the 1917 revolution. One sophisticated variant, patented by Frederic Eugene Ives in 1897, was driven by clockwork and could be adjusted to automatically make each of the exposures for a different length of time according to the particular color sensitivities of the emulsion being used.


title: Color photography

text: Otherwise simple cameras with multiple color-filtered lenses were sometimes tried, but unless everything in the scene was at a great distance, or all in a plane at the same distance, the difference in the viewpoints of the lenses (parallax) made it impossible to completely register all parts of the resulting images at the same time.


title: Color photography

text: Prior to the late 1890s color photography was strictly the domain of a very few experimenters willing to build their own equipment, do their own color-sensitizing of photographic emulsions, make and test their own color filters and otherwise devote a large amount of time and effort to their pursuits. There were many opportunities for something to go wrong during the series of operations required and problem-free results were rare. Most photographers still regarded the whole idea of color photography as a pipe dream, something only madmen and swindlers would claim to have accomplished.


title: Color photography

text: In 1898, however, it was possible to buy the required equipment and supplies ready-made. Two adequately red-sensitive photographic plates were already on the market, and two very different systems of color photography with which to use them, described in photographic magazines for several years prior, were finally available to the public.


title: Color photography

text: The most extensive and expensive of the two was the "Kromskop" (pronounced "chrome-scope") system developed by Frederic Eugene Ives. This was a straightforward additive system and its essential elements had been described by James Clerk Maxwell, Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros much earlier, but Ives invested years of work and ingenuity in refining the methods and materials to optimize color quality, in overcoming problems inherent in the optical systems involved, and in simplifying the apparatus to bring down the cost of producing it commercially. The color images, dubbed "Kromograms", were in the form of sets of three black-and-white transparencies on glass, mounted onto special cloth-tape-hinged triple cardboard frames. To see a Kromogram in color it had to be inserted into a "Kromskop" (generic name "chromoscope" or "photochromoscope"), a viewing device which used an arrangement of colored glass filters to illuminate each slide with the correct color of light and transparent reflectors to visually combine them into a single full-color image. The most popular model was stereoscopic. By looking through its pair of lenses, an image in full natural color and 3-D was seen, a startling novelty in the late Victorian age.


title: Color photography

text: The results won near-universal praise for excellence and realism. At demonstrations, Ives sometimes placed a viewer displaying a still-life subject next to the actual objects photographed, inviting direct comparison. A Kromskop triple "lantern" could be used to project the three images, mounted in a special metal or wooden frame for this purpose, through filters as Maxwell had done in 1861. Prepared Kromograms of still-life subjects, landscapes, famous buildings and works of art were sold and these were the Kromskop viewer's usual fodder, but a "multiple back" camera attachment and a set of three specially adjusted color filters could be bought by "Kromskopists" wishing to make their own Kromograms.


title: Color photography

text: Kromskops and ready-made Kromograms were bought by educational institutions for their value in teaching about color and color vision, as well as by wealthy individuals. A few people made their own Kromograms. These were not enough to sustain Ives’ businesses, which had been set up to exploit the system; they soon failed, but the viewers, projectors, Kromograms and several varieties of Kromskop cameras and camera attachments continued to be available through the Scientific Shop in Chicago as late as 1907.


title: Color photography

text: The simpler and somewhat more economical alternative was the Joly screen process. This required no special camera or viewer, just a special color-compensating filter for the camera lens and a special holder for the photographic plates. The holder contained the heart of the system: a clear glass plate on which very fine lines of three colors had been ruled in a regular repeating pattern, completely covering its surface. The idea was that instead of taking three separate complete photographs through three colored filters, the filters could be in the form of a large number of very narrow strips (the colored lines) allowing the necessary color information to be recorded in a single compound image. After the negative was developed, a positive transparency was printed from it and a viewing screen with red, green and blue lines in the same pattern as the lines of the taking screen was applied and carefully aligned. The colors then appeared as if by magic. The transparency and screen were very like the layer of monochrome liquid crystal elements and overlay of hair-thin red, green and blue color filter stripes which create the color image in a typical LCD display. This was the invention of Irish scientist John Joly, although he, like so many other inventors, eventually discovered that his basic concept had been anticipated in Louis Ducos du Hauron's long-since-expired 1868 patent.


title: Color photography

text: The Joly screen process had some problems. First and foremost, although the colored lines were reasonably fine (about 75 sets of three colored lines to the inch) they were still disturbingly visible at normal viewing distances and nearly intolerable when enlarged by projection. This problem was exacerbated by the fact that each screen was individually ruled on a machine which used three pens to apply the transparent colored inks, resulting in irregularities, high reject rates and high cost. The glass used for photographic plates at the time was not perfectly flat, and lack of uniform good contact between the screen and the image gave rise to areas of degraded color. Poor contact also caused false colors to appear if the sandwich was viewed at an angle. Although much simpler than the Kromskop system, the Joly system was not inexpensive. The starter kit of plate holder, compensating filter, one taking screen and one viewing screen cost US$30 (the equivalent of at least $750 in 2010 dollars) and additional viewing screens were $1 each (the equivalent of at least $25 in 2010 dollars). This system, too, soon died of neglect, although in fact it pointed the way to the future.


title: Color photography

text: Surviving examples of the Joly process usually show extremely poor color now. The colors in the viewing screens have badly faded and shifted, making it impossible to judge their original appearance. In some specimens the viewing screen is also misaligned.


title: Color photography

text: Lippmann photography is a way of making a color photograph that relies on Bragg reflection planes in the emulsion to make the colors. It is similar to using the colors of soap bubbles to make an image. Gabriel Jonas Lippmann won the Nobel Prize in physics in 1908 for the creation of the first color photographic process using a single emulsion. The method is based on the interference phenomenon. The color fidelity is extremely high but the images can not be reproduced and viewing requires very specific lighting conditions. The development of the Autochrome process quickly rendered the Lippmann method redundant. The method is still utilized to make singular images that cannot be copied for security purposes.


title: Color photography

text: The first commercially successful color process, the Lumière Autochrome, invented by the French Lumière brothers, reached the market in 1907. Instead of colored strips, it was based on an irregular screen plate filter made of three colors of dyed grains of potato starch which were too small to be individually visible. The light-sensitive emulsion was coated directly onto the screen plate, eliminating problems due to imperfect contact between the screen and image. Reversal processing was used to convert the negative image which was initially produced into a positive image by removing the exposed silver metal, and re-exposing the remaining silver halide, so no printing or screen registration was required. The shortcomings of the Autochrome process were the expense (one plate cost about as much as a dozen black-and-white plates of the same size), the relatively long exposure times which made hand-held "snapshots" and photographs of moving subjects impractical, and the density of the finished image due to the presence of the light-absorbing color screen.


title: Color photography

text: Viewed under optimum conditions and by daylight as intended, a well-made and well-preserved Autochrome can look startlingly fresh and vivid. Unfortunately, modern film and digital copies are usually made with a highly diffused light source, which causes loss of color saturation and other ill effects due to light scatter within the structure of the screen and emulsion, and by fluorescent or other artificial light which alters the color balance. The capabilities of the process should not be judged by the dull, washed-out, odd-colored reproductions commonly seen.


title: Color photography

text: Millions of Autochrome plates were manufactured and used during the quarter century before the plates were replaced by film-based versions in the 1930s. The very last film version, named Alticolor, brought the Autochrome process into the 1950s but was discontinued in 1955. Many additive color screen products were available between the 1890s and the 1950s, but none, with the possible exception of Dufaycolor, introduced as film for still photography in 1935, was as popular or successful as the Lumière Autochrome. The most recent use of the additive screen process for non-digital photography was in Polachrome, an "instant" 35mm slide film introduced in 1983 and discontinued about twenty years later.


title: Color photography

text: Louis Ducos du Hauron had suggested using a sandwich of three differently color-recording emulsions on transparent supports which could be exposed together in an ordinary camera, then taken apart and used like any other set of three-color separations. The problem was that although two of the emulsions could be in contact face-to-face, the third would have to be separated by the thickness of one transparent support layer. Because all silver halide emulsions are inherently sensitive to blue, the blue-recording layer ought to be on top and have a blue-blocking yellow filter layer behind it. This blue-recording layer, used to make the yellow print which could most afford to be "soft", would end up producing the sharpest image. The two layers behind it, one sensitized to red but not green and the other to green but not red, would suffer from scattering of the light as it passed through the topmost emulsion, and one or both would further suffer by being spaced away from it.


title: Color photography

text: Despite these limitations, some "tripacks" were commercially produced, such as the Hess-Ives "Hiblock" which sandwiched an emulsion on film between emulsions coated on glass plates. For a brief period in the early 1930s, the American Agfa-Ansco company produced Colorol, a roll-film tripack for snapshot cameras. The three emulsions were on unusually thin film bases. After exposure, the roll was sent to Agfa-Ansco for processing and the triple negatives were returned to the customer with a set of color prints. The images were not sharp and the color was not very good, but they were genuine "natural color" snapshots.


title: Color photography

text: "Bipacks" using only two emulsions face-to-face were the subject of some development. Although the range of colors which could be reproduced by only two components was limited, skin tones and most hair and eye colors could be rendered with surprising fidelity, making bipack processes a viable option for color portraiture. In commercial practice, however, the use of bipacks was almost entirely confined to two-color motion picture systems.


title: Color photography

text: If the three layers of emulsion in a tripack did not have to be taken apart in order to produce the cyan, magenta and yellow dye images from them, they could be coated directly on top of each other, eliminating the most serious problems. In fact, some chemical magic was under development which would make that possible.


title: Color photography

text: In 1935, American Eastman Kodak introduced the first modern "integral tripack" color film and called it Kodachrome, a name recycled from an earlier and completely different two-color process. Its development was led by the improbable team of Leopold Mannes and Leopold Godowsky Jr. (nicknamed "Man" and "God"), two highly regarded classical musicians who had started tinkering with color photographic processes and ended up working with the Kodak Research Laboratories. Kodachrome had three layers of emulsion coated on a single base, each layer recording one of the three additive primaries, red, green, and blue. In keeping with Kodak's old "you press the button, we do the rest" slogan, the film was simply loaded into the camera, exposed in the ordinary way, then mailed to Kodak for processing. The complicated part, if the complexities of manufacturing the film are ignored, was the processing, which involved the controlled penetration of chemicals into the three layers of emulsion. Only a simplified description of the process is appropriate in a short history: as each layer was developed into a black-and-white silver image, a "dye coupler" added during that stage of development caused a cyan, magenta or yellow dye image to be created along with it. The silver was chemically removed, leaving only the three layers of dye images in the finished film.


title: Color photography

text: Initially, Kodachrome was available only as 16mm film for home movies, but in 1936 it was also introduced as 8mm home movie film and short lengths of 35mm film for still photography. In 1938, sheet film in various sizes for professional photographers was introduced, some changes were made to cure early problems with unstable colors, and a somewhat simplified processing method was instituted.


title: Color photography

text: In 1936, the German Agfa followed with their own integral tripack film, Agfacolor Neu, which was generally similar to Kodachrome but had one important advantage: Agfa had found a way to incorporate the dye couplers into the emulsion layers during manufacture, allowing all three layers to be developed at the same time and greatly simplifying the processing. Most modern color films, excepting the now-discontinued Kodachrome, use the incorporated dye coupler technique, but since the 1970s nearly all have used a modification developed by Kodak rather than the original Agfa version.


title: Color photography

text: In 1941, Kodak made it possible to order prints from Kodachrome slides. The print "paper" was actually a white plastic coated with a multilayer emulsion similar to that on the film. These were the first commercially available color prints created by the chromogenic dye coupler method. In the following year, Kodacolor film was introduced. Unlike Kodachrome, it was designed to be processed into a negative image which showed not only light and dark reversed but also complementary colors. The use of such a negative for making prints on paper simplified the processing of the prints, reducing their cost.


title: Color photography

text: The expense of color film as compared to black-and-white and the difficulty of using it with indoor lighting combined to delay its widespread adoption by amateurs. In 1950, black-and-white snapshots were still the norm. By 1960, color was much more common but still tended to be reserved for travel photos and special occasions. Color film and color prints cost several times as much as black-and-white, and taking color snapshots in deep shade or indoors required flashbulbs—an inconvenience and an additional expense. By 1970, prices were dropping, film sensitivity had improved, electronic flash units were replacing flashbulbs, and color had become the norm for snapshot-taking in most families. Black-and-white film continued to be used by some photographers who preferred it for aesthetic reasons or who wanted to take pictures by existing light in low-light conditions, which was still difficult to do with color film. They usually did their own developing and printing. By 1980, black-and-white film in the formats used by typical snapshot cameras, as well as commercial developing and printing service for it, had nearly disappeared.


title: Color photography

text: Instant color film was introduced by Polaroid in 1963. Like Polaroid's contemporary instant black-and-white film, their first color product was a negative-positive peel-apart process which produced a unique print on paper. The negative could not be reused and was discarded. The blight created by carelessly discarded caustic-chemical-laden Polaroid negatives, which tended to accumulate most heavily at the prettiest, most snapshot-worthy locations, horrified Polaroid founder Edwin Land and prompted him to develop the later SX-70 system, which produced no separate negative to discard.


title: Color photography

text: Some currently available color films are designed to produce positive transparencies for use in a slide projector or magnifying viewer, although paper prints can also be made from them. Transparencies are preferred by some professional photographers who use film because they can be judged without having to print them first. Transparencies are also capable of a wider dynamic range and, therefore, of a greater degree of realism than the more convenient medium of prints on paper. The early popularity of color "slides" among amateurs went into decline after automated printing equipment began improving print quality and lowering prices.


title: Color photography

text: Other currently available films are designed to produce color negatives for use in creating enlarged positive prints on color photographic paper. Color negatives may also be digitally scanned and then printed by photographic or non-photographic means, or viewed as positives electronically. Unlike reversal-film transparency processes, negative-positive processes are, within limits, forgiving of incorrect exposure and poor color lighting, because printing allows considerable correction. Negative film is therefore more suitable for casual use by amateurs. Virtually all single-use cameras employ negative film. Photographic transparencies can be made from negatives by printing them on special "positive film", but this has always been unusual outside of the motion picture industry and commercial service to do it for still images may no longer be available. Negative films and paper prints are by far the most common form of color film photography today.


title: Color photography

text: After a transition period centered around 1994–2006, color film was relegated to a niche market by inexpensive multi-megapixel digital cameras that can shoot both in monochrome as well as color. Some photographers continue to prefer film for its distinctive "look" for artistic purposes or out of fondness.


title: Color photography

text: The most commonly used method of obtaining color information in digital photography is the use of a Bayer filter, invented by Bryce Bayer of Eastman Kodak in 1976. In this approach, a sensor that is sensitive to multiple wavelengths of light is placed behind a color filter. Traditionally, each pixel, or "sensel", is thereby assigned an additional light response curve beyond its inherent differential response to different wavelengths - typically the filters applied respond to red, blue and green, the latter being used twice as often based on an argument that the human eye is more sensitive to variation in green than any other color. Thus, the color image produced would preserve color in a way resembling human perception, and not appear unduly deteriorated in any particular color range.


title: Color photography

text: However, alternative approaches do exist. The Foveon sensor uses the fact that light penetrates silicon to a depth that depends on the wavelength of the light. Thus, reading light at a lower layer in a silicon stack would yield a different value than reading it at the top, and the difference can be used to compute the color of the light in addition to its intensity.


title: Color photography

text: Another option is the use of a prism to separate the colors onto three separate capturing devices, as in a three-CCD camera.


title: Color photography

text: The Bayer pattern itself has had various modifications proposed. One class of these uses the same pattern, but changes the colors of the glass, for instance using cyan, yellow, green and magenta for increased sensitivity to the intensity of light (luminance) or replacing one green cell with an "emerald" or cyan one.


title: Color photography

text: Fujifilm in particular has proposed some of the more unusual variations of the Bayer pattern, such as the EXR and X-Trans patterns.


title: Color photography

text: Photographers differed in opinion about color photography when it was introduced. Some fully embraced it when it was available to the public in the late 1930s, while others remained skeptical of its relevance in the art of photography.


title: Color photography

text: Paul Outerbridge was an American photographer prominent for his early use and experiments in color photography. He began writing a monthly column on color photography for the U.S. Camera Magazine around 1930. Outerbridge became known for the high quality of his color illustrations, made by an extremely complex tri-color carbro process. In 1940 he published his seminal book "Photographing in Color", using high quality illustrations to explain his techniques.


title: Color photography

text: Ferenc Berko, a classic photographer who lived during the rise of color film, was one of the photographers who immediately recognized the potential of color film. He saw it as a new way to frame the world; a way to experiment with the subjects he photographed and how he conveyed emotion in the photograph.


title: Color photography

text: John Hedgecoe, another photographer who lived during this time period, was another example of those who preferred color. He published a book entitled "The Art of Color Photography", in which he explained the importance of understanding the "special and often subtle relationships between different colors". He also described the psychological and emotional power that color can have on the viewer, since certain colors, he argues, can make people feel a certain way.


title: Color photography

text: William Eggleston is widely credited with increasing recognition for color photography as a legitimate artistic medium.


title: Color photography

text: Though color photography had its followers, black-and-white still remained the more popular and respected film when color first came out.


title: Color photography

text: According to Eggleston, his former idol, Henri Cartier-Bresson, said to him at a party, “William, color is bullshit”, and then not another word.


title: Color photography

text: Harold Baquet, for instance—a relatively current photographer known best for documenting New Orleans civil rights—was not keen on color. He preferred to take pictures mainly using black-and-white film. When asked about his reasoning for this preference during an interview, he replied “The less is more thing. Sometimes the color distracts from the essential subject. Sometimes, just light, line and form is enough, and it allows you to explore the sculptural qualities of that third dimension, that illusional dimension of depth. And it’s fun”. This aversion to color was due mainly to a fear of losing simplicity in his pictures. He worried that color gave the eye too much to take in.


title: Color photography

text: This worry was not uncommon. Photographer Ansel Adams, known best for his dramatic black-and-white landscapes, also felt that color could be distracting, and could therefore divert the artist's attention away from creating a photograph to his full potential, according to some experts. Adams actually claimed that he could get "a far greater sense of 'color' through a well-planned and executed black-and-white image than [he had] ever achieved with color photography". Another expert source mentioned that Adams was a "master of control". He wrote books about technique, developed the Zone System—which helped determine the optimal exposure and development time for a given photograph—and introduced the idea of "previsualization", which involved the photographer imagining what he wanted his final print to look like before he even took the shot. These concepts and methods allowed for nearly total control of all the potential variables that factor into a final print. Because of this love for control, Adams disliked color because it lacked this element that he had mastered with black-and-white.


title: Color photography

text: While Adams initially was far from thrilled with color, he did experiment with it, unknown to many. A few examples of his color work are available in the online archive of the Center for Creative Photography at the University of Arizona. The subjects which he shot in color ranged from portraits, to landscape, to architecture; a similar scope to that of his black and white work. In fact, toward the end of his life, Adams admitted his regret of not being able to master the technique of color, according to an expert source.


title: Color photography

text: Though a wide range of film preference still exists among photographers today, color has, with time, gained a much larger following in the field of photography.


title: Color photography

text: Color photographic materials are impermanent and, by nature, unstable. Chromogenic color photographs, for example, are composed of yellow, magenta, and cyan organic dyes, which fade at different rates. Even in dark storage and archival material enclosures, deterioration is unavoidable. However, proper care can delay fading, color shifting, and discoloration.


title: Color photography

text: In general, the colder the storage, the longer the lifetime of color photographs. Frost-free "cold storage" below freezing is one of the most effective ways to halt damage to color images. Cold storage is more costly and requires special training to remove and return items. "Cool storage" above freezing, which is more common and less costly, requires temperatures between with 30–40% relative humidity and above the dew point to eliminate condensation.


title: Color photography

text: "Dark storage" in light tight enclosures and storage boxes is advised for individual items. When materials are exposed to light during handling, usage, or display, light sources should be UV-filtered and intensity kept at minimum. In storage areas, 200–400 lux is recommended.


title: Color photography

text: The use of protective enclosures is the easiest method to preserve photographic materials from damage by handling and light exposure. All protective materials should pass the "Photographic Activity Test" (PAT) as described both by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in standard IT9.2–1988, and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in standard 18916:2007(E), "Photography – Processed Photographic Materials – Photographic Activity Test for Enclosure Materials". The PAT is an archival science test that determines what kind of storage enclosures will preserve, prolong, and/or prevent further deterioration.


title: Color photography

text: It is recommended that each item have its own archival enclosure of appropriate size. Archival enclosures may be made of "paper" or "plastic". Each has advantages and disadvantages.


title: Color photography

text: After photographic materials are individually enclosed, housing or storage containers provide another protective barrier, such as folders and boxes made from archival paperboard as addressed in ISO Standards 18916:2007 and 18902. Sometimes these containers must be custom-made for oddly sized materials. In general, flat storage in boxes is recommended because it provides more stable support, particularly for materials that are fragile. Boxes and folders should not be over-filled.


title: Caen

text: Caen (, ; ) is a commune in northwestern France. It is the prefecture of the department of Calvados. The city proper has 105,512 inhabitants (), while its functional urban area has 470,000, making Caen the second largest urban area in Normandy and the 19th largest in France. It is also the third largest commune in all of Normandy after Le Havre and Rouen.


title: Caen

text: It is located inland from the English Channel, north-west of Paris, and connected to the south of England by the Caen (Ouistreham) to Portsmouth ferry route. Caen is located in the centre of its northern region, and it is a centre of political, economic and cultural power. Located a few miles from the coast, the landing beaches, the bustling resorts of Deauville and Cabourg, as well as Norman Switzerland and Pays d'Auge, Caen is often considered the archetype of Normandy.


title: Caen

text: Caen is known for its historical buildings built during the reign of William the Conqueror, who was buried there, and for the Battle for Caen, heavy fighting that took place in and around Caen during the Battle of Normandy in 1944, destroying much of the city. The city has now preserved the memory by erecting a memorial and a museum dedicated to peace, the Mémorial de Caen.


title: Caen

text: Caen was known in Roman times as 'Catumagos', from the Gaulish roots "magos" meaning 'field' and "catu" meaning 'combat'. It remained a minor settlement throughout the Roman period and began to see major development commence in the 10th century, under the patronage of the Dukes of Normandy. Around 1060, William the Conqueror began construction of the Château de Caen, which became the centre of the ducal court. Duchess Matilda of Flanders also founded the Benedictine Abbey of Sainte-Trinité, Caen around the same time, eventually being buried in the abbey. Caen succeeded Bayeux as the capital of Lower Normandy, complementing the second ducal capital of Rouen.


title: Caen

text: Caen fell to Philip II of France on 21 May 1204, and was incorporated along with the remainder of Normandy into the Kingdom of France.


title: Caen

text: In 1346, King Edward III of England led his army against the city, hoping to loot it. It was expected that a siege of perhaps several weeks would be required, but the army took the city in less than a day, on 26 July 1346, storming and sacking it, killing 3,000 of its citizens, and burning much of the merchants' quarter on the Île Ste-Jean. Only the castle of Caen held out, despite attempts to besiege it. A few days later, the English left, marching to the east and on to their victory at the Battle of Crécy. It was later captured following a siege by Henry V in 1417 and treated harshly for being the first town to put up any resistance to his invasion. In 1450 towards the end of the war, French forces recaptured Caen.


title: Caen

text: During the Battle of Normandy in the Second World War, Caen was taken back from German forces in early July, a month after the Normandy landings, particularly those by British I Corps on 6 June 1944. British and Canadian troops had intended to capture the town on D-Day. However they were held up north of the city until 9 July, when an intense bombing campaign during Operation Charnwood destroyed 70% of the city and killed 2,000 French civilians. The Allies seized the western quarters, a month later than Field Marshal Montgomery's original plan. During the battle, many of the town's inhabitants sought refuge in the "Abbaye aux Hommes" ("Men's Abbey"), built by William the Conqueror some 800 years before. The spire of the Church of Saint-Pierre, Caen and the university were destroyed by the British and Canadian bombing.


title: Caen

text: Postwar work included the reconstruction of complete districts of the city and the university campus. It took 14 years (1948–1962) and led to the current urbanization of Caen. Having lost many of its historic quarters and its university campus in the war, Caen does not have the atmosphere of a traditional Norman town such as Honfleur, Rouen, Cabourg, Deauville or Bayeux.


title: Caen

text: The Canadian Army Film and Photo Unit filmed the D-Day offensive and Orne breakout several weeks later. It returned several months later to document the city's recovery efforts. The resulting film, "You Can't Kill a City", is preserved in the National Archives of Canada.


title: Caen

text: The very first mentions of the name of Caen are found in different acts of the dukes of Normandy: "Cadon" 1021/1025, "Cadumus" 1025, "Cathim" 1026/1027. Year 1070 of the Parker manuscript of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" refers to Caen as "Kadum", and year 1086 of the Laud manuscript gives the name as "Caþum". Despite a lack of sources as to the origin of the settlements, the name Caen would seem to be of Gaulish origin, from the words "catu-", referring to military activities and "magos", field, hence meaning "manoeuvre field" or "battlefield". In Layamon's "Brut", the poet asserts that King Arthur named the city in memory of Sir Kay.


title: Caen

text: Caen is in an area of high humidity. The river Orne flows through the city, as well as small rivers known as "les Odons", most of which have been buried under the city to improve urban hygiene. Caen has a large flood zone, named "La prairie", located around the hippodrome, not far from the river Orne, which is regularly submerged.


title: Caen

text: Caen is from the Channel. A canal (Canal de Caen à la Mer) parallel to the Orne was built during the reign of Napoleon III to link the city to the sea at all times. The canal reaches the English Channel at Ouistreham. A lock keeps the tide out of the canal and lets large ships navigate up the canal to Caen's freshwater harbours.


title: Caen

text: The population data in the table and graph below refer to the commune of Caen proper, in its geography at the given years. The commune of Caen absorbed the former commune of Venoix in 1952.


title: Caen

text: The castle, "Château de Caen", built circa 1060 by William the Conqueror, who successfully conquered England in 1066, is one of the largest medieval fortresses of Western Europe. It remained an essential feature of Norman strategy and policy. At Christmas 1182, a royal court celebration for Christmas in the aula of Caen Castle brought together Henry II and his sons, Richard the Lionheart and John Lackland, receiving more than a thousand knights. Caen Castle, along with all of Normandy, was handed over to the French Crown in 1204. The castle saw several engagements during the Hundred Years' War (1346, 1417, 1450) and was in use as a barracks as late as the Second World War. Bullet holes are visible on the walls of the castle where members of the French Resistance were shot during the Second World War. Today, the castle serves as a museum that houses the "Musée des Beaux-Arts de Caen" (Museum of Fine Arts of Caen) and "Musée de Normandie" (Museum of Normandy) along with many periodical exhibitions about arts and history. (See )


title: Caen

text: In repentance for marrying his cousin Mathilda of Flanders, William ordered two abbeys to be built on the Pope's encouragement:


title: Caen

text: In 1990, the agglomeration of Caen was organized into a district, transformed in 2002 into a "Communauté d'agglomération" ("Grand Caen" (Greater Caen), renamed Caen la Mer in 2004), gathers 29 towns and villages, including Villons-les-Buissons, Lion-sur-Mer, Hermanville-sur-Mer, which joined the Communauté d'agglomération in 2004. The population of the "communauté d'agglomération" is around 220,000 inhabitants.


title: Caen

text: In the former administrative organisation, Caen was a part of 9 cantons, of which it was the chief town. These cantons contained a total of 13 towns. Caen gave its name to a 10th canton, of which it was not part. Since the 2015 canton reorganization, Caen is part of the cantons of Caen-1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.


title: Caen

text: Twisto is the urban transport network of Caen Including about sixty bus lines and 3 tramway lines. Twisto - Les Mobilités de Caen la mer


title: Caen

text: Caen also had several main and branch railway lines linking Caen railway station to all parts of Normandy with lines to Paris, Vire, Flers, Cabourg, Houlgate, Deauville, Saint-Lô, Bayeux and Cherbourg.


title: Caen

text: Now the SNCF is taking care of Paris-Caen-Cherbourg, Caen-Rouen, Caen-Le Mans-Tours, Caen-Rennes and some others small lines Normandie. Derniers ajustements pour les nouveaux horaires des trains en 2020 while Railcoop will soon open new lines such as Lille-Amiens-Rouen-Caen-Rennes-Nantes and Paris-Caen-Brest making Caen railway station his hub of the North-West.Avec Railcoop, deux nouvelles lignes de train passeront par la Manche


title: Caen

text: Caen - Carpiquet Airport is the biggest airport in Normandy considering the number of passengers and flights that it serves every year. Most flights are operated by HOP!, Volotea and the French national airline Air France operates flights to the French cities of Lyon, Nice, Toulouse, Montpellier, Marseille, Biarritz, Ajaccio, Figari, Bastia and Calvi. Air France va proposer 5 destinations depuis Caen-Carpiquet en 2022


title: Caen

text: Caen is served by the large port of Ouistreham, lying at the mouth of the Caen Canal where it meets the English Channel. A cruise/ferry service operates between Portsmouth, England, and Caen/Ouistreham running both standard roll-on-roll-off car ferries and supercat fast ferries, with the latter making crossing from March to November. The ferry terminal is from Caen with a daytime shuttle bus service for foot passengers. There's also a cyclist road from Caen to Ouistreham.


title: Caen

text: Caen is connected to the rest of France by motorways to Paris (A13), Brittany and Southern France (A84) and to Le Mans and central France (A88–A28). The A13 and A88 are toll roads while the A84 is a toll-free motorway. The city is encircled by the N814 ring-road (Boulevard Périphérique) that was completed in the late 1990s. The N13 connects Caen to Cherbourg and to Paris. A section of the former N13 (Caen-Paris) is now D613 (in Calvados) following road renumbering. The Boulevard Périphérique includes an impressive viaduct called the that goes over the canal and River Orne. The canal links the city to the sea to permit cargo ships and ferries to dock in the port of Caen. Ferries which have docked include the "Quiberon" and the "Duc de Normandie".


title: Caen

text: The agricultural and food-processing Agrial cooperative has its head office on Caen. Agrial group processes vegetables, cider apples, milk, poultry and meat with the help of its 12,000 employees and all its partners.


title: Caen

text: The Théâtre de Caen (1963) is the home of the Baroque musical ensemble Les Arts Florissants. The organization was founded by conductor William Christie in 1979 and derives its name from the 1685 opera by Marc-Antoine Charpentier.


title: Caen

text: From 1947 to 2006, Caen was a stage of the Tour de France a total of 15 times. Further, Caen was one of the hosts of the EuroBasket 1983. The city has a football team, SM Caen. The Drakkars de Caen play ice hockey in the FFHG Division 1. In 2014, Caen was the location of the 2014 FEI World Equestrian Games.


title: Caen

text: During the First French Empire: "Gules, a single-towered castle Or, a chief of Good Imperial Cities (gules, 3 bees Or)."


title: Caen

text: Today, Caen has no motto, but it used to have one, which did not survive the French Revolution. As a result, its spelling is archaic and has not been updated:


title: Caen

text: Caen has an oceanic climate that is somewhat ameliorated due to its slightly inland position. In spite of this, summers are still cool by French standards and the climate is typically maritime in terms of high precipitation, relatively modest sunshine hours and mild winters.


title: Michael Jackson's Thriller (music video)

text: Michael Jackson's Thriller is a 1983 music video for the song "Thriller" by the American singer Michael Jackson, released on December 2, 1983. The video was directed by John Landis, written by Landis and Jackson, and stars Jackson and Ola Ray. It references numerous horror films and sees Jackson dancing with a horde of zombies.


text: Jackson's sixth album, "Thriller", was released in November 1982 and spent months at the top of the "Billboard" 200, backed by successful videos for the singles "Billie Jean" and "Beat It". In July 1983, after "Thriller" was displaced from the top of the chart, Jackson's manager Frank DiLeo suggested making a music video for "Thriller". Jackson hired Landis after seeing his 1981 film "An American Werewolf in London". The pair conceived a short film with a budget much larger than previous music videos. It was filmed at various locations in Los Angeles, including the Palace Theater. A making-of documentary, "Making Michael Jackson's Thriller," was produced to sell to television networks.


text: "Michael Jackson's Thriller" was launched to great anticipation and played regularly on MTV. It doubled sales of "Thriller", helping it become the best-selling album in history, and sold over a million copies on VHS, becoming the best-selling videotape at the time. It is credited for transforming music videos into a serious art form, breaking down racial barriers in popular entertainment and popularizing the making-of documentary format. The success transformed Jackson into a dominant force in global pop culture.


text: Many elements of "Michael Jackson's Thriller" have had a lasting impact on popular culture, such as the zombie dance and Jackson's red jacket, designed by Landis's wife Deborah Nadoolman. Fans worldwide re-enact its zombie dance and it remains popular on YouTube. The Library of Congress described it as the most famous music video of all time, and it has been named the greatest video by various publications and readers' polls. In 2009, it became the first music video inducted into the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant".


text: In the 1950s, Michael Jackson and a young woman (Ola Ray) run out of gas while driving in a wooded area. They walk into the forest, and Jackson asks her to be his girlfriend; she accepts. He warns her that he is "not like other guys", transforms into a werecat and attacks her.


text: In the present, Jackson and his girlfriend are watching the werecat film in a theater. The girlfriend leaves, scared by the film. Walking down a city street at night, Jackson teases her by performing the verses of "Thriller". They pass a graveyard, where zombies rise from their graves and surround them in the street. Jackson becomes a zombie himself and dances with the horde to the song. He changes back into a human to sing the choruses.


text: Jackson and the zombies chase his girlfriend into an abandoned house. She screams and wakes up, realizing it was a nightmare. Jackson embraces her, but turns to the camera and grins, revealing his werecat eyes.


text: The "Thriller" video makes many allusions to horror films. The opening scene parodies 1950s B-movies, with Jackson and Ray dressed as 1950s teenagers. The metamorphosis of the polite "boy next door" into a werecat has been interpreted as a depiction of male sexuality, depicted as naturally bestial, predatory, and aggressive. The critic Kobena Mercer found similarities to the werewolf in "The Company of Wolves" (1984).


text: The zombie dance sequence corresponds the lyric about a masquerade ball of the dead. Jackson's make-up casts "a ghostly pallor" over his skin and emphasizes the outline of his skull, an allusion to the mask from "The Phantom of the Opera" (1925). According to Peter Dendle, the zombie invasion sequence was inspired by "Night of the Living Dead" (1968). Dendle wrote that the video captures the feelings of claustrophobia and helplessness essential to zombie films.


text: Michael Jackson's album "Thriller" was released in November 1982 on Epic Records and spent months at the top of the "Billboard" 200. It was backed by successful music videos for the singles "Billie Jean" and "Beat It", which are credited for raising creative standards for music videos and demonstrating their promotional power.


text: In June 1983, "Thriller" was displaced from the top of the "Billboard" 200 chart by the "Flashdance" soundtrack. It briefly regained the position in July, before being removed again by "Synchronicity" by the Police. Jackson urged Epic executives Walter Yetnikoff and Larry Stessel to help conceive a plan to return the album to the top of the charts.


text: "Thriller", a song with horror themes, had not been planned for release as a single. Epic saw it as a novelty song; Yetnikoff asked, "Who wants a single about monsters?" Jackson's manager Frank DiLeo suggested making a music video for it; he recalled telling Jackson: "It's simple—all you've got to do is dance, sing, and make it scary." According to "Vanity Fair", Jackson preferred "benign Disney-esque fantasies where people were nice and children were safe", which ensured the video would be "creepy-comical, not genuinely terrifying".


text: In early August, after seeing his horror film "An American Werewolf in London" (1981), Jackson contacted director John Landis. At the time, commercial directors did not direct music videos, but Landis was intrigued; he wanted to make a theatrical short rather than a standard music video, and hoped to use Jackson's celebrity to return theatrical shorts to popularity. Landis and Jackson conceived a short film shot on 35mm film with the production values of a feature film, with a budget of $900,000, much larger than any previous music video.


text: According to Landis, when he called Yetnikoff to propose the film, he swore so loudly he had to remove the phone from his ear. Epic had little interest in making another video for "Thriller", believing that the album had peaked, and eventually agreed to contribute only $100,000.


text: Initially, the television networks refused to finance the project, sharing the view that "Thriller" was "last year's news". MTV, which had found success with Jackson's earlier videos, had a policy of not financing music videos, instead expecting record companies to pay for them. However, after the new channel Showtime agreed to pay half the budget, MTV agreed to pay the rest, justifying the expenditure as financing for a motion picture and not a music video.


text: To help finance the production, Landis's producer George Folsey Jr. suggested a making-of documentary that, combined with the "Thriller" video, would produce an hour-long film that could be sold to television. The documentary, "Making Michael Jackson's Thriller," was directed by Jerry Kramer. It includes home video footage of a young Jackson dancing and footage of his performances from "The Ed Sullivan Show" and "". MTV paid $250,000 for the exclusive rights to show the documentary; Showtime paid $300,000 for pay-cable rights. Jackson covered additional costs, for which he would be reimbursed. Vestron Music Video offered to distribute "Making Michael Jackson's Thriller" on VHS and Betamax; this was a pioneering concept, as most video cassettes at the time were sold to rental stores rather than directly to viewers. Vestron paid an additional $500,000 to market the cassettes.


text: Jackson wanted to make a video in which he transformed into a four-legged beast, similarly to the transformation scene in "An American Werewolf in London". This idea was replaced with a two-legged monster, as this made it easier for him to dance. Landis felt Jackson should become scary and creepy, but not ugly. He suggested that Jackson should become a werewolf in a 1950s setting, inspired by the 1957 film "I Was a Teenage Werewolf". Makeup artist Rick Baker decided to turn Jackson into a werecat "because I just didn't want to do another werewolf". He initially imagined the werecat would resemble a black panther, but added a longer mane and larger ears. According to Landis, the production involved the largest makeup team in film history up to that point, with 40 makeup artists.


text: Landis's wife Deborah Nadoolman, who had recently worked on the film "Raiders of the Lost Ark" (1981), designed the costumes, including Jackson's red jacket. She dressed Jackson in "hip", casual clothes that would be comfortable to dance in, and red to contrast with the night setting and dark palette; she used the same color for Jackson's jeans to make him appear taller.


text: Jackson created the zombie dance with the choreographer Michael Peters, who had choreographed the "Beat It" video. Jackson said his first concern was to create a zombie dance that did not seem comical. He and Peters imagined how the zombies would move by making faces in the mirror, incorporating "jazzy" moves, "not too much ballet or whatever".


text: Landis said directing Jackson was "like dealing with a gifted 10-year-old". He described Jackson as "emotionally damaged ... He was tortured, but he was happy-go-lucky for a lot of it. He worked very hard. He really was childlike."


text: "Thriller" was the first time Jackson had interacted with a woman in a video, which Landis described as a "breakthrough". Jennifer Beals turned down an offer to play Jackson's girlfriend. According to Landis, Ola Ray, a former Playboy Playmate, was cast as she was "crazy for Michael" and had a "great smile". Landis encouraged Jackson and Ray to improvise during their scenes, and urged Jackson to act "sexy" and "show virility" for his female fans. According to Ray, the chemistry between them was real and they shared "intimate moments" during the shoot.


text: "Thriller" was filmed at the Palace Theatre in downtown Los Angeles, the zombie sequence at the junction of Union Pacific Avenue and South Calzona Street in East Los Angeles, and the final house scene at 1345 Carroll Avenue in the Angeleno Heights neighborhood of Echo Park. The director of photography was Robert Paynter, who had worked with Landis on "Trading Places." Entertainment figures including Marlon Brando, Fred Astaire, Rock Hudson and Jackie Kennedy Onassis visited the set. Jackson's parents Joseph and Katherine Jackson also visited. According to Landis, Michael asked Joseph to be removed; he refused and had to be escorted off the set by police. Joseph denied this.


text: Weeks before the premiere, Jackson, then a Jehovah's Witness, was told by the organization leaders that the film promoted demonology and that he would be excommunicated. Jackson called his assistant, John Branca, and ordered him to destroy the negatives. The production team agreed to protect the negatives and locked them in Branca's office. Branca mollified Jackson by suggesting they include a disclaimer at the start of the film stating that it did not reflect Jackson's personal convictions. In a statement published in "Awake!", a magazine published by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, Jackson said: "I just intended to do a good, fun short film, not to purposely bring to the screen something to scare people or to do anything bad. I want to do what's right. I would never do anything like that again." He said he had blocked further distribution and promotion of the film where he had been able.


text: On November 14, 1983, "Thriller" was shown to a private audience at the Crest Theater in Los Angeles. In attendance were celebrities including Diana Ross, Warren Beatty, Prince, and Eddie Murphy. Jackson stayed in the projection booth, declining Ray's invitation to join the audience. The audience gave the film a standing ovation. At Murphy's insistence, the film was played again.


text: The video debuted on MTV alongside "Making Michael Jackson's Thriller" on December 2, 1983. After each broadcast, MTV advertised when they would next play it, and recorded audience figures ten times the norm. "Showtime" aired the video six times in February. Within months, the cassette tape sold a million copies, making it the bestselling video release at that point. As films required theatrical screenings to be eligible for Academy Awards, Landis had the video played before screenings of "Fantasia" (1940) at a Los Angeles cinema, though it was not nominated.


text: The video doubled boosted sales of the "Thriller" album, which sold a million copies a week following the video debut and became the bestselling album of all time. At the 1984 MTV Video Music Awards, "Thriller" won the awards for Viewers Choice, Best Overall Performance and Best Choreography, and was nominated for Best Concept Video, Best Male Video and Video of the Year. The success transformed Jackson into a dominant force in global pop culture, and cemented his status as the "king of pop". According to Landis, the response was "a surprise to everyone but Michael".


text: In 1984, the National Coalition on Television Violence (NCTV) reviewed 200 MTV videos and classified more than half as too violent, including "Thriller". NCTV chairman Thomas Radecki said: "It's not hard to imagine young viewers after seeing "Thriller" saying, 'Gee, if Michael Jackson can terrorize his girlfriend, why can't I do it too?'"


text: The "Thriller" video sealed MTV's position as a major cultural force, helped disassemble racial barriers for black artists, revolutionized music video production, popularized making-of documentaries, and drove rentals and sales of VHS tapes. The music video director Brian Grant credited "Thriller" as the turning point when music videos became a "proper industry". Nina Blackwood, a former MTV executive, said music videos improved after "Thriller", with more storylines and more intricate choreography. She said: "You look at those early videos and they were shockingly bad."


text: Vinny Marino of "ABC News" said that the video's selection as the "Greatest Video of All Time" was a "no-brainer", and that it "continues to be considered the greatest video ever by just about everyone". Gil Kaufman of MTV described the video as "iconic" and felt that it was one of Jackson's most enduring legacies. He said it was the "mini-movie that revolutionized music videos" and "cemented Jackson's status as one of the most ambitious, innovative pop stars of all time".


text: "Michael Jackson's Thriller" was named the "greatest video" by MTV in 1999, and by VH1 and "Time" in 2001. In a poll of over one thousand users conducted by Myspace in 2010, it was voted the most influential music video. In 2009, it became the first music video to be selected for the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress. The Library described it as "the most famous music video of all time". The National Film Preservation Board coordinator, Steve Legett, said the video had been considered for induction for years, but was chosen mainly due to Jackson's death that year.


text: Jackson's red leather jacket became a fashion icon and has been widely emulated. In 2011, one of the two jackets worn by Jackson in the video sold at auction for $1.8 million. "Thriller" has become closely associated with Halloween; in 2016, US president Barack Obama and first lady Michelle Obama danced to the song with schoolchildren at a White House Halloween event.


text: In 2017, the video made its debut in a newly restored 3D version at the 74th annual Venice Film Festival, accompanied by the "Making of Michael Jackson's Thriller" documentary, also newly remastered. It was also screened at the Toronto International Film Festival, followed by a US premiere at the Grauman's Chinese Theatre. It was remastered in IMAX 3D for a limited engagement in 2018, preceding screenings of "The House With a Clock in Its Walls" in North America for its first week.


text: A Hollywood production company attempted to turn Jackson's song "Billie Jean", which is also featured on Jackson's "Thriller" album, into a feature film, but no plans were completed. In 2009, Jackson sold the "Thriller" rights to the Nederlander Organization to stage a Broadway musical based on the video.


text: The video game "Plants vs. Zombies" by PopCap Games contained a reference to the "Thriller" music video in its original releases from May 2009 (a month before Jackson's death) until it was removed in July 2010. The "Dancing Zombie" enemy was originally resembled Jackson dressed in his "Thriller" outfit and the "Backup Dancer Zombies" that surrounded the Dancing Zombie resembled the backup dancers from the part of "Thriller" where Jackson turns onto a zombie. The description of the Dancing Zombie in the game paraphrased the disclaimer at the end of "Thriller". In 2010, Jackson's estate objected to the Jackson zombie in the game. PopCap agreed to remove the "Thriller" zombies and replace them with generic disco-dancing zombies. The changes applied starting with the Game of the Year edition and all future releases since.


text: The "Thriller" dance is performed in major cities around the world; the largest zombie dance included 12,937 dancers, in Mexico City. "Thriller" is popular on YouTube, which hosts user-submitted videos of reenactments of the dance. A YouTube video of more than 1,500 prisoners performing the dance attracted 14 million views by 2010.


text: In 2009, Landis sued Jackson in a dispute over royalties for the video, saying Jackson had failed to pay him 50% of the proceeds. The lawsuit was settled in 2012 for an undisclosed amount. In 2013, Landis said: "My deal was with Michael's company and Michael's company was mismanaged ... I was suing him for 14 years."


text: Ola Ray also complained of problems collecting royalties. At first, she blamed Jackson, but apologized to him in 1997. However, Ray sued Jackson on May 6, 2009, less than two months before his death on June 25. In 2013, she settled with the Jackson estate for $75,000.


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: Charles Martin Smith (born October 30, 1953) is an American actor, writer, and director of film and television, based in British Columbia. He is known for his roles in "American Graffiti" (1973), "The Buddy Holly Story" (1978), "Never Cry Wolf" (1983), "Starman" (1984), "The Untouchables" (1987), "Deep Cover" (1992), "And the Band Played On" (1993), "Speechless" (1994) and "Deep Impact" (1998).


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: As a director, he is further known for the films "The Snow Walker" (2003), "Stone of Destiny" (2008), "Dolphin Tale" (2011), "Dolphin Tale 2" (2014) and "A Dog's Way Home" (2019). His directorial work has earned him much acclaim, with numerous BAFTA, Genie, and Leo Award nominations.


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: Smith was born in Van Nuys, California. His father, Frank Smith, was a film cartoonist and animator, while his uncle Paul J. Smith was an animator as well as a director for the Walter Lantz Studios. Smith spent three years of his youth in Paris, where his father managed the English-language branch of a French animation studio. He received his high school diploma from Grover Cleveland High School, Reseda, California. He attended California State University, Northridge and was awarded a B.A. in Theatre.


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: Smith was discovered by a talent agent while acting in a school play, "Man of La Mancha". After a few years of working in film and television, he landed the role of Terry "The Toad" Fields in George Lucas's 1973 film "American Graffiti", a role he reprised in the film's 1979 sequel, "More American Graffiti".


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: In 1973, he and "American Graffiti" co-star Cindy Williams appeared together in an episode of "Love, American Style" titled "Love and the Time Machine".


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: In 1974 he starred with Ron Howard in "The Spikes Gang", filmed in Spain, along with Lee Marvin and Gary Grimes; and in 1978 he earned a starring role in "Cotton Candy", directed by Howard.


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: Smith played one of Buddy Holly's bandmates in "The Buddy Holly Story", a race car driver in Disney's "Herbie Goes Bananas", and the starring role as a scientist in "Never Cry Wolf". His work in "Starman," as Mark Shermin, a SETI member sympathetic to the title character's plight, was also lauded. In 1979 Smith was cast alongside Barney Martin as the lead in Norman Lear's last TV series concept, "", which never progressed beyond the pilot.


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: Another role was in "Banshee," an episode of "The Ray Bradbury Theater" that costarred Peter O'Toole and Jennifer Dale. He also appeared in the episode "Boys! Raise Giant Mushrooms in Your Cellar". One of his later starring roles was in "The Beacon," an episode of "The Twilight Zone" where he starred with Martin Landau and Giovanni Ribisi in an early role.


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: He was in "The Untouchables". After this he co-starred in "The Hot Spot" and "Deep Cover", and in the mid-1990s he appeared in films such as "Speechless", "I Love Trouble", and "Perfect Alibi".


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: Smith played a role in the HBO film "And the Band Played On", then turned in a performance in the TV miniseries "Streets of Laredo".


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: He also appeared in "The Beast" in 1996 and in a minor role in the big budget "Deep Impact" in 1998. He played a major character in the made-for-television movie "Blackout Effect".


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: More recently he has appeared in mini-series such as "P.T. Barnum", "Kingdom Hospital" and "The Triangle" as well as the feature film "Lucky You" directed by Curtis Hanson. In 2009 he played a featured role, Sheriff Golightly, in the second episode of season two of the TV series "Fringe".


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: Smith devoted almost three years to filming "Never Cry Wolf," adapted from a memoir by environmentalist Farley Mowat. Smith said, "I was much more closely involved in that picture than I had been in any other film. Not only acting, but writing and the whole creative process." He also found the process difficult. "During much of the two-year shooting schedule in Canada's Yukon and in Nome, Alaska, I was the only actor present. It was the loneliest film I've ever worked on." During the filming, he became so enamored of the Northwest that he decided to relocate to Vancouver, British Columbia, where he has resided since the mid-1980s.


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: Carroll Ballard, director of "Never Cry Wolf", asked Smith to write much of the narration for the film. Smith also performed in a lengthy scene with wolves and caribou in which he was entirely naked. While working on this production, Smith formed a friendship with the author, Farley Mowat, which lasted until Mowat's death in 2014.


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: Along with his acting career, since the mid-1990s Smith has increasingly focused on his work behind the camera both as a writer and director. His first film as director was the camp horror story "Trick or Treat" (1986) for Dino De Laurentiis, in which Smith also appeared. In 1992, he directed and acted in "Fifty/Fifty", a movie filmed in Malaysia which also starred Robert Hays and Peter Weller. He was one of the directors of the TV series "" (1995) as well as the director of the initial episode ("Welcome to the Hellmouth") that launched the hit TV series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" (1997). He next directed the hugely successful feature film "Air Bud" (Disney, 1997), and two TV miniseries for Hallmark Entertainment, "Roughing It", starring James Garner as Mark Twain, (2001) and "Icon" (2005), starring Patrick Swayze, Michael York and Patrick Bergin. He directed numerous episodes of the Canadian television series "DaVinci's Inquest", and wrote and executive produced "The Clinic", a film about a veterinary clinic for Animal Planet in 2003.


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: In 2003 he wrote and directed the acclaimed Canadian feature film "The Snow Walker" for Lions Gate Films, based on a story by Farley Mowat (of "Never Cry Wolf" fame) which marked a return to the Arctic for Smith and garnered nine Genie Award nominations including Best Picture, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Director for Smith.


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: He has lived in Vancouver, British Columbia and also in Los Angeles, California since the 1980s and continues to add to production, directing, acting and writing credits in a career that has spanned more than 40 years.


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: In 2007, Smith wrote and directed the British/Canadian co-production "Stone of Destiny" for Mob Films, and Infinity Features, starring Charlie Cox, Robert Carlyle and Kate Mara. "Stone of Destiny" was the closing Gala Presentation for the 2008 Toronto International Film Festival. His next film was "Dolphin Tale" for Alcon Entertainment. The hit film, based on a true story, stars Harry Connick Jr., Ashley Judd, Morgan Freeman, Kris Kristofferson, Nathan Gamble and Cozi Zuehlsdorff, and was released on September 23, 2011 by Warner Bros. To date, the film has grossed over $70 million at the domestic box office and over $100 million worldwide.


title: Charles Martin Smith

text: He returned to write and direct the sequel, "Dolphin Tale 2". He based his original script on various true-life events that have occurred at the Clearwater Marine Hospital, including the dramatic rescue of a baby dolphin named "Hope" that coincidentally happened during the wrap party of the first film, with many of the film's cast and crew watching. The entire cast returned to take part, and the movie was released by Warner Bros on September 12, 2014.


title: Ferrari F12

text: The Ferrari F12berlinetta (Type F152) is a front mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive grand tourer produced by Italian automobile manufacturer Ferrari. The F12berlinetta debuted at the 2012 Geneva Motor Show, and replaced the 599 grand tourer. The naturally aspirated 6.3 litre Ferrari V12 engine used in the F12berlinetta has won the 2013 International Engine of the Year Award in the Best Performance category and Best Engine above 4.0 litres. The F12berlinetta was named "The Supercar of the Year 2012" by car magazine "Top Gear". The F12berlinetta was replaced by the 812 Superfast in 2017.


title: Ferrari F12

text: In 2014, the F12berlinetta was awarded the XXIII Premio Compasso d'Oro ADI. Accepting the award was Ferrari's Senior Vice President of Design, Flavio Manzoni.


title: Ferrari F12

text: The F12berlinetta uses a , naturally aspirated 65° V12 engine of the Ferrari F140 engine family. Displacement is shared with the FF, but the "F140 FC" version installed on the F12 generates a power output of at 8,250 rpm and of torque at 6,000 rpm, making it the fourth most powerful Ferrari road car produced to date, only surpassed by the LaFerrari, F12tdf and its successor, the 812 Superfast.


title: Ferrari F12

text: The engine in the F12berlinetta has been designed to be more efficient than that of the 599, as well as more powerful. The engine management system is fitted with Ferrari's HELE start-stop system to reduce fuel consumption when idling. Ferrari reports that the F12berlinetta can achieve  – a 30% improvement over the 599 – and produces CO emissions of 350 g/km.


title: Ferrari F12

text: Similar to the California, 458 Italia, FF and LaFerrari, the F12berlinetta transmits power through a 7-speed dual-clutch automatic gearbox operated by the driver using paddle shifters present behind the steering wheel. Compared to similar models, the F12berlinetta uses shortened gear ratios to match the power of the engine.


title: Ferrari F12

text: The F12berlinetta is built around an aluminium space frame chassis co-developed with Scaglietti. The chassis is made up of 12 different aluminium alloys and improves structural rigidity by 20% over the 599, whilst reducing weight by . The centre of gravity has also been lowered by around . The F12berlinetta's weight distribution is 48% front, 52% rear.


title: Ferrari F12

text: Similar to other contemporary Ferrari models, the F12berlinetta uses Ferrari's third generation "CCM3" carbon ceramic disc brakes with ABS, "SCM-E" magnetorheological suspension, an electronic LSD, ESP Premium stability control and "F1-Trac" traction control system. The car's stability and traction control, suspension and other settings are controlled by the Manettino dial mounted on the steering wheel.


title: Ferrari F12

text: The F12berlinetta is fitted with Michelin Pilot Super Sport tyres, with the tyre codes 255/35 ZR20 (on 20"×9.5J wheels) at the front and 315/35 ZR20 (on 20"×11.5J wheels) at the rear.


title: Ferrari F12

text: The F12berlinetta makes use of aerodynamic techniques based on Ferrari's 599XX and Formula One programmes, developed with wind tunnel and CFD testing. A notable feature is the Aero Bridge, an air channel running from the bonnet, through the flanks and along the sides of the vehicle, creating an effect that increases downforce. Another feature is Active Brake Cooling ducts, which open to direct cooling air only when the brakes are hot, keeping them closed at other times to reduce aerodynamic drag. The F12berlinetta produces of downforce at  – an increase of 76% over the 599 GTB – and has a drag coefficient of 0.299.


title: Ferrari F12

text: Ferrari reports that the F12berlinetta is capable of lapping the Fiorano test circuit in 1 minute, 23 seconds; three seconds slower than the LaFerrari, a full second faster than the 599 GTO, two seconds faster than the Enzo Ferrari, two seconds faster than the 458 Italia, three seconds faster than the 430 Scuderia and three and a half seconds faster than the 599 GTB.


title: Ferrari F12

text: Ferrari claims acceleration times for the F12berlinetta of 0 to in 3.1 seconds, 0 to in 8.5 seconds and a top speed of .


title: Ferrari F12

text: The body of the F12berlinetta is designed by the Ferrari Styling Centre and Pininfarina, and shares some styling elements with other recent Ferrari models. This includes a front grille similar to the FF and headlights shared with the FF and 458 Italia. The interior, based on the FF, features new "Frau leather" upholstery with aluminium, Alutex, and carbon fibre trim, and has increased luggage space compared to the 599.


title: Ferrari F12

text: The Ferrari F12tdf (tour de France) is a track-focused version of the F12berlinetta unveiled in October 2015. The name pays homage to the Tour de France automobile race held between 1899 and 1986 and which was regularly won by the Ferrari 250 between 1956 and 1964. The F12tdf shares the same 6.3 litre V12 engine with the F12berlinetta, but with power output increased to at 8500 rpm and of torque at 6750 rpm. The F12tdf is lighter than the F12, having a claimed dry weight of and kerb weight of . Ferrari claims an acceleration time for the F12tdf of 0 to in 2.9 seconds and 0 to in 7.9 seconds. The top speed was claimed to be 'in excess of '. The car has recorded a 1-minute 21 seconds lap time on Ferrari's Fiorano test circuit, 2 seconds faster than the standard F12berlinetta and 488 GTB, and just 1.3 seconds behind the fastest lap set by the LaFerrari. F12tdf was designed by Ferrari Styling Centre. Production of the F12tdf was limited to 799 units.


title: Ferrari F12

text: The Ferrari F12 TRS is a barchetta based on the F12berlinetta, made for a customer by Ferrari under its Special Projects programme.


title: Ferrari F12

text: Designed in-house by the Centro Stile Ferrari headed by Flavio Manzoni, it took inspiration from the 1957 250 Testa Rossa, reinterpreted in a modern design language. The car has a Barchetta bodystyle, harking back to the original Testarossa. A redesigned rear section also recalls the styling of the Testarossa in a modern fashion. The front of the car features a redesigned front bumper and a new engine cover with a glass panel displaying the V12 engine's cylinder heads.


title: Ferrari F12

text: In November 2014, a second F12 TRS was spotted testing at Circuito Monteblanco in Spain, painted in black, while the red version was displayed again in January 2015 at the Festival Automobile International in Paris.


title: Ferrari F12

text: The black F12 TRS was seen again, this time in Rome at the Ferrari Cavalcade in June 2015, now finished in liquid silver paintwork and featuring a redesigned front bumper, headlights, mirrors and rear diffuser.


title: Ferrari F12

text: The red F12 TRS was spotted again in Corsica in 2016 now featuring the same redesigned body as the liquid silver version. Only two of these cars were produced and both were commissioned by the same customer.


title: Ferrari F12

text: The Ferrari SP America is a one-off coupé based on the F12berlinetta completed in 2014 and developed under Ferrari's Special Projects programme with Pininfarina. It features custom bodywork, including a redesigned hood with three vents, which many reviewers say is reminiscent of the 250 GTO. It also has unique vents on the fenders and slats behind the windows, as well as a redesigned front bumper and redesigned rear end with a large diffuser and an integrated spoiler. The car was commissioned by Danny Wegman, CEO of Wegmans.


title: Ferrari F12

text: The Ferrari F60 America is a limited production roadster derivative of the F12, built to celebrate 60 years of Ferrari in North America. Production was limited to ten examples and according to the manufacturer, all were already spoken for at the time of the car's public introduction in October 2014. The open-top configuration pays homage to US-only limited production convertible Ferraris of the past, such as the 275 GTS/4 NART Spider. Compared to the F12, the F60 has all-new bodywork; it uses a light removable soft top instead of a conventional convertible top. Each of the ten examples built features an asymmetrical cabin design with red trim for the driver's area and black for the passenger, American flag detailing in the center of the backrests of both seats, and classic blue and white North American Racing Team livery.


title: Ferrari F12

text: At the March 2015 Geneva Motor Show Carrozzeria Touring unveiled the Touring Berlinetta Lusso, a two-seater, three-box coupé based on the F12berlinetta. Carrozzeria Touring developed the car on a client's request. The car has coachbuilt bodywork with each body panel of the car made from hand beaten aluminium. It also features a special blue exterior colour and a redesigned interior. The mechanical components are the same as the F12berlinetta, as are the headlamps and tail lamps. A production run of five examples was announced.


title: Ferrari F12

text: The Ferrari F12berlinetta SG50 Edition is a one-off made to celebrate Singapore's 50 years of independence. Changes over the F12berlinetta include a red and white livery featuring a special ‘Rosso Singapore’ paintwork on the exterior and leather upholstery in the same colour on the interior. The colour scheme is designed to mirror the colors of the Singapore flag. Additionally the car has Singaporean lions embroidered in the headrest as well as the words "Singapore 50th Anniversary Edition 1/1" on the steering wheel and the door sills.


title: Ferrari F12

text: The Ferrari SP275 RW Competizione is a one-off model inspired by the 1964 Ferrari 275 GTB/C Speciale that won in the GT class at the 1965 24 Hours of Le Mans and placed 3rd overall. Its design is a collaboration between the Ferrari Styling Centre and Pininfarina. The car is based on the F12berlinetta but utilises the 6.3 liter V12 engine from the F12tdf which generates a power output of and of torque. The car has a coachbuilt body with a redesigned front fascia and headlights, widened rear track, custom 20 inch 10 spoke forged alloy wheels, an aluminium fuel filler cap and unique yellow exterior colour. The body also has 3 vents behind each side window, 3 on each side of the rear bumper and 4 vents on each fender inspired by the vents on the racing 275 GTB/C. The "RW" designation stands for the initials of the person who commissioned the car, Florida dentist Rick Workman, who also owns the 599-based Ferrari P540 Superfast Aperta unveiled in 2009 and the F12-based F60 America mentioned above that was unveiled in 2014.


title: Ferrari F12

text: Presented in November 2018, the Ferrari SP3JC is a roadster based on the F12tdf. There were two matching cars ordered, one in LHD, the other in RHD with different liveries. They were designed by the Ferrari Styling Centre to pay homage to Ferrari roadsters of 1950s and 1960s. They are powered by the V12 engine from the F12tdf which is unchanged from the production car. The body has been completely redesigned, and includes redesigned front and rear fascias, a new front bumper, a rear diffuser, transparent hood vents that show off the engine, roll hoops behind the seats, taillights and wheels from the 812 Superfast. The RHD car has a white and blue paint job that pays homage to the 1962 Ferrari 250 GTO. "JC" stands for John Collins, a Scottish collector and founder of Talacrest, a classic Ferrari dealer located in the U.K. He commissioned the car in mid 2014 and it took 3.5 years to complete. Ferrari said the design process alone took 2 of those years.


title: Ferrari F12

text: The Touring Superleggera Aero 3 is a limited production coachbuilt car by Carrozzeria Touring based on the F12berlinetta. The design of the car is inspired by Alfa Romeo 8C 2900B raced at Le Mans in the 1930s, only 15 cars to be built.


title: Ernst Haeckel

text: Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel (; 16 February 1834 – 9 August 1919) was a German zoologist, naturalist, eugenicist, philosopher, physician, professor, marine biologist and artist. He discovered, described and named thousands of new species, mapped a genealogical tree relating all life forms and coined many terms in biology, including "ecology", "phylum", "phylogeny", and "Protista." Haeckel promoted and popularised Charles Darwin's work in Germany and developed the influential but no longer widely held recapitulation theory ("ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny") claiming that an individual organism's biological development, or ontogeny, parallels and summarises its species' evolutionary development, or phylogeny.