title: Neutering

text: Various studies of the effects neutering has overall on male and female dog aggression have been unable to arrive at a consensus. A possible reason for this according to two studies is changes to other factors have more of an effect than neutering. One study reported results of aggression towards familiar and strange people and other dogs reduced between 10 and 60 percent of cases, while other studies reported increases in possessive aggression and aggression towards familiar and strange people, and more studies reported there was no significant difference in aggression risk between neutered and non-neutered males. For females with existing aggression, many studies reported increases in aggressive behavior and some found increased separation anxiety behavior. A report from the American Kennel Club Canine Health Foundation reported significantly more behavioral problems in castrated dogs. The most commonly observed behavioral problem in spayed females was fearful behavior and the most common problem in males was aggression. Early age gonadectomy is associated with an increased incidence of noise phobias and .


title: Neutering

text: A specialized vocabulary is used in animal husbandry and animal fancy for neutered (castrated) animals:


title: Neutering

text: There are differing views in Islam with regard to neutering animals, with some Islamic associations stating that when done to maintain the health and welfare of both the animals and the community, neutering is allowed on the basis of being in the interest of 'maslaha' (general good) or "choosing the lesser of two evils".


title: Neutering

text: Orthodox Judaism forbids the castration of both humans and non-human animals by Jews, except in lifesaving situations. In 2007, the Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel Rabbi Shlomo Amar issued a ruling stating that it is permissible to have companion animals neutered on the basis of the Jewish mandate to prevent cruelty to animals.


title: Mark Rolston

text: Mark Rolston (born December 7, 1956) is an American character actor, known for his supporting roles in popular films such as "Aliens", "Lethal Weapon 2", "The Shawshank Redemption", "The Departed" and the "Saw" film series, as well as Gordie Liman in "The Shield" (2003).


title: Mark Rolston

text: Rolston played PFC M. Drake in "Aliens" (1986), Hans in "Lethal Weapon 2" (1989), Stef in "RoboCop 2" (1990), Bogs Diamond in "The Shawshank Redemption" (1994), J. Scar in "Eraser" (1996), Chief Dennis Wilson in "Daylight" (1996), Wayne Bryce in "Hard Rain" (1998) and Special Agent Warren Russ in "Rush Hour" (1998).


title: Mark Rolston

text: Rolston acted in Martin Scorsese's 2006 film "The Departed" and the television horror film "Backwoods". Many of Rolston's screen roles are villains due to his well-known icy stare. He also co-starred in 2008's "Saw V" and 2009's "Saw VI". In 1994, he portrayed convicted killer "Karl Mueller" in the "Babylon 5" episode "The Quality of Mercy", as well as "Richard Odin", leader of a vegetarian cult in an episode of "The X-Files" titled "Red Museum". He was also originally considered to voice the supervillain Firefly in "" in 1992, although the character was deemed unsuitable for the series and ultimately dropped.


title: Mark Rolston

text: Rolston later voiced Firefly in "The New Batman Adventures" and "Justice League". In 2004, Rolston would guest star in two episodes of the critically acclaimed "24". He appeared in a minor role in The CW series "Supernatural" during the fourth season as the demon Alastair. He also appeared as Sheriff Hall in the "Criminal Minds" episode, "Blood Hungry".


title: Mark Rolston

text: He had voice acting roles in the video games "Blade Runner" and "Turok" and "Halo 4". He voiced Deathstroke in "" in 2013 and in "" in 2015, as well as Norman Osborn in "Spider-Man" in 2018 and in a mid-credits scene of its standalone follow-up, "" in 2020.


title: Mark Rolston

text: He has a recurring role as Lex Luthor in the animated series "Young Justice"; his "Shawshank Redemption" co-star Clancy Brown also played Luthor for various animated TV shows over the course of his career.


title: Mark Rolston

text: Rolston was born in Baltimore, Maryland, the son of Evelyn Beverly (née Sturm) and Thomas George Rolston, who was a computer programmer.


title: David Von Erich

text: David Alan Adkisson (July 22, 1958 – February 10, 1984) was an American professional wrestler, better known by the ring name David Von Erich. A member of the Von Erich Family, Von Erich is best known for his appearances with World Class Championship Wrestling, the Dallas, Texas-based professional wrestling promotion owned by his father, Fritz Von Erich. Von Erich was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame in 2009.


title: David Von Erich

text: David was named after his mother Doris' brother David, who had died only months before David Von Erich was born in 1958. Doris' brother David (real name Eugene David Smith) had died of a brain tumor at 14.


title: David Von Erich

text: David, along with brothers Kevin and Kerry, loved to hunt and fish with their father; Fritz. Hunting on the Von Erich ranch was quite an event. Many of their relatives and friends would join in and sometimes the hunting group would be 20 or more. WCCW Referee David Manning and WCCW Announcer Bill Mercer were quite often among the group.


title: David Von Erich

text: David's first love in life was raising horses, which turned out to be very profitable for him. He raised and sold quarter horses and horses for show and made his own fortune that way, apart from the family business of wrestling.


title: David Von Erich

text: Adkisson was a high school basketball star and a football player at Lake Dallas High School. He won a scholarship to North Texas State University to play basketball and football. David dropped out to pursue a wrestling career that he had started in June 1977, adopting the name David Von Erich.


title: David Von Erich

text: He was considered a breakout star of his family, as his fiery temper produced memorable interviews. His first major match was on August 15, 1977 when he wrestled NWA World Heavyweight Champion Harley Race to a 30-minute draw. David made his first appearance in Missouri in early 1979 and was an instant hit with the fans and the promoters. Due to his popularity at the time, on May 27, 1979, David wrestled NWA champion Race in Missouri in a non-title match and defeated him with the Iron Claw.


title: David Von Erich

text: In November 1979, David made his first and only appearance in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), competing on a card against Davey O'Hannon at Madison Square Garden. In late 1981, David left Texas and struck out on his own, heading to Florida and competing as a heel. In Florida, David was managed by J. J. Dillon and was in the same stable as Kendo Nagasaki and Jimmy Garvin. David's mentor in Florida was Dory Funk, Jr. and during that time David teamed with Dory or his brother Terry Funk in addition to singles competition. Memorable opponents included Barry Windham, Mr. Wrestling II, Eric Embry, Sweet Brown Sugar, and Butch Reed. By July 1982, David was back in Texas.


title: David Von Erich

text: During his stay in Florida, David met and became great friends with Jimmy Garvin, convincing Garvin to come to World Class Championship Wrestling (WCCW) in Texas in early 1983 and they created an angle for a feud between them, which culminated with David winning the held-up NWA Texas Heavyweight Championship at The Tarrant County Convention Center on July 4, 1983. As a result of David's victory, Garvin and his valet Sunshine were forced to serve as David's valets for a day, with the results of the day being broadcast on the WCCW weekly show. The whole angle was conceived by David and Jimmy. They traded the Texas title back and forth several times, then that belt was held up several times and when the feud reached its climax on July 4, 1983; it was time for both men to move on to the next part in their career (David continuing the Von Erich feud with The Freebirds and Garvin starting a feud with Chris Adams).


title: David Von Erich

text: In the fall of 1982, David was also working behind the scenes in WCCW and helped create several angles. He invited the Fabulous Freebirds to come to WCCW. Michael Hayes made his debut at the Sportatorium on Saturday, October 16, 1982 and Terry Gordy made his debut at the Sportatorium two weeks later, on October 30, 1982. Buddy Roberts did not show up. The Freebirds were initially booked as faces in the run-up to the Christmas spectacular "Wrestling Star Wars" card at Reunion Arena on December 25, 1982.


title: David Von Erich

text: In the final match to crown the first-ever Six-Man Champions, David took Buddy Roberts' place in the Freebirds against Tom Sharpe, Mike Sharpe & Ben Steel. It was David who won that match and the title, but in a ringside interview right after the bout, David gave his third of the title to Buddy Roberts. Later that evening, David's brother Kerry battled NWA World Champion Ric Flair in a Steel Cage with Michael Hayes and David Manning as the referees. During the match, Hayes knocked out Flair and attempted to hand the pin (and World Title) to Von Erich, but turned on Kerry when he refused the tainted victory and as Kerry tried to leave the cage, Gordy slammed the cage door on Kerry's head. Thus the Von Erich/Freebird feud was born.


title: David Von Erich

text: David took part in many matches against the Freebirds in 1983 and early 1984. Notable bouts include David vs Terry Gordy in a Handcuff Match on April 1, 1983 at "Wrestling Star Wars", David, Kevin & Kerry defeating the Freebirds on July 4, 1983 in Ft. Worth at "Star Wars" and what would be David's next-to-last match was against Terry Gordy on February 3, 1984. On the same day, David defeated Hayes to win the NWA United National Championship, his last title ever. This title is now part of All Japan Pro Wrestling's Triple Crown Heavyweight Championship.


title: David Von Erich

text: David won the NWA Missouri Heavyweight Championship from Ric Flair on September 16, 1983, holding the championship until losing it to Harley Race on January 6, 1984. Many within the industry believe that David's reign with the belt was his final step to winning the NWA World Heavyweight Championship, as the NWA Championship Committee supposedly voted in January 1984 for David to win it from Ric Flair in March or April of that year. An angle between David and Ric Flair was started when David battled Flair at Reunion Arena on December 25, 1983 and Flair retained the NWA World Championship. Immediately afterward, on December 31, 1983, on the NWA television broadcast, Ric Flair did an interview where he commented on how Mike Von Erich was not a good wrestler and he could beat Mike in 60 seconds with one hand tied behind his back.


title: David Von Erich

text: In an interview in Ft. Worth on January 9, 1984, David did possibly his most intense interview ever, telling Flair that he had heard Flair's comments about Mike and that he had a proposition. Mike would wrestle Flair in a "10 Minute Challenge Match" and if Flair beat Mike in that 10 minutes, David would never again ask for another shot at the NWA World title, but if Flair did not beat Mike in those 10 minutes, David would get to name the place, the time and every stipulation for his match against Ric Flair. The "10 Minute Challenge match" between Ric Flair and Mike Von Erich was held at "WCCW Wrestling Star Wars" at the Tarrant County Convention Center in Ft. Worth, Texas on January 30, 1984. Flair was unable to pin Mike in the 10 minutes and as a result, David won the challenge. A week later on February 6, 1984 in Ft. Worth, in what would turn out to be his last interview, David Von Erich expressed his happiness over Mike lasting 10 minutes with Ric Flair and said that now he (David) would get to name every single stipulation in David's return match with Flair. The big match was to be held sometime in about April 1984, after David was to return to Texas at the end of February and he and Flair would have a chance to build the match up even more. His last match was defeating Kamala by DQ in Ardmore, Oklahoma on February 7.


title: David Von Erich

text: David's first marriage was with Candy L. McLeod. The couple were wed on June 26, 1978 in Denton, Texas. Together they had a daughter, Natosha Zoeanna Adkisson (19th October 1978 - 29th December 1978). Natosha died of SIDS at 13 weeks old. Shortly after, David separated from his wife and they were officially divorced on July 12, 1979. David married for the second time on June 8, 1982 to Patricia A. Matter, known as Tricia. The couple remained married until David's death. Tricia was interviewed for the June, 1984 edition of "The Wrestler" magazine, which was a tribute to David. She spoke of how she loved the fans, and thanked them for their support. Tricia has remained out of the public eye since that interview.


title: David Von Erich

text: Von Erich died during a tour with All Japan Pro Wrestling on February 10, 1984, before he was going to, among other matches, defend the United National championship belt he had won in Texas seven days earlier. One theory of his death is that it was a painkiller overdose, perhaps hydrocodone. Ric Flair mentions in his autobiography that Bruiser Brody (Von Erich's long-time friend) removed the evidence. The Von Erichs, however, claimed it was caused by ruptured intestines resulting from acute enteritis, which is the documented cause of death listed on the Consular Report of Death provided by the U.S. embassy in Japan. In the documentary "Heroes of World Class: The Story of the Von Erichs" and "The Triumph and Tragedy of World Class Championship Wrestling", Kevin Von Erich and former referee David Manning both attested to a heart attack theory. According to friend and former promoter Wild Bill Irwin, David is believed to have suffered from bulimia, which Irwin alludes to in a 2017 Wrestling Shoot Podcast on the "Booking The Territory" YouTube channel.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Jack Christian Rodwell (born 11 March 1991) is an English professional footballer who plays for Sydney FC as a centre-back or defensive midfielder.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Rodwell joined Everton's academy at the age of seven, and made his debut in 2007. He spent five years in the first team before he transferred to Premier League champions Manchester City in 2012. After making only 16 league appearances in two seasons, Rodwell was sold to Sunderland in August 2014. After his contract with Sunderland was terminated in June 2018, Rodwell joined Blackburn Rovers in August on a one-year deal. He left Blackburn the following year, later joining Sheffield United in January 2020.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Rodwell has represented England at all levels from under-16 to the senior team. He made his senior international debut as a substitute in a 1–0 win over Spain at Wembley Stadium in November 2011.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Rodwell was born in Southport, Merseyside. He was educated at Farnborough Road Junior School and Birkdale High School, and was an avid supporter of Everton as a child. Rodwell played for local club Birkdale United during his school years.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: According to his mother, Carol, she talked about his childhood, saying: "As a child Jack ate, drank and slept football. I think his ambition was always to be a professional, although he didn't speak about it. His heroes when he was growing up were Alan Shearer and the Brazilian striker Ronaldo. He used to follow players for their ability and not particularly what team they played for." Rodwell has a brother, Thomas.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Rodwell was a product of the Everton FC youth system, making his under-18s debut at 14 and his debut for Everton's reserve team at the age of 15. At youth level, he started out of as having the potential to become a top centre back early in his professional career, but was primarily deployed as a defensive midfielder once in the senior team. Rodwell claimed that Lee Carsley contributed his role into helping play in the midfield position.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Rodwell then broke a record on his senior debut becoming the youngest player to represent Everton in Europe, when he came on as a substitute against Dutch team AZ at the age of 16 years and 284 days, as the club won 3–2. It wasn't until on 9 March 2008 when Rodwell appeared as a substitute on his Premier League debut – before also featuring as a replacement in the final match of the season, replacing Tim Cahill in a 1–0 victory over Sunderland, and signed his first professional contract with Everton on 17 March 2008, after spending six years in the reserve team. At the end of the 2007–08 season, he made three appearances in all competitions. Following this, Rodwell was awarded the academy's Player of the Year.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Ahead of the 2008–09 season, Rodwell was called up to the club's first team squad for the pre–season tour. Rodwell made his first professional start against Blackburn Rovers on 16 August 2008, playing the full 90 minutes. Since the start of the 2008–09 season, he found his playing time was mostly from the substitute bench. Despite this, Rodwell continued to fight his way to earn a place in the starting eleven for the side. Rodwell scored his first senior goal for Everton in the FA Cup against Aston Villa in February 2009. After the match, Manager David Moyes praised his performance. That same month, he signed a five-year contract with Everton. Rodwell appeared as an unused substitute, as Everton lost 2–1 against Chelsea in the FA Cup Final. At the end of the 2008–09 season, Rodwell made twenty–five appearances and scoring once in all competitions.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: At the beginning of the 2009–10 season, Rodwell earned his first start in European competition in a UEFA Europa League match against Czech Republic team Sigma Olomouc and he marked the occasion by scoring two long-range goals, helping Everton to a 4–0 win. In the return, Rodwell started the whole game and helped the club draw 1–1, resulting in the club progressing through to the Group Stage following a 5–1 win on aggregate. Since the start of the 2009–10 season, he started in the first eleven matches until missing one match, due to flu-like symptoms. After missing one match, Rodwell returned to the starting line–up against Stoke City, playing the whole game, in a 1–1 draw on 4 October 2009. However, he suffered a minor muscle injury during a 3–2 loss against Hull City on 25 November 2009, resulting in him missing two matches. His return was short–lived when Rodwell suffered a hamstring injury and was substituted in the 8th minute, as Everton lost 1–0 against BATE Borisov on 17 December 2009. Following this, he was sidelined for two months with the injury.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: On 10 February 2010, Rodwell returned to the first team from injury following a two-month absence, coming on as 74th-minute substitute, in a 2–1 win against Chelsea. In a follow–up match, he scored his first Premier League goal in Everton's 3–1 win against Manchester United. After the match, Rodwell was named Man of the Match. Two weeks later on 7 March 2010, he scored his second goal of the season, in a 5–1 win against Hull City. During the second half of the 2009–10 season, Rodwell became regularly used in more attacking midfield position. Despite suffering another injury later in the 2009–10 season, he made thirty–six appearances and scoring four times in all competitions. At the end of the 2009–10 season, Rodwell signed a five-year contract extension with Everton.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Ahead of the 2010–11 season, Rodwell said he would fight for his place in the first team following intense competition in the midfield positions. Rodwell scored, as well as setting up the club's third goal of the game, in a 5–1 win against Huddersfield Town in the third round of the League Cup. However, during a 1–0 loss against Aston Villa on 29 August 2010, he suffered an ankle injury that kept him out for three months. It wasn't until on 14 November 2010 when Rodwell returned from injury, coming on as a second-half substitute, in a 2–1 loss against Arsenal. Since returning from injury, Rodwell found himself rotated in and out of the starting eleven throughout the 2010–11 season. His performance led to transfer speculation that Rodwell made an agreement to join Manchester United, a claim that was denied by Manager Moyes. Despite being sidelined on two occasions during the 2010–11 season, he went on to make twenty–eight appearances and scoring once in all competitions.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: At the start of the 2011–12 season, Rodwell continued to remain as a first team regular, playing in the midfield position. This lasted until he was sent off in the 23rd minute during the 216th Merseyside derby on 1 October 2011 after making "what appeared to be a legitimate challenge on Suárez", according to the BBC. Shortly after, his red card was rescinded by The FA. Rodwell made his 100th appearance for Everton, playing the whole game, in a 3–1 loss against Chelsea on 15 October 2011. In a follow–up match against Fulham, he scored his first goal of the season, as well as, setting up the club's first goal of the game, in a 3–1 win. Two weeks later on 5 November 2011, Rodwell scored his second goal of the season, in a 2–1 loss against Newcastle United. He was later named the club's Player of the Month. However, Rodwell found himself plagued with injuries on two separate occasions that kept him out for the remainder of 2011. It wasn't until on 1 January 2012 when he returned to the starting line–up against West Bromwich Albion playing 57 minutes before being substituted, in a 1–0 win. However, his return was short–lived when Rodwell suffered a hamstring injury that kept him out for two months. His return came on 10 March 2012 against Tottenham Hotspur, coming on as a 65th-minute substitute, in a 1–0 win. Once again, he suffered a slight recurrence of his recent hamstring complaint that eventually saw him sidelined for the rest of the 2011–12 season. At the end of the 2011–12 season, Rodwell made seventeen appearances and scoring two times in all competitions.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: In August 2012, Rodwell signed a five-year contract with Manchester City for a fee of £12 million, which could rise to £15 million. Upon joining the club, he said: "I relish the opportunity of playing with some of the best players in the world and continuing my development."


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Rodwell made his Manchester City debut on 19 August 2012, in a 3–2 win at home to Southampton. He made his away debut on 26 August 2012, coming on as a second-half substitute against Liverpool at Anfield in a 2–2 draw. Rodwell made his UEFA Champions League debut, starting a match and played 56 minutes, in a 1–1 draw against Borussia Dortmund on 3 October 2012. After being out due to injury since October, Rodwell made a successful return to the team on 26 January 2013 in a 1–0 win away to Stoke City in the FA Cup. After appearing a total of four matches for the next two months, he suffered a hamstring injury that kept him sidelined for two months. After two months out, Rodwell returned to the first team, coming on as an 85th-minute substitute, in a 0–0 draw against Swansea City on 4 May 2013. He then came on as a 69th-minute substitute in the FA Cup Final against Wigan Athletic, as Manchester City lost 1–0. On the final day of the 2012–13 season, Rodwell scored both of Manchester City's goals in a 3–2 home defeat to Norwich City, his first goals for the club. At the end of the season, he went on to make fifteen appearances and scoring two times in all competitions.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: In the 2013–14 season, Rodwell made his first appearance of the season, playing the whole game, in a 0–0 draw against Stoke City on 14 September 2013. However, he found his first team opportunities limited, due to strong competition in the midfield position. Rodwell also faced his own injury concern. Despite this, he made ten appearances in all competitions, five of which were the league, making him eligible for a winner's medal when Manchester City became 2013–14 Premier League champions. Following this, it was expected that Rodwell was to leave the club in the summer.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: On 5 August 2014, Sunderland announced that Rodwell had signed a five-year contract for an undisclosed fee believed to be around £10 million. Upon joining the club, he was critical about his time at Manchester City and urged English players to think twice before joining them.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Rodwell made his Sunderland debut, starting a match and playing 68 minutes before being substituted, in a 2–2 draw against West Bromwich Albion in the opening game of the season. On 24 August 2014, he scored his first goal for the club, equalising for Sunderland in their 1–1 draw with Manchester United at the Stadium of Light. Since making his debut for the club, Rodwell became a first team regular in the first four months to the 2014–15 season. This lasted until he missed one match against Crystal Palace, due to a calf injury. Following his return, Rodwell found himself alternating between a starting and a substitute role by the end of the year. On 1 January 2015, he scored Sunderland's first goal in a dramatic match with former club Manchester City with the match ending in a 3–2 loss for Sunderland. On 24 January 2015, Rodwell was sent off after receiving two yellow cards in the FA Cup fourth round against Fulham, in a match that ended 0–0. Between January and March he found himself sidelined due to injuries and suspension. His third goal of the season came on 3 March 2015, where Rodwell scored the equaliser in a 1–1 draw away to Hull City, in a match where he was also booked for diving. Despite being on the sidelines on two occasions later in the 2014–15 season, Rodwell continued to be involved in the first team. At the end of the 2014–15 season, he went on to make twenty–six appearances and scoring three times in all competitions.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: On 25 August 2015, Rodwell scored two goals and made two assists in Sunderland's 6–3 win over Exeter City in the second round of the 2015–16 League Cup. At the start of the 2015–16 season, he continued to alternate between a starting and a substitute role. Due to the club's defensive crisis, Rodwell offered to play in the position when offered by Manager Dick Advocaat. However, this never happened, as Advocaat was sacked and replaced by Sam Allardyce, who decided against letting him play in the position. But he was sidelined on four occasions by the end of the year. Despite recovering from injuries, Rodwell, once again, alternated between a starting and a substitute role later in the 2015–16 season. In the last game of the season Rodwell scored in a 2–2 draw against Watford. At the end of the 2015–16 season, he made twenty–four appearances and scoring three times in all competitions.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: In the opening game of the 2016–17 season, Rodwell set up Sunderland's first goal of the game, losing 2–1 against his former club, Manchester City. His starts in the next four matches proved to be his comeback. However, he missed two matches for the side despite being fit. It wasn't until on 1 October 2016 when Rodwell returned to the first team, coming on as a 72nd-minute substitute, in a 1–1 draw against West Bromwich Albion. However, he suffered a hamstring injury that kept him out for the rest of 2016. It wasn't until on 2 January 2017 when Rodwell returned to the starting line–up and played 65 minutes before being substituted, in a 2–2 draw against Liverpool. On 4 February 2017, in a 4–0 win for Sunderland against Crystal Palace, he ended a drought of 1,370 days without winning a Premier League game in which he had started the match. His winless run had lasted for 39 Premier League matches. Since returning from injury, Rodwell continued to find himself in and out of the starting eleven later in the 2016–17 season. Eventually, Sunderland were relegated from the Premier League. At the end of the 2016–17 season, he went on to make twenty–three appearances in all competitions.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Ahead of the 2017–18 season, Rodwell avoided taking a cut despite Sunderland's relegation from the Premier League, although the club were willing to sell him, but he ended up staying throughout the summer. He scored on his first appearance of the 2017–18 season, in a 2–1 loss against Sheffield United on 9 September 2017. As months went by, Rodwell was dropped from the first team once again, due to competition, as well as his own injury concern. The club's supporters turned on him after rating him low on the survey conducted by local newspaper "Evening Chronicle".


title: Jack Rodwell

text: It was reported that Rodwell asked to leave Sunderland in January 2018 after not making an appearance for the first team since September 2017.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Rodwell went on a trial at SBV Vitesse, only to for it to be cancelled, citing 'organisational reasons'. Rodwell eventually stayed at the club after the January transfer window closed. When asked in April 2018, after Sunderland were relegated for a second successive season, manager Chris Coleman said he did not know where the midfielder was mentally. It was later revealed that the pair had fallen out and didn't see eye to eye as a result. At the end of the 2017–18 season, Rodwell made six appearances and scoring once in all competitions.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: His contract was terminated by the club on 27 June 2018. Upon leaving Sunderland, local newspaper Evening Chronicle was critical of the club signing him, even going far as calling him the worst signing in Sunderland's history, while The Northern Echo agreed.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Rodwell signed for Championship club Blackburn Rovers on 23 August 2018 on a one-year deal, lasting until the end of the 2018–19 season. Upon joining the club, he said: "It's important for me to get out there and start playing football again. There have been ups and downs over the years, but that's in the past and now I'm just looking forward and focussed on the future ahead. After meeting the manager, I feel it's an ambitious club and a great fit for me. He sold the club to me and came across really well. I've played here a few times during my time at Everton and enjoyed playing at Ewood Park, so I'm looking forward to playing there in a Blackburn shirt now. After meeting the gaffer I could tell he loves his role and is very passionate about the club. I can't wait to get playing under him."


title: Jack Rodwell

text: After spending a month on the sidelines, Rodwell made his Blackburn Rovers debut, playing in the centre–back position and playing 59 minutes before being substituted, in a 3–2 loss against AFC Bournemouth in the third round of the League Cup. Since making his debut for the club, he started out, rotating in the defensive midfield position and centre–back position for the next two months. This lasted until Rodwell suffered an injury from a challenge of an opposition player during a 3–1 loss against Wigan Athletic on 28 November 2018. It was not until on 26 December 2018 when Rodwell returned to the starting line–up, playing in the defensive midfield position, in a 3–2 loss against Leeds United. But his return was short–lived when he suffered a groin injury once again. He returned to the starting line–up, playing in the centre–back position, starting the whole game, in a 2–0 win against Millwall on 12 January 2019.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Rodwell scored his first goal for Blackburn Rovers, in a 3–0 win against Hull City on 26 January 2019. Since returning from injury, Rodwell continued to regain his first team place, playing in the centre–back position for the next two months. This lasted until he suffered a muscle strain that kept him out for a month. Although Rodwell returned to training in late–March, he didn't make an appearance until on 13 April 2019 against Nottingham Forest, coming on as a 69th-minute substitute, in a 2–1 win. Following this, Rodwell reverted to playing in the midfield position in the next three matches. At the end of the 2018–19 season, he went on to make twenty–two appearances and scoring once in all competitions for the club.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Following this, Rodwell was offered a new contract by Blackburn Rovers. However, he left the club upon the expiration of his contract, despite being offered a new deal. After leaving Blackburn Rovers, Rodwell was linked with a transfer to Italian side Roma, but was ultimately not offered a contract.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: On 3 January 2020, Rodwell signed for Premier League club Sheffield United on a contract until the end of the season. It came after when he had been training with the team since December 2019. Upon joining Sheffield United, Manager Chris Wilder defended Rodwell following his appearance in the Netflix series "Sunderland 'Til I Die".


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Rodwell made his debut for Sheffield United two days later in an FA Cup Third Round match against AFC Fylde. However, Rodwell spent the first two months at the club out of the starting eleven by the time the season was suspended because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Once the season resumed behind closed doors, he made his first Premier League appearance in three years, coming on as a 75th-minute substitute, in a 1–1 draw against Burnley on 5 July 2020. At the end of the 2019–20 season, Rodwell made two appearances in all competitions.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: On 23 August 2020, Rodwell signed a new one-year deal, keeping him at the club until 2021. He played a single game during the 2020–21 season and was released on 1 June 2021.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: After playing professionally in England for 15 years, Rodwell took up a new challenge, moving to Australia with his Australian wife and son.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: On 18 November 2021, Australian A-League club Western Sydney Wanderers announced Rodwell had signed for the club on a one-year deal after training with them for two weeks under manager Carl Robinson.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: In September 2006, Rodwell was called up to the England U16 squad for the first time. He captained on his England U16 debut, and started the whole match, in a 1–1 draw against Wales U16 on 20 October 2006. Two months later, in December 2006, Rodwell captained the England under-16 team to Victory Shield glory, following a 2–1 victory over Scotland. Four months later, he struck the first winning goal at Wembley Stadium for England in a 1–0 win over Spain U16. Rodwell went on to make four appearances and scored once for the U16 side.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: In July 2006, Rodwell was called up to the England U17 squad for the first time but did not play. After being called up to the U17 squad once again, he made his England U17 debut, in a 2–0 win against Iceland U17 on 30 July 2007. On 25 March 2008, Rodwell scored England under-17s only goal as they drew 1–1 with France in a 2008 UEFA European Under-17 Championship qualifier. He went on to make nine appearances and scoring once for the U17 side.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Rodwell made his England U19 debut on 9 September 2008, where he played 45 minutes, in a 2–1 win against Netherlands U19. He went on to make four appearances for the U19 side.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: In March 2009, Rodwell was called up to the England U21 squad for the first time. He earned his first under-21 cap in a match against France U21. and scored his first goal for the squad on 8 June 2009 against Azerbaijan. Rodwell earned his first start at under-21 level during the 2009 UEFA European Under-21 Championship in a match against Germany, scoring a goal and earning praise for his all-around performance in a defensive midfield role. He then helped England reach the final of the tournament by beating Sweden U21 5–4 on penalties following a 3–3 draw against Sweden in the semi-finals of the 2009 Under-21 European Championship. However, Rodwell came on as a 77th-minute substitute, as England lost 4–0 to Germany U21 in the final of the Under-21 Championships.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Following the end of the tournament, Rodwell made three more appearances for the U21 side by the end of 2009. He then captained England U21 for the first time, helping them win 2–0 against Uzbekistan U21 on 10 August 2010. Rodwell went on to make twenty–two appearances and scoring two times for the U21 side.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: In November 2011, Rodwell was called up to the senior England for the first time. He made his senior England debut, replacing Phil Jones in the 56th minute of England's 1–0 friendly victory against Spain, in November 2011. He made his first start three days later, in a 1–0 friendly win against Sweden at Wembley Stadium.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: On 2 June 2013, Rodwell made his first appearance since 2011, earning his third cap as a substitute, replacing Theo Walcott in the second half of a 2–2 draw against Brazil. Two years later, he said he hasn't given up hope for the England and remains determined to force his way back into the squad.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Rodwell is the nephew of former Blackpool footballer Tony Rodwell. In 2013 he married Alana Licate, an Australian national, and together they have a son, Hudson. In September 2018, he was fined £660 with £166 in prosecution costs and a £66 victim surcharges at the earlier hearing after being banned from driving for six months without him knowing.


title: Jack Rodwell

text: Rodwell modelled for the Great Britain at the 2012 Summer Olympics in November 2011, hoping he would be included in the squad. However, he never made it to the squad despite being twenty at the time.


title: Seven Spirits of God

text: The seven Spirits of God (, "ta hepta pneumata tou theou") are mentioned four times in the Book of Revelation, and in the Book of Isaiah it names each Spirit.


title: Seven Spirits of God

text: In one interpretation, the "Seven Spirits" represent the sevenfold ministry of the Spirit as depicted in the Book of Isaiah. As it is written: "The Spirit of the LORD shall rest upon him, the Spirit of wisdom and understanding, the Spirit of counsel and might, the Spirit of knowledge and of the fear of the LORD, and He will delight in the fear of the Lord." Isaiah 11:2–3 (NASB). Including the Spirit of the Lord, and the Spirits of wisdom, of understanding, of counsel, of might, of knowledge and of fear of the LORD, here are represented the seven Spirits, which are before the throne of God. The reference to the lamb in relates it to the Seven Spirits which first appear in and are associated with Jesus who holds them along with seven stars.


title: Seven Spirits of God

text: An alternative view is that the seven graces("charisma") of Romans 12:6–8 reflect the seven spirits of God. The Holy Spirit manifests in humankind through these graces, reflecting the seven spirits of God. The seven graces are: 1. insight (prophecy); 2. helpfulness (service or ministry); 3. instruction (teaching); 4. encouragement; 5. generosity (giving); 6. guidance (leadership); and 7. compassion. This agrees with Isaiah 11:2–3 if "the Spirit of the Lord" is recognized as categorical and "the delight in the fear of the Lord" is added. (Isaiah 11:3, Berean Study Bible)


title: Seven Spirits of God

text: In the New Testament, the Greek term "Dunamis" (translated by some as "Power") suggests a class of exalted spiritual beings; perhaps parallel to the "chief Princes" (Sar rishown) in the Old Testament, of which the Archangel Michael is stated to be one(Daniel 10:13). "Dunamis" is used by the Apostle Paul to refer to spiritual beings in Romans 8:38; Ephesians 1:21, 3:10, 6:12; and Colossians 1:16, 2:10, 2:15. "Powers and principalities" can apply to both angelic and devilish beings, but more often in the New Testament to devilish beings. However, most modern Protestant translators take "Dunamis" to mean "strength", "power", or "ability", whereas the ancient and modern Catholic conception of activity or power was often understood as "virtues".


title: Seven Spirits of God

text: Others follow this line of thought, though find the connection to "dunamis" referred to by Paul less likely. It is possible that these seven angels are a special entourage charged with special duties by the Lamb, about whom we have little to no specific knowledge.


title: Seven Spirits of God

text: Still others look to the apocryphal work 1 Enoch which refers to seven angels who are "watching" creation: Uriel, Raphael, Raguel, Michael, Sarakiel/Suriel (in 9.1), Gabriel, and Phanuel, who is mentioned as one of the four chief angels in 40.9.


title: Seven Spirits of God

text: Dunamai is the root of the word dunamis. Dunamai means to be able, to have power, whether by (1) virtue of one's own ability and resources or (2)through a state of mind, or through favorable circumstances or(3)by permission of Law or custom or (4)simply to be able powerful.


title: Seven Spirits of God

text: Sevenfold may also be connected with the biblical understanding of the number 7 representing perfection. The "Seven Fold Spirit of God" could be the "perfect" Spirit of God, the Holy Spirit.


title: Chiari malformation

text: Chiari malformation (CM) is a structural defect in the cerebellum, characterized by a downward displacement of one or both cerebellar tonsils through the foramen magnum (the opening at the base of the skull). CMs can cause headaches, difficulty swallowing, vomiting, dizziness, neck pain, unsteady gait, poor hand coordination, numbness and tingling of the hands and feet, and speech problems. Less often, people may experience ringing or buzzing in the ears, weakness, slow heart rhythm, or fast heart rhythm, curvature of the spine (scoliosis) related to spinal cord impairment, abnormal breathing, such as central sleep apnea, characterized by periods of breathing cessation during sleep, and, in severe cases, paralysis.


title: Chiari malformation

text: This can sometimes lead to non-communicating hydrocephalus as a result of obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) outflow. The cerebrospinal fluid outflow is caused by phase difference in outflow and influx of blood in the vasculature of the brain. The malformation is named after the Austrian pathologist Hans Chiari. A type II CM is also known as an Arnold–Chiari malformation in honor of Chiari and German pathologist Julius Arnold.


title: Chiari malformation

text: Findings are due to brain stem and lower cranial nerve dysfunction. Onset of symptoms are less likely to be present during adulthood in most patients. Younger children generally have a substantially different presentation of clinical symptoms from older children. Younger children are more likely to have a more rapid neurological degeneration with profound brain stem dysfunction over several days.


title: Chiari malformation

text: The blockage of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow may also cause a syrinx to form, eventually leading to syringomyelia. Central cord symptoms such as hand weakness, dissociated sensory loss, and, in severe cases, paralysis may occur.


title: Chiari malformation

text: Syringomyelia is most often chronic progressive degenerative disorder characterized by a fluid-filled cyst located in the spinal cord. However, there can be also cases where the syrinx in terms of size and extent of symptoms actually stays stable throughout a lifetime. Syringomyelia symptoms include pain, weakness, numbness, and stiffness in the back, shoulders, arms or legs. Other symptoms include headaches, the inability to feel changes in the temperature, sweating, sexual dysfunction, and loss of bowel and bladder control. It is usually seen in the cervical region but can extend into the medulla oblongata and pons or it can reach downward into the thoracic or lumbar segments. Syringomyelia is often associated with type I Chiari malformation and is commonly seen between the C-4 and C-6 levels. The exact development of syringomyelia is unknown but many theories suggest that the herniated tonsils in type I Chiari malformations cause a "plug" to form, which does not allow an outlet of CSF from the brain to the spinal canal. Syringomyelia is present in 25% of patients with type I Chiari malformations.


title: Chiari malformation

text: The most widely accepted pathophysiological mechanism by which Chiari type I malformations occur is by a reduction or lack of development of the posterior fossa as a result of congenital or acquired disorders. Congenital causes include hydrocephalus, craniosynostosis (especially of the lambdoid suture), hyperostosis (such as craniometaphyseal dysplasia, osteopetrosis, erythroid hyperplasia), X-linked vitamin D-resistant rickets, and neurofibromatosis type I. Acquired disorders include space occupying lesions due to one of several potential causes ranging from brain tumors to hematomas.


title: Chiari malformation

text: Traumatic brain injury may cause delayed acquired Chiari malformation, but the pathophysiology of this is unknown. Additionally, ectopia may be present but asymptomatic until a whiplash injury causes it to become symptomatic.


title: Chiari malformation

text: Some neurological experts believe that Chiari malformation type I is developed as a result of Filum Disease, an abnormal traction of the spinal cord caused by an excessively tense Filum terminale. This theory was first introduced by Dr. Miguel B. Royo Salvador in 1993.


title: Chiari malformation

text: Diagnosis is made through a combination of patient history, neurological examination, and medical imaging. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is considered the preferred imaging modality for Chiari malformation. The MRI visualizes neural tissue such as the cerebellar tonsils and spinal cord as well as bone and other soft tissues. CT and CT myelography are other options and were used prior to the advent of MRI, unfortunately the resolution of CT based modalities do not characterize syringomyelia and other neural abnormalities as well.


title: Chiari malformation

text: By convention, the cerebellar tonsil position is measured relative to the basion-opisthion line, using sagittal T1 MRI images or sagittal CT images. The selected cutoff distance for abnormal tonsil position is somewhat arbitrary, as not every person will be symptomatic at a certain amount of tonsil displacement, and the probability of symptoms and syrinx increases with greater displacement; however, greater than 5 mm is the most frequently cited cutoff number, though some consider 3–5 mm to be "borderline,"; pathological signs and syrinx may occur beyond that distance. One study showed little difference in cerebellar tonsil position between standard recumbent MRI and upright MRI for patients without a history of whiplash injury. Neuroradiological investigation is used to first rule out any intracranial condition that could be responsible for tonsillar herniation. Neuroradiological diagnostics evaluate the severity of crowding of the neural structures within the posterior cranial fossa and their pressure against the foramen magnum. Chiari 1.5 is a term used when both brainstem and tonsillar herniation through the foramen magnum are present.


title: Chiari malformation

text: In the late 19th century, Austrian pathologist Hans Chiari described seemingly related anomalies of the hindbrain, the so-called Chiari malformations I, II and III. Later, other investigators added a fourth (Chiari IV) malformation. The scale of severity is rated I – IV, with IV being the most severe. Types III and IV are very rare. Since Dr. Chiari's original descriptions Chiari 0, 1.5, 3.5, and 5 have been described in the medical literature.


title: Chiari malformation

text: Other conditions sometimes causally associated with Chiari malformation include hydrocephalus, syringomyelia, spinal curvature, tethered spinal cord syndrome, and connective tissue disorders such as Ehlers-Danlos syndrome and Marfan syndrome.


title: Chiari malformation

text: Chiari malformation is the most frequently used term for this set of conditions. The use of the term "Arnold–Chiari malformation" has fallen somewhat out of favor over time, although it is used to refer to the type II malformation. Current sources use "Chiari malformation" to describe its four specific types, reserving the term "Arnold-Chiari" for type II only. Some sources still use "Arnold-Chiari" for all four types.


title: Chiari malformation

text: Chiari malformation or Arnold–Chiari malformation should not be confused with Budd-Chiari syndrome, a hepatic condition also named for Hans Chiari.


title: Chiari malformation

text: In Pseudo-Chiari Malformation, leaking of CSF may cause displacement of the cerebellar tonsils and similar symptoms sufficient to be mistaken for a Chiari I malformation.


title: Chiari malformation

text: While there is no current cure, the treatments for Chiari malformation are surgery and management of symptoms, based on the occurrence of clinical symptoms rather than the radiological findings. The presence of a syrinx is known to give specific signs and symptoms that vary from dysesthetic sensations to algothermal dissociation to spasticity and paresis. These are important indications that decompressive surgery is needed for patients with Chiari Malformation Type II. Type II patients have severe brain stem damage and rapidly diminishing neurological response.


title: Chiari malformation

text: Decompressive surgery involves removing the lamina of the first and sometimes the second or third cervical vertebrae and part of the occipital bone of the skull to relieve pressure. The flow of spinal fluid may be augmented by a shunt. Since this surgery usually involves the opening of the dura mater and the expansion of the space beneath, a dural graft is usually applied to cover the expanded posterior fossa.


title: Chiari malformation

text: A small number of neurological surgeons believe that detethering the spinal cord as an alternate approach relieves the compression of the brain against the skull opening (foramen magnum), obviating the need for decompression surgery and associated trauma. However, this approach is significantly less documented in the medical literature, with reports on only a handful of patients. The alternative spinal surgery is also not without risk.


title: Chiari malformation

text: Complications of decompression surgery can arise. They include bleeding, damage to structures in the brain and spinal canal, meningitis, CSF fistulas, occipito-cervical instability and pseudomeningeocele. Rare post-operative complications include hydrocephalus and brain stem compression by retroflexion of odontoid. Also, an extended CVD created by a wide opening and big duroplasty can cause a cerebellar "slump". This complication needs to be corrected by cranioplasty.


title: Chiari malformation

text: In certain cases, irreducible compression of the brainstem occurs from in front (anteriorly or ventral) resulting in a smaller posterior fossa and associated Chiari malformation. In these cases, an anterior decompression is required. The most commonly used approach is to operate through the mouth (transoral) to remove the bone compressing the brainstem, typically the odontoid. This results in decompressing the brainstem and therefore gives more room for the cerebellum, thus decompressing the Chiari malformation. Arnold Menzes, MD, is the neurosurgeon who pioneered this approach in the 1970s at the University of Iowa. Between 1984 and 2008 (the MR imaging era), 298 patients with irreducible ventral compression of the brainstem and Chiari type 1 malformation underwent a transoral approach for ventral cervicomedullary decompression at the University of Iowa. The results have been excellent resulting in improved brainstem function and resolution of the Chiari malformation in the majority of patients.


title: Chiari malformation

text: Congenital Chiari I malformation, defined as tonsilar herniations of 3 to 5 mm or greater, was previously believed to be in the range of one per 1000 births, but is likely much higher. Women are three times more likely than men to have a congenital Chiari malformation. Type II malformations are more prevalent in people of Celtic descent. A study using upright MRI found cerebellar tonsillar ectopia in 23% of adults with headache from motor-vehicle-accident head trauma. Upright MRI was more than twice as sensitive as standard MRI, likely because gravity affects cerebellar position.


title: Chiari malformation

text: Cases of congenital Chiari malformation may be explained by evolutionary and genetic factors. Typically, an infant's brain weighs around 400g at birth and triples to 1100-1400g by age 11. At the same time the cranium triples in volume from 500 cm to 1500 cm to accommodate the growing brain. During human evolution, the skull underwent numerous changes to accommodate the growing brain. The evolutionary changes included increased size and shape of the skull, decreased basal angle and basicranial length. These modifications resulted in significant reduction of the size of the posterior fossa in modern humans. In normal adults, the posterior fossa comprises 27% of the total intracranial space, while in adults with Chiari Type I, it is only 21%. H. neanderthalensis had platycephalic (flattened) skulls. Some cases of Chiari are associated with platybasia (flattening of the skull base).


title: Chiari malformation

text: The condition was brought to the mainstream on the series "" in the tenth-season episode "Internal Combustion" on February 4, 2010.


title: Chiari malformation

text: Chiari malformation was briefly mentioned on the medical drama "House M.D." in the fifth-season episode "House Divided", It was the focus of the sixth-season episode "The Choice." It is also the focus of "Private Practice" Season 4 episode 4, where a pregnant woman is diagnosed with it. It was the a cause of death on the reality television series "Dr. G: Medical Examiner" in the sixth-season episode "Bruised and Battered". It was also mentioned in the medical drama "A Gifted Man", in the first-season episode "In Case of Separation Anxiety".


title: Chiari malformation

text: It is also featured in the 3rd and 4th episode of the 7th season of the series "Rizzoli & Isles" where Dr. Maura Isles is diagnosed with the condition.


title: Memetics

text: Memetics is a study of information and culture. While memetics originated as an analogy with Darwinian evolution, digital communication, media, and sociology scholars have also adopted the term "memetics" to describe an established empirical study and theory described as Internet Memetics. Proponents of memetics, as evolutionary culture, describe it as an approach of cultural information transfer. Those arguing for the Darwinian theoretical account tend to begin from theoretical arguments of existing evolutionary models. Those arguing for Internet Memetics, by contrast, tend to avoid reduction to Darwinian evolutionary accounts. Instead some of these suggest distinct evolutionary approaches. Memetics describes how ideas or cultural information can propagate, but doesn't necessarily imply a meme's concept is factual.


title: Memetics

text: Critics contend the theory is "untested, unsupported or incorrect". It has failed to become a mainstream approach to cultural evolution as the research community has favored models that exclude the concept of a cultural replicator (called "meme"), opting mostly for gene-culture co-evolution or dual inheritance theory instead. Lesser critical arguments suggest memetics is still valid, but analytically holds a smaller academic space in cultural evolutionary theory. Alternatively, Internet Memetics has yet to provide a tested theory of evolution, having sparse empirical studies. As such, it also struggles to be tested or adopted as an agreeable theory of evolution in a digital context.


title: Memetics

text: The term meme was coined in Richard Dawkins' 1976 book "The Selfish Gene," but Dawkins later distanced himself from the resulting field of study. Analogous to a gene, the meme was conceived as a "unit of culture" (an idea, belief, pattern of behavior, etc.) which is "hosted" in the minds of one or more individuals, and which can reproduce itself in the sense of jumping from the mind of one person to the mind of another. Thus what would otherwise be regarded as one individual influencing another to adopt a belief is seen as an idea-replicator reproducing itself in a new host. As with genetics, particularly under a Dawkinsian interpretation, a meme's success may be due to its contribution to the effectiveness of its host. However, contemporary to Dawkins, reduction of a meme to an immaterial idea was contested during memetics' early theoretical developments. Daniel Dennett went as far as to say "a meme's existence depends on a physical embodiment," rather than the other way around. Nevertheless, contemporary memetics tends to refer to these early memetic arguments as reducible to "mentalism".


title: Memetics

text: In his book "The Selfish Gene" (1976), the evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins used the term "meme" to describe a unit of human cultural transmission analogous to the gene, arguing that replication also happens in culture, albeit in a different sense. While cultural evolution itself is a much older topic, with a history that dates back at least as far as Darwin's era, Dawkins (1976) proposed that the meme is a unit of culture residing in the brain and is the mutating replicator in human cultural evolution. After Dawkins, many discussed this unit of culture as evolutionary "information" which replicates with metaphysically analogous rules to Darwinian selection. A replicator is a pattern that can influence its surroundings – that is, it has causal agency – and can propagate. This proposal resulted in debate among anthropologists, sociologists, biologists, and scientists of other disciplines. Dawkins himself did not provide a sufficient explanation of how the replication of units of information in the brain controls human behaviour and ultimately culture, and the principal topic of the book was genetics. Dawkins apparently did not intend to present a comprehensive theory of "memetics" in "The Selfish Gene", but rather coined the term "meme" in a speculative spirit. Accordingly, different researchers came to define the term "unit of information" in different ways.


title: Memetics

text: The evolutionary model of cultural information transfer is based on the concept that units of information, or "memes", have an independent existence, are self-replicating, and are subject to selective evolution through environmental forces. Starting from a proposition put forward in the writings of Richard Dawkins, this model has formed the basis of a new area of study, one that looks at the self-replicating units of culture. It has been proposed that just as memes are analogous to genes, memetics is analogous to genetics.


title: Memetics

text: The modern memetics movement dates from the mid-1980s. A January 1983 "Metamagical Themas" column by Douglas Hofstadter, in "Scientific American", was influential – as was his 1985 book of the same name. "Memeticist" was coined as analogous to "geneticist" – originally in "The Selfish Gene." Later Arel Lucas suggested that the discipline that studies memes and their connections to human and other carriers of them be known as "memetics" by analogy with "genetics". Dawkins' "The Selfish Gene" has been a factor in attracting the attention of people of disparate intellectual backgrounds. Another stimulus was the publication in 1991 of "Consciousness Explained" by Tufts University philosopher Daniel Dennett, which incorporated the meme concept into a theory of the mind. In his 1991 essay "Viruses of the Mind", Richard Dawkins used memetics to explain the phenomenon of religious belief and the various characteristics of organised religions. By then, memetics had also become a theme appearing in fiction (e.g. Neal Stephenson's "Snow Crash").


title: Memetics

text: The idea of "language as a virus" had already been introduced by William S. Burroughs as early as 1962 in his fictional book "The Ticket That Exploded", and continued in "The Electronic Revolution", published in 1970 in "".


title: Memetics

text: The foundation of memetics in its full modern incarnation was launched by Douglas Rushkoff's "Media Virus: Hidden Agendas in Popular Culture" in 1995, and was accelerated with the publication in 1996 of two more books by authors outside the academic mainstream: "Virus of the Mind: The New Science of the Meme" by former Microsoft executive turned motivational speaker and professional poker-player Richard Brodie, and "Thought Contagion: How Belief Spreads Through Society" by Aaron Lynch, a mathematician and philosopher who worked for many years as an engineer at Fermilab. Lynch claimed to have conceived his theory totally independently of any contact with academics in the cultural evolutionary sphere, and apparently was not aware of "The Selfish Gene" until his book was very close to publication.


title: Memetics

text: Around the same time as the publication of the books by Lynch and Brodie the e-journal "Journal of Memetics – Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission" (published electronically from 1997 to 2005) first appeared. It was first hosted by the Centre for Policy Modelling at Manchester Metropolitan University. The e-journal soon became the central point for publication and debate within the nascent memeticist community. (There had been a short-lived paper-based memetics publication starting in 1990, the "Journal of Ideas" edited by Elan Moritz.) In 1999, Susan Blackmore, a psychologist at the University of the West of England, published "The Meme Machine", which more fully worked out the ideas of Dennett, Lynch, and Brodie and attempted to compare and contrast them with various approaches from the cultural evolutionary mainstream, as well as providing novel, and controversial, memetics-based theories for the evolution of language and the human sense of individual selfhood.


title: Memetics

text: The term "meme" derives from the Ancient Greek μιμητής ("mimētḗs"), meaning "imitator, pretender". The similar term "mneme" was used in 1904, by the German evolutionary biologist Richard Semon, best known for his development of the engram theory of memory, in his work "Die mnemischen Empfindungen in ihren Beziehungen zu den Originalempfindungen", translated into English in 1921 as "The Mneme". Until Daniel Schacter published "Forgotten Ideas, Neglected Pioneers: Richard Semon and the Story of Memory" in 2000, Semon's work had little influence, though it was quoted extensively in Erwin Schrödinger’s 1956 Tarner Lecture “Mind and Matter”. Richard Dawkins (1976) apparently coined the word "meme" independently of Semon, writing this:


title: Memetics

text: "'Mimeme' comes from a suitable Greek root, but I want a monosyllable that sounds a bit like 'gene'. I hope my classicist friends will forgive me if I abbreviate mimeme to meme. If it is any consolation, it could alternatively be thought of as being related to 'memory', or to the French word même."David Hull (2001) pointed out Dawkins's oversight of Semon's work. Hull suggests this early work as an alternative origin to memetics by which Dawkins's memetic theory and classicist connection to the concept can be negotiated."Why not date the beginnings of memetics (or mnemetics) as 1904 or at the very least 1914? If [Semon's] two publications are taken as the beginnings of memetics, then the development of memetics [...] has been around for almost a hundred years without much in the way of conceptual or empirical advance!"Despite this, Semon's work remains mostly understood as distinct to memetic origins even with the overt similarities accounted for by Hull.


title: Memetics

text: The memetics movement split almost immediately into two. The first group were those who wanted to stick to Dawkins' definition of a meme as "a unit of cultural transmission". Gibron Burchett, another memeticist responsible for helping to research and co-coin the term memetic engineering, along with Leveious Rolando and Larry Lottman, has stated that a meme can be defined, more precisely, as "a unit of cultural information that can be copied, located in the brain". This thinking is more in line with Dawkins' second definition of the meme in his book "The Extended Phenotype". The second group wants to redefine memes as observable cultural artifacts and behaviors. However, in contrast to those two positions, Blackmore does not reject either concept of external or internal memes.


title: Memetics

text: These two schools became known as the "internalists" and the "externalists." Prominent internalists included both Lynch and Brodie; the most vocal externalists included Derek Gatherer, a geneticist from Liverpool John Moores University, and William Benzon, a writer on cultural evolution and music. The main rationale for externalism was that internal brain entities are not observable, and memetics cannot advance as a science, especially a quantitative science, unless it moves its emphasis onto the directly quantifiable aspects of culture. Internalists countered with various arguments: that brain states will eventually be directly observable with advanced technology, that most cultural anthropologists agree that culture is about beliefs and not artifacts, or that artifacts cannot be replicators in the same sense as mental entities (or DNA) are replicators. The debate became so heated that a 1998 Symposium on Memetics, organised as part of the 15th International Conference on Cybernetics, passed a motion calling for an end to definitional debates. McNamara demonstrated in 2011 that functional connectivity profiling using neuroimaging tools enables the observation of the processing of internal memes, "i-memes", in response to external "e-memes".


title: Memetics

text: This was developed further in a paper "Memetics and Neural Models of Conspiracy Theories" by Duch, where a model of memes as a quasi-stable neural associative memory attractor network is proposed, and a formation of Memeplex leading to conspiracy theories illustrated with simulation of self-organizing network.


title: Memetics

text: An advanced statement of the internalist school came in 2002 with the publication of "The Electric Meme", by Robert Aunger, an anthropologist from the University of Cambridge. Aunger also organised a conference in Cambridge in 1999, at which prominent sociologists and anthropologists were able to give their assessment of the progress made in memetics to that date. This resulted in the publication of "Darwinizing Culture: The Status of Memetics as a Science", edited by Aunger and with a foreword by Dennett, in 2001.


title: Memetics

text: In 2005, the "Journal of Memetics" ceased publication and published a set of articles on the future of memetics. The website states that although "there was to be a relaunch... after several years nothing has happened". Susan Blackmore has left the University of the West of England to become a freelance science-writer and now concentrates more on the field of consciousness and cognitive science. Derek Gatherer moved to work as a computer programmer in the pharmaceutical industry, although he still occasionally publishes on memetics-related matters. Richard Brodie is now climbing the world professional poker rankings. Aaron Lynch disowned the memetics community and the words "meme" and "memetics" (without disowning the ideas in his book), adopting the self-description "thought contagionist". He died in 2005.


title: Memetics

text: Susan Blackmore (2002) re-stated the definition of meme as: whatever is copied from one person to another person, whether habits, skills, songs, stories, or any other kind of information. Further she said that memes, like genes, are replicators in the sense as defined by Dawkins.


title: Memetics

text: That is, they are information that is copied. Memes are copied by imitation, teaching and other methods. The copies are not perfect: memes are copied with variation; moreover, they compete for space in our memories and for the chance to be copied again. Only some of the variants can survive. The combination of these three elements (copies; variation; competition for survival) forms precisely the condition for Darwinian evolution, and so memes (and hence human cultures) evolve. Large groups of memes that are copied and passed on together are called co-adapted meme complexes, or "memeplexes". In Blackmore's definition, the way that a meme replicates is through imitation. This requires brain capacity to generally imitate a model or selectively imitate the model. Since the process of social learning varies from one person to another, the imitation process cannot be said to be completely imitated. The sameness of an idea may be expressed with different memes supporting it. This is to say that the mutation rate in memetic evolution is extremely high, and mutations are even possible within each and every iteration of the imitation process. It becomes very interesting when we see that a social system composed of a complex network of microinteractions exists, but at the macro level an order emerges to create culture.


title: Memetics

text: Many researchers of cultural evolution regard memetic theory of this time a failed paradigm superseded by dual inheritance theory. Others instead suggest it is not superseded but rather holds a small but distinct intellectual space in cultural evolutionary theory.


title: Memetics

text: A new framework of "Internet Memetics" initially borrowed Blackmore's conceptual developments but is effectively a data-driven approach, focusing on digital artifacts. This was lead primarily by conceptual developments Colin Lankshear and Michele Knobel (2006) and Limor Shifman and Mike Thelwall (2009). Shiman, in particular, followed Susan Blackmore in rejecting the internalist and externalist debate, however did not offer a clear connection to prior evolutionary frameworks. Later in 2014, she rejected the historical relevance of "information" to memetics. Instead of memes being a "unit of cultural information", she argued information is exclusively delegated to be "the ways in which addressers position themselves in relation to [a meme instance's] text, its linguistic codes, the addressees, and other potential speakers." This is what she called "stance," which is analytically distinguished from the "content" and "form" of her meme. As such, Shifman's developments can both can be seen as critical to Dawkins's meme, but also a somewhat distinct conceptualization of meme as a communicative system dependent on the internet and social media platforms. By introducing memetics as an internet study there has been the rise in empirical research owed to Internet research methods and extensive digital data. That is, memetics in this conceptualization has been notably testable with the application of social science methodologies. It has been popular enough that following Lankshear and Knobel's (2019) review of empirical trends, they warn those interested in memetics that theoretical development should not be ignored, concluding that, "[R]ight now would be a good time for anyone seriously interested in memes to revisit Dawkins’ work in light of how internet memes have evolved over the past three decades and reflect on what most merits careful and conscientious research attention."As Lankshear and Knobel show, the Internet Memetic reconceptualization is limited in addressing long-standing memetic theory concerns. It is not clear that existing Internet Memetic theory's departure from conceptual dichotomies between internalist and externalist debate are compatible with most earlier concerns of memetics. Internet Memetics might be understood as a study without an agreed upon theory, as present research tends to focus on empirical developments answering theories of other areas of cultural research. It exists more as a set of distributed studies than a methodology, theory, field, or discipline, with a few exceptions such as Shifman and those closely following her motivating framework.


title: Memetics

text: Critics contend that some proponents' assertions are "untested, unsupported or incorrect." Most of the history of memetic criticism has been directed at Dawkins' earlier theory of memetics framed in "The Selfish Gene." There have been some serious criticisms of memetics. Namely, there are a few key points on which most criticisms focus: mentalism, cultural determinism, Darwinian reduction, without academic novelty, and a lack of empirical evidence of memetic mechanisms.


title: Memetics

text: Luis Benitez-Bribiesca points to the lack of memetic mechanisms. He refers to the lack of a "code script" for memes which would suggest a genuine analogy to DNA in genes. He also suggests he meme mutation mechanism is too unstable which would render the evolutionary process chaotic. That is to say that the "unit of information" which traverses across minds is perhaps too flexible in meaning to be a realistic unit. As such, he calls memetics "a pseudoscientific dogma" and "a dangerous idea that poses a threat to the serious study of consciousness and cultural evolution" among other things.


title: Memetics

text: Another criticism points to memetic triviality. That is, some have argued memetics is derivative of more rich areas of study. One of these cases comes from Peircian semiotics, (e.g., Deacon, Kull) stating that the concept of meme is a lesser developed Sign. Meme is thus described in memetics as a sign without its triadic nature. Charles Sanders Peirce's semiotic theory involves a triadic structure: a sign (a reference to an object), an object (the thing being referred to), and an interpretant (the interpreting actor of a sign). For Deacon and Kull, the meme is a degenerate sign, which includes only its ability of being copied. Accordingly, in the broadest sense, the objects of copying are memes, whereas the objects of translation and interpretation are signs.


title: Memetics

text: Others have pointed to the fact that memetics reduces genuine social and communicative activity to genetic arguments, and this cannot adequately describe cultural participation of people. For example, Henry Jenkins, Joshua Green, and Sam Ford, in their book "Spreadable Media" (2013), criticize Dawkins' idea of the meme, writing that "while the idea of the meme is a compelling one, it may not adequately account for how content circulates through participatory culture." The three authors also criticize other interpretations of memetics, especially those which describe memes as "self-replicating", because they ignore the fact that "culture is a human product and replicates through human agency." In doing so, they align more closely with Shifman's notion of Internet Memetics and her addition of the human agency of "stance" to describe participatory structure.


title: Memetics

text: Like other critics, Maria Kronfeldner has criticized memetics for being based on an allegedly inaccurate analogy with the gene; alternately, she claims it is "heuristically trivial", being a mere redescription of what is already known without offering any useful novelty.


title: Memetics

text: Research methodologies that apply memetics go by many names: Viral marketing, cultural evolution, the history of ideas, social analytics, and more. Many of these applications do not make reference to the literature on memes directly but are built upon the evolutionary lens of idea propagation that treats semantic units of culture as self-replicating and mutating patterns of information that are assumed to be relevant for scientific study. For example, the field of public relations is filled with attempts to introduce new ideas and alter social discourse. One means of doing this is to design a meme and deploy it through various media channels. One historic example of applied memetics is the PR campaign conducted in 1991 as part of the build-up to the first Gulf War in the United States.


title: Memetics

text: The application of memetics to a difficult complex social system problem, environmental sustainability, has recently been attempted at thwink.org Using meme types and memetic infection in several stock and flow simulation models, Jack Harich has demonstrated several interesting phenomena that are best, and perhaps only, explained by memes. One model, The Dueling Loops of the Political Powerplace, argues that the fundamental reason corruption is the norm in politics is due to an inherent structural advantage of one feedback loop pitted against another. Another model, The Memetic Evolution of Solutions to Difficult Problems, uses memes, the evolutionary algorithm, and the scientific method to show how complex solutions evolve over time and how that process can be improved. The insights gained from these models are being used to engineer memetic solution elements to the sustainability problem.


title: Memetics

text: Another application of memetics in the sustainability space is the crowdfunded Climate Meme Project conducted by Joe Brewer and Balazs Laszlo Karafiath in the spring of 2013. This study was based on a collection of 1000 unique text-based expressions gathered from Twitter, Facebook, and structured interviews with climate activists. The major finding was that the global warming meme is not effective at spreading because it causes emotional duress in the minds of people who learn about it. Five central tensions were revealed in the discourse about [climate change], each of which represents a resonance point through which dialogue can be engaged. The tensions were Harmony/Disharmony (whether or not humans are part of the natural world), Survival/Extinction (envisioning the future as either apocalyptic collapse of civilization or total extinction of the human race), Cooperation/Conflict (regarding whether or not humanity can come together to solve global problems), Momentum/Hesitation (about whether or not we are making progress at the collective scale to address climate change), and Elitism/Heretic (a general sentiment that each side of the debate considers the experts of its opposition to be untrustworthy).


title: Memetics

text: Ben Cullen, in his book "Contagious Ideas", brought the idea of the meme into the discipline of archaeology. He coined the term "Cultural Virus Theory", and used it to try to anchor archaeological theory in a neo-Darwinian paradigm. Archaeological memetics could assist the application of the meme concept to material culture in particular.


title: Memetics

text: Francis Heylighen of the Center Leo Apostel for Interdisciplinary Studies has postulated what he calls "memetic selection criteria". These criteria opened the way to a specialized field of "applied memetics" to find out if these selection criteria could stand the test of quantitative analyses. In 2003 Klaas Chielens carried out these tests in a Masters thesis project on the testability of the selection criteria.


title: Memetics

text: In "Selfish Sounds and Linguistic Evolution", Austrian linguist Nikolaus Ritt has attempted to operationalise memetic concepts and use them for the explanation of long term sound changes and change conspiracies in early English. It is argued that a generalised Darwinian framework for handling cultural change can provide explanations where established, speaker centred approaches fail to do so. The book makes comparatively concrete suggestions about the possible material structure of memes, and provides two empirically rich case studies.


title: Memetics

text: Australian academic S.J. Whitty has argued that project management is a memeplex with the language and stories of its practitioners at its core. This radical approach sees a project and its management as an illusion; a human construct about a collection of feelings, expectations, and sensations, which are created, fashioned, and labeled by the human brain. Whitty's approach requires project managers to consider that the reasons for using project management are not consciously driven to maximize profit, and are encouraged to consider project management as naturally occurring, self-serving, evolving process which shapes organizations for its own purpose.


title: Memetics

text: Swedish political scientist Mikael Sandberg argues against "Lamarckian" interpretations of institutional and technological evolution and studies creative innovation of information technologies in governmental and private organizations in Sweden in the 1990s from a memetic perspective. Comparing the effects of active ("Lamarckian") IT strategy versus user–producer interactivity (Darwinian co-evolution), evidence from Swedish organizations shows that co-evolutionary interactivity is almost four times as strong a factor behind IT creativity as the "Lamarckian" IT strategy.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: Collins Aerospace, a Raytheon Technologies subsidiary, is one of the world's largest suppliers of aerospace and defense products, headquartered in Charlotte, North Carolina, United States.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: On November 26, 2018, United Technologies announced the completion of its Rockwell Collins acquisition, after which it merged its newly acquired business with UTC Aerospace Systems to form Collins Aerospace. This acquisition controversially lead to multiple class action lawsuits being filed against the company alleging that the executives deliberately mislead its shareholders on the nature of the acquisition.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: The new company reported $26 billion of combined sales in 2019 and is composed of 68,000 employees. In 2020 United Technologies merged with Raytheon Company to form Raytheon Technologies.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: Collins Aerospace is engaged in designing, manufacturing and servicing systems and components for commercial aviation, business aviation, military and defense, helicopters, space, airports, and other industries.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: Collins Aerospace has six strategic business units: Aerostructures, Avionics, Interiors, Mechanical Systems, Missions Systems, and Power & Controls.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: Based in Chula Vista, California, Aerostructures includes nacelle systems, flight control surfaces, naval composites and other material and structural components.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: Based in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, Avionics includes commercial and government avionics systems, cabin management and content systems, information management systems and services, fire protection services, and aircraft sensors.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: Based in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, Interiors includes aircraft seating, interior systems, evacuation systems, galleys and galley inserts, lavatories, life rafts, lighting; veneers, potable water systems, and de- icing products.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: Based in Charlotte, North Carolina, Mechanical Systems includes landing systems, actuation, propellers, flight controls, pilot controls, hoist and winch systems, and cargo systems.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: Based in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, Mission Systems includes secure military communication, navigation and guidance; missile actuation; simulation, training and range instrumentation; strategic command and control; unmanned aircraft systems; electronic warfare; ejection seats and propulsion; intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance; and spacecraft systems.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: Based in Windsor Locks, Connecticut, Power & Controls includes electric systems, engine controls, air management, and airframe controls.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: Collins Aerospace is the owner of Ithaco Space Systems, Inc., formerly owned by Goodrich Company and its successor UTC Aerospace Systems. Ithaco has produced items for the field of satellite control since 1962, such as Earth sensors, reaction/momentum wheels, magnetometers, and magnetic torquers.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: In addition to over 100 U.S. satellites, equipment made by Ithaco has flown on Japanese, Canadian, French, German, Spanish, Swedish, and Argentinean spacecraft. Ithaco became notable for having manufactured the reaction wheels of the Kepler spacecraft, the Hayabusa spacecraft, the Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics (TIMED) satellite, and the Dawn spacecraft, which developed problems or even failed.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: On August 20, 2021, Collins Aerospace announced the acquisition of FlightAware for an undisclosed amount. FlightAware is a technology company that provides real-time, historical, and predictive flight data and flight-tracking products.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: In August 2018, Nicole Kemp sued Collins Aerospace alleging that the company had discriminated, harassed, and retaliated against her on the basis of her disability. Nicole Kemp painfully ruptured her hamstring in 2017 and was subsequently diagnosed with chronic regional pain syndrome. Kemp was initially allowed to work from home on the recommendation of her doctors, but was told in May 2018 that she would be fired from the company if she didn't return to the office- despite the fact that she had exemplary job performance reviews, and her physicians were still recommending that she work remotely as her injuries were still too great.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: In November 2019, a former Collins Aerospace employee sued the company after being sexually assaulted by a different Collins Aerospace employee while they were at a conference.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: In March 2020, a Collins Aerospace employee sued the company for discrimination and harassment based on her race and national origin.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: In May 2020, a Collins Aerospace engineer sued the company alleging that she was demoted on the basis on discrimination of her sex and disabilities.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: In July 2020, it was found that female Collins Aerospace (then Rockwell Collins) employees were being paid substantially less money than their male peers who held similar roles. As a result, the company was forced to pay $250,000 in back wages to 76 female employees at its Cedar Rapids location.


title: Collins Aerospace

text: In January 2022, Collins Aerospace was included in a legal challenge alleging that the company engaged in a "no hire agreement" to sabotage the career and pay advancements of its engineers. This occurred shortly after a different Raytheon Technologies subsidiary, Pratt-Whitney, was sued for engaging in similar practices of not hiring from within the industry in order to keep employee's salaries low.


title: Antalyaspor

text: Antalyaspor Kulübü is a Turkish professional football club located in the city of Antalya. The club's colours are red and white. They play their home matches at the Antalya Stadium. In Turkey, the club won the First League twice in 1982 and 1986 and finished as runners-up for the Turkish Cup in 2000 and in 2021.


title: Antalyaspor

text: Antalyaspor was established in 1966 when three local teams (Yenikapı SuSpor, İlk Işıkspor and Ferrokromspor) united to establish a club for the coastal city of Antalya. The club competed in the lower divisions of the Turkish football league system before promotion to the Süper Lig in 1982–83. Their first stint of top-flight football lasted for two years, and they were relegated to the TFF First League at the end of the 1984–85 season. Though promoted to the next season they were relegated again. They competed in the TFF First League until the end of the 1993–94 season, when they beat İstanbulspor 3–2 in the final playoffs. Their longest stint of top-flight football lasted until 2001–02.


title: Antalyaspor

text: During that time span, the club competed in the UEFA Intertoto Cup twice and the UEFA Cup once. They reached the finals of the Turkish Cup in 2000 but lost 5–3 to Galatasaray. Antalyaspor competed in the UEFA Cup the following season, defeating Werder Bremen 2–0 before losing 6–0 in the second leg.


title: Antalyaspor

text: The club was relegated at the end of the 2001–02 season, finishing one point below the relegation zone. The club earned promotion back to the Süper Lig after placing second in the 2005–06 1.Lig. On 3 December 2006, Pavol Straka scored the club's 500th goal in top-flight football. In the following year they were relegated back to the TFF First League, but earned promotion again the next season. They finished ninth at the end of the 2009–10 season.


title: Antalyaspor

text: Finished the regular fixtures of 2014–15 TFF First League season at 4th place, Antalyaspor beat Samsunspor at play-off finals with 6–3 after Penalty shoot-outs on 7 June 2015 and promoted to Süper Lig once again, spending only one season at TFF First League.


title: Antalyaspor

text: The club emblem includes capital letters A and S which stands for Antalya and Spor (sport in Turkish) respectively. In the middle of these letters, there is the figure of Yivli Minare which is one of the several symbols of the city of Antalya. Three rectangular shapes on the Yivli Minare represent the unity of the three teams of Antalya.


title: Antalyaspor

text: Antalya's first stadium was Antalya Atatürk Stadium which fell into disrepair from 2009 onwards and forced the first team to relocate to Akdeniz University Stadium which holds 7,083 spectators. It is located on the Mediterranean coast of Turkey and is owned by Akdeniz University. In 2013 Antalyaspor began construction of their new stadium, Antalya Stadium. This stadium, which opened in the summer of 2015, seats 33,032 spectators and features a football park, education centre, football academy, and extra training pitches to host camps of European or Asian teams. The stadium is nicknamed ""100. Yıl"" (Centenary), after the major artery of the same name, ""100. Yıl Bulvarı"", which passes directly south of the plot. This thoroughfare was named in commemoration of the 100th birthday of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the Republic of Turkey.


title: Psycho (2020 film)

text: Psycho is a 2020 Indian Tamil-language psychological thriller film written and directed by Mysskin. The film was produced by Arun Mozhi Manickam under Double Meaning Production. The film stars Udhayanidhi Stalin, Nithya Menen, Aditi Rao Hydari, and debutant Rajkumar Pitchumani, while Renuka, Singampuli, Ram, Aadukalam Naren, and Shaji Chen play supporting roles. Ilaiyaraaja composed the soundtrack of the film, with cinematography by Tanvir Mir and editing by N. Arunkumar. Production began in September 2018.


title: Psycho (2020 film)

text: Gautham is a blind musician, who is in love with a RJ named Dagini. After multiple attempts by Gautham, Dagini asks him to meet her at a place that she will be talking about in her radio session. Gautham listens to the radio all day and manages to find the place, which is a train station. Hopefully waiting for him, Dagini sees the psycho-killer and tries to escape, but the psycho manages to sedate her. Gautham reaches the place in time but cannot save her due to his blindness. However, using his sense of smell, he realizes that something is wrong. The next day, the police meet to Gautham and extract information from him. A total of 14 girls were abducted, 13 of whom got murdered, and the recently kidnapped Dagini.


title: Psycho (2020 film)

text: Gautham realizes that the police cannot find anything, and decides to seek out and save Dagini on his own terms. The psycho is about to behead Dagini, but notices that there is no sense of fear in her. When asked for the reason, she replies that Gautham will find her within a week regardless of her death and that the psycho will be answering for his crimes soon. The psycho leaves her chained to a wall and accepts that as a challenge. Gautham uses various methods to find the killer with the help of Kamala, a handicapped ex-cop, who was previously dealing with the case. They deduce that the psycho must be a rich man who owns pig farms using the smell from the decayed bodies of the murdered girls. Realizing that Gautham is getting closer to him, the psycho goes on a killing spree.


title: Psycho (2020 film)

text: Gautham, Kamala, and their associates all visit and enquire the owners of pig farms in the area, but they have failed in their attempts. Depressed, Gautham goes to his house and stays there alone. The psycho visits him, and Gautham acknowledges his presence. However, Gautham's friend Rajanayakam defends him and tries to chase down the psycho in his car. Unfortunately, the psycho hides himself in a dense area of tall grass and finally manages to kill Rajanayakam. The next day, Gautham mourns over the death of his friend and plans to drop his plan due to a large number of people's deaths. Later, Kamala reveals that she had prior notice that the killer had gone to a college function. With regained hope, they all go back to the college and look at the recordings during that day.


title: Psycho (2020 film)

text: They manage to find someone suspicious, but his face got blurred. However, they notice a college staff sitting beside him. Using relevant information from him, they manage to find the killer. In the meantime, Dagini manages to go around the psycho's lair and sees a jailed woman and a dead cop's corpse. She reveals to her that the psycho was her former student and used to masturbate, so she used to beat him 60 times every day, for all 365 days in a year for his mistake. Around 11:45 PM, Gautham reaches the psycho's lair. The psycho is about to behead Dagini, the intruder alarms get activated. The enraged psycho runs to kill Gautham, but eventually, Gautham manages to cuff the psycho's leg. Gautham later runs and rescues Dagini. They both manage to run away.


title: Psycho (2020 film)

text: However, the psycho begs out to his teacher, where Dagini sees the light in him and places the keys to the cuff a few meters in front of him. Later, they both escape together with Kamala. The psycho is about to take the key, but the imprisoned teacher takes the key and swallows it, trying to punish him. The psycho gets infuriated and tears her stomach to get the key. He later releases himself and runs to find them both, but they escape. Later on, it is evident that Dagini has been affected by Stockholm Syndrome, as she sympathizes with the psychopath when questioned by the press and refuses to consider him a killer but understands his innocent heart filled with pain and she were his mother or sister, she would have cared for him so that he would not have become the killer that he was. The psycho sees the interview and realizes his mistakes after finally feeling loved by someone, where he jumps off the cliff with a smile on his face.


title: Psycho (2020 film)

text: Mysskin decided to cast Udhayanidhi Stalin in the lead role. Under the banner of Arun Mozhi Manickam's Double Meaning Productions, Mysskin finalized a cast of Aditi Rao Hydari, Nithya Menon, Rajkumar Pitchumani, and Ram, while Ilaiyaraaja, who worked on the director's previous films "Nandalala" and "Onaayum Aattukkuttiyum", was signed as music composer. The shoot of the film began in early September 2018, with a first look promotional poster released later that month, revealing the title of the project to be "Psycho". A second schedule of the film was completed in early December 2018 after being shot in hill-towns across Tamil Nadu.


title: Psycho (2020 film)

text: In a turn of events, P. C. Sreeram was replaced by his assistant, Tanvir Mir as the film's cinematographer, while Sreeram further mentioning that Tanvir will be credited as the film's cinematographer.


title: Psycho (2020 film)

text: The soundtrack of the film was composed by Ilaiyaraaja, collaborating with actor Udhayanidhi for the first time and director Mysskin for the third time. The audio rights were secured by Sony Music India.


title: Psycho (2020 film)

text: The film's first single, titled "Unna Nenachu" which is sung by Sid Sriram (on his first collaboration with Ilaiyaraaja) and lyrics by Kabilan, was released by director Vetrimaaran on 18 November 2019.


title: Psycho (2020 film)

text: The songs received extremely positive response from both the audience and critics upon its release. Film critics credited Ilaiyaraaja's music for its major contribution towards the film's success.


title: Psycho (2020 film)

text: The teaser was released on 25 October 2019 by director Mani Ratnam. The 70-second teaser reveals that the film is a murder mystery and Udhayanidhi plays a blind man in the film.


title: Psycho (2020 film)

text: Earlier, the producer announced that the film will be releasing worldwide on 27 December 2019, but they decided to release the film on 24 January 2020 instead in order to increase screen counts and for wider pan-Indian reach of the film.


title: Psycho (2020 film)

text: The Times of India gave 3 out of 5 stars and wrote "Not a conventional serial killer film". The Hindu wrote "Mysskin’s latest bears no similarity to the 1960 movie, apart from featuring a psychopath at the centre (who, oddly, looks like the terrifying Norman Bates) and the playful macabre tone".


title: The Game Awards 2018

text: The Game Awards 2018 was an award show that honored the best video games of 2018. It was produced and hosted by Geoff Keighley, creator and producer of The Game Awards, and was held to an invited audience at the Microsoft Theater in Los Angeles on December 6, 2018. The event was live streamed across more than 45 digital platforms. The show featured musical performances from Harry Gregson-Williams, Daniel Lanois, Lena Raine, and Hans Zimmer, and presentations from celebrity guests including Jonah Hill, the Russo brothers, Brendon Urie, and Christoph Waltz. The show opened with a group speech by Nintendo's Reggie Fils-Aimé, PlayStation's Shawn Layden, and Xbox's Phil Spencer, representing the unity of the industry. Keighley began planning for the show immediately after the previous ceremony, and spent months traveling to studios around the world to secure announcements and trailers.