title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: On Vernet's return to the Falklands, Puerto Soledad was renamed Puerto Luis. The Buenos Aires government, headed by General Juan Galo de Lavalle, appointed Vernet "Political and Military Commander" in a decree of 13 June 1829. The British objected to this as an Argentine attempt to foster political and economic ties to the islands. One of Vernet's first acts was to curb seal hunting on the islands to conserve the dwindling seal population. In response, the British consul at Buenos Aires protested the move and restated the claim of his government. Islanders were born during this period (including Malvina María Vernet y Saez, Vernet's daughter).


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: Vernet later seized three American ships, the "Harriet", "Superior" and "Breakwater", for disobeying his restrictions on seal hunting. The "Breakwater" escaped to raise the alarm and the "Superior" was allowed to continue its work for Vernet's benefit. Property on board the "Harriet" was seized and Vernet returned with it to Buenos Aires for the captain to stand trial. The American Consul in Argentina protested Vernet's actions and stated that the United States did not recognise Argentine sovereignty in the Falklands. The consul dispatched a warship, the USS "Lexington", to Puerto Luis to retake the confiscated property.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: By 1831, the colony was successful enough to be advertising for new colonists, although a report by the captain of the "Lexington" suggests that the conditions on the islands were quite miserable. The captain of the "Lexington" in his report asserts that he destroyed the settlement's powder store and spiked the guns; however it was later claimed that during the raid the Argentine settlement at Puerto Luis was destroyed. Upon leaving to return to Montevideo, the captain of the "Lexington" declared the islands to be "res nullius" (nobody's property). (Darwin's visit in 1833 confirmed the squalid conditions in the settlement, although Captain Matthew Brisbane, Vernet's deputy, later insisted that these were the result of the attack by the "Lexington".) Vernet had returned to Buenos Aires in 1831 before the attack and resigned as governor. An interim governor, Esteban José Francisco Mestivier, was appointed by the Buenos Aires Government. He arrived at Puerto Luis with his family aboard the schooner "Sarandí" in October 1832. Mestivier's appointment again drew protests from the British consul in Buenos Aires.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: The "Sarandí", under the command of its captain, José María Pinedo, then began to patrol the surrounding seas. Upon its return to Puerto Luis on 29 December 1832, the "Sarandí" found the colony in an uproar. In Pinedo's absence there had been a mutiny led by a man named Gomila; Mestivier had been murdered and his wife raped. The captain of the French vessel "Jean Jacques" had meanwhile provided assistance, disarming and incarcerating the mutineers. Pinedo dispatched the mutineers to Buenos Aires with the British schooner "Rapid". Gomila was condemned to exile, while seven other mutineers were executed.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: On 2 January 1833, Captain John Onslow arrived and delivered written requests that Pinedo lower the Argentine flag in favour of the British one and that the Argentine administration leave the islands. Pinedo asked if war had been declared between Argentina and the United Kingdom; Onslow replied that it had not. Nonetheless, Pinedo, heavily outmanned and outgunned, left the islands under protest, with the Argentine flag being lowered by British officers and delivered to him. Back on the mainland, Pinedo faced court martial; he was suspended for four months and transferred to the army, though he was recalled to the navy in 1845.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: The American sealing vessels "Harriet" and "Breakwater" that had been seized by Vernet (see above) brought claims against their insurers and in 1839 these claims reached the Supreme Court of the United States in the case of "Williams v. Suffolk Insurance Company". The insurers argued that Vernet was the legal governor of the Falkland Islands, the sealing was therefore illegal and so they ought not to have to pay. The ruling of the Supreme Court was:


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: The 1850 , otherwise known as the Arana-Southern Treaty, which did not mention the islands, agreed to restore "perfect relations of friendship" between the two countries. There were no further protests until 1885, when Argentina included the Falkland Islands in an officially sponsored map. In 1888, Argentina made an offer to have the matter subject to arbitration, but this was rejected by the British Government. Other than the protest lodged in 1885, the British Government did not acknowledge any further protests by Argentina until the 1940s, although the official position of the Argentine Government is that "During the first half of the twentieth century, the successive Argentine governments made it standard practice to submit protests to the United Kingdom". The Argentine Government does not identify these annual protests, but authors such as Roberto Laver claim at least "27 sovereignty claims, both to Britain, domestically in Argentina and to international bodies". In international law, territorial claims are usually considered defunct if there is a gap of 50 years or more between protests over sovereignty.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: Following World War II, the British Empire declined and many colonies gained their independence. Argentina saw this as an opportunity to push its case for gaining sovereignty over the Falkland Islands, and raised the issue in the United Nations, first stating its claim after joining the UN in 1945. Following this claim, the United Kingdom offered to take the dispute over the Falkland Islands Dependencies to mediation at the International Court of Justice in The Hague (1947, 1948 and 1955). On each occasion Argentina declined.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: In 1965, the United Nations passed a resolution calling on the UK and Argentina to proceed with negotiations on finding a peaceful solution to the sovereignty question which would be "bearing in mind the provisions and objectives of the Charter of the United Nations and of General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV) and the interests of the population of the Falkland Islands (Malvinas)".


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: A series of talks between the two nations took place over the next 17 years until 1981, but failed to reach a conclusion on sovereignty. Although the sovereignty discussions had some success in establishing economic and transport links between the Falklands and Argentina, there was no progress on the question of sovereignty of the islands.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: After the two nations signed the Communications Agreement of 1971, whereby external communications would be provided to the Falkland Islands by Argentina, the Argentine Air Force broke the islands' airways isolation by opening an air route with an amphibious flight from Comodoro Rivadavia with Grumman HU-16B Albatross aircraft operated by LADE, Argentina's military airline. In 1972, after an Argentine request, the United Kingdom agreed to allow Argentina to construct a temporary air strip near Stanley. On 15 November 1972 a temporary runway was inaugurated with the first arrival of a Fokker F-27; subsequent flights arrived twice weekly. Flights were improved in 1978 with Fokker F-28 jets, after the completion of a permanent runway funded by the British Government. This service, the only air connection to the islands, was maintained until the 1982 war. Also YPF, which was then the Argentine national oil and gas company, was in charge of supplying the island regularly.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: Whilst maintaining the British claim, the British Government considered a transfer of sovereignty less than two years before the outbreak of war. However, the British Government had limited room for manoeuvre owing to the strength of the Falkland Islands lobby in the Houses of Parliament. Any measure that the Foreign Office suggested on the sovereignty issue was loudly condemned by the islanders, who reiterated their determination to remain British. This led to the British Government maintaining a position that the right to self-determination of the islanders was paramount. But Argentina did not recognise the rights of the islanders and so negotiations on the sovereignty issue remained at a stalemate.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: In 1966, a group of Argentine nationalists hijacked an Aerolineas Argentinas DC-4 and forced it to land in Port Stanley, in an unsuccessful attempt to seize the islands for Argentina.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: In 1976, Argentina landed an expedition in Southern Thule, an island in the South Sandwich Islands which at that time was part of the Falkland Islands Dependency. The landing was reported in the UK only in 1978, although the British government issued a rejection of the notion of sending a force of Royal Marines to dismantle the Argentine base Corbeta Uruguay.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: There was a more serious confrontation in 1977 when the Argentine Navy cut off the fuel supply to Port Stanley Airport and said they would no longer fly the Red Ensign in Falklands waters. (Traditionally ships in a foreign country's waters would fly the country's maritime flag as a courtesy.) The British Government suspected Argentina would attempt another expedition in the manner of its Southern Thule operation. James Callaghan, the British Prime Minister, ordered the dispatch of a nuclear submarine, and the frigates and to the South Atlantic, with rules of engagement set in the event of a clash with the Argentine navy. The British even considered setting up an exclusion zone around the islands, but this was rejected in case it escalated matters. These events were not made public until the parliamentary debates in 1982 during the Falklands War.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: The Falklands War of 1982 was the largest and most severe armed conflict over the sovereignty of the islands. It started following the occupation of South Georgia by Argentine scrap merchants whose number included some Argentine Marines. However, the UK had also reduced its presence in the Islands by announcing the withdrawal of , the Royal Navy's icebreaker ship and only permanent presence in the South Atlantic. The UK had also denied Falkland Islanders full British citizenship under the British Nationality Act 1981.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: In 1982, Argentina was in the midst of a devastating economic crisis and large-scale civil unrest against the repressive military junta that was governing the country. On 2 April, with Argentine Navy commander-in-chief Admiral Jorge Anaya as the main architect and supporter of the operation, a combined Argentine amphibious force invaded the Islands. Immediately, the UK severed diplomatic ties with Argentina and began to assemble a task force to retake the Islands. A diplomatic offensive began, to gain support for economic and military sanctions. The United Nations Security Council issued Resolution 502 calling on Argentina to withdraw forces from the Islands and on both parties to seek a diplomatic solution. Another resolution called for an immediate ceasefire, but this was vetoed by both the United States and the United Kingdom. The European Community condemned the invasion and imposed economic sanctions on Argentina, although several EC states expressed reservations about British policy in this area. France and West Germany also temporarily suspended several military contracts with the Argentine military. The United States supported mediated talks, via Secretary of State Alexander Haig, and initially took a neutral stance, although in private substantial material aid was made available to the UK from the moment of invasion. The US publicly supported the UK's position following the failure of peace talks.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: The British Task Force began offensive action against Argentina on 23 April 1982 and recaptured South Georgia after a short naval engagement. The operation to recover the Falkland Islands began on 1 May and after fierce naval and air engagements an amphibious landing was made at San Carlos Bay on 21 May. On 14 June the Argentine forces surrendered and control of the islands returned to the UK. Two Royal Navy ships then sailed to the South Sandwich Islands and expelled the Argentine military from Thule Island, leaving no Argentine presence in the Falkland Islands Dependencies.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: Following the 1982 war, the British increased their presence in the Falkland Islands. RAF Mount Pleasant was constructed. This allowed fighter jets to be based on the islands and strengthened the UK's ability to reinforce the Islands at short notice. The military garrison was substantially increased and a new garrison was established on South Georgia. The Royal Navy South Atlantic patrol was strengthened to include both HMS "Endurance" and a Falkland Islands guard ship.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: As well as this military build-up, the UK also passed the British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983, which granted full British citizenship to the islanders. To show British commitment to the islands, high-profile British dignitaries visited the Falklands, including Margaret Thatcher, the Prince of Wales, and Princess Alexandra. The UK has also pursued links to the islands from Chile, which had provided help to British Forces during the Falklands War. LATAM now provides a direct air link to Chile from Mount Pleasant.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: In 1985 the Falkland Islands Dependencies, comprising at that time the island groups of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, and Shag Rocks and Clerke Rocks, became a distinct British overseas territory – South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: Under the 1985 constitution the Falkland Islands Government (FIG) became a parliamentary representative democratic dependency, with the governor as head of government and representative of the Queen. Members of the FIG are democratically elected and the governor is effectively a figurehead. Theoretically the governor has the power under the 1985 constitution to exercise executive authority; in practice he is obliged to consult the Executive Council in the exercise of his functions. The main responsibilities of the governor are external affairs and public services. Effectively under this constitution, the Falkland Islands are self-governing with the exception of foreign policy, although the FIG represents itself at the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonisation as the British Government no longer attends.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: Relations between the UK and Argentina remained hostile after 1982 and diplomatic relations were restored in 1989. Although the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution calling for the UK and Argentina to return to negotiations over the Islands' future, the UK ruled out any further talks over the Islands' sovereignty. The UK has also maintained controls on arms exports to Argentina, although these were relaxed in 1998.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: Relations between the UK and Argentina improved further in the 1990s. In 1998, Carlos Menem, the President of Argentina, visited London, where he reaffirmed his country's claims to the Islands, although he stated that Argentina would use only peaceful means for their recovery. In 2001, Tony Blair, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, visited Argentina and said he hoped the UK and Argentina could resolve their differences that led to the 1982 war. However, no talks on sovereignty took place during the visit, and Argentina's President Néstor Kirchner stated that he regarded gaining sovereignty over the islands as a "top priority" of his government.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: Argentina renewed claims in June 2006, citing concern over fishing and petroleum rights; the UK changed from annually granting fishing concessions, to granting a 25-year concession. On 28 March 2009, UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown stated that there was "nothing to discuss" with Cristina Kirchner, the Argentine president, over sovereignty of the islands, when they met in Chile on his world tour prior to the 2009 G-20 London Summit. On 22 April 2009 Argentina presented to the UN a formal claim to an area of the continental shelf encompassing the Falklands, South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands, and parts of Antarctica, citing 11 years' worth of maritime survey data. The UK quickly protested these claims.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: In February 2010, in response to British plans to begin drilling for oil, the Argentine government announced that ships travelling to the Falklands (as well as South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands) would require a permit to use Argentine territorial waters. The British and Falkland governments stated that this announcement did not affect the waters surrounding the islands. Despite the new restrictions, Desire Petroleum began drilling for oil on 22 February 2010, about () north of the Islands.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: In 2011 the Mercosur bloc agreed to close ports to ships flying the Falkland Islands flags, whilst other British-flagged ships would continue to be allowed.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: In March 2013 the Falkland Islanders voted overwhelmingly in a referendum for the territory to remain British. Argentina dismissed this referendum. The British Government urged Argentina and other countries to respect the islanders' wishes.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: The Argentine government argues that it has maintained a claim over the Falkland Islands since 1833. It considers the archipelago part of the Tierra del Fuego Province, along with South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: In 1789, both the United Kingdom and Spain attempted settlement in the Nootka Sound, on Vancouver Island. On 25 October 1790, these two Kingdoms approved the Nootka Sound Convention. In a secret article, it was stated that this was conditional on no third party settling in the areas mentioned in article 6 of the treaty. The conventions were unilaterally repudiated by Spain in 1795 but implicitly revived by the Treaty of Madrid in 1814.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: Whether or not this affected sovereignty over the islands is disputed. The British argue that the agreement did not affect the respective claims and only stipulated that neither party would make further establishments on the coasts or "adjacent" islands already held by Spain. Argentina argues that "the islands adjacent" includes the Falklands and that the UK renounced any claim by the agreements.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: The Argentine claim is included in the transitional provisions of the Constitution of Argentina as amended in 1994:


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: In addition, Argentina demonstrates its claim to the islands by stating they are part of its Tierra del Fuego Province.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: In 1964 the Argentine government raised the matter at the United Nations in a sub-committee of the Special Committee on the situation with regard to the implementation of the UN Declaration of the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples. In reply, the British Representative on the committee declared that the British Government held that the question of sovereignty over the islands was "not negotiable". Following a report by the Special Committee, UN General Assembly Resolution 2065 was passed on 16 December 1965. In its preamble it referred to the UN's "cherished aim to bring colonialism to an end everywhere", and invited both nations to proceed with negotiations to find a peaceful solution bearing in mind "the interests of the population of the Falkland Islands (Malvinas)".


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: In January 1966 the British Foreign Secretary, Michael Stewart, visited Buenos Aires when the Argentine claim to the islands was raised with him, following which, in July, a preliminary meeting was held in London, where the British delegation "formally rejected" the Argentine Ambassador's suggestion that the UK's occupation of the Islands was illegal.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: On 2 December 1980, Nicholas Ridley, Minister of State at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, stated in the House of Commons: "We have no doubt about our sovereignty over the Falkland Islands ... we have a perfectly valid title". The British government regards the right of the islanders to self-determination as "paramount" and rejects the idea of negotiations over sovereignty without the islanders' consent. Supporters of the British position argue:


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: The Constitution of the Falkland Islands, which came into force on 1 January 2009, claims the right to self-determination, specifically mentioning political, economic, cultural, and other matters.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: Argentina has pursued an aggressive diplomatic agenda, regularly raising the issue and seeking international support. South American countries have expressed support for the Argentine position and called for negotiations to restart at regional summits. The People's Republic of China has backed Argentina's sovereignty claim, reciprocating Argentina's support of the PRC claim to Taiwan and Penghu Islands, denying their independence. Conversely, the Republic of China on Taiwan acknowledges British sovereignty and ignores Argentina's sovereignty claim. Although the Soviet Union abstained from UNSC 502, Russian president Vladimir Putin has since voiced sympathy for Argentina's position after former President of Argentina Cristina Fernández de Kirchner voiced criticism against countries which condemned the 2014 Crimean status referendum.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: Since 1964, Argentina has lobbied its case at the Decolonization Committee of the UN, which annually recommends dialogue to resolve the dispute. The UN General Assembly has passed several resolutions on the issue. In 1988, the General Assembly reiterated a 1965 request that both countries negotiate a peaceful settlement to the dispute and respect the interests of the Falkland Islanders and the principles of UN GA resolution 1514.


title: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute

text: The United States and the European Union recognise the de facto administration of the Falkland Islands and take no position over their sovereignty. The islands were subject to EU law in some areas until 2020 when the UK left the EU. The Commonwealth of Nations listed the islands as a British Overseas Territory in their 2012 yearbook. At the OAS summits Canada has continued to state its support for the islanders' right to self-determination.


title: Hake

text: Hake is in the same taxonomic order (Gadiformes) as cod and haddock. It is a medium-to-large fish averaging from 0.5 to 3.6 kg (1 to 8 pounds) in weight, with specimens as large as 27kg (60lb). The fish can grow up to in length with a lifespan of as long as 14 years. Hake may be found in the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean in waters from deep. The fish stay in deep water during the day and come to shallower depths during the night. An undiscerning predator, hake feed on prey found near or on the bottom of the sea. Male and female hake are very similar in appearance.


title: Hake

text: After spawning, the hake eggs float on the surface of the sea where the larvae develop. After a certain period of time, the baby hake then migrate to the bottom of the sea, preferring depths of less than .


title: Hake

text: Not all hake species are viewed as commercially important, but the deep-water and shallow-water hakes are known to grow rapidly and make up the majority of harvested species.


title: Hake

text: The highest demand for hake has been in Europe. Hake has been primarily divided into three principal levels—fresh, frozen, and frozen fillet. Fresh hake is mainly supplied by European production and imports. Frozen hake and frozen hake fillet are effectively supplied by imports and European processing companies.


title: Hake

text: Spain has the highest consumption of hake in Europe and the world, with a yearly consumption of per person. This works out to around half of all hake eaten in Europe. Though Spanish consumption of hake and other fish declined in the last decade (second fish consumption in the world after Japan), hake still accounts for about one third of total fish consumption there.


title: Hake

text: Hake is the most common variety of fish served in Argentina and alongside beef and chicken, Hake Milanesa, is a standard option at all Argentine restaurants that serve Milanesa, which is one of the country's national dishes.


title: Hake

text: In Spain, fresh hake are mostly purchased by restaurants through retailers. Nonetheless, processed hake products are distributed by hake wholesalers. Fishmongers, public markets and hypermarkets sell hake in various forms: frozen fillet, fillet skin-on, fillet skin-off, etc.


title: Hake

text: In France, fish are generally purchased in supermarkets. Due to insufficient European hake, French wholesalers purchase fresh hake from external countries such as Argentina and Namibia, and then export them to Spain. Fresh hake is mostly exported to Spain.


title: Hake

text: In Italy, hotels, restaurants, supermarkets, and institutional purchasers purchase much seafood. However, retailers and wholesalers purchase most frozen hake fillets to sell in markets.


title: Hake

text: In Ireland, hake is a popular fish sold freshly from the Atlantic Ocean in supermarkets and by local fishmongers.


title: Hake

text: In Hungary paprika batter-fried hake ("hekk") is the most sought after fish during the summer, especially in the Balaton area, and open air markets throughout the country


title: Hake

text: When buying hake fillet or other hake product, consumers should look for hake with white flesh that is free of signs of browning, dryness, or grayness, and with a seawater fresh smell.


title: Hake

text: The main catching method of deep-water hake is primarily trawling, and shallow-water hake is mostly caught by inshore trawl and longlining. Hake are mostly found in the Southwest Atlantic (Argentina and Uruguay), Southeast Pacific (Chile and Peru), Southeast Atlantic (Namibia and South Africa), Southwest Pacific (New Zealand), and Mediterranean and Black Sea (Italy, Portugal, Spain, Greece and France).


title: Hake

text: Due to over-fishing, Argentine hake catches have declined drastically. About 80% of adult hake has apparently disappeared from Argentine waters. Argentine hake is not expected to disappear, but the stock may be so low that it is no longer economical for commercial fishing. In addition, this adversely affects Argentine employment, because of many jobs in the fishing industries. Conversely, Argentine hake prices rose due to hake scarcity, reducing exports and affecting the economy.


title: Hake

text: In Chile, seafood exports, especially Chilean hake, have decreased dramatically. Hake export has decreased by almost 19 percent. The main cause of this decline is the February 2010 Chile earthquake and tsunami. These disasters destroyed most processing plants, especially manufacturing companies that produce fish meal and frozen fillets.


title: Hake

text: European hake catches are well below historical levels because of hake depletion in the Mediterranean and Black Sea. However, different factors might have caused this decline, including a too-high Total Annual Catch, unsustainable fishing, ecological problems, juvenile catches, or non-registered catches.


title: Hake

text: According to the Worldwide Fund for Nature, the only hake species not currently over-fished is Cape hake, found off Namibia. Namibia is the only country that has increased its hake quota, from in 2009 to in 2010. Furthermore, the Namibian Ministry of Fisheries adheres to very strict rules regarding the catch of hake. For example, the closed seasons for hake lasts approximately two months, in September and October, depending on the level of stock. This rule has been applied to ensure the regrowth of the hake population. Supplemental restrictions forbid trawling for Hake in waters less than deep (to avoid damaging non-target species habitat) and to minimize by-catch.


title: Hake

text: Frank Forrester's "Fishermens' Guide" in 1885 mentions a hake that was transplanted from the coast of Ireland to Cape Cod on the coast of Massachusetts in the United States. It is uncertain which species it was, but the "Fishermens′ Guide" stated:This is an Irish salt water fish, similar in appearance to the tom cod. In Galway bay, and other sea inlets of Ireland, the hake is exceedingly abundant, and is taken in great numbers. It is also found in England and France. Since the Irish immigration to America, the hake has followed in the wake of their masters, as it is now found in New York bay, in the waters around Boston, and off Cape Cod. Here it is called the stock fish, and the Bostonians call them poor Johns. It is a singular fact that until within a few years this fish was never seen in America. It does not grow as large here as in Europe, though here they are from ten to eighteen inches [250 to 460 mm] in length. The general color of this fish is a reddish brown, with some golden tints—the sides being of a pink silvery luster.


title: James Madison University

text: James Madison University (JMU, Madison, or James Madison) is a public research university in Harrisonburg, Virginia. Founded in 1908 as the State Normal and Industrial School for Women at Harrisonburg, the institution was renamed Madison College in 1938 in honor of President James Madison and then James Madison University in 1977. It is situated in the Shenandoah Valley, just west of Massanutten Mountain.


title: James Madison University

text: Founded in 1908 as a women's college, James Madison University was established by the Virginia General Assembly. It was originally called The State Normal and Industrial School for Women at Harrisonburg. In 1914, the name of the university was changed to the State Normal School for Women at Harrisonburg. At first, academic offerings included only today's equivalent of technical training or junior college courses, but authorization to award bachelor's degrees was granted in 1916. During this initial period of development, the campus plan was established and six buildings were constructed.


title: James Madison University

text: The university became the State Teachers College at Harrisonburg in 1924 and continued under that name until 1938, when it was named Madison College in honor of James Madison, the fourth President of the United States, whose Montpelier estate is located in nearby Orange, Virginia. In 1976, the university's name was changed again to James Madison University.


title: James Madison University

text: The first president of the university was Julian Ashby Burruss. The university opened its doors to its first student body in 1909 with an enrollment of 209 students and a faculty of 15. Its first 20 graduates received diplomas in 1911.


title: James Madison University

text: In 1919, Burruss resigned the presidency to become president of Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Samuel Page Duke was then chosen as the school's second president. During Duke's administration, nine major buildings were constructed. Duke served as president from 1919 to 1949.


title: James Madison University

text: In 1946, men were first enrolled as regular day students. G. Tyler Miller became the third president in 1949, following Duke's retirement. During Miller's administration, from 1949 to 1970, the campus was enlarged by and 19 buildings were constructed. Major curriculum changes were made and the university was authorized to grant master's degrees in 1954.


title: James Madison University

text: In 1966, by action of the Virginia General Assembly, the university became a coeducational institution. Ronald E. Carrier, JMU's fourth president, headed the institution from 1971 to 1998. During his administration, student enrollment and the number of faculty and staff tripled, national fraternities were seen on campus such as Tau Kappa Epsilon, Sigma Phi Epsilon, Theta Chi, and others, doctoral programs were authorized, more than 20 major campus buildings were constructed and national publications recognized JMU as one of the finest institutions of its type in America. Carrier Library is named after him.


title: James Madison University

text: During the first decade of the 21st century, under JMU's fifth President, Linwood H. Rose, the university continued to rapidly expand, not only through new construction east of Interstate 81, but also on the west side of campus. In early 2005, JMU purchased the Rockingham Memorial Hospital campus just north of the main JMU campus for over $40 million. The hospital has since moved, and JMU now occupies the site after having made substantial renovations to it. In June 2005, the university expanded across South High Street by leasing the former Harrisonburg High School building from the City of Harrisonburg. In May 2006, the university purchased the property. The sale was approved in June 2005 for $17 million. The university named the old HHS building Memorial Hall. Recently completed projects include the Rose Library on the east side of campus, which opened on August 11, 2008.


title: James Madison University

text: The rapid expansion of JMU's campus has at times created tension in the city-university relationship. In 2006, the local ABC affiliate reported that the university had nearly doubled in size in the preceding 20 years, including purchases of several local properties.


title: James Madison University

text: The university has also experienced tension with local residents with occasional clashes between local police and students at a popular off-campus block party. In 2000, a party with about 2,500 students grew out of hand and required a police presence at the Forest Hills townhouse complex on Village Lane. Ten years later, police equipped with riot gear used force to disperse a group of 8,000 college-aged people at the party. Several participants were airlifted to a medical center in Charlottesville to treat their injuries. The university condemned the block party attendees' behavior.


title: James Madison University

text: In August 2021, the university received national criticism from conservative political commentators and university alumni after an orientation leader training video and other publications surfaced that supposedly labeled white Americans and Christians as oppressors. In a statement to Fox News, the university stood by the training, saying, "The training was held to help ensure that every student guide for freshmen orientation had the tools and understanding to work with incoming students, who might have a different background than their own."


title: James Madison University

text: James Madison University is considered "More Selective" by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. It received 22,648 applications for an entering freshmen class of 4,325 for the 2012–13 academic year. The retention rate for the 2011–12 freshman class was 91.4%, and the ratio of female to male students 60/40. About 38% of students are from out of state, representing all 50 states and 89 foreign countries.


title: James Madison University

text: JMU offers 115 degree programs on the bachelor's, master's, educational specialist, and doctoral levels. It comprises seven colleges and 78 academic programs, including the College of Arts and Letters; the College of Business; the College of Education; the College of Health and Behavioral Studies; the College of Integrated Science and Engineering; the College of Science and Mathematics; the College of Visual and Performing Arts; and The Graduate School. Total enrollment in the 2012–13 academic year was 19,927—18,392 undergraduates and 1,820 graduate students. JMU granted 4,908 degrees in 2012–4,096 undergraduate degrees, and 812 graduate degrees.


title: James Madison University

text: Phi Kappa Phi was the first academic honor society chartered at JMU. The Honor Society of Phi Kappa Phi (or ΦΚΦ) was established in 1897 to recognize and encourage superior scholarship without restriction as to area of study and to promote the "unity and democracy of education".


title: James Madison University

text: "U.S. News & World Report" ranked JMU the No. 2 public master's-level university in the South (6th overall) for 2019. In the 2018 "Washington Monthly" college rankings, JMU ranked eighth among master's universities nationwide. "Washington Monthly" assesses the quality of schools based on social mobility (recruiting and graduating low-income students), research (producing cutting-edge scholarship and PhDs), and service (encouraging students to give something back to their country).


title: James Madison University

text: In 2013 "BloombergBusiness" ranked JMU 15th among all undergraduate business schools in the country for return on investment. In 2014 it ranked JMU's College of Business 40th among undergraduate business programs in the U.S. "Kiplinger" magazine's 2015 "100 Best Values in Public Colleges" ranked JMU 21st in value in the nation among public colleges and universities.


title: James Madison University

text: JMU's campus originally consisted of two buildings, Jackson Hall and Maury Hall, which are now known as Darcus Johnson Hall and Gabbin Hall. Today, the campus has 148 major buildings on . It has become Virginia's second most photographed location on social media sites like Instagram and Twitter, after Kings Dominion.


title: James Madison University

text: The campus is divided into five parts: Bluestone, Hillside, Lakeside, Skyline, and the Village. The Skyline area is on the east side of Interstate 81, while the Bluestone, Hillside, Lakeside, and Village areas of the campus are on the west side. The two sides are connected both by a bridge over, and a tunnel (Duke Dog Alley) under, Interstate 81. Other unique campus features include Newman Lake, a body of water in the Lake Area next to Greek Row and Sonner Hall, Grafton-Stovall Theater, an on-campus movie theater, and the Edith J. Carrier Arboretum, a 125-acre urban botanical preserve in Harrisonburg and on campus. The arboretum combines naturalized botanical gardens (33 acres) and forest (92 acres), and is Virginia's only arboretum on a public university campus.


title: James Madison University

text: The original, historic Bluestone side of campus is located on South Main Street (also known as U.S. Route 11, and historically as "The Valley Pike") and is the heart of the university. Many of the buildings in the Bluestone area have been constructed out of the same stone, known as "bluestone," which is actually a type of limestone that is locally sourced from the surrounding Shenandoah Valley. As the university has grown, the campus has expanded significantly beyond the Bluestone area.


title: James Madison University

text: Wilson Hall is the centerpiece of the university's main quadrangle, located in the Bluestone area. It contains an auditorium, administrative offices, and the Community Service Learning Office. The building's cupola has been featured on the university logo, letterhead, and other university stationery and postcards. Completed in 1931, the building was named after President Woodrow Wilson, who was born in nearby Staunton, Virginia.


title: James Madison University

text: The Forbes Center for the Performing Arts opened in June 2010, and serves as the home to JMU's School of Theatre and Dance. It also provides major performance venues and support spaces for the School of Music, and the administrative office for the Dean of the College of Visual and Performing Arts.


title: James Madison University

text: Bus service around campus and the city is provided by the Harrisonburg Department of Public Transportation.


title: James Madison University

text: The John C. Wells Planetarium, first opened in 1974, underwent a $1.5 million renovation in 2008. It is now a state-of-the-art hybrid planetarium, the only one of its kind in the world. Its mission is science education and public outreach. It offers free shows to the public every Saturday afternoon and hosts annual summer space camps in July.


title: James Madison University

text: To the east, across Interstate 81, the expansion has included The College of Integrated Science and Engineering (CISE), the University Recreation Center (UREC), Rose Library (originally named East Campus Library), the Festival Conference and Student Center, the Leeolou Alumni Center, several residence halls, the Chemistry and Physics Building, and University Park, which opened in 2012 off Port Republic Road, combining recreational and varsity athletic fields.


title: James Madison University

text: Several new campus construction projects were included in Governor Tim Kaine's $1.65 billion higher education bond package. Kaine's proposal designated more than $96 million for JMU projects. Among the projects included were the construction of a new biotechnology building, Centennial Hall ($44.8 million), and the renovation and expansion of Duke Hall ($43.4 million). The proposal also included $8.6 million as the final instalment payment for the purchase of Rockingham Memorial Hospital.


title: James Madison University

text: Beginning in 2002 JMU began receiving state and private funding to construct a state-of-the-art performing arts complex. The facility is opposite Wilson Hall across South Main Street, and visually completes the Main Quad. It was named the Forbes Center for the Performing Arts in honor of Bruce and Lois Forbes, who gave $5 million to the project. The wing of The Forbes Center dedicated to theater and dance is named the Dorothy Thomasson Estes Center for Theatre and Dance in honor of a $2.5 million gift by the husband of Dorothy Estes. The wing dedicated to music is named the Shirley Hanson Roberts Center for Music Performance in honor of a multi-million dollar gift from the husband of Shirley Roberts. The entire PAC was built at a total cost exceeding $92 million, and opened in June 2010 to house academic offices and performances by the Schools of Theatre, Dance, and Music, and the administrative offices of the College of Visual and Performing Arts.


title: James Madison University

text: In 2020, JMU's Board of Visitors approved the renaming of three historic buildings on the quad that were named in honor of three prominent Virginian Confederate soldiers: Ashby Hall (named after Turner Ashby), Maury Hall (named after Matthew Fontaine Maury), and Jackson Hall (named after Stonewall Jackson). They were given the temporary names of Valley, Mountain and Justice Studies Halls respectively. In 2021, the halls were approved and given new names. Mountain Hall (Maury Hall) was renamed Gabbin Hall after Drs. Joanne V. and Alexander Gabbin, professors at JMU for more than 35 years; Valley Hall (Ashby Hall) was renamed Harper Allen-Lee Hall after Doris Harper Allen and Robert Walker Lee, both notable former staff members at JMU; Justice Studies Hall (Jackson Hall) was renamed Darcus Johnson Hall after Dr. Sheary Darcus Johnson, the first black student to graduate at JMU.


title: James Madison University

text: In late 2021, ISAT-CS was renamed King Hall in honor of Charlie King's retirement from his position as senior vice president for administration and finance at JMU.


title: James Madison University

text: The "Princeton Review" recognized James Madison as one of 81 schools in America "with a conscience", and in 2006 ranked JMU second in the nation behind only the University of Virginia in the number of Peace Corps volunteers it sent from its student body among "medium-sized" universities. And in 2010, the food at JMU was ranked third in the United States. In 2011 the student body was ranked 20th "happiest in the entire nation" by "Newsweek" and "The Daily Beast". These rankings take into consideration the surrounding area's activities, academics, as well as the social scene on campus.


title: James Madison University

text: The school has 35 residence halls, ten of which serve as sorority houses. While most residence halls are only for housing, several halls also provide auxiliary services like computer labs and study lounges. All freshmen must live on campus, and a large portion of JMU's on-campus housing is set aside for incoming students. Consequently, most upperclassmen and graduate students live off campus. Continuing students who wish to live on campus must re-apply for housing each year. While occasional exceptions are granted, generally freshmen are not granted on-campus parking permits. Some JMU halls are set-aside as specialized living and learning residential communities. Shenandoah Hall is devoted as an Honors residential experience, Chesapeake Hall is for pre-professional health disciplines, Gifford Hall includes the Roop Learning Community for future teachers, and Wayland Hall is reserved for majors in the art disciplines.


title: James Madison University

text: "The Breeze" is a student-run newspaper serving JMU since 1922. Published every Thursday, "The Breeze" provides news and information to the university community, covering topics such as sports, culture, and business. "The Breeze" has won numerous awards, including a 2012 Online Pacemaker Award, 2012 VPA award for Best in Show for a Non-Daily News Presentation, and a 2012 VPA sweepstakes award.


title: James Madison University

text: James Madison University has over 350 clubs and organizations for students to choose from. This growing list of involvement opportunities provides students with unique experiences that will help them to grow in community and engagement outside of the classroom.At the administrative level, student clubs and organizations fall under the Office of Student Activities and Involvement.


title: James Madison University

text: There are 10 front-end budgeted groups on campus, including Black Student Alliance (BSA), Inter-Fraternity Council (IFC), Latinx Student Alliance (LSA), Madison Equality, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), Panhellenic, SafeRides, Student Ambassadors (SA), Student Government Association (SGA), and University Program Board (UPB). The funds allocated to these organization are voted on by the SGA, with the exception to the SGA budget which is approved separately by the administration. Some FEB organizations are more active than others, causing debate to their status from year-to-year.


title: James Madison University

text: The JMU Student Government Association (SGA) was founded in 1915 and stood as the first organization on campus. Their goal was to become an organization whose role was to be the voice for the JMU student population and advocate on behalf of the students to the administration and the rest of the community.


title: James Madison University

text: SGA consists of two governing bodies, the Executive Council and the Student Senate. The Executive Council consists of the Student Body President, Student Body Vice President, and SGA Treasurer, positions that are elected by the JMU Student Body each academic year. The fourth member of the Executive Council is the Speaker of the Senate who is voted on by the Student Senate. Meanwhile, the Senate consists of Academic Senators and Class Council members who form the various committees within the Senate.SGA organizes many of the university's traditional events, such as Homecoming's Purple Out, Mr. and Ms. Madison, Ring Premiere, the Annual Tree Lighting, the Big Event, and SafeRides. They also vote on Front End Budgeted (FEB) organizational budgets each year as well as allocate contingency funds to other organizations throughout the school year. In 2015, the organization celebrated its 100th year since being founded.


title: James Madison University

text: The JMU Student Ambassadors work alongside the Admissions Office to offer student-led tours for prospective students. Formerly, the Ambassadors were also associated with the Alumni Office until the GOLD Network was established. Ambassadaors are volunteers and are not paid.


title: James Madison University

text: The University Program Board (UPB) puts on large-scale events at JMU, including concerts and themed alternative night-out events like Late Night Breakfast.


title: James Madison University

text: Founded in 2003, SafeRides originated as a program run by the SGA. Inspired by a program at Texas A&M, the organization is a student-led non-profit where unpaid members are dedicated to picking up and driving students home at night at no charge. SafeRides was approved as a FEB organization by the SGA in 2022. To date, they have given more than 100,000 rides.


title: James Madison University

text: James Madison University is home to over two dozen social fraternity and sorority chapters, which include members of the North American Interfraternity Conference: Alpha Delta Pi, Acacia, Alpha Phi, Alpha Sigma Phi, Alpha Sigma Alpha, Beta Theta Pi, Alpha Sigma Tau, Delta Sigma Phi, Delta Delta Delta, Delta Tau Delta, Gamma Phi Beta, Delta Upsilon, Kappa Alpha Theta, Kappa Alpha Order, Phi Mu, Kappa Delta Rho, Phi Sigma Sigma, Kappa Sigma, Sigma Kappa, Lambda Chi Alpha, Sigma Sigma Sigma, Phi Gamma Delta (FIJI), Zeta Tau Alpha, Phi Kappa Psi, Pi Kappa Alpha, Pi Kappa Phi, Sigma Nu, Sigma Phi Delta, Sigma Phi Epsilon and Theta Chi.


title: James Madison University

text: It is also home to members of the National Panhellenic Conference, National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations, and National APIDA Panhellenic Association, the Greek organizations that are a part of these umbrella organizations make up the university's Inter-Cultural Greek Council, and consist of: Alpha Phi Alpha, Omega Psi Phi, Phi Beta Sigma, Kappa Alpha Psi, Lambda Phi Epsilon, Lambda Upsilon Lambda, Alpha Kappa Alpha, Delta Sigma Theta, Zeta Phi Beta, Sigma Gamma Rho, Sigma Lambda Upsilon, Sigma Iota Alpha, and Alpha Kappa Delta Phi. A monument dedicated to the members of the Inter-Cultural Greek Council was built in 2022 by the institution's Student Success Center and dubbed "The Yard" in honor of the social justice and community service committed by the organizations.


title: James Madison University

text: JMU is home to nine a cappella ensembles: four all-female, three all-male, and two co-educational groups. They are nationally recognized, with many of them featured on the Best of College A Cappella (BOCA) yearly compilation albums. Several of the groups, such as Note-oriety and The Overtones, have gone "viral" for their music videos, "Pretty Hurts" and "Say Love", respectively. Note-oriety has also performed at the White House in Washington, D.C.


title: James Madison University

text: The JMU Speech Team has been recognized by AFA-NIET as one of the top 20 intercollegiate speech teams in the nation. JMU Forensics is the only program in the nation directed by two recipients of AFA's most respected coaching awards: Distinguished Service and Outstanding New Coach.


title: James Madison University

text: JMU has the largest InterVarsity Christian Fellowship organization in the country. In 2010, there were more than 500 members at JMU, and they have since nearly doubled in size. Said of the service-oriented and friendly nature of its members within the JMU community, “It's more than Southern hospitality, I would like to think that it's biblical hospitality.”


title: James Madison University

text: The JMU Men's and Women's Club Soccer Teams are two of the most decorated club organizations in JMU school history. The men's program most notably won the National Championships in 1999, 2000, and 2009. Similarly, the women have won National Championships in 2009 & 2012. Both the men's and women's teams are also involved in campus philanthropy, including annual community fundraisers, as well as responsibility for the upkeep of roadways through the Adopt-a-Highway program.


title: James Madison University

text: The JMU Men's Ultimate team, the Flying Hellfish, was founded in 1997. The team is named after the Simpsons episode 22, season 7, "Raging Abe Simpson and His Grumbling Grandson in 'The Curse of the Flying Hellfish'" Since 2005, the team has hosted an annual tournament known as "The Hellfish Bonanza," which attracts between 12 and 16 teams from across the east coast. Several current and former Hellfish play Ultimate professionally for Major League Ultimate's Washington DC Current and the American Ultimate Disc League's DC Breeze.


title: James Madison University

text: James Madison University has the largest collegiate marching band in the nation, with 540 members as of Fall 2022. Nicknamed "Virginia's Finest", the Marching Royal Dukes have performed at venues such as the inaugurations of Presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush, the NFC title game between Washington and Dallas in 1983, Bands of America Grand National Championships in 1988 and 1991. The band has made four appearances in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, first in 2001, again in 2008, 2013 and most recently in 2018. In the past decade, the band has taken trips to Europe during the school's winter break, featuring Athens, Dublin, Monaco, London, and Rome. During their 2014-15 trip to Europe, the MRDs participated in the 2015 Italian New Year's Day Parade in the Vatican.


title: James Madison University

text: Like all public universities in Virginia, James Madison is governed by a Board of Visitors appointed by the Governor of Virginia. In addition to the 15 members appointed by the governor, the speaker of the Faculty Senate and an elected student representative serve as representatives for the faculty and the student body respectively. The appointed members serve for a maximum of two consecutive four-year terms, while the student representative is limited to two one-year terms. The faculty representative serves for as long as he or she remains the speaker of the JMU Faculty Senate. Some appointed members of note include former presidential candidate Carly Fiorina and former first lady of Virginia, Susan Allen.


title: James Madison University

text: Jonathan R. Alger is the sixth and current president of the university. Before being named president, he served as the senior vice president and counsel at Rutgers University.


title: James Madison University

text: James Madison University's athletic teams are known as the "Dukes." An English bulldog, with crown and cape, and the Duke Dog, a gray canine costume in a purple cape and crown, serve as the school's mascot. The "Dukes" nickname is in honor of Samuel Page Duke, the university's second president. The school colors are royal purple and gold. Madison competes in the NCAA's Division I in the Sun Belt Conference and the Eastern College Athletic Conference.


title: James Madison University

text: Beginning in July 2022, the football program will begin competing in the NCAA's Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) as part of the Sun Belt Conference. Prior to that, the team participated in the Football Championship Subdivision (FCS) and within the Colonial Athletic Association.


title: James Madison University

text: Over 546 varsity athletes compete in football, men's and women's basketball, men's and women's soccer, men's and women's tennis, women's swimming and diving, women's volleyball, baseball, women's lacrosse, field hockey, men's and women's golf, women's cross country and track and field, and softball. James Madison has won five national championships from football (2), field hockey, women's lacrosse and archery, giving the Dukes the second most national titles by a college or university in Virginia.


title: James Madison University

text: James Madison University invested heavily in new athletic facilities throughout the tenure of President Linwood Rose. JMU built a new multimillion-dollar baseball and softball field complex that opened in 2010. Additionally, after the last football game of 2009, the university began an expansion of Bridgeforth Stadium that increased seating capacity to approximately 25,000. Construction was completed in time for the 2011 football season.


title: James Madison University

text: In 2020, the annual athletic fee for each student was $2,340, which finances three-quarters of Athletic Department revenues.


title: James Madison University

text: James Madison's baseball team advanced to the College World Series in 1983, becoming the first Virginia school to do so.


title: James Madison University

text: In 2012, the James Madison women's basketball team won a program record 29 games, and advanced to the WNIT National Championship game, where it lost to Oklahoma State University. The Lady Dukes defeated Wake Forest, Davidson College, Virginia, South Florida and Syracuse prior to falling to Oklahoma State. In 2013, head coach Kenny Brooks led his team back to the WNIT defeating NC A&T, NC State, and Fordham before falling to Florida in the tournament's quarterfinals. In 2014, the Dukes posted an overall 29–6 record that culminated with an 85–69 loss to Texas A&M University in the NCAA Championship Round of 32. This marked the ninth consecutive year that the Dukes participated in postseason play and the program's ninth consecutive season with 20 victories, a school record.


title: James Madison University

text: In 2013, James Madison University's men's basketball team won the CAA championship title for the first time since 1994. The Dukes then won their first NCAA tournament game in 30 years, defeating Long Island University-Brooklyn. The Dukes fell to Indiana in the second round, 83–62, finishing the season with a 21–15 record.


title: James Madison University

text: JMU football won the NCAA Division I-AA national title in 2004, with a 13–2 record, and in 2016 with a 14–1 record going undefeated in the FCS. The 2004 squad was the only team in history to win the title after playing four straight road playoff games. Since 2004, the JMU football team has appeared in the playoffs in 2006, 2007, 2008, 2011, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, and 2019. In addition to winning the FCS national championships after the 2004 and 2016 seasons, they were national runners up for the 2017 and 2019 seasons.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: Omar Alfredo Rodríguez-López (born September 1, 1975) is an American guitarist and songwriter. He has formed or played in several bands, including the Mars Volta, At the Drive-In, Antemasque, and Bosnian Rainbows. He was the bassist for the dub band De Facto. He has embarked on a solo career, both in studio and in concert, frequently described as experimental, avant-garde, or progressive. He has also collaborated with numerous artists, such as John Frusciante and El-P.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: Rodríguez-López was born in Puerto Rico and grew up in El Paso, Texas, and spent some of his childhood in South Carolina. He began playing the bass at age 12, but then switched to guitar at 15 because he "needed more strings". It was during this time that Rodríguez-López met Cedric Bixler-Zavala while practicing with friend Paul Hinojos. Since then Rodríguez-López has spent most of his career living and working with his close friend Bixler-Zavala. During this time he frequently collaborated with his friends and future bandmates from El Paso, which included people such as Paul Hinojos, Cedric Bixler-Zavala, Julio Venegas and the late Jeremy Ward. He attended Coronado High School in El Paso. He says he enjoys the company of his close friends and family when not fulfilling obligations to his many bands and projects. Rodríguez-López has been a vegetarian for most of his life.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: Rodriguez-López dropped out of high school at age 17 to go on tour with Startled Calf, an El Paso, Texas, hardcore punk band, as their vocalist, and was left stranded in Berkeley after the rest of the band were arrested. The band formed in 1991 and featured Ralph Jasso on guitar, Jimmy Hernandez on bass, and George Fraska on drums. The band broke up in 1992. Hernandez died of cancer some time after.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: At 17, Rodríguez-López left El Paso to hitchhike around the country for a year in the early 1990s, during which he acquired an addiction to opiates. Eventually he got in touch with friend Cedric Bixler-Zavala who suggested he come back to El Paso. With the help of Bixler-Zavala, he was able to return to El Paso where he could begin to reclaim his life from addiction and join At the Drive-In as backup vocalist and bass guitarist. After receiving a record deal with Flipside Records and recording "Acrobatic Tenement" with the band, he became their full-time bassist before switching to guitar. After several years and two more critically acclaimed albums, for a variety of reasons, Rodríguez-López and Bixler-Zavala left At the Drive-In and the band went on "indefinite hiatus". The remaining members, Paul Hinojos, Tony Hajjar, and Jim Ward went on to form Sparta while the duo focused on other projects.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: On January 9, 2012, At the Drive-In announced that they were reforming for a tour. The band released their fourth album "In•ter a•li•a" in 2017 before going on an indefinite hiatus in November 2018.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: They refocused their efforts on the dub outfit called De Facto, which also included Jeremy Ward and Isaiah "Ikey" Owens, and which they had started years before while still in At the Drive-In. Eventually the same collective of musicians in De Facto would be expanded into Rodríguez-López and Bixler-Zavala's new band, The Mars Volta. Once again starting from scratch he wrote and toured with the band which consumed almost all his time and money.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: On May 25, 2003, less than a month before the release of their first full-length album, "De-Loused in the Comatorium", bandmate and close friend Jeremy Ward was found dead of a heroin overdose. This event, coupled with the memories of the suicide of his friend Julio Venegas years earlier, finally convinced both him and Bixler-Zavala to quit using opiates. Since then he has been clean and credited his newfound musical work ethic on his new lifestyle. The Mars Volta's second album, "Frances the Mute", would later be dedicated to Ward.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: During the early years of the band he also worked on a low budget movie called "A Manual Dexterity" which starred Jeremy Ward. The soundtrack "" was released in 2004. The release of the second volume, which was originally planned for Spring of 2005, and the film were both delayed indefinitely due to legal problems. Conflicts over ownership of certain footage and Rodríguez-López's reluctance to revisit the project which featured his late friend Jeremy Ward were both cited as reasons for the delay. However, Rodríguez-López stated that he does intend to release both Volume 2 and the film at some point in the future.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: On February 8, 2009, he and his fellow Mars Volta bandmates won the Grammy for Best Hard Rock Performance.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: On January 23, 2013, the Mars Volta officially announced that they had broken up, following a series of tweets posted by Cedric Bixler-Zavala stating that he had departed the band. Their future was uncertain at this point, although Rodriguez-Lopez has not ruled out the possibility of reuniting in the future.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: On June 18, 2022, The Mars Volta revealed the coordinates to a location in Los Angeles, California, where fans were allowed to preview new music from the band. This was followed up by the release of the single "Blacklight Shine" and a tour announcement, marking both their first new music and first live shows in ten years. The band subsequently announced their first album in 10 years, The Mars Volta, will be released on September 16.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: In 2005 Rodríguez-López relocated to Amsterdam, where he eventually wrote and recorded four separate albums. His first solo project was the "Omar Rodríguez-López Quintet". Rodríguez-López played several live shows in Europe with his quintet, which in 2005 also included three members of the Mars Volta Group (Juan Alderete, Marcel Rodríguez-López and Adrián Terrazas-González) and Money Mark.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: The songs featured on this tour later appeared on the album "Omar Rodriguez". It was characterized by long, improvisational songs with Dutch titles and no lyrics. The Quintet also performed live with Damo Suzuki, parts of which were recorded and incorporated into a 25-minute EP titled "Please Heat This Eventually", which was released in 2007.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: During this time Rodríguez-López was also working on the Mars Volta's 2006 record "Amputechture" and composing the score to the film "El Búfalo de la Noche" simultaneously to his work with the quintet.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: On May 29, 2007, "Se Dice Bisonte, No Búfalo" was released. It was the third full-length solo album by Rodríguez-López. It featured performances by Mars Volta members Cedric Bixler-Zavala, Marcel Rodríguez-López, Juan Alderete, Adrián Terrazas-González as well as cameos by Money Mark, John Frusciante, and John Theodore. It was written and recorded between 2005–2006 in California and Amsterdam.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: The Quintet later resurfaced in 2007, now known as "The Rodríguez-López Group" to perform on the "white" stage at the Fuji Rock Festival in Japan on July 28. Performing with the group for the first time were singer Cedric Bixler-Zavala and drummer Thomas Pridgen.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: On October 8, 2007, the EP "Omar Rodriguez-Lopez & Lydia Lunch", a collaboration with spoken word poet Lydia Lunch, was released. "The Apocalypse Inside of an Orange" is a double LP featuring the original quintet and was released on vinyl November 20, 2007. It was also released for digital download. "Calibration", a record that Rodríguez-López recorded during his stay in Amsterdam, was released February 5, 2008. It was described as being influenced by electronic music and acid-jazz.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: On June 10, 2008, a recording titled "Omar Rodriguez-Lopez & Jeremy Michael Ward" was released. It was a collaboration between the two and was recorded in 2001 before the formation of The Mars Volta. The LP consists of various ambient tracks based on field recordings in the musique concrète tradition. Rodríguez-López has continued to release a series of albums recorded in 2001 which include "Absence Makes the Heart Grow Fungus" and "Minor Cuts and Scrapes in the Bushes Ahead", both released in late 2008.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: Another album, "Old Money" was released in October 2008, with a vinyl version becoming available in early 2009 on the Stones Throw record label. Sonny Kay, co-owner of the former Gold Standard Labs label with Omar, created the album covers (and has done so for the majority of future Omar releases). Two Omar Rodríguez-López solo albums were released in Europe on January 26, 2009, from the Netherlands-based record label Willie Anderson Recordings: "Megaritual" and "Despair". "Despair" is best described as a field recording, while "Megaritual" is a collaboration jam between Omar and his brother, Marcel Rodríguez-López.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: In mid-2009, a new entity has been created called El Grupo Nuevo de Omar Rodriguez Lopez ("the New Omar Rodriguez-Lopez Group") to release the first in a series of three recordings completed in 2006. Thus far these recordings have only been known as the "Omar and Zach Hill collaborations". The first recording titled "Cryptomnesia" was released on May 5, 2009. Vocals written and performed by Bixler-Zavala were recorded in 2008. The lineup for this entity is: Omar Rodríguez-López on guitar, Cedric Bixler-Zavala on vocals, Zach Hill on drums, Jonathan Hischke on synth bass, and Juan Alderete on bass.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: At the end of 2009, Rodríguez-López released three albums, "Los Sueños de un Hígado", "Xenophanes" and "Solar Gambling" digitally through Rodríguez-López Productions. While "Xenophanes" was also released on CD and vinyl, "Los Suenos De Un Higado" and "Solar Gambling" only had a limited vinyl release. Rodríguez-López also created a video for "Asco Que Conmueve los Puntos Erógenos", from "Xenophanes", and posted it on YouTube on November 30, 2009.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: In January 2010, "Ciencia de los Inútiles" was released under a new group, El Trio de Omar Rodriguez-Lopez. The trio features Rodríguez-López on acoustic guitar, Ximena Sariñana on vocals and Aaron Cruz on upright bass. A video for "Miércoles" was also released. In May 2010, he released a collaboration titled "Omar Rodriguez-Lopez & John Frusciante" with John Frusciante, free of charge through his website, with the option to donate. All money raised will go to the Keep Music in Schools programs. On May 30, 2010, the album "Sepulcros de Miel" by Omar Rodriguez-Lopez Quartet was digitally released, which also featured Frusciante.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: The album "Tychozorente" was scheduled for release on November 1, 2010; however, it received an early release on September 14, 2010, as a digital download. Another album, titled "Cizaña de los Amores", was digitally released on October 11, 2010. CD and vinyl versions of both albums are only available in Europe. "Mantra Hiroshima", another Omar and Zach Hill collaboration, was digitally released on November 29, followed next day by "Dōitashimashite", album of live material recorded in September during the Omar Rodriguez-Lopez Group's first US tour. A video for "Agua Dulce de Pulpo" from the album "Un Escorpión Perfumado" was also released during that period, and the album itself was released on December 20 in digital form, with CD and vinyl versions to follow.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: On April 16, 2011, Omar released "Telesterion", a compilation album featuring 38 songs from Omar's solo albums. Although this has been the only release of 2011, other projects have been hinted at, such as "Двойственность вздохов" (Russian for "Duality of Sighs"), a documentary about the Omar Rodriguez-Lopez Group's Russian mini-tour, directed by Omar and shot by Paco Ibarra. The Vinyl edition of "Telesterion" also contained artwork for 6 solo albums that have yet to be released, and featured a new track, "Cásate Colmillo", off of an album supposedly titled "The Somnambulis."


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: On July 7, 2016, Ipecac Records announced that they would release 12 albums by Omar, fortnightly, until December 2016. They were recorded in the period 2008–2013 and one featured The Mars Volta line-up and a guest appearance by John Frusciante. The first album "Sworn Virgins" was released digitally on July 15, 2016, and featured the single "To Kill a Chi Chi". Recorded in El Paso and Zapopan, the other titles include "Corazones", "Blind Worms Pious Swine", "Arañas En La Sombra", "Umbrella Mistress", "El Bien Y Mal Nos Une", "Cell Phone Bikini", "Infinity Drips", "Weekly Mansions", "Zapopan", "Nom De Guerre Cabal", and "Some Need It Lonely".


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: In 2012, with Mars Volta going on hiatus, Rodríguez-López formed a solo band that eventually took the name Bosnian Rainbows. It consists of Deantoni Parks (drums, keyboards), Teri Gender Bender (vocals) and Nicci Kasper (keyboards). They released one self-titled album in June 2013. On April 8, 2014, Omar announced a new musical project called Antemasque with former At the Drive-In and Mars Volta bandmates Cedric Bixler-Zavala (vocals) and David Elitch (drums) as well as Flea, the bassist for the Red Hot Chili Peppers. The group released their first song, "4AM". Flea said that Antemasque is a project between Omar and Cedric, and that he is only a contributing artist.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: , both Bosnian Rainbows and Antemasque have essentially been put on hold due to touring commitments of At the Drive-In and the Mars Volta.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: Aside from music, Rodríguez-López is also involved in filmmaking and photography. Beginning in his At the Drive-in days he started to document many kinds of things: live shows, sound checks, dressing rooms, hotels, airport lounges, sightseeing, encounters with colleagues. Since 2001 he has produced many films, of which "The Sentimental Engine Slayer" was the first to be released. Rodríguez-López wrote, directed, produced and starred in the film, which was premiered at the International Film Festival Rotterdam in February 2010 and saw the DVD release in January 2013. Another film directed by Omar, "Los Chidos", was premiered in March 2012 at SXSW. Furthermore, Rodríguez-López and Hans Zimmer worked together to compose the score for the 2009 Guillermo Arriaga film "The Burning Plain". The film was his second collaboration with the writer/director after scoring the 2007 film "El Búfalo de la Noche" with the Mars Volta; in addition to some original material, the score also includes material used in "Amputechture". Rodríguez-López's first photo book, "Hunters in High Heels" documenting the years from 2000 to 2006, was slated to release in 2013 but was since postponed indefinitely due to unknown reasons.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: Rodríguez-López's compositional and playing style is characterized by, among other factors, riffs, melodies based in minor modes, changing meters, unresolving dissonances (in particular a heavy use of the tritone), chromatic passages, and lengthy improvisation. He is also known for his vast array of effects pedals; in a feature appearing in Guitar World, Rodríguez-López stated that he "began to see effects as allies in my war against the guitar". In that interview he also stated that he hated the guitar for a very long time. He only utilized it because it was the instrument his bandmates could "relate to". He said he "wrestled" guitar by adding effects and playing oddly to attempt "making it sound like anything besides this thing I hate—the guitar!". However, he claimed to feel more comfortable with the instrument on "Amputechture".


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: Rodríguez-López plays guitar left-handed. He has cited salsa pianist and bandleader Larry Harlow as his primary influence. Both Rodríguez-López and bandmate Cedric Bixler-Zavala have recorded with former Can lead singer Damo Suzuki for the "Please Heat This Eventually" EP. In the progressive rock genre in which the Mars Volta are often categorized, he has professed that he "like[s] a lot of those groups, particularly King Crimson and early Genesis." As such, he has cited his main and clearest influence Frank Zappa, Crimson's Robert Fripp, jazz fusion guitarist John McLaughlin as well as hardcore punk and hard rock guitarists Greg Ginn and Jimi Hendrix respectively. He has also named Siouxsie, Missing Persons, Wayne Shorter as being among "all the greats" along with Steve Reich, Tangerine Dream, Tchaikovsky, Tom Petty and Marvin Gaye." He has also stated that film is a primary influence on him, likening his recording style to that of a film director, where the "scenes are shot out of sequence and the final creation is in the hands of the director.".


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: Omar has endorsed Ibanez guitars since the Mars Volta's inception in 2001. Previously he used Squier Super-Sonic guitars while playing with At the Drive-In. He also recorded "De-Loused in the Comatorium" with a Gibson SG II from the early 1970s which he also used in live improv shows with Flea and John Frusciante. In 2008, Ibanez released the ORM-1 Omar Rodriguez-Lopez signature guitar, which was produced through 2012. He uses Seymour Duncan JB Jr. pickups as well. Although he tunes to E standard tuning, Omar uses Ernie Ball .013-.056 gauge strings with a wound G string, saying that "they feel more real than the really thin ones". Omar also plays through an Orange Rockerverb combo amp as well. In recent years, Omar has taken a minimalist approach to his pedals, which at one point was a very complex setup. During the Mars Volta's 2011 tour with Soundgarden, he used a Boss DD5 Digital Delay, an MXR Phase 90, an Electro-Harmonix Memory Boy analog delay, a Boss PS-6 Harmonist, a Line 6 M9 Stompbox Modeler, an MXR M133 Micro Amp, an Ibanez WH10V2 wah-wah, an Ibanez TC7 tri-mode chorus, and a Line 6 DL4 delay modeler.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: During the Mars Volta's final shows and At the Drive-In's reunion tour, Rodriguez-Lopez switched back to a full-sized Ibanez Jetking guitar, although retaining his preferred single-pickup and volume knob configuration and 24" neck scale. In a recent interview with TC Electronic, he is seen using a blue Ibanez Jetking with two full-size humbuckers.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: Most recently, while performing with Bosnian Rainbows, Rodriguez-Lopez began to use a mid-1960s era left-handed Supro 3/4 scale guitar with a single pickup in the bridge position. Shortly afterwards, he was seen playing a custom Ibanez guitar that closely resembled his Supro. In addition, Rodriguez-Lopez now uses flatwound strings on his guitar. Rodriguez-Lopez's pedalboard for Bosnian Rainbows consisted of a Boss TU-3 Chromatic Tuner, an Empress Superdelay, a Blackout Effects Whetstone analog phaser, a Catalinbread Semaphore tremolo pedal, a Boss DD-5 Digital Delay, an EarthQuaker Devices Rainbow Machine, an Empress Fuzz pedal, a Catalinbread Calisto chorus/vibrato pedal, and a Boss SL-20 slicer.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: Rodríguez-López is also notable for his recording, producing and songwriting techniques. He has claimed that he is "ignorant of music theory" and that thus he lacks knowledge in writing music in standard notation, claiming that his songwriting "comes from emotion completely". Rodríguez-López claims to write all of the music for his projects, then dictates the performance to the musicians involved.


title: Omar Rodríguez-López

text: In addition to his producing credits with the Mars Volta and his solo albums, he also produced the only LP from the defunct LA-based band Radio Vago and in 2009, handled the production of a recording titled "Terra Incognita" from actress/singer Juliette Lewis' band The New Romantiques. Omar also produced (as well as contributed bass to) "Sin Sin Sin", the debut LP from the band Le Butcherettes, which was released in 2011 on Rodriguez-Lopez Productions.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday is a 1993 American supernatural slasher film directed by Adam Marcus, written by Jay Huguely and Dean Lorey, and produced by Sean S. Cunningham. It is the ninth installment of the "Friday the 13th" franchise, and stars John D. LeMay, Kari Keegan, Steven Williams, and Kane Hodder as Jason Voorhees; the latter reprising his role from the previous two films. It is the first film in the series to be distributed by New Line Cinema. Set after the events of "", the film follows Jason's spirit as it possesses various people to continue his killings after his death. In order to resurrect himself, Jason must find and possess a member of his bloodline, but he can also be permanently killed by one of his surviving relatives using a magical dagger.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: The film was conceived by co-writer and director Marcus under Cunningham, producer and director of the first film. After the low box-office returns of "Friday the 13th Part VIII: Jason Takes Manhattan", Paramount Pictures sold the character rights of Jason Voorhees to New Line. "Jason Goes to Hell" was theatrically released on August 13, 1993, and grossed $15.9 million at the box office on a budget of $3 million, becoming the second-worst performing film in the series, after "Jason Takes Manhattan". The film was panned by critics and fans alike, criticizing its supernatural elements and elimination of Jason Voorhees as a physical character.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: The next installment in the series, "Jason X", was released in 2001, and a narrative sequel/crossover, "Freddy vs. Jason", was released in 2003.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: A few years after , Jason Voorhees has been inexplicably resurrected and returns to Camp Crystal Lake, where he stalks a lone woman. The woman, who is actually an undercover FBI agent, lures Jason into an ambush, where heavily armed FBI and SWAT agents shoot him and eventually obliterate his body with an airstrike. Jason's remains are sent to a morgue, where his still-beating heart entices the coroner to eat it, allowing the killer's soul to possess him. Jason, in the coroner's body, escapes the morgue, killing another coroner and two FBI guards in the process.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: At Crystal Lake, Jason finds three partying teens and kills them. When two police officers are called to investigate the murders, Jason kills one of them and possesses the other. Meanwhile, bounty hunter Creighton Duke discovers that only members of Jason's bloodline can truly kill him, and he will return to his original, near-invincible state if he possesses a family member. The only living relatives of Jason are his half-sister Diana Kimble, her daughter Jessica, and Stephanie, the infant daughter of Jessica and Steven Freeman.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: Jason makes his way to Diana's house and attempts to possess her, but Steven bursts in to defend her. In the chaos, Diana is killed, and Jason escapes. Steven is blamed for Diana's murder and arrested. In the jail he meets Duke, who exchanges pieces of information about Jason and his relationship to Jessica for being allowed to systematically break Steven's fingers. Determined to get to Jessica before Jason does, Steven escapes from jail. Steven goes to the Voorhees house to find evidence to convince Jessica, but falls through rotten boards. Jessica's boyfriend, TV reporter Robert Campbell, enters the house and receives a phone call. Steven overhears the resulting conversation, which reveals that Campbell is attempting to "spice up" his show's ratings by emphasizing Jason's return from death, having stolen Diana's body from the morgue for this reason. Jason bursts in, grabs Campbell and slams him onto a metal table. Campbell lies paralyzed with terror as Jason leans over and transfers his heart mouth to mouth. In Campbell's body, Jason leaves with Steven in pursuit and attempts to possess Jessica in order to be reborn, but Steven hits him and drags Jessica to his car. Steven temporarily stalls Jason by running him over; however, when he tries to explain the situation to Jessica, she disbelieves him and throws him out of the car before going to the police station.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: Jason arrives at the police station and kills all officers along his path to Jessica, whom he almost possesses before Steven stops him again. In the resulting chaos, Duke manages to escape from his cell. Now believing Steven, Jessica goes with him to the diner to retrieve Stephanie before Jason does. When Jason arrives he is attacked by the shop's owners, whom he kills. Waitress Vicki Sanders puts up a significant fight by repeatedly shooting Jason with a shotgun and impaling him with an iron rod, but she eventually ends up being killed as well. Jessica and Steven discover a note from Duke, telling them that he has Stephanie and demanding that Jessica meet him at the Voorhees house alone.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: Jessica abandons Steven so she can meet Duke and is given a mystical dagger which she can use to kill Jason permanently. An unknown police officer enters the diner, only for Jason to transfer his heart into him. Duke falls through the floor of the Voorhees house, just as Sheriff Landis and Officer Randy arrive to confront Jessica. Landis is accidentally killed with the dagger, which Jessica then drops. Jason, possessing Randy, attempts to be reborn through Stephanie, but Steven arrives and severs his neck with a machete. Jason's heart, which has grown into a demonic infant, crawls out of Randy's neck. Steven and Jessica pull Duke out of the basement as the creature discovers Diana's body and slithers into her, allowing Jason to be reborn and burst up through the floor in his original body, fully clothed and masked.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: While Steven and Jessica attempt to retrieve the dagger, Duke distracts Jason and is killed with a bear hug. Jason turns his attention to Jessica before Steven tackles him into the yard outside through a window. The two battle while Jessica retrieves the dagger and stabs Jason in the chest. As the souls Jason accumulated over time are released, demonic hands burst out of the ground and pull Jason into Hell. Steven and Jessica then reconcile and walk off into the sunrise with their baby. Later, a dog unearths Jason's mask while digging in the dirt. In a twist ending, Freddy Krueger's laugh is heard as his gloved hand bursts out of the dirt, pulling Jason's mask into Hell.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: LeMay is one of only two actors from "" to appear in the film franchise; the other is John Shepherd, who played Tommy Jarvis in "".


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: Producer Sean S. Cunningham originally conceived an action-horror film in which Jason Voorhees would battle Freddy Krueger of the "A Nightmare on Elm Street" series. Paramount Pictures, who had released the previous eight "Friday the 13th" films, negotiated with New Line Cinema over the rights to the series, and ultimately granted New Line rights to the Jason Voorhees character, but retained control of the "Friday the 13th" title. New Line placed Cunningham's idea for a Freddy-versus-Jason film on hold, prompting him to generate a different script to precede that plot line. Cunningham's original idea would later manifest as "Freddy vs. Jason" in 2003. The studio courted John McTiernan and Tobe Hooper to helm the film. Adam Marcus, who served as an apprentice for editor Susan E. Cunningham during post production for "Friday the 13th Part 2", was brought in by Cunningham to direct the film under the notion that he must remove Jason's hockey mask. Cunningham has denied ever telling Marcus to "find a way to get rid of that f**king mask", however, Marcus rebukes Cunningham's claim and insists that he did not have that level of creative control. Cunningham had also demanded that the events of "" be ignored. The filmmaker's initial pitch saw Elias Voorhees, Jason's brother, digging up his body at the beginning of the film, eating his heart, taking on his supernatural powers and embarking on a similar killing spree. Jay Huguely was hired to flesh out Marcus' ideas into a script. According to Marcus, he had originally written the character of Steven Freeman to be Tommy Jarvis from part 4-6, but New Line Cinema only owned the rights to Jason and not Tommy and so could not legally use that character at the time. Marcus also explains that New Line Cinema did not own the "Friday the 13th" title, explaining why the film titles after "Jason Takes Manhattan" did not include the franchise name up until the 2009 remake.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: Huguely's draft was reportedly "[...] a hodgepodge of a script" and "unintelligible". Cunningham hired Dean Lorey to scrap Huguely’s work and write a completely new script within four days, removing Elias Voorhees from the story as Lorey felt that Jason must be the central character. Lorey's initial idea for the film saw Jason caught in between a gang war in Los Angeles, but an impending production start immediately shot down the writer's pitch. Michael DeLuca of New Line disliked Lorey's rewrite but greenlit the film regardless. Lorey moved onto another project, prompting the studio to turn to Leslie Bohem, who provided a polish to the script over a weekend. Lewis Abernathy of "House IV: The Repossession" was enlisted for further rewrites for the opening sequence.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: The film marked Adam Marcus' debut feature; having just graduated from film school, Marcus was originally attached to direct "My Boyfriend's Back" for Touchstone Pictures, but the studio's parent company, Walt Disney Studios, did not want to hire a first-time director, and Marcus was dropped from the project. Marcus, who was a lifelong fan of the "Friday the 13th" series, developed a story in which Voorhees is destroyed at the beginning of the narrative, only to manifest in the bodies of other people and continue his rampage. Marcus would later acknowledge the concept's similarity to that of "The Hidden", though he stated he had not seen the film at that time, and that the similarity was coincidental. Marcus decided that he wanted to create the most deliberately stereotypical and cliché-ridden opening of the film as possible to toy with the audience's expectations, only for the story to take an unprecedented turn with Jason's unexpected "death" by the hands of the SWAT team.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: The special effects were provided by Al Magliochetti and effects studio KNB, the former having signed on to the film after friends of his from KNB notified him of its development. The colors of the visual effects were chosen by Marcus.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: Tony Todd auditioned for the role of Creighton Duke, which went to Steven Williams. Laurie Holden was Adam Marcus' and Dean Lorey's choice for the role of Jessica Kimble, but Sean Cunningham overruled them and pushed for Kari Keegan instead.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: Production began on July 20, 1992 in Los Angeles, California. Cunningham had asked for the film to be shot at twenty two frames per second as opposed to twenty four. Marcus claims he clashed with Cunningham following a dispute over creative decision near the end of filming. A shower scene involving actress Kari Keegan resulted in Marcus being removed from set due to a dispute between the two, as the actress protested from doing nudity for the film. Cunningham would step in as director in place of Marcus for the film few days of the film. Approximately half of the film was reshot as Cunningham was unsatisfied with the initial cut of the film. Filming concluded on September 4, 1992.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: In November 2017, Adam Marcus revealed that an overlooked plot-point of the movie is that Jason Voorhees is actually connected to the "Evil Dead" franchise. The filmmaker stated, “Pamela Voorhees makes a deal with the devil by reading from the Necronomicon to bring back her son. This is why Jason isn’t Jason. He’s Jason plus "The Evil Dead", and now I can believe that he can go from a little boy that lives in a lake, to a full grown man in a couple of months, to Zombie Jason, to never being able to kill this guy. That, to me, is way more interesting as a mashup, and ["Evil Dead" creator Sam] Raimi loved it! It’s not like I could tell New Line my plan to include "The Evil Dead", because they don’t own "The Evil Dead". So it had to be an Easter egg, and I did focus on it…there’s a whole scene that includes the book, and I hoped people would get it and could figure out that’s what I’m up to. So yes, in my opinion, Jason Voorhees is a Deadite. He’s one of "The Evil Dead".”


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: In December 2017 on the podcast Cinema Toast Crunchcast, Marcus revealed Creighton Duke's intended backstory, "A teenage Creighton was out on Crystal Lake with his girlfriend. Jason capsized their small boat and pulled the girl down into the lake. Creighton tried to save her but could not. She was never seen again. Creighton vowed revenge and from that moment on he spent his life in the study and pursuit of Jason. He became a bounty hunter just to fund his work in taking down his nemesis."


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: The film's musical score was composed by Harry Manfredini, who had previously composed music for the first seven films in the series. A soundtrack album was released by Edel Screen as a CD in the United States in 2005.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: The film was released on DVD in North America by New Line Home Video in 2002, and includes two cuts: the theatrical cut, created to receive an R rating from the MPAA, and the unrated (or director's) cut, which runs three minutes longer than the theatrical version and contains material beyond what is allowed under the R rating. In certain regions of the world, including Australia, the DVD was only released with the R-rated version of the film available to view.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: On September 13, 2013, Paramount and Warner Bros. co-released "Friday the 13th: The Complete Collection" in a Blu-ray box set, featuring each of the twelve films in the franchise; this marked the first Blu-ray release of "Jason Goes to Hell". This collection is currently out of print, but the film has been released separately in the higher definition format with its successor, "Jason X".


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: Both the theatrical and unrated versions of the film were added to the "Friday the 13th: The Ultimate Collection" Blu-ray set that Scream Factory released in October 2020.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: "Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday" debuted in U.S. theaters on Friday, August 13, 1993, to a weekend box office total of $7.6 million across 1,355 screens. The film would go on to gross a final domestic total of $15.9 million, making it the second-worst performing film in the franchise, after "Jason Takes Manhattan" which made $14.3 million. It placed at number 86 on the list of the year's Top 100 earners.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: On the Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, "Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday" holds a 20% approval rating, based on 20 reviews.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 17 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "overwhelming dislike".


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: The "Los Angeles Times"s Michael Wilmington praised the performance of Gant as well as Harry Manfredini's score, but noted "ludicrous characters", "garbled nonstop gore", and poor lighting as notable faults. Richard Harrington of "The Washington Post" wrote of the film: "The scriptwriters try to conjure some history/mythology to validate the plot's twists and turns, but the whole thing ends up more confusing than "Days of Our Lives" on fast-forward." Terry Kelleher of "Newsday" similarly criticized the plot, referring to it as a "confusing mess," though he conceded the film "offers a little humor."


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: Stephen Holden of "The New York Times" noted: "The ninth episode in the phenomenally successful series, which began in 1980, "The Final Friday" is a largely incoherent movie that generates little suspense and relies for the majority of its thrills on close-up gore...Such gratuitous sadism gives "The Final Friday" an edge of sourness that is unusual for a horror movie. It doesn't help that Jason's intended victims (and the actors who play them) are pallid sitting ducks." "The Boston Globe"s Betsy Sherman wrote: "First time director Adam Marcus plays around nicely with the "F13" cliches, but doesn't have much original to add. The movie has a crowdpleasing final shot that suggests that the "real" joy ride to hell will be next time around. Maybe."


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: Writing for "Variety", Greg Evans criticized the screenplay as well as Marcus's direction: "With one or two exceptions, freshman director Adam Marcus forgoes the camp humor and inside jokes that marked the tail end of the slasher craze, opting instead for a straightforward Saturday night drive-in approach...Blame Marcus for the film’s complete lack of tension and style, but also point a machete or two at a bland, occasionally inept cast and scripters unable to contribute a single innovation to the genre."


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: Robert Cauthorn of the "Arizona Daily Star" wrote: "Yeah, there's a lot of shower taking and slaughter here. And a plot about evil bloodlines, tabloid TV, soul shifting, and God knows what else. It doesn't make a lick of sense, but it's a definite improvement over the other non-movies in the series." The "Statesman Journal"s Ron Cowan wrote: "The ninth version of this fitful series is easily the clumsiest, worst acted, most gory and worst written of the bunch, as ready to indulge in sexual titillation as sadism and oozing bodies." Kory Wilcoxson of "The Courier-Journal" also criticized the film's gratuitous violence, adding that "the plot is ridiculous, the dialogue wooden and the acting a laugh. But you know that going in. The question is: Is it scary? Not really. It's more disgusting than frightening."


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: A three-issue comic adaptation of "Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday" written by Andy Mangels was published by Topps Comics. As the comics are based upon the original shooting script of the film, elements that were left out of the film are used in them.


title: Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday

text: The FBI sting that occurs at the beginning of the film is foreshadowed in the novel "Friday the 13th: Hate-Kill-Repeat", which takes place between the events of the seventh and eighth films. The epilogue of the book states that the FBI, upon discovering Jason Voorhees actually exists, have begun making plans to trap him and "send him straight to Hell."