title: Sintering

text: Most, if not all, metals can be sintered. This applies especially to pure metals produced in vacuum which suffer no surface contamination. Sintering under atmospheric pressure requires the use of a protective gas, quite often endothermic gas. Sintering, with subsequent reworking, can produce a great range of material properties. Changes in density, alloying, and heat treatments can alter the physical characteristics of various products. For instance, the Young's modulus "E" of sintered iron powders remains somewhat insensitive to sintering time, alloying, or particle size in the original powder for lower sintering temperatures, but depends upon the density of the final product:


title: Sintering

text: Sintering is static when a metal powder under certain external conditions may exhibit coalescence, and yet reverts to its normal behavior when such conditions are removed. In most cases, the density of a collection of grains increases as material flows into voids, causing a decrease in overall volume. Mass movements that occur during sintering consist of the reduction of total porosity by repacking, followed by material transport due to evaporation and condensation from diffusion. In the final stages, metal atoms move along crystal boundaries to the walls of internal pores, redistributing mass from the internal bulk of the object and smoothing pore walls. Surface tension is the driving force for this movement.


title: Sintering

text: A special form of sintering (which is still considered part of powder metallurgy) is liquid-state sintering in which at least one but not all elements are in a liquid state. Liquid-state sintering is required for making cemented carbide and tungsten carbide.


title: Sintering

text: Sintered bronze in particular is frequently used as a material for bearings, since its porosity allows lubricants to flow through it or remain captured within it. Sintered copper may be used as a wicking structure in certain types of heat pipe construction, where the porosity allows a liquid agent to move through the porous material via capillary action. For materials that have high melting points such as molybdenum, tungsten, rhenium, tantalum, osmium and carbon, sintering is one of the few viable manufacturing processes. In these cases, very low porosity is desirable and can often be achieved.


title: Sintering

text: Sintered metal powder is used to make frangible shotgun shells called breaching rounds, as used by military and SWAT teams to quickly force entry into a locked room. These shotgun shells are designed to destroy door deadbolts, locks and hinges without risking lives by ricocheting or by flying on at lethal speed through the door. They work by destroying the object they hit and then dispersing into a relatively harmless powder.


title: Sintering

text: Sintered bronze and stainless steel are used as filter materials in applications requiring high temperature resistance while retaining the ability to regenerate the filter element. For example, sintered stainless steel elements are employed for filtering steam in food and pharmaceutical applications, and sintered bronze in aircraft hydraulic systems.


title: Sintering

text: Sintering of powders containing precious metals such as silver and gold is used to make small jewelry items. Evaporative self-assembly of colloidal silver nanocubes into supercrystals has been shown to allow the sintering of electrical joints at temperatures lower than 200°C.


title: Sintering

text: The literature contains many references on sintering dissimilar materials to produce solid/solid-phase compounds or solid/melt mixtures at the processing stage. Almost any substance can be obtained in powder form, through either chemical, mechanical or physical processes, so basically any material can be obtained through sintering. When pure elements are sintered, the leftover powder is still pure, so it can be recycled.


title: Sintering

text: Plastic materials are formed by sintering for applications that require materials of specific porosity. Sintered plastic porous components are used in filtration and to control fluid and gas flows. Sintered plastics are used in applications requiring caustic fluid separation processes such as the nibs in whiteboard markers, inhaler filters, and vents for caps and liners on packaging materials. Sintered ultra high molecular weight polyethylene materials are used as ski and snowboard base materials. The porous texture allows wax to be retained within the structure of the base material, thus providing a more durable wax coating.


title: Sintering

text: For materials that are difficult to sinter, a process called liquid phase sintering is commonly used. Materials for which liquid phase sintering is common are SiN, WC, SiC, and more. Liquid phase sintering is the process of adding an additive to the powder which will melt before the matrix phase. The process of liquid phase sintering has three stages:


title: Sintering

text: For liquid phase sintering to be practical the major phase should be at least slightly soluble in the liquid phase and the additive should melt before any major sintering of the solid particulate network occurs, otherwise rearrangement of grains will not occur. Liquid phase sintering was successfully applied to improve grain growth of thin semiconductor layers from nanoparticle precursor films.


title: Sintering

text: These techniques employ electric currents to drive or enhance sintering. English engineer A. G. Bloxam registered in 1906 the first patent on sintering powders using direct current in vacuum. The primary purpose of his inventions was the industrial scale production of filaments for incandescent lamps by compacting tungsten or molybdenum particles. The applied current was particularly effective in reducing surface oxides that increased the emissivity of the filaments.


title: Sintering

text: In 1913, Weintraub and Rush patented a modified sintering method which combined electric current with pressure. The benefits of this method were proved for the sintering of refractory metals as well as conductive carbide or nitride powders. The starting boron–carbon or silicon–carbon powders were placed in an electrically insulating tube and compressed by two rods which also served as electrodes for the current. The estimated sintering temperature was 2000 °C.


title: Sintering

text: In the United States, sintering was first patented by Duval d’Adrian in 1922. His three-step process aimed at producing heat-resistant blocks from such oxide materials as zirconia, thoria or tantalia. The steps were: (i) molding the powder; (ii) annealing it at about 2500 °C to make it conducting; (iii) applying current-pressure sintering as in the method by Weintraub and Rush.


title: Sintering

text: Sintering that uses an arc produced via a capacitance discharge to eliminate oxides before direct current heating, was patented by G. F. Taylor in 1932. This originated sintering methods employing pulsed or alternating current, eventually superimposed to a direct current. Those techniques have been developed over many decades and summarized in more than 640 patents.


title: Sintering

text: Of these technologies the most well known is resistance sintering (also called hot pressing) and spark plasma sintering, while electro sinter forging is the latest advancement in this field.


title: Sintering

text: In spark plasma sintering (SPS), external pressure and an electric field are applied simultaneously to enhance the densification of the metallic/ceramic powder compacts. However, after commercialization it was determined there is no plasma, so the proper name is spark sintering as coined by Lenel. The electric field driven densification supplements sintering with a form of hot pressing, to enable lower temperatures and taking less time than typical sintering. For a number of years, it was speculated that the existence of sparks or plasma between particles could aid sintering; however, Hulbert and coworkers systematically proved that the electric parameters used during spark plasma sintering make it (highly) unlikely. In light of this, the name "spark plasma sintering" has been rendered obsolete. Terms such as field assisted sintering technique (FAST), electric field assisted sintering (EFAS), and direct current sintering (DCS) have been implemented by the sintering community. Using a direct current (DC) pulse as the electric current, spark plasma, spark impact pressure, joule heating, and an electrical field diffusion effect would be created. By modifying the graphite die design and its assembly, it is possible to perform pressureless sintering in spark plasma sintering facility. This modified die design setup is reported to synergize the advantages of both conventional pressureless sintering and spark plasma sintering techniques.


title: Sintering

text: Electro sinter forging is an electric current assisted sintering (ECAS) technology originated from capacitor discharge sintering. It is used for the production of diamond metal matrix composites and is under evaluation for the production of hard metals, nitinol and other metals and intermetallics. It is characterized by a very low sintering time, allowing machines to sinter at the same speed as a compaction press.


title: Sintering

text: Pressureless sintering is the sintering of a powder compact (sometimes at very high temperatures, depending on the powder) without applied pressure. This avoids density variations in the final component, which occurs with more traditional hot pressing methods.


title: Sintering

text: The powder compact (if a ceramic) can be created by slip casting, injection moulding, and cold isostatic pressing. After presintering, the final green compact can be machined to its final shape before being sintered.


title: Sintering

text: Three different heating schedules can be performed with pressureless sintering: constant-rate of heating (CRH), rate-controlled sintering (RCS), and two-step sintering (TSS). The microstructure and grain size of the ceramics may vary depending on the material and method used.


title: Sintering

text: Constant-rate of heating (CRH), also known as temperature-controlled sintering, consists of heating the green compact at a constant rate up to the sintering temperature. Experiments with zirconia have been performed to optimize the sintering temperature and sintering rate for CRH method. Results showed that the grain sizes were identical when the samples were sintered to the same density, proving that grain size is a function of specimen density rather than CRH temperature mode.


title: Sintering

text: In rate-controlled sintering (RCS), the densification rate in the open-porosity phase is lower than in the CRH method. By definition, the relative density, ρ, in the open-porosity phase is lower than 90%. Although this should prevent separation of pores from grain boundaries, it has been proven statistically that RCS did not produce smaller grain sizes than CRH for alumina, zirconia, and ceria samples.


title: Sintering

text: Two-step sintering (TSS) uses two different sintering temperatures. The first sintering temperature should guarantee a relative density higher than 75% of theoretical sample density. This will remove supercritical pores from the body. The sample will then be cooled down and held at the second sintering temperature until densification is completed. Grains of cubic zirconia and cubic strontium titanate were significantly refined by TSS compared to CRH. However, the grain size changes in other ceramic materials, like tetragonal zirconia and hexagonal alumina, were not statistically significant.


title: Sintering

text: In microwave sintering, heat is sometimes generated internally within the material, rather than via surface radiative heat transfer from an external heat source. Some materials fail to couple and others exhibit run-away behavior, so it is restricted in usefulness. A benefit of microwave sintering is faster heating for small loads, meaning less time is needed to reach the sintering temperature, less heating energy is required and there are improvements in the product properties.


title: Sintering

text: A failing of microwave sintering is that it generally sinters only one compact at a time, so overall productivity turns out to be poor except for situations involving one of a kind sintering, such as for artists. As microwaves can only penetrate a short distance in materials with a high conductivity and a high permeability, microwave sintering requires the sample to be delivered in powders with a particle size around the penetration depth of microwaves in the particular material. The sintering process and side-reactions run several times faster during microwave sintering at the same temperature, which results in different properties for the sintered product.


title: Sintering

text: This technique is acknowledged to be quite effective in maintaining fine grains/nano sized grains in sintered bioceramics. Magnesium phosphates and calcium phosphates are the examples which have been processed through the microwave sintering technique.


title: Sintering

text: Sintering in practice is the control of both densification and grain growth. Densification is the act of reducing porosity in a sample, thereby making it denser. Grain growth is the process of grain boundary motion and Ostwald ripening to increase the average grain size. Many properties (mechanical strength, electrical breakdown strength, etc.) benefit from both a high relative density and a small grain size. Therefore, being able to control these properties during processing is of high technical importance. Since densification of powders requires high temperatures, grain growth naturally occurs during sintering. Reduction of this process is key for many engineering ceramics. Under certain conditions of chemistry and orientation, some grains may grow rapidly at the expense of their neighbours during sintering. This phenomenon, known as abnormal grain growth (AGG), results in a bimodal grain size distribution that has consequences for the mechanical, dielectric and thermal performance of the sintered material.


title: Sintering

text: For densification to occur at a quick pace it is essential to have (1) an amount of liquid phase that is large in size, (2) a near complete solubility of the solid in the liquid, and (3) wetting of the solid by the liquid. The power behind the densification is derived from the capillary pressure of the liquid phase located between the fine solid particles. When the liquid phase wets the solid particles, each space between the particles becomes a capillary in which a substantial capillary pressure is developed. For submicrometre particle sizes, capillaries with diameters in the range of 0.1 to 1 micrometres develop pressures in the range of to for silicate liquids and in the range of to for a metal such as liquid cobalt.


title: Sintering

text: Densification requires constant capillary pressure where just solution-precipitation material transfer would not produce densification. For further densification, additional particle movement while the particle undergoes grain-growth and grain-shape changes occurs. Shrinkage would result when the liquid slips between particles and increases pressure at points of contact causing the material to move away from the contact areas, forcing particle centers to draw near each other.


title: Sintering

text: The sintering of liquid-phase materials involves a fine-grained solid phase to create the needed capillary pressures proportional to its diameter, and the liquid concentration must also create the required capillary pressure within range, else the process ceases. The vitrification rate is dependent upon the pore size, the viscosity and amount of liquid phase present leading to the viscosity of the overall composition, and the surface tension. Temperature dependence for densification controls the process because at higher temperatures viscosity decreases and increases liquid content. Therefore, when changes to the composition and processing are made, it will affect the vitrification process.


title: Sintering

text: Sintering occurs by diffusion of atoms through the microstructure. This diffusion is caused by a gradient of chemical potential – atoms move from an area of higher chemical potential to an area of lower chemical potential. The different paths the atoms take to get from one spot to another are the sintering mechanisms. The six common mechanisms are:


title: Sintering

text: Also, one must distinguish between densifying and non-densifying mechanisms. 1–3 above are non-densifying – they take atoms from the surface and rearrange them onto another surface or part of the same surface. These mechanisms simply rearrange matter inside of porosity and do not cause pores to shrink. Mechanisms 4–6 are densifying mechanisms – atoms are moved from the bulk to the surface of pores, thereby eliminating porosity and increasing the density of the sample.


title: Sintering

text: A grain boundary (GB) is the transition area or interface between adjacent crystallites (or grains) of the same chemical and lattice composition, not to be confused with a phase boundary. The adjacent grains do not have the same orientation of the lattice, thus giving the atoms in GB shifted positions relative to the lattice in the crystals. Due to the shifted positioning of the atoms in the GB they have a higher energy state when compared with the atoms in the crystal lattice of the grains. It is this imperfection that makes it possible to selectively etch the GBs when one wants the microstructure to be visible.


title: Sintering

text: Striving to minimize its energy leads to the coarsening of the microstructure to reach a metastable state within the specimen. This involves minimizing its GB area and changing its topological structure to minimize its energy. This grain growth can either be normal or abnormal, a normal grain growth is characterized by the uniform growth and size of all the grains in the specimen. Abnormal grain growth is when a few grains grow much larger than the remaining majority.


title: Sintering

text: The atoms in the GB are normally in a higher energy state than their equivalent in the bulk material. This is due to their more stretched bonds, which gives rise to a GB tension formula_2. This extra energy that the atoms possess is called the grain boundary energy, formula_3. The grain will want to minimize this extra energy, thus striving to make the grain boundary area smaller and this change requires energy.


title: Sintering

text: “Or, in other words, a force has to be applied, in the plane of the grain boundary and acting along a line in the grain-boundary area, in order to extend the grain-boundary area in the direction of the force. The force per unit length, i.e. tension/stress, along the line mentioned is σGB. On the basis of this reasoning it would follow that:


title: Sintering

text: with dA as the increase of grain-boundary area per unit length along the line in the grain-boundary area considered.”


title: Sintering

text: The GB tension can also be thought of as the attractive forces between the atoms at the surface and the tension between these atoms is due to the fact that there is a larger interatomic distance between them at the surface compared to the bulk (i.e. surface tension). When the surface area becomes bigger the bonds stretch more and the GB tension increases. To counteract this increase in tension there must be a transport of atoms to the surface keeping the GB tension constant. This diffusion of atoms accounts for the constant surface tension in liquids. Then the argument,


title: Sintering

text: holds true. For solids, on the other hand, diffusion of atoms to the surface might not be sufficient and the surface tension can vary with an increase in surface area.


title: Sintering

text: For a solid, one can derive an expression for the change in Gibbs free energy, dG, upon the change of GB area, dA. dG is given by


title: Sintering

text: formula_2 is normally expressed in units of formula_9 while formula_3 is normally expressed in units of formula_11 formula_12 since they are different physical properties.


title: Sintering

text: In a two-dimensional isotropic material the grain boundary tension would be the same for the grains. This would give angle of 120° at GB junction where three grains meet. This would give the structure a hexagonal pattern which is the metastable state (or mechanical equilibrium) of the 2D specimen. A consequence of this is that, to keep trying to be as close to the equilibrium as possible, grains with fewer sides than six will bend the GB to try keep the 120° angle between each other. This results in a curved boundary with its curvature towards itself. A grain with six sides will, as mentioned, have straight boundaries, while a grain with more than six sides will have curved boundaries with its curvature away from itself. A grain with six boundaries (i.e. hexagonal structure) is in a metastable state (i.e. local equilibrium) within the 2D structure. In three dimensions structural details are similar but much more complex and the metastable structure for a grain is a non-regular 14-sided polyhedra with doubly curved faces. In practice all arrays of grains are always unstable and thus always grow until prevented by a counterforce.


title: Sintering

text: Grains strive to minimize their energy, and a curved boundary has a higher energy than a straight boundary. This means that the grain boundary will migrate towards the curvature. The consequence of this is that grains with less than 6 sides will decrease in size while grains with more than 6 sides will increase in size.


title: Sintering

text: Grain growth occurs due to motion of atoms across a grain boundary. Convex surfaces have a higher chemical potential than concave surfaces, therefore grain boundaries will move toward their center of curvature. As smaller particles tend to have a higher radius of curvature and this results in smaller grains losing atoms to larger grains and shrinking. This is a process called Ostwald ripening. Large grains grow at the expense of small grains.


title: Sintering

text: Here "G" is final average grain size, "G" is the initial average grain size, "t" is time, "m" is a factor between 2 and 4, and "K" is a factor given by:


title: Sintering

text: Here "Q" is the molar activation energy, "R" is the ideal gas constant, "T" is absolute temperature, and "K" is a material dependent factor. In most materials the sintered grain size is proportion to the inverse square root of the fractional porosity, implying that pores are the most effective retardant for grain growth during sintering.


title: Sintering

text: If a dopant is added to the material (example: Nd in BaTiO) the impurity will tend to stick to the grain boundaries. As the grain boundary tries to move (as atoms jump from the convex to concave surface) the change in concentration of the dopant at the grain boundary will impose a drag on the boundary. The original concentration of solute around the grain boundary will be asymmetrical in most cases. As the grain boundary tries to move, the concentration on the side opposite of motion will have a higher concentration and therefore have a higher chemical potential. This increased chemical potential will act as a backforce to the original chemical potential gradient that is the reason for grain boundary movement. This decrease in net chemical potential will decrease the grain boundary velocity and therefore grain growth.


title: Sintering

text: If particles of a second phase which are insoluble in the matrix phase are added to the powder in the form of a much finer powder, then this will decrease grain boundary movement. When the grain boundary tries to move past the inclusion diffusion of atoms from one grain to the other, it will be hindered by the insoluble particle. This is because it is beneficial for particles to reside in the grain boundaries and they exert a force in opposite direction compared to grain boundary migration. This effect is called the Zener effect after the man who estimated this drag force to


title: Sintering

text: where r is the radius of the particle and λ the interfacial energy of the boundary if there are N particles per unit volume their volume fraction f is


title: Sintering

text: assuming they are randomly distributed. A boundary of unit area will intersect all particles within a volume of 2r which is 2Nr particles. So the number of particles n intersecting a unit area of grain boundary is:


title: Sintering

text: Now, assuming that the grains only grow due to the influence of curvature, the driving force of growth is formula_18 where (for homogeneous grain structure) R approximates to the mean diameter of the grains. With this the critical diameter that has to be reached before the grains ceases to grow:


title: Sintering

text: so the critical diameter of the grains is dependent on the size and volume fraction of the particles at the grain boundaries.


title: Sintering

text: More complicated interactions which slow grain boundary motion include interactions of the surface energies of the two grains and the inclusion and are discussed in detail by C.S. Smith.


title: Sintering

text: Sintering is an important cause for loss of catalytic activity, especially on supported metal catalysts. It decreases the surface area of the catalyst and changes the surface structure. For a porous catalytic surface, the pores may collapse due to sintering, resulting in loss of surface area. Sintering is in general an irreversible process.


title: Sintering

text: Small catalyst particles have the highest possible relative surface area and high reaction temperature, both factors that generally increase the reactivity of a catalyst. However, these factors are also the circumstances under which sintering occurs. Specific materials may also increase the rate of sintering. On the other hand, by alloying catalysts with other materials, sintering can be reduced. Rare-earth metals in particular have been shown to reduce sintering of metal catalysts when alloyed.


title: Sintering

text: For many supported metal catalysts, sintering starts to become a significant effect at temperatures over . Catalysts that operate at higher temperatures, such as a car catalyst, use structural improvements to reduce or prevent sintering. These improvements are in general in the form of a support made from an inert and thermally stable material such as silica, carbon or alumina.


title: Managerial economics

text: Managerial economics is a branch of economics involving the application of economic methods in the managerial decision-making process. Economics is the study of the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. Managerial economics involves the use of economic theories and principles to make decisions regarding the allocation of scarce resources.


title: Managerial economics

text: Managers use economic frameworks in order to optimise profits, resource allocation and the overall output of the firm, whilst improving efficiency and minimising unproductive activities. These frameworks assist organisations to make rational, progressive decisions, by analysing practical problems at both micro and macroeconomic levels. Managerial decisions involve forecasting (making decisions about the future), which involve levels of risk and uncertainty, however, the assistance of managerial economic techniques aid in informing managers in these decisions.


title: Managerial economics

text: In order to optimize economic decisions, the use of operations research, mathematical programming, strategic decision making, game theory and other computational methods are often involved. The methods listed above are typically used for making quantitate decisions by data analysis techniques.


title: Managerial economics

text: The theory of Managerial Economics includes a focus on; incentives, business organization, biases, advertising, innovation, uncertainty, pricing, analytics, and competition. In other words, managerial economics is a combination of economics and managerial theory. It helps the manager in decision-making and acts as a link between practice and theory.


title: Managerial economics

text: Furthermore, managerial economics provides the device and techniques for managers to make the best possible decisions for any scenario.


title: Managerial economics

text: Some examples of the types of problems that the tools provided by managerial economics can answer are:


title: Managerial economics

text: Managerial economics is sometimes referred to as business economics and is a branch of economics that applies microeconomic analysis to decision methods of businesses or other management units to assist managers to make a wide array of multifaceted decisions. The calculation and quantitative analysis draws heavily from techniques such as regression analysis, correlation and calculus.


title: Managerial economics

text: The law of supply and demand describes the relationship between producers and consumers of a product. The law suggests that price set by the producer and quantity demanded by a consumer are inversely proportional, meaning an increase in the price set is met by a reduction in demand by the consumer.


title: Managerial economics

text: The law further describes that sellers will provide a large quantity of the good if it sells at a high price.


title: Managerial economics

text: Excess demand exists when the quantity of a good demanded is greater than the quantity supplied. Where there is excess demand, sellers can benefit by increasing the price. The converse applies to excess supply.


title: Managerial economics

text: Production theory describes the quantity of a good a business chooses to produce due to multiple factors. These factors include; raw material inputs, labor, machinery costs, capital, etc. The production theory states that a business will strive to employ the cheapest combination of inputs to produce the quantity demanded.


title: Managerial economics

text: The production function can be described by the function formula_1 where denotes production from a firm, is the variable inputs, and is the fixed inputs.


title: Managerial economics

text: The opportunity cost details the costs and benefits of each action the business is considering pursuing, and the cost of choosing one activity over another. The decision-maker is then in the position to choose the action with the highest payoff.


title: Managerial economics

text: The principle uses the conjecture of supply and demand to set an accurate price for a good. The aim of the price theory is to allocate a price for a good such that the supply of a good is met with equal demand for the product. If a manager sets a price to high for the good, the consumer may think it is not worth the cost and decide not to purchase the good, hence creating an excess in supply. The opposite occurs when the price is set too low, this causes demand for a good to be larger than the supply.


title: Managerial economics

text: Capital is the most critical factor in an enterprise, this theory prevails in the rational allocation of funds and decisions of organizations to invest in profitable projects or enterprises in order to improve the efficiency of organizations.


title: Managerial economics

text: The rational allocation of funds may include acquiring business, investing in equipment, whether investment will improve the business at all.


title: Managerial economics

text: The elasticity of demand is a prominent concept in managerial economics. Alfred Marshall in his own words described elasticity of demand as ‘The elasticity of demand in a market is great or small according to as the amount demanded increases much or little for a given fall in price and diminish much or little for a given rise in price.


title: Managerial economics

text: The microeconomic principles are useful principles for managers to make decisions, Managerial economics entails the use of all of these analysis tools to make informed business decisions.


title: Managerial economics

text: The price elasticity of demand is a highly useful tool in managerial economics as it provides managers with the predicted change in demand associated with an increase in the price charged for its goods and services. The price elasticity principle also outlines the changes in demand for goods with changes in the income of a populous.


title: Managerial economics

text: Where formula_3 is the change in demand for the respective change in price formula_4, with and representing the quantity and price of good before a change was made.


title: Managerial economics

text: The price elasticity is important for managerial economics as it aids in the optimization of marginal revenue of firms.


title: Managerial economics

text: In economics, margin is the change in revenue and cost by producing one extra unit of output. Both the marginal cost and marginal revenue are extremely important in marginal economics as profit of a firm is maximized when the marginal cost is equal to the marginal revenue. Managers can make business decisions on the output level based on the analysis, in order to maximize profit of the firm.


title: Managerial economics

text: In the development of economics and management, more and more econometric analysis methods are applied. The use of differential calculus is a powerful tool in managerial economics.


title: Managerial economics

text: By taking the derivative of a function the maximum and minimum values of the function are very easily determined by setting the derivative equal to zero, an example of this is finding a quantity of production that maximizes the profit of the firm. This concept is important for managers to understand in order to minimize costs or maximize profits.


title: Managerial economics

text: Managerial economics to a certain degree is prescriptive in nature as it suggests a course of action to a managerial problem. Managerial economics aims to provide the tools and techniques to make informed decisions to maximize the profits and minimize the losses of a firm. Managerial economics has use in many different business applications, although the most common areas of its focus are in relation to the Risk, Pricing, Production and Capital decisions a manager makes.


title: Managerial economics

text: It is important to understand what pricing decisions should be made regarding the products and services of the firm, as efficient pricing is required to maintain desired levels of revenue and profit, whilst also maintaining customer satisfaction. Setting a price too low reduces profitability, negatively affects the perceived quality of the product, and sets an expectation of price for the consumer. Setting a price too high may negatively affect the image of an organisation from the perspective of the consumer.


title: Managerial economics

text: Managers may price using intuitive or technocratic decision-making styles. A technocratic approach relies on quantitative analysis and optimisation, and typically involves a compensatory method of evaluation. Compensatory evaluation allows one attribute to compensate for another attribute. For example, a manager may price a product at a lower price to compensate for its lower quality. Intuitive decision-making relies on consumer heuristics, defined as cognitive processes of fast decision-making, which occur by limiting the amount of information analysed.


title: Managerial economics

text: Economic concepts such as competitive advantage, market segmentation, and price discrimination are relevant to pricing strategy. In order to set a price that drives sales and firm performance, managers must understand the economic environment in which they are operating.


title: Managerial economics

text: Price discrimination involves selling the same good at different prices to different consumer segments. Consumer segments are separated by a significant variation in the amount they are willing to pay. In order for price discrimination to occur, organisations must be able to separate customer segments so that consumers are not aware of price differences.


title: Managerial economics

text: In order to successfully make organisational decisions, management must have an understanding of consumer behaviour and decision-making. Consumer behaviour relates to buying, using and selling goods, services, time and ideas by decision-making units.


title: Managerial economics

text: Rational Choice Theory is a decision-making theory, also known as the law-and-economics theory, which applies the assumption that people will try and maximise their outcomes, have well-defined preferences and are consistently rational decision-makers. This theory develops on the Economic Man Theory, which assumed that people respond to stimuli (external factors) to generate a response (outcome). Rational Choice Theory builds on this theory by understanding that the consumer is an information processing decision-maker, however it fails to incorporate psychological literature and empirical findings on the psychology of human-behaviour.


title: Managerial economics

text: These assumptions do not account for circumstances of human error where consumers misinterpret information, or only consider portions of relevant information. The assumption of rational choice theory that when provided with all the required information, consumers will make a rational decision is limited.


title: Managerial economics

text: Consumer preferences depend on the state the consumer is in when making the decision. Simple examples of states influencing decision making are food tasting better when you are hungry or going being more enjoyable when not sick. Most models of state-dependant preferences make the assumption that people are aware of the influence of their particular state on the preferences they are making in that moment, however empirical studies suggest this is not always true.


title: Managerial economics

text: Projection bias occurs when consumers predict that their future tastes will represent their current tastes.


title: Managerial economics

text: Attribution bias occurs when consumers consider past experiences in deciding whether to repeat a previously performed consumption activity. This bias can lead to systematic errors in economic decisions.


title: Managerial economics

text: Cognitive bias, or status quo bias, occurs when consumers would rather follow previous procedures, or buy previously used products, without evidence that this choice is better than alternatives. This bias opposes the basic law of human nature, that the most adaptable species is the one to survive, and is in opposition with positive views on change expressed in business literature. Cognitive bias can cause interference with the effectiveness of public policies and successful application of relevant policies and choices.


title: Managerial economics

text: Monetary and non-monetary incentives are used by managers to motivate employees to achieve results aligned with firms' objectives. The outcome of incentives depends on the design and the implementation process of the incentives, their interaction with intrinsic and social motivations, and the behavioural effects of their removal.


title: Managerial economics

text: In a field experiment analyzing the effects of performance-based monetary incentives, it was shown that productivity improved in line with employees' ability, however there was an increase in neglect of non-incentivised tasks.


title: Managerial economics

text: Monetary incentives generally have two kinds of effects, known as the standard direct price effect, and the indirect psychological effect. Standard direct price effect makes incentivised behavior more attractive; and the indirect psychological effect makes incentivised behavior less appealing, due to incentives containing information relayed from the principal (manager) to the agent (worker), which can provoke unexpected behavioural outcomes.


title: Managerial economics

text: Agents receive information from both the size and existence of incentives. For example, offering members of the community high monetary compensation to be in the presence of a nuclear waste site, indicates that there are high risks involved with the plant, making community members less willing to accept the plant even in the presence of monetary incentives. Contrarily, in an experiment, a childcare introduced a fee of $3 for parents who picked their children up late. The information conveyed to the parents from this incentive was that the small fine indicated being late is not too bad, and in the short run the number of late pick-ups increased. This information persisted when the fee was removed, and parents who had experienced the fine were more likely to pick their child up late than those who had not received the information given by the incentive.


title: Managerial economics

text: As a general rule however, where incentives are high enough, the standard direct price effect tends to take precedence over the indirect psychological effect, unless incentives are so high that agents form a negative inference of the circumstances.


title: Managerial economics

text: Where workers are paid at a substantially lower rate to their peers, outputs and attendance can fall out of alignment with organisational objectives. Pay disparity can cause harm to an organisations social culture, cohesion and cooperation, and alter the workplace dynamic significantly. In developing countries where social interactions are heavily relied upon for economic activity, these effects are particularly undesirable. It has been proven that these consequences can be avoided by clearly justifying pay inequality to workers. Potentially due to self-serving bias, workers are unwilling to believe that they perform at a lower standard than their peers unless shown undeniable evidence. Particularly in settings where employees do not trust their managers, workers may be inclined to suspect favouritism until they are given evidence and justifications.


title: Managerial economics

text: Tournament theory is used to describe why different pay levels exist between different roles in the business hierarchy. The idea of tournament theory is that agents who put in effort to achieve promotions are rewarded with a higher, non-incremental, pay rate. The reward of a higher pay rate incentivizes behavior that leads to promotions. This behavior is often lucrative and therefore ideal for the business. Tournaments can be very powerful at incentivizing performance. Empirical research in economics and managements have shown that tournament-like incentive structure increases the individual performance or workers and managers in the workplace.


title: Managerial economics

text: Demand forecasting assists management in predicting future sales, which informs operations decisions, marketing decisions, and allows revenue projection to occur, which assists the firm in future financial planning. The process of demand forecasting often uses business analytics, particularly predictive analytics, with respect to historical data and other analytical information to make an accurate estimation. For example, using an estimate of a firm's capital expenditure and cash flow, managers can create forecasts which assist in financial planning and improve the financial health of the firm.


title: Managerial economics

text: Effective demand management considers factors which are both within and without the firms control, such as disposable income, competition, price, advertising and customer service.


title: Managerial economics

text: Consumer choice is highly influential on demand analysis, as each consumer aims to maximise their satisfaction with a combination of goods and services, subject to the limitation of funds available.


title: Managerial economics

text: Production costs directly affects a firm's profitability. Managerial economics involves identifying the out put level for a firm, with respect to minimizing the production cost, where marginal cost equals marginal revenue, in order to maximize its profit. Most common types of costs:


title: Managerial economics

text: Profitability management is understanding what makes a firm profitable, and what can be done to improve its profitability. It integrates finance and sales, and aims to optimize sales revenue and marginal cost of the firm. Profit management is technology enabled, as firms must be quick to respond to rapid changing market and to know the true economic cost of its products and services. Management needs to drive cooperation between different functions of the firm such as sales, marketing, and finance, to ensure the teams recognize the importance of coordinated effort. Proper planning and profitability management is key to good business management.


title: Managerial economics

text: Capital management is the planning, monitoring, and controlling of the assets and liabilities of a firm, particularly, in an effort to maintain cash flow to meet the firm's short-term and long-term financial obligations. Proper capital management is important to the financial health of a firm, with efficient resource allocation through capital management, firms can improve its cash flow and profitability. Capital management involves tracking various ratios within the firm, most important ones include:


title: Managerial economics

text: When making decisions, managerial economics is used to analyze the micro and macroeconomic environments relating to an organization. Microeconomics considers the actions of individual firms surrounding utility maximization, whereas in comparison, Macroeconomics considers the actions and behaviour of the economy as a whole. As such, both area of economics have influence in the development of managerial economics frameworks.


title: Managerial economics

text: With regard to macroeconomic trends, the forecasting and analysis of areas such as output, unemployment, inflation and societal issues are essential in managerial economics. This is because these areas in the macroeconomy have the ability to provide an overview of global market conditions, which can be imperative for managers to understand.


title: Managerial economics

text: An example of managerial economics using macroeconomic principles is a manager choosing to hire new staff rather than training old ones in a time where the rate of unemployment is high, as the possible talent pool would be very large. The political structure of a country (whether authoritarian or democratic), political stability and attitudes towards the private sector can also affect the growth and development of organizations. This can be seen through the influence different government policies can have on management quality. In particular, policies around product market competition has been seen to significantly impact collective management practices in countries by either reducing or supporting poorly managed firms. A clear understanding of relevant markets and their different conditions is a vital task for a managerial economist, as even with market instability and fluctuations the goal is to always steer the company to profits.


title: Managerial economics

text: Microeconomics is closely related to Managerial economics through areas such as; consumer demand and supply, opportunity cost, revenue creation and cost minimization. Managerial economics inculcates the application of microeconomics application and makes use of economic theories and methods in analyzing a business and its management. Moreover, managerial economics combines economic tool and technique to solve the managerial problems.


title: Managerial economics

text: Microeconomics also gives indication on the most effective allocation of resources the business has available to it.


title: Managerial economics

text: These microeconomic theories and considerations are used via managerial economics to make decisions regarding the business. By understanding the principles of microeconomics, managers can be well informed to make accurate decisions regarding the form.


title: Managerial economics

text: An example of managerial economics using microeconomic principles is the decision of a manager to increase the price of the goods being sold. A manager should evaluate the price elasticity of the product to equate the respective demand of the product after the price change.


title: Managerial economics

text: From a management perspective, managerial economics techniques are useful in many areas regarding business decision-making, most commonly including:


title: Managerial economics

text: At its core managerial economics is a decision-making process, by taking two or more options and optimizing a business decision while considering fixed resources to the function.


title: Fake Taxi

text: Fake Taxi is a pornography website which produces videos within the reality pornography genre. Founded and currently owned by Jonathan Todd (aka "The YouPorn Guy" and simply "JT"), who also founded YouPorn, its online presence and assets are managed by MindGeek along with related websites.


title: Fake Taxi

text: The Fake Taxi website originated from Really Useful Ltd in April 2013. Really Useful also managed several other similar pornographic websites. Its United Kingdom-based owner, known as JT, had been named as "CEO of the Year" by adult industry news website XBIZ. Prior to the partnership with MindGeek/Manwin, Really Useful Ltd had functioned independently. Fake Taxi's sister sites include Fake Agent and Public Agent.


title: Fake Taxi

text: Fake Taxi's videos all follow a similar premise that start with a conversation between a taxi driver and a passenger. A typical video would begin with an actress depicting a passenger entering a taxi. The male or female driver, using persuasion fuelled oftentimes by the passenger's lack of funds, finds a way to convince his/her passenger to engage in sexual intercourse in the back of the taxi. Fake Taxi's website is categorised by videos, actresses and scenes from all Fakehub sites. Most content is viewable with paid membership only.


title: Fake Taxi

text: In 2014, information technology company MindGeek, then known as Manwin, took over the management of online assets' for Really Useful Ltd.


title: Fake Taxi

text: MindGeek and Really Useful announced in February 2016 the launch of Female Fake taxi website. The lead actress is the United Kingdom-based adult actress Rebecca More and the videos would follow the same premise of Fake Taxi, except reverse the gender roles wherein the female would be driving and seducing the male (and sometimes female) passenger.


title: Fake Taxi

text: In February 2019 Fake Taxi placed a 2006 TX4 taxi that had been used for filming for sale on eBay. It achieved a highest bid of £66,000 before eBay deleted the sale for contravening its policy on selling something with bodily fluids.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: Operation Fishbowl was a series of high-altitude nuclear tests in 1962 that were carried out by the United States as a part of the larger "Operation Dominic" nuclear test program. Flight-test vehicles were designed and manufactured by Avco Corporation.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: The "Operation Fishbowl" nuclear tests were originally planned to be completed during the first half of 1962 with three tests named "Bluegill, Starfish" and "Urraca".


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: The first test attempt was delayed until June. Planning for "Operation Fishbowl", as well as many other nuclear tests in the region, began rapidly in response to the sudden Soviet announcement on August 30, 1961 that they were ending a three-year moratorium on nuclear testing. The rapid planning of very complex operations necessitated many as the project progressed.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: All of the tests were to be launched on missiles from Johnston Island in the Pacific Ocean north of the equator. Johnston Island had already been established as a launch site for United States high-altitude nuclear tests, rather than the other locations in the Pacific Proving Grounds. In 1958, Lewis Strauss, then chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, opposed doing any high-altitude tests at locations that had been used for earlier Pacific nuclear tests. His opposition was motivated by fears that the flash from the nighttime high-altitude detonations might blind civilians who were living on nearby islands. Johnston Island was a remote location, more distant from populated areas than other potential test locations. In order to protect residents of the Hawaiian Islands from flash blindness or permanent retinal injury from the bright nuclear flash, the nuclear missiles of "Operation Fishbowl" were launched generally toward the southwest of Johnston Island so that the detonations would be farther from Hawaii.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: "Urraca" was to be a test of about 1 megaton yield at very high altitude (above 1000 km.). The proposed "Urraca" test was always controversial, especially after the damage caused to satellites by the "Starfish Prime" detonation, as described below. "Urraca" was finally canceled, and an extensive re-evaluation of the "Operation Fishbowl" plan was made during an 82-day operations pause after the "Bluegill Prime" disaster of July 25, 1962, as described below.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: A test named "Kingfish" was added during the early stages of "Operation Fishbowl" planning. Two low-yield tests, "Checkmate" and "Tightrope", were also added during the project, so the final number of tests in "Operation Fishbowl" was five. "Tightrope" was the last atmospheric nuclear test conducted by the United States, as the Limited Test Ban Treaty came into effect shortly thereafter.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: The United States completed six high-altitude nuclear tests in 1958, but the high-altitude tests of that year raised a number of questions. According to U.S. Government Report ADA955694 on the first successful test of the Fishbowl series, "Previous high-altitude nuclear tests: "Teak", "Orange", and "Yucca", plus the three "ARGUS" shots were poorly instrumented and hastily executed. Despite thorough studies of the meager data, present models of these bursts are sketchy and tentative. These models are too uncertain to permit extrapolation to other altitudes and yields with any confidence. Thus there is a strong need, not only for better instrumentation, but for further tests covering a range of altitudes and yields."


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: The "Fishbowl" tests were monitored by a large number of surface and aircraft-based stations in the wide area around the planned detonations and also in the region in the southern hemisphere in the Samoan Islands region, which was known in these tests as the southern conjugate region. Johnston Island is in the northern hemisphere, as were all of the planned "Operation Fishbowl" nuclear detonation locations. It was known from previous high altitude tests, as well as from theoretical work done in the late 1950s, that high-altitude nuclear tests produce a number of unique geophysical phenomena at the opposite end of the magnetic field line of the Earth's magnetic field.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: According to the standard reference book on nuclear weapon effects by the United States Department of Defense, "For the high-altitude tests conducted in 1958 and 1962 in the vicinity of Johnston Island, the charged particles entered the atmosphere in the northern hemisphere between Johnston Island and the main Hawaiian Islands, whereas the conjugate region was in the vicinity of the Samoan, Fiji, and Tonga Islands. It is in these areas that auroras were actually observed, in addition to those in the areas of the nuclear explosions."


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: Beta particles are charged particles (usually with a negative electrical charge) that are released from nuclear explosions. These particles travel in a spiral along the magnetic field lines in the Earth's magnetic field. The nuclear explosions also release heavier debris ions, which also carry an electrical charge, and which also travel in a spiral along the Earth's magnetic field lines.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: The Earth's magnetic field lines arc high above the Earth until they reach the magnetic conjugate area in the opposite hemisphere.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: According to the DOD nuclear weapon effects reference, "Because the beta particles have high velocities, the beta auroras in the remote (southern) hemisphere appeared within a fraction of a second of those in the hemisphere where the burst had occurred. The debris ions, however, travel more slowly and so the debris aurora in the remote hemisphere, if it is formed, appears at a somewhat later time. The beta auroras are generally most intense at an altitude of 30 to 60 miles, whereas the intensity of the debris auroras is greatest in the 60 to 125 miles range. Remote conjugate beta auroras can occur if the detonation is above 25 miles, whereas debris auroras appear only if the detonation altitude is in excess of some 200 miles."


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: Some of the charged particles traveling along the Earth's magnetic field lines cause auroras and other geophysical phenomena in the conjugate areas. Other charged particles are reflected back along the magnetic field lines, where they can persist for long periods of time (up to several months or longer), forming artificial radiation belts.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: According to the "Operation Fishbowl" planning document of November 1961, "Since much valuable data can be obtained from time and spectrum resolved photography, this dictates that the test be performed at nighttime when auroral photographic conditions are best." As with all U.S. Pacific high-altitude nuclear tests, all of the "Operation Fishbowl" tests were completed at night. This is in contrast to the high-altitude nuclear tests of the Soviet Project K nuclear tests, which were done over the populated land region of central Kazakhstan, and therefore had to be done during the daytime to avoid eyeburn damage to the population from the very bright flash of high-altitude nuclear explosions (as discussed in the introduction to this article).


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: According to the initial plan of "Operation Fishbowl", the nuclear tests were to be "Bluegill", "Starfish" and "Urraca", in that order. If a test were to fail, the next attempt of the same test would be of the same name plus the word "prime." If "Bluegill" failed, the next attempt would be "Bluegill Prime", and if "Bluegill Prime" failed, the next attempt would be "Bluegill Double Prime", etc.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: The first planned test of "Operation Fishbowl" was on June 2, 1962 when a nuclear warhead was launched from Johnston Island on a "Thor" missile just after midnight. Although the "Thor" missile appeared to be on a normal trajectory, the radar tracking system lost track of the missile. Because of the large number of ships and aircraft in the area, there was no way to predict if the missile was on a safe trajectory, so the range safety officers ordered the missile with its warhead to be destroyed. No nuclear detonation occurred and no data was obtained, but subsequent investigation found that the Thor was actually following the proper flight trajectory.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: The second planned test of "Operation Fishbowl" was on June 19, 1962. The launch of a "Thor" missile with a nuclear warhead occurred just before midnight from Johnston Island. The "Thor" missile flew a normal trajectory for 59 seconds; then the rocket engine suddenly stopped, and the missile began to break apart. The range safety officer ordered the destruction of the missile and the warhead. The missile was between 30,000 and 35,000 feet (between 9.1 and 10.7 km) in altitude when it was destroyed.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: Some of the missile parts fell on Johnston Island, and a large amount of missile debris fell into the ocean in the vicinity of the island. Navy Explosive Ordnance Disposal and Underwater Demolition Team swimmers recovered approximately 250 pieces of the missile assembly during the next two weeks. Some of the debris was contaminated with plutonium. Nonessential personnel had been evacuated from Johnston Island during the test.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: On July 9, 1962, at 09:00:09 Coordinated Universal Time, which was nine seconds after 10 p.m. on July 8, Johnston Island local time, the "Starfish Prime" test was successfully detonated at an altitude of . The coordinates of the detonation were 16 degrees, 28 minutes North latitude, 169 degrees, 38 minutes West longitude (30 km, or about 18 mi, southwest of Johnston Island). The actual weapon yield was very close to the design yield, which has been described by various sources at different values in the very narrow range of 1.4 to 1.45 megatons (6.0 PJ).


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: The "Thor" missile carrying the Starfish Prime warhead actually reached an apogee (maximum height) of about 1100 km (just over 680 miles), and the warhead was detonated on its downward trajectory when it had fallen to the programmed altitude of . The nuclear warhead detonated at 13 minutes and 41 seconds after liftoff of the Thor missile.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: "Starfish Prime" caused an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) which was far larger than expected, so much larger that it drove much of the instrumentation off scale, causing great difficulty in getting accurate measurements. The "Starfish Prime" electromagnetic pulse also made those effects known to the public by causing electrical damage in Hawaii, about away from the detonation point, knocking out about 300 streetlights, setting off numerous burglar alarms and damaging a telephone company microwave link (the detonation time was nine seconds after 11 p.m. in Hawaii).


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: A total of 27 sounding rockets were launched from Johnston Island to obtain experimental data from the shot, with the first of the support rockets being launched 2 hours and 45 minutes before the launch of the Thor missile carrying the nuclear warhead. Most of these smaller instrumentation rockets were launched just after the time of the launch of the main Thor missile carrying the warhead. In addition, a large number of rocket-borne instruments were launched from a firing area at Barking Sands, Kauai, in the Hawaiian Islands.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: A very large number of United States military ships and aircraft were operating in support of "Starfish Prime" in the Johnston Island area and across the nearby North Pacific region, including the primary instrumentation ship USAS American Mariner providing measurements conducted by personnel provided by RCA Service Company and Barnes Engineering Company. A few military ships and aircraft were also positioned in the southern conjugate region for the test, which was near the Samoan Islands. In addition, an uninvited observation ship from the Soviet Union was stationed near Johnston Island for the test and another Soviet scientific expeditionary ship was located in the southern conjugate region, permanent features of all future oceanic nuclear testing.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: After the "Starfish Prime" detonation, bright auroras were observed in the detonation area as well as in the southern conjugate region on the other side of the equator from the detonation. According to one of the first technical reports, "The visible phenomena due to the burst were widespread and quite intense; a very large area of the Pacific was illuminated by the auroral phenomena, from far south of the south magnetic conjugate area (Tongatapu) through the burst area to far north of the north conjugate area (French Frigate Shoals). ... At twilight after the burst, resonant scattering of light from lithium and other debris was observed at Johnston and French Frigate Shoals for many days confirming the longtime presence of debris in the atmosphere. An interesting side effect was that the Royal New Zealand Air Force was aided in anti-submarine maneuvers by the light from the bomb."


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: The "Starfish Prime" radiation belt persisted at high altitude for many months and damaged the United States satellites "Traac", "Transit 4B", "Injun I" and "Telstar I", as well as the United Kingdom satellite "Ariel". It also damaged the Soviet satellite "Cosmos V". All of these satellites failed completely within several months of the "Starfish" detonation. There is also evidence that the "Starfish Prime" radiation belt may have damaged the satellites "Explorer 14, Explorer 15" and "Relay 1". "Telstar I" lasted the longest of the satellites that were clearly damaged by the "Starfish Prime" radiation, with its complete failure occurring on February 21, 1963.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: In 2010, the United States Defense Threat Reduction Agency issued a report that had been written in support of the United States Commission to Assess the Threat to the United States from Electromagnetic Pulse Attack. The report, entitled "Collateral Damage to Satellites from an EMP Attack," discusses in great detail the satellite damage caused by the "Starfish Prime" artificial radiation belts as well as other historical nuclear events that caused artificial radiation belts and their effects on many satellites that were then in orbit. The same report also projects the effects of one or more present-day high altitude nuclear explosions upon the formation of artificial radiation belts and the probable resulting effects on satellites that were in orbit as of the year 2010.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: On July 25, 1962, a second attempt was made to launch the "Bluegill" device, but ended in disaster when the Thor suffered a stuck valve preventing the flow of LOX to the combustion chamber. The engine lost thrust and unburned RP-1 spilled down into the hot thrust chamber, igniting and starting a fire around the base of the missile. With the Thor engulfed in flames, the Range Safety Officer sent the destruct command, which split the rocket and ruptured both fuel tanks, completely destroying the missile and badly damaging the launch pad. The warhead charges also exploded asymmetrically and sprayed the area with the moderately radioactive core materials.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: Although there was little danger of an accidental nuclear explosion, the destruction of the nuclear warhead on the launch pad caused contamination of the area by alpha-emitting core materials. Burning rocket fuel, flowing through the cable trenches, caused extensive chemical contamination of the trenches and the equipment associated with the cabling in the trenches.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: The radioactive contamination on Johnston Island was determined to be a major problem, and it was necessary to decontaminate the entire area before the badly damaged launch pad could be rebuilt.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: "Operation Fishbowl" test operations stopped after the disastrous failure of "Bluegill Prime", and most of the personnel not directly involved in the radioactive cleanup and launch pad rebuild on Johnston Island returned to their home stations to await the resumption of tests.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: According to the "Operation Dominic I" report, "The enforced pause allowed DOD to replan the remainder of the "Fishbowl" series. The "Urraca" event was canceled to avoid further damage to satellites and three new shots were added." A second launch pad was constructed during the operations pause so that "Operation Fishbowl" could continue in the event of another serious incident.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: After a pause of nearly three months, "Operation Fishbowl" was ready to continue, beginning with another attempt at the "Bluegill" test.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: Eighty-two days after the failure of "Bluegill Prime", about 30 minutes before midnight on the night of October 15, 1962, local Johnston Island time (October 16 UTC), another attempt was made at the "Bluegill" test. The "Thor" missile malfunctioned and began tumbling out of control about 85 seconds after launch, and the range safety officer ordered the destruction of the missile and its nuclear warhead about 95 seconds after launch.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: On October 19, 1962, at about 90 minutes before midnight (local Johnston Island time), an XM-33 "Strypi" rocket launched a low-yield nuclear warhead which detonated successfully at an altitude of . It was reported that the yield and burst altitude were very close to those desired, but according to most official documents the exact nuclear yield remains classified. It is reported in the open literature as simply being less than 20 kilotons. One report by the U.S. federal government, however, reported the Checkmate test yield as 10 kilotons.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: It was reported that, "Observers on Johnston Island saw a green and blue circular region surrounded by a blood-red ring formed overhead that faded in less than 1 minute. Blue-green streamers and numerous pink striations formed, the latter lasting for 30 minutes. Observers at Samoa saw a white flash, which faded to orange and disappeared in about 1 minute."


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: The fourth attempt at the "Bluegill" test was launched on a "Thor" missile on October 25, 1962 (Johnston Island time). It resulted in a successful detonation of a submegaton nuclear warhead at about one minute before midnight, local time (the official Coordinated Universal Time was 0959 on October 26, 1962). It was officially reported as being in the submegaton range (meaning more than 200 kilotons but less than one megaton), and most observers of the U.S. nuclear testing programs believe that the nuclear yield was about 400 kilotons. One report by the U.S. federal government reported the test yield as 200 kilotons.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: Since all of the Operation Fishbowl tests were planned to occur during the night, the potential for eyeburn, especially for permanent retinal damage, was an important consideration at all levels of planning. Much research went into the potential eyeburn problem. One of the official reports for the project stated that, for the altitudes planned for the "Bluegill, Kingfish" and "Checkmate" tests, "the thermal-pulse durations are of the same order of magnitude or shorter than the natural blink period which, for the average person, is about 150 milliseconds. Furthermore, the atmospheric attenuation is normally much less for a given distance than in the case of sea-level or near-sea-level explosions. Consequently, the eye-damage hazard is more severe."


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: Two cases of retinal damage did occur with military personnel on Johnston Island during the Bluegill Triple Prime test. Neither individual had his protective goggles in place at the instant of the detonation. One official report stated, "In the first case, acuity for central vision was 20/400 initially, but returned to 20/25 by six months. The second victim was less fortunate, as central vision did not improve beyond 20/60. The lesion diameters were 0.35 and 0.50 mm respectively. Both individuals noted immediate visual disturbances, but neither was incapacitated."


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: There had been concern that eyeburn problems might occur during the earlier "Starfish Prime" test, since the countdown was rebroadcast by radio stations in Hawaii, and many civilians would be watching the thermonuclear detonation as it occurred, but no such problems in Hawaii were reported.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: The "Kingfish" detonation occurred at 0210 (Johnston Island time) on November 1, 1962 and was the fourth successful detonation of the Fishbowl series. It was officially reported only as being a submegaton explosion (meaning in the range of more than 200 kilotons, but less than a megaton), but most independent observers believe that it used the same 400 kiloton warhead as the "Bluegill Triple Prime" test, although one report by the U.S. federal government reported the test yield as 200 kilotons.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: As with the other Fishbowl tests, a number of small rockets with various scientific instrumentation were launched from Johnson Island to monitor the effects of the high-altitude explosion. In the case of the Kingfish test, 29 rockets were launched from Johnston Island in addition to the Thor rocket carrying the nuclear warhead.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: According to the official report, at the time of the "Kingfish" detonation, "Johnston Island observers saw a yellow-white, luminous circle with intense purple streamers for the first minute. Some of the streamers displayed what appeared to be a rapid twisting motion at times. A large pale-green patch appeared somewhat south of the burst and grew, becoming the dominant visible feature after 5 minutes. By H+1 the green had become dull gray, but the feature persisted for 3 hours. At Oahu a bright flash was observed and after about 10 seconds a great white ball appeared to rise slowly out of the sea and was visible for about 9 minutes."


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: After most of the electromagnetic pulse measurements on Starfish Prime had failed because the EMP was so much larger than expected, extra care was taken to obtain accurate EMP measurements on the Bluegill Triple Prime and Kingfish tests. The EMP mechanism that had been hypothesized before "Operation Fishbowl" had been conclusively disproven by the "Starfish Prime" test. Prompt gamma ray output measurements on these later tests were also carefully obtained so that a new theory of the mechanism for high-altitude EMP could be developed and confirmed. That new theory about the generation of nuclear EMP was developed by Los Alamos physicist Conrad Longmire in 1963, and it is the high-altitude nuclear EMP theory that is still used today.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: As of the beginning of 2011, the EMP waveforms and prompt gamma radiation outputs for "Bluegill Triple Prime" and "Kingfish" remain classified. An unclassified report, however, confirms that these measurements were successfully made and that a subsequent theory (which is the one now used) was developed which describes the mechanism by which the high-altitude EMP is generated. That new theory does give results which are consistent with both the "Bluegill Triple Prime" and "Kingfish" data. (The report actually using the "Bluegill Triple Prime" and "Kingfish data" to confirm the new EMP theory is the still-classified Part 2 of the unclassified report by Conrad Longmire.)


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: According to a Sandia National Laboratories report, EMP generated during the "Operation Fishbowl" tests caused "... input circuit troubles in radio receivers during the "Starfish" and "Checkmat"e bursts; the triggering of surge arresters on an airplane with a trailing-wire antenna during Starfish, Checkmate, and Bluegill; and the Oahu streetlight incident." (The "Oahu streetlight incident" refers to the 300 streetlights in Honolulu extinguished by the Starfish Prime detonation.)


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: The final test of Operation Fishbowl was detonated at 2130 (9:30 p.m. local Johnston Island time) on November 3, 1962 (the time and date was officially recorded as 0730 UTC, November 4, 1962). It was launched on a Nike-Hercules missile, and detonated at a lower altitude than the other Fishbowl tests. Although it was officially one of the Operation Fishbowl tests, it is sometimes not listed among high-altitude nuclear tests because of its lower detonation altitude. The nuclear yield was reported in most official documents only as being less than 20 kilotons. One report by the U.S. federal government reported the "Tightrope" test yield as 10 kilotons.


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: "At Johnston Island, there was an intense white flash. Even with high-density goggles, the burst was too bright to view, even for a few seconds. A distinct thermal pulse was also felt on the bare skin. A yellow-orange disc was formed, which transformed itself into a purple doughnut. A glowing purple cloud was faintly visible for a few minutes."


title: Operation Fishbowl

text: Seven rockets carrying scientific instrumentation were launched from Johnston Island in support of the "Tightrope" test, which was the final atmospheric test conducted by the United States.


title: Nenets people

text: The Nenets (, "nenəj nenəče", , "nentsy"), also known as Samoyed, are a Samoyedic ethnic group native to northern Arctic Russia, Russian Far North. According to the latest census in 2010, there were 44,857 Nenets in the Russian Federation, most of them living in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Nenets Autonomous Okrug and Taymyrsky Dolgano-Nenetsky District stretching along the coastline of the Arctic Ocean near the Arctic Circle between Kola and Taymyr peninsulas. The Nenets people speak either the Tundra or Forest Nenets languages, which are mutually unintelligible. In the Russian Federation they have a status of indigenous small-numbered peoples. Today, the Nenets people face numerous challenges from the state and oil and gas companies that threaten the environment and their way of life. As a result, many cite a rise in locally based activism.


title: Nenets people

text: The literal morphs "samo" and "yed" in Russian convey the meaning "self-eater", which is considered derogatory. Therefore, the name "Samoyed" quickly went out of usage in the 20th century. The people are known as the "Nenets", which means "people".


title: Nenets people

text: In old Russian, the term "Samoyed" was often applied indiscriminately to different peoples of Northern Russia who speak related Uralic languages: Nenets, Nganasans, Enets, Selkups (speakers of Samoyedic languages). Currently, the term "Samoyedic peoples" applies to the whole group of these different peoples. It is the general term that includes the Nenets, Enets, Selkup, and Nganasan peoples.


title: Nenets people

text: The Nenets language is on the Samoyedic branch of the Uralic language family, with two major dialects, Forest Nenets and Tundra Nenets. Ethnologue says that in Siberia, most young people are still fluent in Nenets, whereas in European Russia, they tend to speak Russian. Overall, the majority of native speakers are from older generations. UNESCO classifies Nenets as an endangered language. Some believe that the use of Russian and Komi is due to inter-ethnic marriages.


title: Nenets people

text: There are two distinct groups of Nenets "sensu stricto", based on their economy: the Tundra Nenets (living far to the north) and the Khandeyar, or Forest Nenets. A distinct third group of Nenets, (Yaran people), has emerged as a result of intermarriages between Nenets and Izhma Komi people.


title: Nenets people

text: The Samoyedic languages form a branch of the Uralic language family. According to one theory, they moved from farther south in Siberia to the northernmost part of what later became Russia sometime before the 12th century.


title: Nenets people

text: They ended up between the Kanin and Taymyr peninsulas, around the Ob and Yenisey rivers, with only a few of them settling into small communities like Kolva. Their main subsistence comes from hunting and reindeer herding. Using reindeer as a draft animal throughout the year enables them to cover great distances. Large-scale reindeer herding emerged in the 18th century. They bred the Samoyed dog to help herd their reindeer and pull their sleds, and European explorers later used these dogs for polar expeditions, because they were well adapted to the arctic conditions. Tundra wolves can cause considerable economic loss, as they prey on the reindeer herds which are the livelihood of some Nenets families. However, the introduction of snowmobiles in the 1990s allowed the Nenets of the Yamal Peninsula to decimate the local wolf population, as the wolves have nowhere to hide on the open tundra. Along with reindeer meat, fish is a major component in the Nenets' diet. Nenets housing is conical yurt (mya).


title: Nenets people

text: They have a shamanistic and animistic belief system which stresses respect for the land and its resources. During migrations, the Nenets placed sacred items like bear skins, religious figures, coins and more on a holy sleigh. The contents of this sacred sleigh are only unpacked during special occasions or for religious rituals (like sacrifices). However, only esteemed elders are allowed to unpack the sacred sleigh. They had a clan-based social structure. The Nenets shaman is called a Tadibya.


title: Nenets people

text: After the Russian Revolution, the Nenets culture suffered due to the Soviet collectivization policy. The government of the Soviet Union tried to force the nomadic Samoyeds to settle down permanently. They were forced to settle in villages and their children were educated in state boarding schools, which resulted in erosion of their cultural identity. One significant way in which the Nenets culture was affected was in the change of the male's societal role. Previously, in the tundra, the male had the very important task of herding the reindeer. However, once the Nenets had to transition to a life away from the tundra, men found that they had lost their role. Much of the responsibility that awaited them in the village was considered, from the traditional point of view, to be women's work. This erasure in the male identity was further enhanced by the Soviet government. In taiga villages occupations such as market gardening, fur farming, cattle breeding, trade, medicine, etc. were emphasized and these happened to be the ones that were marketed towards women. Lastly, the jobs offered by the Soviet government were often occupied by women and not men as many of the men had taken up the habit of hard drinking. Consequently, the once traditional culture of the Nenets people was swiftly upended. Many, especially in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, lost their mother tongue and became assimilated.


title: Nenets people

text: One repercussion from the collectivization policy was reindeer ownership. Due to the collectivization policy, many herders moved north while many of those that remained were "deprived of their reindeer". Nenets people once owned many reindeer but after the war, many Nenets had to transition to small-scale herding. Although the Nenets herders were greatly affected, their lifestyle was not at threat for too long. While in the rest of Russia, the collectivization policy lasted for a very long time, it was only invoked onto the Yamal area for a decade. This was because after Stalin's death in 1953, traditional economies were saved. 1950 to 1960 saw a 50% increase of reindeer and this number had almost doubled by 1980. The next few decades saw the slow progress of the Nenets people regaining and preserving their traditional nomadic lifestyle. The accomplishment of appeasing officials while maintaining their culture was achieved through a series of stratagems. For example, herders would often mix up the herds so that inspectors would find it impossible to see the true ratio of private to collective deer. Another method was for young herders to get a job as official workers of the state and pasture their own collective reindeer herd along with the private herd of one of their relatives. Once these herds were together and migration commenced, officials would not be able to know which of the reindeer were privately owned.


title: Nenets people

text: Since the 1930s, a few Nenets have expressed themselves professionally through cultural media. For instance, Tyko Vylka and Konstantin Pankov became well-known painters. Anna Nerkagi is one of the most celebrated Nenets writers. Yuri Vella, though living as a reindeer herder, has become the first writer in the Forest Nenets language.


title: Nenets people

text: Although the Nenets people were able to remain resilient in the face of continuous change and maltreatment, a new challenge now awaits them. Environmental damage to the Nenets' is significant due to industrialisation of their land, colonization and climate change. The Nenet people depend heavily on fishing and reindeer herding to support their lifestyle. However, these practices are highly reliant on the environment which is under threat from the oil industry. Specifically, the nomadic lifestyle the Nenet people have been accustomed to for generations is in danger as the oil industries encroach on reindeer pasture and territory. Approximately half of the 10,000 Nenets people in the Yamal Peninsula are nomadic and herd reindeer. With oil industries continuing to expand, the impact on the Nenets people is expected to increase.


title: Nenets people

text: Since the 1980s, the Arctic Circle has gained the interest of those in the energy and mining industry. Although expansion halted briefly in the 1990s post-USSR disintegration, development picked up in 2004. As oil and gas companies continue to expand, along with it has come an expansion of infrastructure coming in the form of roads, power lines as well as human and vehicle traffic. A big milestone was in 2008, when Gazprom, the largest natural gas company in the world, entered the Yamal peninsula in their efforts to launch the Yamal Megaproject. Gazprom's arrival to the Yamal peninsula has brought about significant change to the area. According to the company's website, they operate a total of 32 fields. These fields bring in up to 360 billion cubic meters of gas per year and in 2019, Gazprom alone produced 96.3 billion cubic meters of gas. Another milestone was when Yamal LNG Project: Novatek, another Russian owned company, partnered with two other international corporations to build a plant on the Yamal peninsula in July 2013.


title: Nenets people

text: The impact of large energy corporations in the Yamal peninsula can be felt in numerous ways. The largest of these can be seen in the effects on migration routes. With the Nenets people being nomadic and reliant on reindeer husbandry, the migratory routes for the reindeer are very important to them. These migratory routes are very specific and a lot of consideration goes into planning them. Additionally, the herders believe that it is necessary for the reindeer to migrate in order for them to maintain their good health. The herders claim that this is because the vegetation found on the coast are good for reindeer as they are richer in salt and minerals. Also, by reaching the coast with the migrations, the reindeer are able to find relief from insects such as mosquito and botfly by avoiding infestation periods. These migratory routes that the herders and reindeer use are made of rugged terrain as they provide a good space to herd the reindeer. However, the companies that enter the Yamal peninsula also prefer this rugged terrain to build their infrastructure upon, causing a direct overlap in land of interest. For example, in the Bovanenko core area, a research study was conducted that found that industrial development targeted "rugged, elevated drier land" which is the type of land used by the reindeer herders. Thus, as the Nenets people rely on reindeer that, in turn, rely on the migratory routes, the expansion of industrial development has had a large impact on the Nenets people.


title: Nenets people

text: Although not directly related to migration routes, another impact is the effect on Nenets peoples' sacred spots. The Nenets people have a tradition of designating a sacred spot where they make a request of the spirits for a successful migration. Nenets sacred spots are made into a major sand/quarry pit and marked by wooden pegs. In one case, a sacred spot of the Nenets people was fenced in during the industrial development, dissolving it of its traditional significance. Many of the workers believed that their construction did not actually intrude on the sacred spot, however many of the herders believed that the spot had been "desecrated". This difference in perceptions highlights how many non-indigenous people are only able to view land as something to be owned. Meanwhile, for indigenous people, such a viewpoint is non-existent. Herders have a spiritual relationship with the land and do not view it as simply owned vs not-owned.


title: Nenets people

text: Another smaller effect of the industrial development has been its impact on fish. Due to the industrial development, there has been a degradation of freshwater sources which has led to a decrease in the population. Additionally, the industrial development has spilled over to occupy much of the fishing grounds necessary for the Nenets people. As the Nenets people depend on the fish as their source of food in the summer, the depletion of fish has directly impacted the Nenets people.


title: Nenets people

text: Lastly, an impact that is loosely related with the migration routes is accessibility to health care clinics by the Nenets people. Since the arrival of large oil and gas companies in the 1990s, climate in the region has been impacted. In fact, since 1991 temperature anomalies in the Kanin have increased an estimated 1.4 degrees Celsius per decade. Within this same period, researchers found a trend of delayed herder arrivals to their local health clinic. Researchers cite the lengthening of the migrations as the reason for the delay. As the herders need open water to freeze to make crossings of reindeer and herders possible, there is a specific window in which herders can visit their local health clinics. Since 1991, the arrival of herders at one health clinic can be observed shifting from October to December, marking an evident postponement in arrival.


title: Nenets people

text: There are some Nenets people, activists, and researchers who are nervous about the current situation in the Yamal peninsula. This is because there is concern that authorities of the Nenets people will make a deal to merge with another region. Nenets people worry that the deal will lead to a passing in their autonomy as well as their language and traditions. As of November 2020, the Nenets people have not merged with other regions.


title: Nenets people

text: In a similar vein, Nenets people also face danger from industrial companies. Although the industrial companies have paid compensations and made efforts to assist the Nenets people, some experts say that the current process does not allow for participation from the Nenets people. This sort of relationship is described by some as "paternalistic" as it does not aid in allowing the Nenets people to make their own decisions.


title: Nenets people

text: The Nenets people have previously attempted to organize and protest against these oil and gas companies. However, it is difficult for the nomadic people to gather as a collective unit as they live so far apart from each other. An individual effort that was notable was Yuri Vella's protests. Vella was a Nenets writer and having lived near a lake that was licensed over to an oil company, protested often. Most notably, he is remembered for having stood up against a bulldozer alone with an axe.


title: Nenets people

text: Vella, however, is not alone in his activism. There exists a rural protest community called Voice of the Tundra that currently speaks on topics such as the rights of the Nenets people. As aforementioned, it is difficult to gather collectively and so this community relies on VKontakte, a Russian online service, to mobilize and communicate. Additionally, rather than being led by lawyers or journalists or scholars, the community has a young reindeer herder from the tundra as their leaders. The Voice of the Tundra focuses its attention on three main issues: a shortage of land for the reindeer due to oil and gas companies expanding use of the territories, the uncertainty surrounding the future of nomadic reindeer herding, and the lack of Indigenous leadership and organization.


title: Nenets people

text: The Voice of the Tundra project is being celebrated as it symbolizes a return of politics to Russia's Indigenous peoples. Specifically, a reindeer herder by the name of Eiko Serotetto is being heralded as the main activist generating the change. Serotetto is not someone who has had a traditional background or education. However, in 2016, he demonstrated that this would not weigh him down when he began to take action in the aftermath of the anthrax epidemic. Serotetto posted a petition on social media that asked for attention to be brought to the Indigenous peoples and their reindeers. Serotetto requested protection of Indigenous habitats, reindeer, and rights. This petition brought attention to the Russian officials who were not addressing the "real life of the tundra and Indigenous people". Later, Serotetto's most impactful petition was made when he advocated for the boycott of Russian oil and gas.


title: Nenets people

text: Although there are many Nenets people who are against the industrial development going on in the Yamal peninsula such as the activists aforementioned, there are also many who are in support of the developments. Those who are in favour of the developments highlight the economic benefits that they are able to receive. In a research study conducted in the area, one villager reported that they were able to coexist with the industries through social agreements, voluntary giving, and compensation for damages.


title: Nenets people

text: Some argue that this variance in support for the industrial companies from the Nenets people lies in factors such as active leadership from community leaders. This reasoning can be seen as falling similarly in line with what the Voice of the Tundra was fighting for, as it can be seen that proper Indigenous leadership and involvement can lead to higher satisfaction among the Nenets people.


title: Ionia

text: Ionia () was an ancient region on the western coast of Anatolia, to the south of present-day Izmir. It consisted of the northernmost territories of the Ionian League of Greek settlements. Never a unified state, it was named after the Ionian tribe who had settled in the region before the Archaic period.


title: Ionia

text: Ionia proper comprised a narrow coastal strip from Phocaea in the north near the mouth of the river Hermus (now the Gediz), to Miletus in the south near the mouth of the river Maeander, and included the islands of Chios and Samos. It was bounded by Aeolia to the north, Lydia to the east and Caria to the south. The cities within the region figured large in the strife between the Persian Empire and the Greeks.


title: Ionia

text: Ionian cities were identified by mythic traditions of kinship and by their use of the Ionic dialect, but there was a core group of twelve Ionian cities who formed the Ionian League and had a shared sanctuary and festival at Panionion. These twelve cities were (from south to north): Miletus, Myus, Priene, Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedos, Teos, Erythrae, Clazomenae and Phocaea, together with the islands of Samos and Chios. Smyrna, originally an Aeolic colony, was afterwards occupied by Ionians from Colophon, and became an Ionian city.


title: Ionia

text: Ionia was of small extent, not exceeding in length from north to south, with the cities located on a narrow band between the sea and the mountains, which varies in width from So intricate is the coastline that the voyage along its shores was estimated at nearly four times the direct distance. The location of the eastern border with Lydia and Caria was vague in antiquity.


title: Ionia

text: The region comprised three extremely fertile valleys formed by the outflow of three rivers, among the most considerable in Asia Minor: the Hermus in the north, flowing into the Gulf of Smyrna, though at some distance from the city of that name; the Caÿster (modern Küçük Menderes River), which flowed past Ephesus; and the Maeander, which in ancient times discharged its waters into a deep gulf between Priene and Miletus, but which has been gradually filled up by this river's deposits.


title: Ionia

text: Two east-west mountain ranges divide the region and extend out into the Aegean as peninsulas. The first begins as Mount Sipylus between the Hermus and Caÿster river valleys and continues out as the Erythrae peninsula, which faces the island of Chios. The second is the Messogis range between the Caÿster and Maeander ranges, which becomes the Mycale peninsula, which reaches out towards the island of Samos. None of these mountain ranges exceed .


title: Ionia

text: Ionia enjoyed the reputation in ancient times of being the most fertile region of Asia Minor. Herodotus declares "in terms of climate and weather, there is no fairer region in the whole world."


title: Ionia

text: From the 18th century BC the region was a part of the Hittite Empire with possible name Arzawa, which was destroyed by invaders during the 12th century BC together with the collapse of the Empire. Ionia was settled by the Greeks probably during the 11th century BC. The most important city was Miletus (the "Millawanda/Milawata" of Hittites). There is no record of any people named Ionians in Late Bronze Age Anatolia but Hittite texts record contact with Ahhiyawans ("Achaeans"), without being clear on their location. Miletus and some other cities founded earlier by non-Greeks received populations of Mycenaean Greeks


title: Ionia

text: Greek settlement of Ionia seems to have accelerated following the Bronze Age collapse, but the lack of contemporary sources makes the sequence of events unclear.


title: Ionia

text: The ancient Greeks believed that the Ionians were the descendants of Ion (either a son or grandson of Hellen, the mythical ancestor of the Greeks) and had migrated from Greece to Asia Minor in mythic times. The story is attested from the Classical period. Herodotus states that in Asia the Ionians kept the division into twelve cities that had prevailed in Ionian lands of the north Peloponnese, their former homeland, which became Achaea after they left. However, the story of the migration is recounted most fully by the Roman-period authors Strabo and Pausanias. They report that the Ionians were expelled from the Peloponnese by Achaians, and were granted refuge in Athens by King Melanthus. Later, when Medon was selected as King of Athens, his brothers, the "sons of Codrus" led a group of Ionians and others to Asia Minor. Simultaneously, the Aeolians of Boeotia settled the coast to the north of the Ionians and the Dorians settled in Crete, the Dodecanese and in Caria.


title: Ionia

text: In the Archaic period, "the Ionian poleis were among the cultural, intellectual, and political leaders of the Greek world."