title: Paruthiveeran

text: The film and many of its cast and crew have been awarded or nominated by many associations in India and worldwide for the film. Notably, Priyamani has won the Best Actress prizes at all awards ceremonies. "Paruthiveeran" was honoured with the "Special Mention" award from the Network for the Promotion of Asian Cinema (NETPAC) at the 58th Berlin International Film Festival. The film was screened five times at the Berlin Film Festival in two German subtitled versions and three English subtitled versions.


title: Paruthiveeran

text: There was a controversy surrounding the ownership of the movie. Ameer has complained that the original producer K. E. Gnanavel Raja, couldn't finance the movie till its completion, so he supposedly gave up the movie to Ameer. But towards the completion of the movie, Ameer ran out of funds and the movie went back to Gnanavel. Since the release of the movie, both parties have been accusing each other for failing to make a payment which each owes from the other.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: An anime television series adaptation aired from October 2013 to July 2014, followed by a second season aired from October 2014 to March 2015, a third season aired from January to June 2017, a fourth season aired from January to June 2018, and a fifth season premiered in October 2022. The first three seasons have been licensed by Discotek Media in North America in 2014. A live-action television drama adaptation aired in August 2016. A live-action film adaptation was released on August 14, 2020.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: As of July 2021, "Yowamushi Pedal" had over 27 million copies in circulation, making it one of the best-selling manga series. In 2015, the manga won the Best Shōnen Manga award at the 39th Kodansha Manga Awards.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: Sakamichi Onoda is an otaku who has just entered high school. In middle school, Onoda did not have any friends with whom he could talk about his interests, and hopes to change that by joining his new school's anime club. However, he is crushed when he discovers the anime club has been disbanded due to lack of interest, and in order to reestablish the club, four new members must join.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: Since he was a little boy, Onoda has ridden his city bicycle (referred to as a "mamachari", meaning "Mommy Bike", in the anime)—a simple and bulky bicycle designed for short rides—for transportation and fun. A fellow freshman, and much more serious cyclist, named Shunsuke Imaizumi notices Onoda riding his mamachari and mocks him inwardly until he sees Onoda riding up a steep hill with little effort. Another student named Naruko visits Akihabara to get some plastic Gundam models for his younger brothers and meets Onoda, who catches his attention because of his cycling skill on the mamachari. Later on, both Naruko and Imaizumi try to convince him to join the bicycle racing club at their high school, Sohoku.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: Sohoku is a hard-working team that acts as the main school in the story. The team is characterized as being able to overcome internal conflicts and brutal training. For example, Sohoku hosts an intense and gruelling 1000 km training camp every year to determine who will advance to the main race of the series, the Inter-High.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: Hakone Academy is the country's largest cycling team, and claims to be made up of “six aces” with many more in reserve. During the first year of the series, it was noted to have 50 club members. Since Hakone is such an expansive team, the selection process of who does, and does not, go to the Inter-High is quite complex. To determine who has the honor of participating in the Inter-High, all of the members race against each other, and only the winners of each group (A - F), are allowed to participate. Furthermore, these groups are divided so that the team takes three all-rounders, two climbers, and up to two sprinters to the Inter-High.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: Kyoto Fushimi, or Kyofushi, acts as the third squad in this series and is the wild card of the main three teams. The team has a history as a strong team, where 1st year cyclists would go to become stronger. Its training practices are unknown, but other teams say they were a lot nicer in previous years before Midousuji joined the team.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: "Yowamushi Pedal" is written and illustrated by Wataru Watanabe, and the manga began serialization in the 12th issue of Akita Shoten's "shōnen" manga magazine "Weekly Shōnen Champion" on February 21, 2008. The series was later published in tankōbon format by Akita Shoten, with the first volume being released on July 8, 2008. As of October 2022, 80 volumes have been published.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: On August 8, 2013, a limited-edition version of the 29th volume of "Yowamushi Pedal" was released with a bundled anime DVD directed by Osamu Nabeshime and produced by TMS Entertainment.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: The manga is published in English by Yen Press in North America, who are releasing the series as two-in-one omnibuses. The first omnibus volume was released on December 15, 2015.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: The first season of "Yowamushi Pedal", produced by TMS Entertainment aired from October 7, 2013, to July 1, 2014, on TV Tokyo. The second season, "Yowamushi Pedal Grande Road", aired from October 6, 2014, to March 30, 2015, in Japan. A third season, titled "Yowamushi Pedal: New Generation", was announced on October 6, 2015, at a film screening of "Yowamushi Pedal: The Movie", which aired from January 10 to June 26, 2017. The fourth season, titled "Yowamushi Pedal: Glory Line", aired from January 8 to June 25, 2018. A fifth season, titled "Yowamushi Pedal: Limit Break", premiered on October 10, 2022, on NHK General TV.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: In North America, Discotek Media licensed the first two seasons of the series within the region, and Crunchyroll simulcast the series on their service. Crunchyroll is also the master English licensee of the third season of the series worldwide. In Australia and New Zealand, Madman Entertainment acquired the home media and streaming rights for the first two seasons, and streamed the series on AnimeLab.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: "Yowamushi Pedal: Re: RIDE" and "Yowamushi Pedal: Re: ROAD" recap the first two seasons of the anime with additional new content.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: "Yowamushi Pedal: The Movie" (劇場版 弱虫ペダル, Gekijōban Yowamushi Pedaru?), which was released on August 28, 2015, hinted a third season. The film was released on Malaysia on January 7, 2016.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: An anime theatrical film adaptation of the "Yowamushi Pedal: Spare Bike" spin-off manga premiered in Japanese theaters for 2 weeks, starting September 9, 2016. It tells the past of the third year seniors


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: There is an OVA titled "Yowamushi Pedal: Special Ride". "Chiba Pedal: Yowamushi Pedal to Manabu Jitensha Koutsuu Anzen" is a collaboration ad campaign for bicycle safety.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: In May 2019, Discotek Media announced the acquisition of "Yowamushi Pedal: Re:RIDE" and "Yowamushi Pedal: Re: ROAD" for a BD release on July 30.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: A live-action film adaptation of the manga was announced and set to premiere on August 14, 2020, it is directed by Kōichirō Miki.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: "Yowamushi Pedal: Puchitto (Petit) Racers" (弱虫ペダルぷちっとレーサーズ) was a phone app by FuRyu available for iOS and Android, and functions as a collector game between 2016-2018.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: A live-action television drama adaptation of the manga was announced in the "Weekly Shōnen Champion" magazine's 26th issue of 2016 and premiered in August 2016 on BS SKY PerfecTV!. The series is directed by Takayoshi Tanazawa and written by Kōta Fukihara.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: The series is also simulcasted with its Japanese broadcast on WakuWaku Japan in Indonesia, Myanmar, Singapore, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, and Mongolia.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: During the filming of the sequel, "Eiji Takigawa" received spinal injuries after crashing into a curb, and was taken to the nearest hospital in a helicopter. Immediately after the accident, he was unable to move any body part below the head, but slowly regained movement in his arms. He was released from hospital in October 2018, 13 months after the accident.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: The "Yowamushi Pedal" manga won the Best Shōnen Manga award along with "The Seven Deadly Sins" manga at the 39th Kodansha Manga Awards in 2015.


title: Yowamushi Pedal

text: As of May 2017, "Weekly Shōnen Champion" magazine announced that "Yowamushi Pedal" manga had 17 million copies in print. As of July 2021, the series had over 27 million copies in circulation.


title: Curaçao national football team

text: The Curaçao national football team (; Papiamentu: "Selekshon di Futbòl Kòrsou") represents Curaçao in International football and is controlled by the Curaçao Football Federation (Federashon Futbòl Kòrsou; FFK).


title: Curaçao national football team

text: Following a constitutional change that allowed its predecessor, the Colony of Curaçao and Dependencies to become a unified constituent country consisting of several island territories as the Netherlands Antilles and its dissolution in 2010, Curaçao has played under a new constitutional status as a separate constituent country since 2011.


title: Curaçao national football team

text: Both FIFA and CONCACAF recognize the Curaçao national team to be the direct and sole successor of the dependant Curaçao (1921–1958) and the Netherlands Antilles national football teams.


title: Curaçao national football team

text: The first national football team to bear the name Curaçao was the Territory of Curaçao national football team, which made its debut in 1924 in an away match against neighboring Aruba, a match which the Territory of Curaçao won four to nil.


title: Curaçao national football team

text: In December 1954, the territory of Curaçao became the Netherlands Antilles, and following a constitutional change the Netherlands Antilles were designated a country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which included the islands of Aruba, Bonaire, Saba, Sint Eustatius and Sint Maarten. The name of the Curaçao team changed to Netherlands Antilles national team, representing all six islands.


title: Curaçao national football team

text: In 1986, Aruba became a country within the Kingdom in its own right, with its own Aruba national team and subsequently Aruban players no longer represented the Netherlands Antilles.


title: Curaçao national football team

text: On 10 October 2010, the Netherlands Antilles were dissolved, and Curaçao and Sint Maarten became countries in their own right, while Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius became part of the Netherlands proper. Although not a sovereign state, Curaçao (the largest island territory in the Netherlands Antilles) appeared on the FIFA member list in March 2011, as successor of the Netherlands Antilles.


title: Curaçao national football team

text: As well as taking on the Netherlands Antilles' FIFA membership, Curaçao was recognised as the direct successor of the former (similarly to how Serbia is regarded the direct successor of Yugoslavia, and Russia for the Soviet Union), and took on its historical records and FIFA ranking.


title: Curaçao national football team

text: They played their first match as the newly formed Curaçao national team on 20 August 2011 against Dominican Republic at the Estadio Panamericano, with the match ending in a 1–0 loss for Curaçao.


title: Curaçao national football team

text: During the CONCACAF Qualification for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Curaçao achieved a major feat when they defeated Cuba 1–1 with the away goals rule.


title: Curaçao national football team

text: After a strong qualification campaign, Curaçao defeated host Martinique in the semi finals of the 2017 edition of the Caribbean Cup with the score of 2–1. They met defending champions and six-time winners, Jamaica. Curaçao won their first ever Caribbean Cup by defeating Jamaica, again with the scoreline of 2–1.


title: Curaçao national football team

text: The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.


title: Curaçao national football team

text: All competitive matches played from 1921 to 1958 were contested as the Territory of Curaçao (comprising all six islands of the Netherlands Antilles). From 1958 to 2010 all matches were contested as the Netherlands Antilles, successor of the Territory of Curaçao, (still comprising six islands until 1986, when Aruba seceded). All competitive fixtures after 2010 were contested by Curaçao, which solely consists of the island nation itself. Under the newly formed governing body, Curaçao have so far only competed in 2014, 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification, 2012 Caribbean Cup qualification, the 2014 and 2017 Caribbean Cup, the 2017 CONCACAF Gold Cup, 2019 CONCACAF Gold Cup, and the ABCS Tournament.


title: Kingdom of León

text: The Kingdom of León (, ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ) was an independent kingdom situated in the northwest region of the Iberian Peninsula. It was founded in 910 when the Christian princes of Asturias along the northern coast of the peninsula shifted their capital from Oviedo to the city of León. The kings of León fought civil wars, wars against neighbouring kingdoms, and campaigns to repel invasions by both the Moors and the Vikings, all in order to protect their kingdom's changing fortunes.


title: Kingdom of León

text: García is the first of the kings described by the charters as reigning in León. It is generally assumed that the old Asturian kingdom was divided among the three sons of Alfonso III of Asturias: García (León), Ordoño (Galicia) and Fruela (Asturias), as all three participated in the deposition of their father. When García died in 914, León went to Ordoño, who now ruled both León and Galicia as Ordoño II. At Ordoño's death in 924, the throne went to his brother Fruela II (924–925), who died of leprosy a year later. Fruela's death in 925 was followed by a civil war, after which Alfonso, the eldest son of Ordoño II, emerged as the new king Alfonso IV, ruling from 925 to 932. After a further power struggle, Ramiro, the younger brother of Alfonso IV, became king in 932, having captured his brother Alfonso, as well as the three sons of Fruela II – Alfonso, Ordoño and Ramiro. Alfonso IV may have died soon after, but he left two infant sons, called Ordoño and Fruela. When Ramiro died in 951, he left two sons by two different wives. When the elder son Ordoño III, who ruled from 951 to 56, suddenly died aged little more than thirty, he was succeeded by his younger half-brother Sancho I "The Fat" (956–966), as Ordoño had failed to produce a legitimate heir.


title: Kingdom of León

text: Sancho's son Ramiro had been born in 961 and was only about five years old when his father died. He was also the only legitimate member of the direct family line. His mother Teresa Ansúrez had retired into the recently founded monastery of San Pelayo, of which her sister-in-law Elvira was the abbess. Another nun, Sancho's full sister Elvira Ramírez emerged as regent during his long minority. Under the regency of Elvira, fresh raids of the Northmen were repelled from the coast of Galicia. In 968, Gunrod of Norway, the Viking leader, established himself on Galician soil and held out for a year and a half: Bishop Sisnando of Compostela died fighting him, and his successor St Rudesind carried on the struggle until Count Gonzalo Sánchez defeated the invaders and killed Gunrod himself. Count Sánchez destroyed the entire fleet of Gunrod. In 1008, Norman Vikings attacked Galicia, destroying Santiago de Compostela and seventeen other towns, while Olaf Haraldsson of Norway raided Spain's Atlantic coast. There are also reports of a series of attacks on the Christian lands of north Spain in 1028, 1032, and 1038, and the Christian kingdoms in the north commonly used Vikings as mercenaries in their internecine wars.


title: Kingdom of León

text: The County of Castile split off in 931, the County of Portugal separated to become the independent Kingdom of Portugal in 1139 and the eastern, inland part of León was joined to the Kingdom of Castile in 1230. From 1296 to 1301, the Kingdom of León was again independent and after the re-union with Castile remained a Crown until 1833, but as part of a united Spain from 1479. In the Royal Decree of 30 November 1833, the Kingdom of León was considered one of the Spanish regions and divided into the provinces of León, Zamora and Salamanca. In 1978, these three provinces of the region of León were included along with six provinces of the historic region of Old Castile to create the autonomous community of Castile and León. However, significant parts of the former kingdom today integrate these three provinces and the autonomous communities of Extremadura, Galicia and Asturias, in Spain, in addition to northern Portugal.


title: Kingdom of León

text: The city of León was founded by the Roman Seventh Legion (usually written as Legio Septima Gemina ("twin seventh legion"). It was the headquarters of that legion in the Late Roman Empire and was a centre for trade in gold, which was mined at Las Médulas nearby. In 540, the city was conquered by the Arian Visigothic king Liuvigild, who did not harass the already well-established Roman Catholic population. In 717, León fell again, this time to the Moors. However, León was one of the first cities retaken during the Christian reconquest of the Iberian peninsula, and became part of the Kingdom of Asturias in 742.


title: Kingdom of León

text: León was a small town during this time, but one of the few former Roman cities in the Kingdom of Asturias which still held significance (the surviving Roman walls bear the medieval walling upon them). During Visigothic times, the city had served as a bishopric, and incorporating the city into Asturias brought legitimacy to the Asturian monarchs who sought to lead a unified Iberian church, during a time when most of the Iberian Peninsula was governed by Muslim powers.


title: Kingdom of León

text: León was created as a separate kingdom when the Asturian king, Alfonso the Great, divided his realm among his three sons. León was inherited by García I (910–914) who moved the capital of the kingdom of Astures to León. His successor was Ordoño II of León (914–924). Ordoño II was also a military leader who brought expeditions from León south to Seville, Córdoba, and Guadalajara, in the heart of the Muslim territory.


title: Kingdom of León

text: After a few years of civil wars during the reigns of Fruela II, Alfonso Fróilaz and Alfonso IV, Ramiro II (931–951) assumed the throne and brought stability to the kingdom. A brave military commander who defeated the Muslim armies in their own territory, Ramiro's expeditions turned the valley of the Douro into a no-man's land that separated Christian kingdoms in the north of Iberia from the Muslim states in the south. Ramiro II was nicknamed "The Devil" by Muslims because of his great military skill.


title: Kingdom of León

text: As the Leonese troops advanced they were followed by a process of "repoblación", which consisted of repopulating the "Meseta" high plains, with people coming from Galicia and especially from Asturias and León. This migration of Asturian and Leonese peoples greatly influenced the Leonese language. During the "repoblación" period, there arose a distinct form of art known as Mozarabic art. Mozarabic art is a mixing of Visigoth, Islamic, and Byzantine elements. Notable examples of the Mozarabic style are the Leonese churches of San Miguel de Escalada and Santiago de Peñalba.


title: Kingdom of León

text: During the early 10th century, León expanded to the south and east, securing territory that became the County of Burgos. Fortified with numerous castles, Burgos remained within Leon until the 930s, at which time Count Ferdinand II of Castile began a campaign to expand Burgos and make it independent and hereditary. He took for himself the title Count of Castile, in reference to the many castles of the territory (around Burgos), and continued expanding his area at the expense of León by allying with the Caliphate of Córdoba, until 966, when he was defeated by Sancho I of León.


title: Kingdom of León

text: Sancho I died towards the end of 966 and five year old Ramiro III (966–982) ascended to the throne of León. In the second year of his reign, 968, a Viking fleet of 100 ships landed in Galicia led by king Gunrod. The Vikings defeated the Galician forces, and killed Sisnando, the bishop of Compostela. The defeat in the left Galicia without an authority capable of facing the Vikings, who for three years camped comfortably, looting different Galician regions. In 971, Gunrod and his Vikings were surprised and defeated by Count upon return towards Ría de Ferrol (where they had their stranded ships). The Galician troops captured Gunrod and many of his warriors, executing them all. Sporadic Viking assaults continued in the north of Spain even into the 11th century. In 1008, Galicia and the Douro region were attacked, and in 1014 or 1015 a major raid was launched against the city of Tui at the mouth of the Minho River. The Vikings managed to successfully capture the bishop and many of the town's inhabitants. The "Knýtlinga saga" and "Gesta Danorum" describe another big raid after this one, in the year 1028. It was led by Ulv Galiciefarer, who tried to go to the Riá de Arousa area and then became a mercenary for Rodrigo Romániz, but was defeated by the bishop of Compostela. The last recorded raids occurred during the period 1047–1066 when Cresconius, the bishop of Compostela, fought and won several battles against the Vikings.


title: Kingdom of León

text: The Kingdom of León continued to be the most important of all those of the Iberian Peninsula. However, Sancho III of Navarre (1004–1035) took over Castile in the 1020s, and managed León in the last year of his life, leaving Galicia to temporary independence. In the division of lands which followed his death, his son Fernando succeeded to the county of Castile. Two years later, in 1037, he defeated the king of León who died in the battle and, because Fernando was married to the Leonese king's sister, he became king of León and Galicia. For nearly 30 years, until his death in 1065, he ruled over the kingdom of León and the county of Castile as Ferdinand I of León.


title: Kingdom of León

text: Early in its existence, León lay directly to the north of the powerful Caliphate of Córdoba. When internal dissensions divided Al-Andalus' loyalties in the 11th century, leading to the age of smaller Taifa successor states of the Caliphate, the Christian kingdoms, who had been sending tribute to the Caliphate, found themselves in a position to demand payments ("parias") instead, in return for favours to particular factions or as simple extortion.


title: Kingdom of León

text: Thus, though scarcely influenced by the culture of the successor territories of the former Caliphate, Ferdinand I followed the example of the counts of Barcelona and the kings of Aragon and became hugely wealthy from the "parias" of the Taifas. When he died in 1065, his territories and the "parias" were split among his three sons, of whom Alfonso emerged the victor in the classic fratricidal strife common to feudal successions.


title: Kingdom of León

text: Few in Europe would have known of this immense new wealth in a kingdom so isolated that its bishops had virtually no contact with Rome, except that Ferdinand and his heirs (the kings of León and Castile) became the greatest benefactors of the Abbey of Cluny, where Abbot Hugh (died 1109) undertook construction of the huge third abbey church, the cynosure of every eye. The Way of Saint James called pilgrims from Western Europe to the supposed tomb of Saint James the Great in Santiago de Compostela, and the large hostels and churches along the route encouraged building in the Romanesque style.


title: Kingdom of León

text: Alfonso VI was one of the most important kings of León of the Middle Ages. He assumed control of first León, and later Castile and Galicia, when his brother died attacking the Leonese city of Zamora. He was crowned Emperor of Spain over all the kings of the Iberian Peninsula.


title: Kingdom of León

text: The taking of Toledo, the old Visigoth capital, in 1085 by Alfonso VI of León was a turning point in the development of León and Castile and the first major milestone in the "Reconquista". Christian Mozarabs from Al-Andalus had come north to populate the deserted frontier lands, and the traditional view of Spanish history has been that they brought with them the remains of Visigothic and Classical culture, and a new ideology of "Reconquista", a crusade against the Moors. Modern historians see the fall of Toledo as marking a basic change in relations with the Moorish south, turning from the simple extortion of annual tribute to outright territorial expansion. Alfonso VI was drawn into local politics by strife within Toledo and inherited the political alliances of the city-state. He found himself faced with problems unfamiliar to him, such as appointing and dealing with a Catholic bishop in Toledo and the settling of garrisons in the small Muslim strongholds, the "taifas", which were dependent on Toledo and which often bought the king's favour with gold from their trade with Al-Andalus and the Maghreb. Alfonso VI thus found his role as a Catholic king redefined as he governed large cities with sophisticated urban, Muslim subjects and growing Christian populations.


title: Kingdom of León

text: The two kingdoms of León and Castile were split in 1157, when a major defeat for Alfonso VII of Castile weakened the authority of Castile.


title: Kingdom of León

text: The last two kings of an independent Kingdom of León (1157–1230) were Ferdinand II and Alfonso IX. Fernando II led León's conquest of Mérida, a city dating from Roman times. Alfonso IX, besides conquering the whole of Extremadura (including the cities of Cáceres and Badajoz), was the most modern king of his time, founding the University of Salamanca in 1212 and summoning in 1188 the first parliament with representation of the citizenry ever seen in Europe, the Cortes of León.


title: Kingdom of León

text: Alfonso IX did not want his kingdom to disappear upon his death and designated his heirs as Sancha and Dulce, the daughters of his first wife. In order to maintain the independence of the Kingdom of León, Afonso IX applied in his testament the Galician right of inheritance, which granted men and women equality in succession, thus leaving his daughters to be the future queens of León. However, when Alfonso IX died in 1230, his son by Berenguela of Castile, Ferdinand III of Castile, invaded León and assumed the crown. He thus became the first joint sovereign of both kingdoms since the death of Alfonso VII in 1157. The isolated Atlantic province, the County of Portugal, had won independence in 1139 to become the Kingdom of Portugal.


title: Kingdom of León

text: The union between León and Castile was not accepted by the Leonese people. King Ferdinand III needed two years to suppress the secessionist revolts in the Kingdom of León, so his son Alfonso X restored the independence of the Kingdom of León. However, this was not respected by his son and successor, Sancho IV, whose brother John waited until 1296, following Sancho's death the previous year, to be crowned as John I, King of León, Galicia and Seville. In 1301, he abdicated, and the king of Castile assumed the Crown of León, reuniting the two kingdoms.


title: Kingdom of León

text: Though the kings of Castile and León initially continued to take the title King of León as the superior title, and to use a lion as part of their standard, power in fact became centralized in Castile, as exemplified by the Leonese language's replacement by Castilian. The Kingdom of León and the Kingdom of Castile kept different Parliaments, different flags, different coin and different laws until the Modern Era, when Spain, like other European states, centralized governmental power.


title: Kingdom of León

text: The Kingdom of León coexisted as a personal union under the Crown of Castile, with León possessing separate institutions, such as its own "cortes", the "Real Adelantamiento" of the Kingdom of León, and the "Merino mayor" of León, among others, many of which lasted until the 19th century. The Castilian monarchs, however, soon began a process of unifying the laws of the two kingdoms, as exemplified by the Siete Partidas. By the 16th century, León became a captaincy-general.


title: Kingdom of León

text: In the 19th century, León declared war, together with Galicia and Asturias, against France, and organised the "Junta General del Reino de León" as its own government. The modern region of León was established in 1833 and was divided into León, Zamora, and Salamanca provinces.


title: Kingdom of León

text: At present, León is composed of the provinces of León, Zamora, and Salamanca, and is now part of the autonomous community of Castile and León within the modern Kingdom of Spain.


title: Kingdom of León

text: Political parties representing Leonesism, the Leonese regionalist and nationalist movements, support the creation of an autonomous community separate from Castile. Leonesist parties gained 13.6% of votes cast in the León autonomic elections in 2007. There have also been initiatives approved by some Leonese city councils to establish a NUTS-2 (European Statistical Region) for León.


title: Oregon State University

text: Oregon State University (OSU) is a public land-grant, research university in Corvallis, Oregon. OSU offers more than 200 undergraduate-degree programs along with a variety of graduate and doctoral degrees. It has the 10th largest engineering college in the nation for 2022. Undergraduate enrollment for all colleges combined averages close to 32,000, making it the state's largest university. Out-of-state students make up over one-quarter of undergraduates and an additional 5,500 students are engaged in graduate coursework through the university. Since its founding, over 272,000 students have graduated from OSU. It is classified among "Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity".


title: Oregon State University

text: Chartered as a land-grant university initially, OSU became one of the four inaugural members of the Sea Grant in 1971. It joined the Space Grant and Sun Grant research consortia in 1991 and 2003, respectively, making it the first public university and one of just four in total to attain membership in all four initiatives (University of Hawaii at Manoa, Cornell University and Pennsylvania State University are the others). OSU received a record high $449.9 million in research funding for the 2022 fiscal year and has ranked as the state's top earner in research funding for over 50 years.


title: Oregon State University

text: The university's roots date to 1856, when it was founded as a primary and preparatory community school known as Corvallis Academy. The school's first teacher and principal was John Wesley Johnson, a famous figure in Oregon higher education. Johnson received his secondary education in Corvallis before working at the new academy. He later attended Yale University and was instrumental in developing other Oregon colleges. Within a decade of its inception, college-level coursework was added to the academy's curriculum, making it the first public college in the region and a magnet for Oregon's young adults seeking a profession. The university has had 11 names since opening, eight of them during the 1800s. Like many of today's land-grant colleges and universities, name changes were common during this period and helped schools better align themselves with some of the largest available grants in agricultural research.


title: Oregon State University

text: Corvallis area Freemasons played a leading role in developing the early school. Several of the university's largest buildings are named after these early founders. The school offered its first college-level curriculum in 1865, under the administration of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South and the school's first president, William A. Finley.


title: Oregon State University

text: On August 22, 1868, official articles of incorporation were filed for Corvallis College. October 27, 1868, is known as OSU Charter Day. The Oregon Legislative Assembly designated Corvallis College as the "agricultural college of the state of Oregon" and the recipient of the Land Grant. Acceptance of this grant required the college to comply with the requirements set forth in the Morrill Land-Grant Acts and the name of the school was changed to Corvallis State Agricultural College. The school was then authorized to grant Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science and Master of Arts degrees. The first graduating class was in 1870, with Bachelor of Arts degrees. As the school's name changed so did its mission. Coursework in the sciences and technology became the most popular starting in 1900.


title: Oregon State University

text: In 1914, the Oregon State Board of Higher Education, known then as the State Board of Higher Curricula, began assigning specific colleges to Oregon State University and the University of Oregon in an effort to eliminate duplication. "...the board confined studies in engineering and commerce to the Corvallis campus and major work in the liberal arts and related subjects to the University of Oregon in Eugene. This was the first in a series of actions to make the curricula of the two schools separate and distinct."


title: Oregon State University

text: In 1929 the legislative assembly passed the Oregon Unification Bill, which placed the school under the oversight of the newly formed Oregon State Board of Higher Education. A doctorate in education was first offered in the early 1930s, with the conferral of four Doctor of Philosophy degrees in 1935. That year also saw the creation of the first summer session. The growing diversity in degree programs led to another name change in 1937, when the school became Oregon State College.


title: Oregon State University

text: The institution's current name, Oregon State University, was adopted on March 6, 1961, by a legislative act signed into law by Governor Mark Hatfield.


title: Oregon State University

text: The main campus is the centerpiece of Corvallis, Oregon. It is 83 miles south of Portland, near the middle of the state's Willamette Valley. Much of the main campus was designed by landscape architect John Charles Olmsted in 1906. In 2008, Olmsted's early campus design was designated by the National Register of Historic Places as the Oregon State University Historic District. It is the only college or university campus in Oregon to hold a historic district designation. The Memorial Union was designed by OSU alumnus and renowned Oregon architect, Lee Arden Thomas. It has been recognized as "one of the finest examples of Neoclassical architecture in Oregon."


title: Oregon State University

text: In 2016 OSU completed the construction of a branch campus in Bend. This campus is called OSU-Cascades and offers students living in Oregon's central region an opportunity to attend select classes closer to their homes.


title: Oregon State University

text: Oregon State offers more than 80 degree and certificate programs made up from a selection of over 1,500 online courses in more than 110 subjects. U.S. News & World Report ranked OSU's online bachelor's degree programs 4th in the nation in 2021 and has ranked them in the top 10 since 2013. In 2021 College Choice ranked the Ecampus liberal arts program number one in the nation. The OSU faculty teaching on campus also offer many of these same programs and courses online through the Oregon State University Ecampus website. Students who pursue an online education at Oregon State earn the same diploma and transcript as on-campus students.


title: Oregon State University

text: In 2017, Oregon State University's Portland headquarters were relocated to the newly renovated Meier & Frank building. The offices, classrooms and meeting spaces fill the entire second floor of the historic downtown Portland building, just across the street from Pioneer Square. OSU's Portland operations include offices for the OSU Extension Service, the OSU Foundation, the OSU Alumni Association, and the OSU Athletics department. The downtown location provides the university with a more central location, in the state's largest city, to maintain a base of operations. Aside from offices, the second floor also provides classroom space for teaching, research and meeting space for outreach engagement - similar to the work at OSU's other campuses in Corvallis and Bend. Executives and university scientists working on major initiatives, such as the Marine Studies Initiative, use the space for lectures and international conferences.


title: Oregon State University

text: The OSU Portland Center is also an important part of the OSU Advantage partnership. The partnership brings members of private industry, from throughout the world, to Portland to discuss proposed commercialization initiatives.


title: Oregon State University

text: All academic courses at OSU operate under the quarter-system, which breaks down into four, 11-week terms. The professional disciplines taught at OSU are divided among 11 colleges, an honors college, and a graduate school. Each college has a dean who is responsible for all faculty, staff, students and academic programs. Colleges are divided either into departments administered by a department head/chair or schools administered by a director who oversees program coordinators. Each school or department is responsible for academic programs leading to degrees, certificates, options or minors.


title: Oregon State University

text: The OSU Extension service is an agricultural extension established on July 24, 1911, under the leadership of Vice Provost Ivory W. Lyles (OSU Extension Service Administration). There are OSU Extension offices, Combined Experiment & Oregon Agricultural Experiment Stations, and Branch Experiment Stations located throughout the state.


title: Oregon State University

text: Programs include 4-H Youth Development, Agriculture and Natural Resources (includes OSU Master Gardener), Family and Community Health/SNAP-Ed, Forestry and Natural Resources, OSU Open Campus, Outdoor School, and Oregon Sea Grant.


title: Oregon State University

text: Together with university leaders, the OSU Foundation publicly launched Oregon State's first comprehensive fundraising campaign, The Campaign for OSU, on October 26, 2007, with a goal of $625 million. Donors exceeded the goal in October 2010 nearly a year ahead of schedule, resulting in a goal increase to $850 million. In March 2012, the goal was raised to $1 billion. At OSU's annual State of the University address in Portland on January 31, 2014, President Edward J. Ray announced that campaign contributions had passed $1 billion, making OSU one of 35 public universities to cross the billion-dollar fundraising mark and one of only two organizations in the Pacific Northwest to reach that milestone. The Campaign for OSU concluded on December 31, 2014, with more than $1.1 billion from 106,000 donors.


title: Oregon State University

text: The Oregon State University Foundation is a nonprofit organization chartered to raise and administer private funds in support of the university's education, research and outreach, governed by a volunteer board of trustees. It holds net assets exceeding $744 million and manages most of the university's composite endowment, valued at more than $596 million as of 2018.


title: Oregon State University

text: Oregon State has varied and numerous partnership agreements with international institutions, including James Cook University in Australia, the University of Forestry in Bulgaria, Lincoln University in New Zealand and India's Gokula Education Foundation.


title: Oregon State University

text: Admission to Oregon State is rated "selective" by "U.S. News & World Report". The total student enrollment for the 2021–2022 academic term was 33,193, the largest of any university in Oregon.


title: Oregon State University

text: For fall 2015, OSU received 14,058 freshman applications; 11,016 were admitted (78.4%) and 3,593 enrolled. The average high school grade point average (GPA) of the enrolled freshmen was 3.58, while the middle 50% range of SAT scores were 480-610 for critical reading, 490-630 for math, and 470-590 for writing. The middle 50% range of the ACT Composite score was 21–28.


title: Oregon State University

text: Research has played a central role in the university's overall operations for much of its history. Most of OSU's research continues at the Corvallis campus, but an increasing number of endeavors are underway at various locations throughout the state and abroad. Research facilities beyond the campus include the John L. Fryer Aquatic Animal Health Laboratory in Corvallis, the Seafood Laboratory in Astoria and the Food Innovation Laboratory in Portland.


title: Oregon State University

text: The university's College of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences (CEOAS) operates several laboratories, including the Hatfield Marine Science Center and multiple oceanographic research vessels based in Newport. CEOAS is now co-leading the largest ocean science project in U.S. history, the Ocean Observatories Initiative (OOI). The OOI features a fleet of undersea gliders at six sites in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans with multiple observation platforms. CEOAS is also leading the design and construction of the next class of ocean-faring research vessels for the National Science Foundation, which will be the largest grant or contract ever received by any Oregon university. OSU also manages nearly of forest land, including the McDonald-Dunn Research Forest.


title: Oregon State University

text: The 2005 Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education recognized OSU as a "comprehensive doctoral with medical/veterinary" university. It is one of three such universities in the Pacific Northwest to be classified in this category. In 2006, Carnegie also recognized OSU as having "very high research activity", making it the only university in Oregon to attain these combined classifications.


title: Oregon State University

text: In 1967 the Radiation Center was constructed at the edge of campus, housing a 1.1 MW TRIGA Mark II Research Reactor. The reactor is equipped to utilize Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU) for fuel. "U.S. News & World Report"'s 2008 rankings placed OSU eighth in the nation in graduate nuclear engineering. In the early 2000s, researchers at the campus reactor developed a prototype for an alternative, small-scale reactor to power factories, buildings, and other individual large-scale industrial facilities. More recently, Oregon State University has partnered with a leading manufacturer of small-scale reactors, NuScale, to provide continued research and development for commercial application.


title: Oregon State University

text: OSU was one of the early members of the federal Space Grant program. Designated in 1991, the additional grant program made Oregon State one of only 13 schools in the United States at that time to serve as a combined Land Grant, Sea Grant and Space Grant university.


title: Oregon State University

text: In 2001, OSU's Wave Research Laboratory was designated by the National Science Foundation as a site for tsunami research under the Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation. The O. H. Hinsdale Wave Research Laboratory is on the edge of the campus and is one of the world's largest and most sophisticated laboratories for education, research and testing in coastal, ocean and related areas.


title: Oregon State University

text: The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences funds two research centers at OSU. The Environmental Health Sciences Center has been funded since 1969 and the Superfund Research Center has been funded since 2009.


title: Oregon State University

text: OSU administers the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest, a United States Forest Service facility dedicated to forestry and ecology research. The Andrews Forest is a UNESCO International Biosphere Reserve.


title: Oregon State University

text: OSU's Open Source Lab is a nonprofit founded in 2003 and funded in part by corporate sponsors that include Facebook, Google, and IBM. The organization's goal is to advance open source technology, and it hires and trains OSU students in software development and operations for large-scale IT projects. The lab hosts a number of projects, including a contract with the Linux Foundation.


title: Oregon State University

text: Oregon State University is one of the few universities to have ROTC detachments for each branch of the US Military. Oregon State University Army ROTC is a distinguished program and has been taught regularly since 1873. The so-called Beaver Battalion is known as the West Point of the West for producing more commissioned officers than any other non-military school during World War II. It is located in McAlexander Fieldhouse, named after General Ulysses G. McAlexander, the former commander of Army ROTC.


title: Oregon State University

text: After the Second World War ended in 1945, a Department of Naval Science was added at Oregon State. Providing officer training for both the US Navy and the US Marine Corps, it is now one of the largest in the nation and has earned the unofficial title "Naval Academy of the Northwest." On July 1, 1949, the US Army Air Corps training branch became a separate officer training unit now known as Aerospace Science. The Oregon State Air Force ROTC draws more freshmen scholarships than any other AFROTC unit in the nation and has had over 1,000 officers commissioned. In 1977, two graduates of the OSU AFROTC became the first women pilots in the Air Force. Today, the Army and Air Force ROTC programs at the university share the McAlexander Fieldhouse.


title: Oregon State University

text: In 1999, OSU finished a $40 million remodeling of the campus library. Known as the Valley Library, the remodeled building was selected by "The Library Journal" as its 1999 Library of the Year, the first academic library so named.


title: Oregon State University

text: In 2021, "U.S. News & World Report" ranked OSU tied for 139th nationally, tied for 71st top public and tied for 58th "most innovative" university in the U.S., and tied for 277th best globally.


title: Oregon State University

text: In its 2021 Global Ranking of Academic Subjects, the "Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU)" ranked Oregon State University's oceanography program 5th in the world, its agricultural sciences program in the top 50 worldwide, and its earth sciences, ecology and water resources program among the top 100 worldwide.


title: Oregon State University

text: Agriculture and forestry at Oregon State University rank 26th in the world (11th in the U.S.), according to "QS World University Rankings" in 2021.


title: Oregon State University

text: In 2012, ECONorthwest conducted an economic impact analysis that found that each year OSU has a $2.06 billion economic footprint. $1.93 billion of this total was in the state of Oregon.


title: Oregon State University

text: Corvallis is Oregon's 10th-largest city. It is a relatively small community and many of the local events have a strong connection to the university. OSU has over 400 active student organizations and groups. The campus is only a few hours' driving distance from any number of outdoor recreation opportunities. Several federal and state natural forests and parks are popular student destinations. These include the Cascade Range, a rugged coastline, several large forests, the high desert and numerous rivers and lakes. Portland, Oregon's largest city, is north of campus.


title: Oregon State University

text: From 1930 to 1968, OSU was home to the Gamma chapter of Phrateres, a philanthropic-social organization for female college students. Gamma was the third chapter of the organization, which eventually had over 20 chapters in Canada and the U.S.


title: Oregon State University

text: Most older OSU students live off campus, but on-campus housing is available and required for most incoming freshmen. There are 16 residence halls on campus, which are organized into individual Hall Councils. The residence halls include Bloss Hall, Buxton Hall, Callahan Hall, Cauthorn Hall, Dixon Lodge, Finley Hall, Halsell Hall, Hawley Hall, International Living-Learning Center, McNary Hall, Poling Hall, Sackett Hall, Tebeau Hall, Weatherford Hall, West Hall, and Wilson Hall. Residents make up the membership and each council holds its own elections to select management over the hall government. All the councils are managed by the Residence Hall Association (RHA).


title: Oregon State University

text: The LaSells Stewart Center is the conference and performing arts center for the campus. Many famous speakers have graced the stage of the campus's main auditorium, Austin Auditorium, while the Corvallis-OSU Symphony plays there frequently. The OSU Office of Conferences and Special Events is in the auditorium.


title: Oregon State University

text: The university is home to Orange Media Network, the university's student media department. Orange Media Network encompasses the award-winning "The Daily Barometer" student newspaper, KBVR 88.7 FM, KBVR-TV, Prism Art and Literary Journal, lifestyle magazine Beaver's Digest, and fashion magazine DAMchic.


title: Oregon State University

text: Notable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement, convocation and athletic games are "Hail to Old OSU" and the Alma Mater.


title: Oregon State University

text: The Associated Students of Oregon State University (ASOSU) is the officially recognized student government at Oregon State University and represents all students in campus affairs and at community, state and federal levels regarding issues that directly influence the quality of and access to, post-secondary education.


title: Oregon State University

text: Like most American universities and colleges, OSU actively works to diversify its faculty and staff. In 1993, OSU reported having difficulties retaining and hiring minority faculty members. Only 150 out of 2,284 faculty members were black, Native American, Asian, or Hispanic. In response, the school president and vice president introduced a hiring initiative to promote and enhance diversity. The initiative recognizes the compelling need to build a welcoming and inclusive university community and the direct relationship between excellence and diversity.


title: Oregon State University

text: In 2007, Scott Reed was named Vice Provost for Outreach and Engagement as OSU Extension Service and OSU Ecampus were aligned under this new division. The university's Ecampus offers a wide array of undergraduate degree programs and courses online to students living throughout the world.


title: Oregon State University

text: In accordance with the university's mission for diversity, many organizations, clubs, and departments have been formed, including the Office Of Community and Diversity and several cultural and resource centers.


title: Oregon State University

text: Oregon State University has several cultural centers aimed at promoting diversity and supporting students of color, including the Lonnie B. Harris Black Cultural Center, Native American Longhouse, Asian & Pacific Cultural Center and the Centro Cultural César Chávez.


title: Oregon State University

text: In addition to its mission of ethnic diversity, Oregon State University supports its lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender population with a Pride Center.


title: Oregon State University

text: In the fall of 2022, 30 percent of Oregon State University's total enrollment was composed of students of color.


title: Oregon State University

text: In a 2008 national ranking of academics, athletic opportunity and overall performance, Oregon State was selected as one of America's "premier" universities. The ranking, performed by "STACK" magazine, placed Oregon State 29th in the nation's "Elite 50" universities and was uncontested within the state for that year. Since then, the University of Oregon has also appeared in the STACK rankings.


title: Oregon State University

text: The history of Oregon State athletics dates back to 1893 when "Jimmie the Coyote" was recognized as the first official mascot. In 1910, the official mascot was replaced by the beaver and remains the school's mascot to this day. In 1915, the university's varsity athletic teams were invited to join the Pacific Coast (Athletic) Conference as one of four charter members.


title: Oregon State University

text: Reser Stadium now serves as the home field for the school's football team. The school mascot is Benny the Beaver and first appeared on the football sidelines in 1952. The next year Oregon State added a football stadium to its campus, known then as Parker Stadium. Fundraisers in 2006 and 2007 helped expand Reser Stadium from 35,000 seats to 46,200. A time lapse video recording of the expansion is viewable on the internet. 1962 saw OSU's (and the west coast's) first Heisman Trophy winner, quarterback Terry Baker. The University of Oregon is the university's in-state rival for athletics. The annual Oregon–Oregon State football rivalry football game is one of the longest-running rivalries in all of college football.


title: Oregon State University

text: The university's home golf course, Trysting Tree's, features championship-worthy golf and practice facilities. The name of the course can be traced back to a locally famous tree near Community Hall on campus where student couples would meet to make dates. Basketball is held in Gill Coliseum and named after former Beavers coach Slats Gill. The Coliseum is also home to the university's Collegiate wrestling team. Baseball is played in Goss Stadium at Coleman Field. The OSU baseball team, won back-to-back NCAA Division I Baseball Championships in 2006 and 2007 and added a third win in 2018. Softball is held in the OSU Softball Complex. Opened in April 2001, the $1.5 million OSU Softball Complex seats 750. Oregon State hosted a Regional and Super Regional tournament in the 2006 NCAA tournament, winning both and moving on to the Women's College World Series.


title: Oregon State University

text: Oregon State has a total of four NCAA championships. In addition to the three baseball titles (2006, 2007 and 2018), the Beavers won the 1961 NCAA Men's Cross Country Championship. In 1975, the men's rowing Varsity-4 with coxswain team won the Intercollegiate Rowing Association National Collegiate Rowing Championships in Syracuse, New York, establishing a course record which stood for 15 years. The Oregon State racquetball team has won 10 consecutive USA racquetball intercollegiate championships, beginning in 2008.


title: Oregon State University

text: The 2018 Oregon State baseball team won the NCAA Division I Championship defeating the Arkansas Razorbacks in three games making it their third title ever in the sport of baseball managed by the same manager from the previous two titles Pat Casey.


title: Oregon State University

text: Oregon State University has numerous nationally and internationally famous alumni who have contributed significantly to their professions. Among over 200,000 OSU alumni, scientist and peace activist Linus Pauling may be the most famous. Pauling is the only recipient of two unshared Nobel Prizes, in the fields of chemistry and peace.


title: Oregon State University

text: In the business world, some OSU alumni hold or have held prominent positions in various industries, including:


title: Oregon State University

text: Oregon State athletes have had a significant showing in professional sports, including more than 15 MLB players, more than 20 NBA players and more than 130 NFL players.


The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) established in 1940, is a college athletics association for colleges and universities in North America. Most colleges and universities in the NAIA offer athletic scholarships to its student athletes. For the 2021–22 season, it has 252 member institutions, of which two are in British Columbia, one in the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the rest in the conterminous United States, with over 77,000 student-athletes participating. The NAIA, whose headquarters is in Kansas City, Missouri, sponsors 27 national championships. The CBS Sports Network, formerly called CSTV, serves as the national media outlet for the NAIA. In 2014, ESPNU began carrying the NAIA Football National Championship.


title: National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics

text: In 1937, James Naismith and local leaders, including George Goldman and Emil Liston, staged the first National College Basketball Tournament at Municipal Auditorium in Kansas City, Missouri, of which Goldman was director, one year before the first National Invitation Tournament and two years before the first NCAA tournament. The goal of the tournament was to establish a forum for small colleges and universities to determine a national basketball champion. The original eight-team tournament expanded to 32 teams in 1938. On March 10, 1940, the National Association for Intercollegiate Basketball (NAIB) was formed in Kansas City, Missouri.


text: In 1952, the NAIB was transformed into the NAIA, and with that came the sponsorship of additional sports such as men's golf, tennis and outdoor track and field. Football in the NAIA was split into two divisions in 1970, based on enrollment (Divisions I and II); it was consolidated back into a single division in 1997.


text: The 1948 NAIB national tournament was the first intercollegiate postseason to feature a Black student-athlete, Clarence Walker of Indiana State under coach John Wooden. Wooden had withdrawn from the 1947 tournament because the NAIB would not allow Walker to play.


text: The association furthered its commitment to African-American athletes when, in 1953, it became the first collegiate association to invite historically black colleges and universities into its membership. In 1957, Tennessee A&I (now Tennessee State) became the first historically Black institution to win a collegiate basketball national championship. In 1959, Southern University became the first HBCU to win the NAIA Baseball championship.


text: The NAIA began sponsoring intercollegiate championships for women in 1980, the second coed national athletics association to do so, offering collegiate athletics championships to women in basketball, cross country, gymnastics, indoor and outdoor track and field, softball, swimming and diving, tennis and volleyball. The National Junior College Athletic Association had established a women's division in the spring of 1975 and held the first women's national championship volleyball tournament that fall.


text: In 1997, Liz Heaston became the first female college athlete to play and score in a college football game when she kicked two extra points during the 1997 Linfield vs. Willamette football game.


text: Launched in 2000 by the NAIA, the Champions of Character program promotes character and sportsmanship through athletics. The Champions of Character conducts clinics and has developed an online training course to educate athletes, coaches, and athletic administrators with the skills necessary to promote character development in the context of sport.


text: In 2010, the association opened the NAIA Eligibility Center, where prospective student-athletes are evaluated for academic and athletic eligibility. It delivers on the NAIA's promise of integrity by leveling the playing field, guiding student-athlete success, and ensuring fair competition.


text: Membership – The NAIA was the first association to admit colleges and universities from outside the United States. The NAIA began admitting Canadian members in 1967.


text: Football – The NAIA was the first association to send a football team to Europe to play. In the summer of 1976, the NAIA sent Henderson State and Texas A&I to play 5 exhibition games in West Berlin, Vienna, Nuremberg, Mannheim and Paris.


text: Flag football – In May 2020, the NAIA, in partnership with the National Football League (NFL), announced the addition of flag football as a varsity sport for female student-athletes. The NAIA became the first collegiate governing body to sanction the sport at the varsity level. Women's flag will begin during the 2020–21 season as an emerging sport with at least 15 teams, the NAIA and NFL also expect upgrade the sport to an invitational level sport by 2022 with at least 25 teams.


text: Name, image, and likeness reform — In October 2020, the NAIA passed legislation that allows student-athletes at its member institutions to be compensated for the use of their name, image, and likeness (NIL). According to an NAIA press release, student-athletes can now "receive compensation for promoting any commercial product, enterprise, or for any public or media appearance", and can also "reference their intercollegiate athletic participation in such promotions or appearances." The NAIA had allowed student-athletes to receive NIL compensation since 2014, but had not previously allowed them to reference their status as such. The NAIA was several years ahead of the NCAA in NIL reform; the NCAA did not adopt NIL reform until 2021, after its hand was forced by multiple states passing legislation to allow student-athletes to receive such compensation, most notably California. In December 2020, Chloe Mitchell, a volleyball player at NAIA member Aquinas College who at the time had more than 2 million followers on TikTok with a series of do-it-yourself home improvement videos, became the first college student-athlete known to have profited from an endorsement under the current rules.


text: The NAIA sponsors 14 sports in which it conducts 27 annual championships (13 for men, 12 for women, 2 co-ed). The NAIA recognizes three levels of competitions: "emerging" (15 or more institutions sponsoring as varsity and declared), "invitational" (25 or more institutions sponsoring as varsity and declared for postseason, Approval of the National Administrative Council), and "championship" (40 or more institutions sponsoring as varsity, Minimum of two Invitationals held, Approval of the National Administrative Council). The association conducts, or has conducted in the past, championship tournaments in the following sports (year established).


text: The NAIA men's basketball championship is the longest-running collegiate National Championship of any sport in the United States. The tournament was the brainchild of Dr. James Naismith, creator of the game of basketball; Emil Liston, athletic director at Baker University; and Frank Cramer, founder of Cramer Athletic Products.


text: The event began in 1937 with the inaugural tournament at Municipal Auditorium in Kansas City, Missouri. The 2017 men's championship marked the 80th edition of what has been tabbed College Basketball's Toughest Tournament. The tournament has awarded the Chuck Taylor Most Valuable Player award since 1939, as well as the Charles Stevenson Hustle Award ("Charlie Hustle"), which was the basis for Pete Rose's nickname, given to him by Whitey Ford. From 1992 to 2020, basketball was the only NAIA sport in which the organization's member institutions were aligned into divisions.


text: Effective with the 2020–21 academic year, the NAIA returned to a single division for both men's and women's basketball.


text: The NAIA has 21 member conferences, including 9 that sponsor football, and the Continental Athletic Conference, formerly the Association of Independent Institutions. There are also member institutions not in any conference.


text: The $500 undergraduate scholarship is awarded to an outstanding student trainer who is at least a junior and has maintained a GPA of 3.00.


text: Presented to the NAIA-ATA member Athletic Trainer who has provided substantial service to student-athletes, the association or the member institution.


text: The award was initiated in memory and honor of past Associate Executive Director Charles Morris. The award is presented annually to recognize Conference, Region and a National Administrator of the Year.


text: The recipient should exemplify the loyalty and enthusiasm Charles Morris had for the NAIA. Nominees must be active as an administrator at a member institution or in conference/regional committee organizations.


text: Given annually to a member of the NAIA-Sports Information Directors Association to honor outstanding contributions to the profession. The award is named for the former statistical crew chief of the NAIA men's basketball national tournament in Kansas City, Missouri.


text: Named in honor of the NAIA's former executive secretary for his 26 years of service to the Association. The A. O. Duer Award emphasizes our policy of scholarship in athletic programs. The award is presented annually to a junior men's and women's student-athlete in any sport who has excelled academically as well as athletically.


text: To be eligible, a student-athlete must have an overall grade point average of at least 3.75 (on a 4.00 scale)


text: The founder of the NAIB and the first executive secretary of the NAIA, Mr. Liston was a prime mover behind the men's basketball tournament. The award is annually presented to a junior men's and women's basketball player who has shown athletic and scholastic achievement.


text: To be eligible, a student-athlete must have an overall grade point average of at least 3.50 (on a 4.00 scale) and be in her/his junior year academically. Each award consists of a $1,000 scholarship presented to the recipient's institution to be used for tuition and approved expenses and an appropriate award is presented to the honoree.


text: The NAIA Hall of Fame Award is the highest honor presented by the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics. Nominees must be persons of outstanding quality, high moral character, fine leadership ability and must be held in high esteem by their colleagues, former coaches and former athletes.


text: The NAIA Larry Lady Officiating Award is presented annually to an official of any sport recognized by the NAIA. It is named in honor of Larry Lady, current NAIA Supervisor of Officials for basketball, football and baseball. Nominees must be persons of outstanding quality, high moral character, fine officiating ability and be held in high esteem by their colleagues, administrators and athletes.


text: The recipient will receive an award of $500 to be used by recipient, a member of the recipient's family or


text: The Citizenship through Sports Alliance (CTSA) and the NAIA have partnered to annually honor one NAIA institution, team or individual for actions that have clear connections to sportsmanship, and bring with them outstanding stories that motivate and inspire. All Buffalo Funds Five Star Champions of Character Team Award Winners, as well as institutional nominations, are eligible for this special recognition. The recipient (up to 2 team/institutional representatives) will be provided round-trip transportation to the awards ceremony


text: This award was created to honor Dr. LeRoy Walker a former president of the NAIA and President emeritus of the United States Olympic Committee.


text: The nominee must be a representative of an NAIA institution as a student-athlete. The nominee must be at least a junior academic status at the nominating institution at the time of nomination, and must be "outstanding" in academic achievement (3.0 GPA or higher), campus leadership, community leadership, embracing the five core character values of the NAIA Champions of Character initiative, athletic achievement and future ambition.


text: The recipient will receive a $1,000 cash award to the institution scholarship fund of recipient's choice. The


text: The Faculty Athletic Representative Association has initiated this award to honor past Vice-President of Legislative Services, Wally Schwartz. The Award will annually recognize Conference, Independent and a National FAR of the Year. The recipient should exemplify the loyalty, enthusiasm, and honesty that Wally Schwartz had, and still has, shown on behalf of the NAIA.


text: Presented annually to the top athletic director who excels in the areas of budget development, facility development, promotion of student-athlete academic achievement, involvement in the Champions of Character initiative, athletic success, and service to the NAIA or community.


text: Sponsored by Dr. Phil and Mary Pattison, longtime NAIA supporters, awarded $2,000 scholarships to five NAIA student-athletes that participate in the NAIA Men's basketball tournament, and display the five core values of the Champions of Character program-respect, responsibility, integrity, servant leadership and sportsmanship.


title: T helper cell

text: The T helper cells (T cells), also known as CD4 cells or CD4-positive cells, are a type of T cell that play an important role in the adaptive immune system. They aid the activity of other immune cells by releasing cytokines. They are considered essential in B cell antibody class switching, breaking cross-tolerance in dendritic cells, in the activation and growth of cytotoxic T cells, and in maximizing bactericidal activity of phagocytes such as macrophages and neutrophils. CD4 cells are mature T cells that express the surface protein CD4. Genetic variation in regulatory elements expressed by CD4 cells determines susceptibility to a broad class of autoimmune diseases.


title: T helper cell

text: T cells contain and release cytokines to aid other immune cells. Cytokines are small protein mediators that alter the behavior of target cells that express receptors for those cytokines. These cells help polarize the immune response depending on the nature of the immunological insult (for example; virus vs. extracellular bacterium vs. intracellular bacterium vs. helminth vs. fungus vs. protist).


title: T helper cell

text: Mature T cells express the surface protein CD4 and are referred to as CD4 T cells. CD4 T cells are generally treated as having a pre-defined role as helper T cells within the immune system. For example, when an antigen-presenting cell displays a peptide antigen on MHC class II proteins, a CD4 cell will aid those cells through a combination of cell to cell interactions (e.g. CD40 (protein) and CD40L) and through cytokines.


title: T helper cell

text: T cells are not a monolithic immunological entity because they are diverse in terms of function and their interaction with partner cells. In general, mature naive T cells are stimulated by professional antigen presenting cells to acquire an effector module. These are defined by the presence of a lineage-determining (or lineage-specifying) transcription factor (also called master regulator, though the term has been criticized for being too reductive). The loss of function in a lineage specifying transcription factor results in the absence of the corresponding class of helper T cell which can be devastating for the health of the host.


title: T helper cell

text: Following T cell development in the thymus, these cells (termed recent thymic emigrants (RTE)) egress from the thymus and home to secondary lymphoid organs (SLO; spleen and lymph nodes). Of note, only a very small minority of T cells egresses from the thymus (estimates commonly range from 1-5% but some experts feel even this is generous). Maturation of RTE in SLO results in the generation of mature naive T cells (naïve meaning they have never been exposed to the antigen that they are programmed to respond to), but naive T cells now lack or have downregulated (reduced) expression of the RTE-related surface markers, such as CD31, PTK7, Complement Receptor 1 and 2 (CR1, CR2) and the production of interleukin 8 (IL-8). Like all T cells, they express the T cell receptor-CD3 complex. The T cell receptor (TCR) consists of both constant and variable regions. The variable region determines what antigen the T cell can respond to. CD4 T cells have TCRs with an affinity for Class II MHC, and CD4 is involved in determining MHC affinity during maturation in the thymus. Class II MHC proteins are generally only found on the surface of professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Professional antigen-presenting cells are primarily dendritic cells, macrophages and B cells, although dendritic cells are the only cell group that expresses MHC Class II constitutively (at all times). Some APCs also bind native (or unprocessed) antigens to their surface, such as follicular dendritic cells (these are not the same type of cells as the dendritic cells of the immune system but rather have a non-hematopoietic origin, and in general lack MHC Class II, meaning they are not true professional antigen-presenting cells; however, follicular dendritic cells may acquire MHC Class II proteins via exosomes that become attached to them). T cells require antigens to be processed into short fragments which form linear epitopes on MHC Class II (in the case of helper T cells because they express CD4) or MHC class I (in the case of cytotoxic T cells which express CD8). MHC Class II binding pockets are flexible with respect to the length of the peptides they hold. Generally, there are 9 core amino acid residues with several flanking amino acids which form a length of about 12-16 amino acids total but have been known to hold as many as 25 amino acids. By comparison, MHC Class I proteins are usually 9-10 peptides long. The activation of naive T cells is commonly explained in terms of the 3-signal model, elaborated upon below.


title: T helper cell

text: During an immune response, professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) endocytose antigens (typically bacteria or viruses), which undergo processing, then travel from the infection site to the lymph nodes. Typically, the APC responsible is a dendritic cell. If the antigen expresses appropriate molecular patterns (sometimes known as signal 0), it can induce maturation of the dendritic cell which results in enhanced expression of costimulatory molecules needed to activate T cells (see signal 2) and MHC Class II. Once at the lymph nodes, the APCs begin to present antigen peptides that are bound to Class II MHC, allowing CD4 T cells that express the specific TCRs against the peptide/MHC complex to activate.


title: T helper cell

text: When a T cell encounters and recognizes the antigen on an APC, the TCR-CD3 complex binds strongly to the peptide-MHC complex present on the surface of professional APCs. CD4, a co-receptor of the TCR complex, also binds to a different section of the MHC molecule. It is estimated that approximately 50 of these interactions are required for the activation of a helper T cell and assemblies known as microclusters have been observed forming between the TCR-CD3-CD4 complexes of the T cell and the MHC Class II proteins of the dendritic cell at the zone of contact. When these all come together, the CD4 is able to recruit a kinase called Lck which phosphorylates immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motifs (ITAMs) present on the CD3 gamma, delta, epsilon, and zeta chains. The protein ZAP-70 can bind these phosphorylated ITAMs via its SH2 domain and then itself becomes phosphorylated, wherein it orchestrates the downstream signaling required for T cell activation. Lck activation is controlled by the opposing actions of CD45 and Csk. CD45 activates Lck by dephosphorylating a tyrosine in its C-terminal tail, while Csk phosphorylates Lck at that site. The loss of CD45 produces a form of SCID because failure to activate Lck prevents appropriate T cell signaling. Memory T cells also make use of this pathway and have higher levels of Lck expressed and the function of Csk is inhibited in these cells.


title: T helper cell

text: The binding of the antigen-MHC to the TCR complex and CD4 may also help the APC and the T cell adhere during T cell activation, but the integrin protein LFA-1 on the T cell and ICAM on the APC are the primary molecules of adhesion in this cell interaction.


title: T helper cell

text: It is unknown what role the relatively bulky extracellular region of CD45 plays during cell interactions, but CD45 has various isoforms that change in size depending on the T cell's activation and maturation status. For example, CD45 shortens in length following T activation (CD45RA to CD45RO), but whether this change in length influences activation is unknown. It has been proposed that the larger CD45RA may decrease the accessibility of the T cell receptor for the antigen-MHC molecule, thereby necessitating an increase in the affinity (and specificity) of the T cell for activation. However, once the activation has occurred, CD45 shortens, allowing easier interactions and activation as an effector T helper cell.


title: T helper cell

text: Having received the first TCR/CD3 signal, the naïve T cell must activate a second independent biochemical pathway, known as Signal 2. This verification step is a protective measure to ensure that a T cell is responding to a foreign antigen. If this second signal is not present during initial antigen exposure, the T cell presumes that it is auto-reactive. This results in the cell becoming anergic (anergy is generated from the unprotected biochemical changes of Signal 1). Anergic cells will not respond to any antigen in the future, even if both signals are present later on. These cells are generally believed to circulate throughout the body with no value until they undergo apoptosis.


title: T helper cell

text: The second signal involves an interaction between CD28 on the CD4 T cell and the proteins CD80 (B7.1) or CD86 (B7.2) on the professional APCs. Both CD80 and CD86 activate the CD28 receptor. These proteins are also known as co-stimulatory molecules.


title: T helper cell

text: Although the verification stage is necessary for the activation of naïve helper T cells, the importance of this stage is best demonstrated during the similar activation mechanism of CD8 cytotoxic T cells. As naïve CD8 T cells have no true bias towards foreign sources, these T cells must rely on the activation of CD28 for confirmation that they recognise a foreign antigen (as CD80/CD86 is only expressed by active APC's). CD28 plays an important role in decreasing the risk of T cell auto-immunity against host antigens.


title: T helper cell

text: Once the naïve T cell has both pathways activated, the biochemical changes induced by Signal 1 are altered, allowing the cell to activate instead of undergoing anergy. The second signal is then obsolete; only the first signal is necessary for future activation. This is also true for memory T cells, which is one example of learned immunity. Faster responses occur upon reinfection because memory T cells have already undergone confirmation and can produce effector cells much sooner.


title: T helper cell

text: Once the two-signal activation is complete the T helper cell (T) then allows itself to proliferate. It achieves this by releasing a potent T cell growth factor called interleukin 2 (IL-2) which acts upon itself in an autocrine fashion. Activated T cells also produce the alpha sub-unit of the IL-2 receptor (CD25 or IL-2R), enabling a fully functional receptor that can bind with IL-2, which in turn activates the T cell's proliferation pathways.


title: T helper cell

text: The autocrine or paracrine secretion of IL-2 can bind to that same T cell or neighboring T's via the IL-2R thus driving proliferation and clonal expansion. The T cells receiving both signals of activation and proliferation will then become T0 cells (T helper 0) cell that secrete IL-2, IL-4 and interferon gamma (IFN-γ). The T0 cells will then differentiate into T1 or T2 cells depending on cytokine environment. IFN-γ drives T1 cell production while IL-10 and IL-4 inhibit T1 cell production. Conversely, IL-4 drives T2 cell production and IFN-γ inhibits T2 cells. These cytokines are pleiotropic and carry out many other functions of the immune response.


title: T helper cell

text: In 1991, three groups reported discovering CD154, which is the molecular basis of T cell helper function. Seth Lederman at Columbia University generated a murine monoclonal antibody, 5c8 that inhibited contact-dependent T cell helper function in human cells which characterized the 32 kDa surface protein transiently expressed on CD4 T cells. Richard Armitage at Immunex cloned a cDNA encoding CD154 by screening an expression library with CD40-Ig. Randolph Noelle at Dartmouth Medical School generated an antibody that bound a 39 kDa protein on murine T cells and inhibited helper function.


title: T helper cell

text: Helper T cells are capable of influencing a variety of immune cells, and the T cell response generated (including the extracellular signals such as cytokines) can be essential for a successful outcome from infection. In order to be effective, helper T cells must determine which cytokines will allow the immune system to be most useful or beneficial for the host. Understanding exactly how helper T cells respond to immune challenges is currently of major interest in immunology, because such knowledge may be very useful in the treatment of disease and in increasing the effectiveness of vaccination.


title: T helper cell

text: Proliferating helper T cells that develop into effector T cells differentiate into two major subtypes of cells known as T1 and T2 cells (also known as Type 1 and Type 2 helper T cells, respectively).


title: T helper cell

text: T1 helper cells lead to an increased cell-mediated response (primarily by macrophages and cytotoxic T cells), typically against intracellular bacteria and protozoa. They are triggered by the polarising cytokine IL-12 and their effector cytokines are IFN-γ and IL-2. The main effector cells of T1 immunity are macrophages as well as CD8 T cells, IgG B cells, and IFN-γ CD4 T cells. The key T1 transcription factors are STAT4 and T-bet. IFN-γ secreted by CD4 T cells can activate macrophages to phagocytose and digest intracellular bacteria and protozoa. In addition, IFN-γ can activate iNOS (inducible nitric oxide synthase) to produce nitric oxide free radicals to directly kill intracellular bacteria and protozoa. T1 overactivation against autoantigens will cause Type IV or delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction. Tuberculin reaction and Type 1 diabetes belong to this category of autoimmunity.


title: T helper cell

text: T2 helper cells lead to a humoral immune response, typically against extracellular parasites such as helminths. They are triggered by the polarising cytokines IL-4 and IL-2, and their effector cytokines are IL-4, IL-5, IL-9, IL-10, IL-13 and IL-25. The main effector cells are eosinophils, basophils, and mast cells as well as B cells, and IL-4/IL-5 CD4 T cells. The key T2 transcription factors are STAT6 and GATA3. IL-4 is the positive feedback cytokine for T2 cells differentiation. Besides, IL-4 stimulates B-cells to produce IgE antibodies, which in turn stimulate mast cells to release histamine, serotonin, and leukotriene to cause broncho-constriction, intestinal peristalsis, gastric fluid acidification to expel helminths. IL-5 from CD4 T cells will activate eosinophils to attack helminths. IL-10 suppresses T1 cells differentiation and function of dendritic cells. T2 overactivation against antigen will cause Type I hypersensitivity which is an allergic reaction mediated by IgE. Allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, and asthma belong to this category of overactivation . In addition to expressing different cytokines, T2 cells also differ from T1 cells in their cell surface glycans (oligosaccharides), which makes them less susceptible to some inducers of cell death.


title: T helper cell

text: While we know about the types of cytokine patterns helper T cells tend to produce, we understand less about how the patterns themselves are decided. Various evidence suggests that the type of APC presenting the antigen to the T cell has a major influence on its profile. Other evidence suggests that the concentration of antigen presented to the T cell during primary activation influences its choice. The presence of some cytokines (such as the ones mentioned above) will also influence the response that will eventually be generated, but our understanding is nowhere near complete.


title: T helper cell

text: T17 helper cells are a subset of T helper cells developmentally distinct from T1 and T2 lineages producing interleukin 17 (IL-17).


title: T helper cell

text: T cells produce IL-17 which is a pro inflammatory substance. This means it is especially good at fighting extracellular pathogens and fungi.


title: T helper cell

text: THαβ helper cells provide the host immunity against viruses. Their differentiation is triggered by IFN α/β or IL-10. Their key effector cytokine is IL-10. Their main effector cells are NK cells as well as CD8 T cells, IgG B cells, and IL-10 CD4 T cells. The key THαβ transcription factors are STAT1 and STAT3 as well as IRFs. IL-10 from CD4 T cells activate NK cells' ADCC to apoptose virus-infected cells and to induce host as well as viral DNA fragmentation. IFN alpha/beta can suppress transcription to avoid virus replication and transmission. Overactivation of THαβ against autoantigen will cause type 2 antibody-dependent cytotoxic hypersensitivity. Myasthenia gravis or Graves' disease belong to this category.


title: T helper cell

text: The interactions between cytokines from the T1/T2 model can be more complicated in some animals. For example, the T2 cytokine IL-10 inhibits cytokine production of both T subsets in humans. Human IL-10 (hIL-10) suppresses the proliferation and cytokine production of all T cells and the activity of macrophages, but continues to stimulate plasma cells, ensuring that antibody production still occurs. As such, hIL-10 is not believed to truly promote the T2 response in humans, but acts to prevent over-stimulation of helper T cells while still maximising the production of antibodies.


title: T helper cell

text: There are also other types of T cells that can influence the expression and activation of helper T cells, such as natural regulatory T cells, along with less common cytokine profiles such as the T3 subset of helper T cells. Terms such as "regulatory" and "suppression" have become ambiguous after the discovery that helper CD4 T cells are also capable of regulating (and suppressing) their own responses outside of dedicated regulatory T cells.


title: T helper cell

text: One major difference between regulatory T cells and effector T cells is that regulatory T cells typically serve to modulate and deactivate the immune response, while effector T cell groups usually begin with immune-promoting cytokines and then switch to inhibitory cytokines later in their life cycle. The latter is a feature of T3 cells, which transform into a regulatory subset after its initial activation and cytokine production.


title: T helper cell

text: Both regulatory T cells and T3 cells produce the cytokine transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) and IL-10. Both cytokines are inhibitory to helper T cells; TGF-β suppresses the activity of most of the immune system. There is evidence to suggest that TGF-β may not suppress activated Th2 cells as effectively as it might suppress naive cells, but it is not typically considered a Th2 cytokine.


title: T helper cell

text: The novel characterisation of another T helper subtype, T helper 17 cells (T17) has cast further doubt on the basic T1/T2 model. These IL-17 producing cells were initially described as a pathogenic population implicated in autoimmunity but are now thought to have their own distinct effector and regulatory functions. Of note, some evidence suggest that functional plasticity is an intrinsic capacity of T helper cells. Indeed, a study in mice demonstrated that T17 cells transform into T1 cells "in vivo". A subsequent study furthermore showed that extensive T helper cell plasticity is also prominent in man.


title: T helper cell

text: Many of the cytokines in this article are also expressed by other immune cells (see individual cytokines for details), and it is becoming clear that while the original T1/T2 model is enlightening and gives insight into the functions of helper T cells, it is far too simple to define its entire role or actions. Some immunologists question the model completely, as some "in vivo" studies suggest that individual helper T cells usually do not match the specific cytokine profiles of the T model, and many cells express cytokines from both profiles. That said, the T model has still played an important part in developing our understanding of the roles and behaviour of helper T cells and the cytokines they produce during an immune response.


title: T helper cell

text: Studies by Stockinger et al. revealed that another T helper subset may exist. Th9 cells are claimed to be an IL9 (interleukin 9)–producing T cell subset focused on defending helminth infections.


title: T helper cell

text: Historically, memory T cells were thought to belong to either the effector or central memory subtypes, each with their own distinguishing set of cell surface markers. Central memory T cells reside in the lymph nodes while effector memory T cells lack the C-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CCR7) and L-selectin (CD62L) receptors, which prevents them from trafficking to the lymph nodes.


title: T helper cell

text: Additional populations of memory T cells are now known to exist. These include tissue-resident memory T (Trm) cells and virtual memory T cells. The single unifying theme for all memory T cell subtypes is that they are long-lived and can expand quickly to large numbers of effector T cells upon encountering their cognate antigen. By this mechanism they provide the immune system with "memory" against previously encountered pathogens.


title: T helper cell

text: Considering the diverse and important role helper T cells play in the immune system, it is not surprising that these cells often influence the immune response against disease. They also occasionally generate non-beneficial responses. Very rarely, the helper T cell response could lead to the death of the host.


title: T helper cell

text: The immune system must achieve a balance of sensitivity in order to respond to foreign antigens without responding to the antigens of the host itself. When the immune system responds to very low levels of antigen that it usually shouldn't respond to, a hypersensitivity response occurs. Hypersensitivity is believed to be the cause of allergy and some auto-immune disease.


title: T helper cell

text: Other cellular hypersensitivities include cytotoxic T cell mediated auto-immune disease, and a similar phenomenon; transplant rejection. Helper T cells are required to fuel the development of these diseases. In order to create sufficient auto-reactive killer T cells, interleukin-2 must be produced, and this is supplied by CD4 T cells. CD4 T cells can also stimulate cells such as natural killer cells and macrophages via cytokines such as interferon-gamma, encouraging these cytotoxic cells to kill host cells in certain circumstances.


title: T helper cell

text: The mechanism that killer T cells use during auto-immunity is almost identical to their response against viruses, and some viruses have been accused of causing auto-immune diseases such as Type 1 diabetes mellitus. Cellular auto-immune disease occurs because the host antigen recognition systems fail, and the immune system believes, by mistake, that a host antigen is foreign. As a result, the CD8 T cells treat the host cell presenting that antigen as infected, and go on to destroy all host cells (or in the case of transplant rejection, transplant organ) that express that antigen.


title: T helper cell

text: Some of this section is a simplification. Many auto-immune diseases are more complex. A well-known example is rheumatoid arthritis, where both antibodies and immune cells are known to play a role in the pathology. Generally the immunology of most auto-immune diseases is not well understood.


title: T helper cell

text: Perhaps the best example of the importance of CD4 T cells is demonstrated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. HIV mainly targets lymphoid CD4 T cells, but can infect other cells that express CD4 such as macrophages and dendritic cells (both groups express CD4 at low levels).


title: T helper cell

text: It has been proposed that during the non-symptomatic phase of HIV infection, the virus has a relatively low affinity towards T cells (and has a higher affinity for macrophages), resulting in a slow kill rate of CD4 T cells by the immune system. This is initially compensated for via the production of new helper T cells from the thymus (originally from the bone marrow). Once the virus becomes lymphotropic (or T-tropic) however, it begins to infect CD4 T cells far more efficiently (likely due to a change in the co-receptors it binds to during infection), and the immune system is overwhelmed. Studies suggest that only ~5% of the lymphoid-derived CD4 T cells targeted by HIV are permissive and become productively infected with the virus. More than 95% of the CD4 T cells that die are resting and are unable to support productive infection. These cells undergo abortive infection with HIV. Cell death is triggered when the host cell detects HIV foreign DNA intermediates and initiates a suicidal death pathway in an attempt to protect the host, leading to caspase-1 activation in inflammasomes, thus causing pyroptosis (a highly inflammatory form of programmed cell death).


title: T helper cell

text: At this point chronic inflammation ensues, and functional CD4 T cell levels begin to decrease, eventually to a point where the CD4 T cell population is too small to recognize the full range of antigens that could potentially be detected. The depletion of CD4 T cells and the development of chronic inflammation are signature processes in HIV pathogenesis that propel progression to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). CD4 T cell depleted to the cell count of less than 200cell/μL in blood during AIDS allows various pathogens to escape T cell recognition, thus allowing opportunistic infections that would normally elicit a helper T cell response to bypass the immune system. While these complete bypass situations only occur when the helper T cell response is absolutely necessary for infection clearance, most infections increase in severity and/or duration because the immune system's helper T cells provide less efficient immune response.


title: T helper cell

text: Two components of the immune system are particularly affected in AIDS, due to its CD4 T cell dependency:


title: T helper cell

text: If the patient does not respond to (or does not receive) HIV treatment they will succumb usually to either cancers or infections; the immune system finally reaches a point where it is no longer coordinated or stimulated enough to deal with the disease.


title: T helper cell

text: Inhibition of CD4 T-cell expansion during HIV infection may occur due to microbial translocation in an IL-10-dependent way. Triggering PD-1 expressed on activated monocytes by its ligand PD-L1, induces IL-10 production which inhibits CD4 T-cell function.


title: T helper cell

text: In coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) B cell, natural killer cell, and total lymphocyte counts decline, but both CD4 and CD8 cells decline to a far greater extent. Indicating that SARS-Cov-2 attacks the CD4 cells during infection. Low CD4 predicted greater likelihood of intensive care unit admission, and CD4 cell count was the only parameter that predicted length of time for viral RNA clearance. Despite the reduced levels of CD4, COVID-19 patients with severe disease had higher levels of T1 CD4 cells than patients with moderate disease.


title: Partners for Justice

text: Partners for Justice () is a 2018 South Korean television series starring Jung Jae-young and Jeong Yu-mi. The first series aired on MBC in May 2018 on Mondays and Tuesdays at 22:00 (KST) time slot. In October 2018, MBC announced that it was renewed for a second season, which premiered in 2019. Kang Seung-hyun and No Min-woo were announced as second series leads. It aired on MBC from June 3 to July 29, 2019.


title: Partners for Justice

text: About a forensic doctor, Baek Beom, who is skillful at his work but has eccentric personality and prosecutor, Eun Sol, who is a rookie prosecutor with a warm heart. She has a bright personality and comes from a wealthy family background. They come to work together to solve cases.


title: 2021–22 Russian Premier League

text: The 2021–22 Russian Premier League (known as the Tinkoff Russian Premier League, also written as Tinkoff Russian Premier Liga for sponsorship reason) was the 30th season of the premier football competition in Russia since the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the 18th under the current Russian Premier League name.


title: 2021–22 Russian Premier League

text: As in the previous season, 16 teams played in the 2021–22 season. After the 2020–21 season, Rotor Volgograd were relegated to the 2021–22 Russian Football National League after one season in Premier League while Tambov were dissolved. They were replaced by Krylia Sovetov Samara and Nizhny Novgorod, the winners and third place of the 2020–21 Russian Football National League.


title: 2021–22 Russian Premier League

text: FC Orenburg, the runner-up of 2020–21 Russian Football National League, didn't get the RFS 1 licence.


title: 2021–22 Russian Premier League

text: The 16 teams played a round-robin tournament whereby each team plays each one of the other teams twice, once at home and once away. Thus, a total of 240 matches played, with 30 matches played by each team.


title: 2021–22 Russian Premier League

text: For the purpose of determining FNL positions for the following, the teams that will not pass 2022–23 RPL licensing or drop out of 2022–23 season for any other reason, or the second teams of RPL clubs (such as FC Krasnodar-2), or the teams that finished lower than 6th place in FNL standings will not be considered. For example, if the teams that finished 1st, 3rd and 4th in the FNL standings fail licensing, the team that finished 2nd will be considered 1st-placed team, the team that finished 5th will be considered 2nd-placed team and the team that finished 6th will be considered 3rd-placed team. There will be no designated 4th-placed team in this scenario.


title: 2021–22 Russian Premier League

text: The teams that finish 15th and 16th relegated to the FNL 2022–23, while the top 2 in that league promoted to the 2022–23 season.