title: History of clothing and textiles

text: The toga of ancient Rome was also an unsewn length of wool cloth, worn by male citizens draped around the body in various fashions, over a simple tunic. Early tunics were two simple rectangles joined at the shoulders and sides; later tunics had sewn sleeves. Women wore the draped stola or an ankle-length tunic, with a shawl-like palla as an outer garment. Wool was the preferred fabric, although linen, hemp, and small amounts of expensive imported silk and cotton were also worn.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: The Iron Age is broadly identified as stretching from the end of the Bronze Age around 1200 BC to 500 AD and the beginning of the Medieval period. Bodies and clothing have been found from this period, preserved by the anaerobic and acidic conditions of peat bogs in northwestern Europe. A Danish recreation of clothing found with such bodies indicates woven wool dresses, tunics and skirts. These were largely unshaped and held in place with leather belts and metal brooches or pins. Garments were not always plain, but incorporated decoration with contrasting colours, particularly at the ends and edges of the garment. Men wore breeches, possibly with lower legs wrapped for protection, although Boucher states that long trousers have also been found. Warmth came from woollen shawls and capes of animal skin, probably worn with the fur facing inwards for added comfort. Caps were worn, also made from skins, and there was an emphasis on hair arrangements, from braids to elaborate Suebian knots. Soft laced shoes made from leather protected the foot.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: The history of Medieval European clothing and textiles has inspired a good deal of scholarly interest in the 21st century. Elisabeth Crowfoot, Frances Pritchard, and Kay Staniland authored "Textiles and Clothing: Medieval Finds from Excavations in London, c.1150-c.1450" (Boydell Press, 2001). The topic is also the subject of an annual series, "Medieval Clothing and Textiles" (Boydell Press), edited by Robin Netherton and Gale R. Owen-Crocker, Emeritus Professor of Anglo-Saxon Culture at the University of Manchester.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: The Byzantines made and exported very richly patterned cloth, woven and embroidered for the upper classes, and resist-dyed and printed for the lower. By Justinian's time the Roman toga had been replaced by the tunica, or long "chiton", for both sexes, over which the upper classes wore various other garments, like a "dalmatica" (dalmatic), a heavier and shorter type of tunica; short and long cloaks were fastened on the right shoulder.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: Leggings and hose were often worn, but are not prominent in depictions of the wealthy; they were associated with barbarians, whether European or Persian.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: European dress changed gradually in the years 400 to 1100. People in many countries dressed differently depending on whether they identified with the old Romanised population, or the new invading populations such as Franks, Anglo-Saxons, and Visigoths. Men of the invading peoples generally wore short tunics, with belts, and visible trousers, hose or leggings. The Romanised populations, and the Church, remained faithful to the longer tunics of Roman formal costume.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: The elite imported silk cloth from the Byzantine, and later Muslim, worlds, and also probably cotton. They also could afford bleached linen and dyed and simply patterned wool woven in Europe itself. But embroidered decoration was probably very widespread, though not usually detectable in art. Lower classes wore local or homespun wool, often undyed, trimmed with bands of decoration, variously embroidery, tablet-woven bands, or colorful borders woven into the fabric in the loom.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: Clothing in 12th and 13th century Europe remained very simple for both men and women, and quite uniform across the subcontinent. The traditional combination of short tunic with hose for working-class men and long tunic with overdress for women and upper-class men remained the norm. Most clothing, especially outside the wealthier classes, remained little changed from three or four centuries earlier.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: The 13th century saw great progress in the dyeing and working of wool, which was by far the most important material for outerwear. Linen was increasingly used for clothing that was directly in contact with the skin. Unlike wool, linen could be laundered and bleached in the sun. Cotton, imported raw from Egypt and elsewhere, was used for padding and quilting, and cloths such as buckram and fustian.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: Crusaders returning from the Levant brought knowledge of its fine textiles, including light silks, to Western Europe. In Northern Europe, silk was an imported and very expensive luxury. The well-off could afford woven brocades from Italy or even further afield. Fashionable Italian silks of this period featured repeating patterns of roundels and animals, deriving from Ottoman silk-weaving centres in Bursa, and ultimately from Yuan Dynasty China via the Silk Road.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: Cultural and costume historians agree that the mid-14th century marks the emergence of recognizable "fashion" in Europe. From this century onwards, Western fashion changed at a pace quite unknown to other civilizations, whether ancient or contemporary. In most other cultures, only major political changes, such as the Muslim conquest of India, produced radical changes in clothing, and in China, Japan, and the Ottoman Empire fashion changed only slightly over periods of several centuries.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: In this period, the draped garments and straight seams of previous centuries were replaced by curved seams and the beginnings of tailoring, which allowed clothing to more closely fit the human form, as did the use of lacing and buttons. A fashion for "mi-parti" or "parti-coloured" garments made of two contrasting fabrics, one on each side, arose for men in mid-century, and was especially popular at the English court. Sometimes just the hose would have different colours on each leg.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: Wool remained the most popular fabric for all classes, followed by linen and hemp. Wool fabrics were available in a wide range of qualities, from rough undyed cloth to fine, dense broadcloth with a velvety nap; high-value broadcloth was a backbone of the English economy and was exported throughout Europe. Wool fabrics were dyed in rich colours, notably reds, greens, golds, and blues.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: Silk-weaving was well established around the Mediterranean by the beginning of the 15th century, and figured silks, often silk velvets with silver-gilt wefts, are increasingly seen in Italian dress and in the dress of the wealthy throughout Europe. Stately floral designs featuring a pomegranate or artichoke motif had reached Europe from China in the previous century and became a dominant design in the Ottoman silk-producing cities of Istanbul and Bursa, and spread to silk weavers in Florence, Genoa, Venice, Valencia and Seville in this period.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: As prosperity grew in the 15th century, the urban middle classes, including skilled workers, began to wear more complex clothes that followed, at a distance, the fashions set by the elites. National variations in clothing increased over the century.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: By the first half of the 16th century, the clothing of the Low Countries, German states, and Scandinavia had developed in a different direction than that of England, France, and Italy, although all absorbed the sobering and formal influence of Spanish dress after the mid-1520s.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: Elaborate slashing was popular, especially in Germany. Black was increasingly worn for the most formal occasions. Bobbin lace arose from passementerie in the mid-16th century, probably in Flanders. This century also saw the rise of the ruff, which grew from a mere ruffle at the neckline of the shirt or chemise to immense cartwheel shapes. At their most extravagant, ruffs required wire supports.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: By the turn of the 17th century, a sharp distinction could be seen between the sober fashions favored by Protestants in England and the Netherlands, which still showed heavy Spanish influence, and the light, revealing fashions of the French and Italian courts.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: The great flowering of needlelace occurred in this period. Geometric reticella deriving from cutwork was elaborated into true needlelace or "punto in aria" (called in England "point lace"), which reflected the scrolling floral designs popular for embroidery. Lacemaking centers were established in France to reduce the outflow of cash to Italy.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: According to Dr. Wolf D. Fuhrig, "By the second half of the 17th century, Silesia had become an important economic pillar of the Habsburg monarchy, largely on the strength of its textile industry."


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: Mughal India (16th to 18th centuries) was the most important center of manufacturing in international trade up until the 18th century. Up until 1750, India produced about 25% of the world's industrial output. The largest manufacturing industry in Mughal India was textile manufacturing, particularly cotton textile manufacturing, which included the production of piece goods, calicos, and muslins, available unbleached and in a variety of colours. The cotton textile industry was responsible for a large part of India's international trade. India had a 25% share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century. Indian cotton textiles were the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century, consumed across the world from the Americas to Japan. The most important center of cotton production was the Bengal Subah province, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: Bengal accounted for more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks imported by the Dutch from Asia, Bengali silk and cotton textiles were exported in large quantities to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan, and Bengali muslin textiles from Dhaka were sold in Central Asia, where they were known as "daka" textiles. Indian textiles dominated the Indian Ocean trade for centuries, were sold in the Atlantic Ocean trade, and had a 38% share of the West African trade in the early 18th century, while Indian calicos were major force in Europe, and Indian textiles accounted for 20% of total English trade with Southern Europe in the early 18th century.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: In early modern Europe, there was significant demand for textiles from Mughal India, including cotton textiles and silk products. European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Mughal India accounted for 95% of British imports from Asia.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: Emphasis was placed on the adornment of women. Even though the purdah was made compulsory for the Mughal women, we see that this did not stop themselves from experimenting in style and attire. Abul Fazal mentions that there were sixteen components that adorned a woman. These not only included clothing but also other aspects like that of oiling the body and iqtar. Mughal women wore long loose jamas with full sleeves and in winters it was accompanied by a Qaba or a Kashmir shawl used as a coat. Women were very fond of their perfumes and scents. Jewellery in the Mughal tradition signified not only religious values but also style statements.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: Across North America, native people constructed clothing using natural fibers such as cotton and agave as well as leather skins from animals such as deer or beavers. When traders and colonists came from Europe, they brought with them sheep and travelers highly valued the beaver pelts in particular for their warmth. Beaver pelt trade was one of the first commercial endeavors of colonial North America and a cause of the Beaver Wars.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: During the 18th century, distinction was made between "full dress" worn at Court and for formal occasions, and "undress" or everyday, daytime clothes. As the decades progressed, fewer and fewer occasions called for full dress which had all but disappeared by the end of the century. Full dress followed the styles of the French court, where rich silks and elaborate embroidery reigned. Men continued to wear the coat, waistcoat and breeches for both full dress and undress; these were now sometimes made of the same fabric and trim, signalling the birth of the three-piece suit.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: Women's silhouettes featured small, domed hoops in the 1730s and early 1740s, which were displaced for formal court wear by side hoops or panniers which later widened to as much as three feet to either side at the court of Marie Antoinette. Fashion reached heights of fantasy and abundant ornamentation, before new enthusiasms for outdoor sports and country pursuits and a long-simmering movement toward simplicity and democratization of dress under the influence of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the American Revolution led to an entirely new mode and the triumph of British woollen tailoring following the French Revolution.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: For women's dresses, Indian cottons, especially printed chintzes, were imported to Europe in large numbers, and towards the end of the period simple white muslin dresses were in fashion.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: During the industrial revolution, fabric production was mechanised with machines powered by waterwheels and steam-engines. Production shifted from small cottage based production to mass production based on assembly line organisation. Clothing production, on the other hand, continued to be made by hand.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: Textiles were not only made in factories. Before this, they were made in local and national markets. Dramatic change in transportation throughout the nation is one source that encouraged the use of factories. New advances such as steamboats, canals, and railroads lowered shipping costs which caused people to buy cheap goods that were produced in other places instead of more expensive goods that were produced locally. Between 1810 and 1840, the development of a national market prompted manufacturing which tripled the output's worth. This increase in production created a change in industrial methods, such as the use of factories instead of hand made woven materials that families usually made.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: The vast majority of the people who worked in the factories were women. Women went to work in textile factories for a number of reasons. Some women left home to live on their own because of crowding at home; or to save for future marriage portions. The work enabled them to see more of the world, to earn something in anticipation of marriage, and to ease the crowding within the home. They also did it to make money for family back home. The money they sent home was to help out with the trouble some of the farmers were having. They also worked in the millhouses because they could gain a sense of independence and growth as a personal goal.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: The 20th century is marked by new applications for textiles as well as inventions in synthetic fibers and computerized manufacturing control systems.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: In the early 20th century, workers in the clothing and textile industries became unionized in the United States.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: In the 20th century, the industry had expanded to such a degree that such educational institutions as UC Davis established a Division of Textiles and Clothing, The University of Nebraska-Lincoln also created a Department of Textiles, Clothing and Design that offers a Masters of Arts in Textile History, and Iowa State University established a Department of Textiles and Clothing that features a History of costume collection, 1865–1948. The Smith College Historic Clothing Collection, maintained by the college's theater department, houses 3000 items, everyday type clothing often overlooked by collections that focus on items that are considered unique or otherwise of interest.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: The changing lifestyles, activities, and demands of the 20th century favored clothing producers who could more effectively make their products have desired properties, such as increased strength, elasticity, or durability. These properties may be implemented through mechanical solutions, such as different weaving and knitting patterns, by modifications to the fibers, or by finishing (textiles) of the textiles. Since the 1960s, it has been possible to finish textiles to resist stains, flames, wrinkles, and microbial life. Advancement in dye technology allowed for coloring of previously difficult-to-dye natural fibers and synthetic fibers.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: Following the invention of plastics by petroleum and chemical corporations, fibers could now be made synthetically. Advancements in fiber spinning actuators and control systems allow control over fiber diameter and shape, so synthetic fiber may be engineered with more precision than natural fibers. Fibers invented between 1930 and 1970 include nylon, PTFE, polyester, Spandex, and Kevlar. Clothing producers soon adopted synthetic fibers, often using blends of different fibers for optimized properties. Synthetic fibers can be knit and woven similarly to natural fibers. Synthetic fibers are made by humans through chemical synthesis as opposed to natural fibers.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: The early 20th century continued the advances of the Industrial Revolution. In The procedural loops required for mechanized textile knitting and weaving already used logic were encoded in punch-cards and tapes. Since the machines were already computers, the invention of small-scale electronics and microcontrollers did not immediately change the possible functions of these machines. In the 1960s, existing machines became outfitted with computerized numeric control (CNC) systems, enabling more accurate and efficient actuation. In 1983, Bonas Machine Company Ltd. presented the first computer-controlled, electronic, Jacquard loom. In 1988, the first US patent was awarded for a "pick and place" robot. Advancements such as these changed the nature of work for machine operators, introducing computer literacy as a skill alongside machine literacy. Advances in sensing technology and data processing of the 20th century include the spectrophotometer for color matching and automatic inspection machines.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: In the 2010s, the global textile industry has come under fire for unsustainable practices. The textile industry is shown to have a 'negative environmental impact at most stages in the production process.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: Global trade of secondhand clothing shows promise for reducing landfill use, however international relations and challenges to textile recycling keep the market small compared to total clothing use. Over consumption and waste generation in global fashion culture has led brands and retailers worldwide to embrace textile recycling, which has become a key focus of worldwide sustainability efforts. Brands increasingly advertise products made from recycled materials in according with shifting consumer expectations. From 2010, investments in textile recycling companies have boomed to scale recycling solutions to the global demand, with Inditex backing textile-to-textile recycling company Circ in July 2022 or Goldman Sachs leading an investment in mechanically recycled cotton company Recover Textile Systems.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: Advancements in textile treatment, coating, and dyes have unclear effects in human health, and textile contact dermatitis is increasing in prevalence among textile workers, and regular people.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: Scholars have identified an increase in the rate at which western consumers purchase new clothing, as well as a decrease in the lifespan of clothing. Fast fashion has been suggested to contribute to increased levels of textile waste.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: The worldwide market for textiles and apparel exports in 2013 according to United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database stood at $772 billion.


title: History of clothing and textiles

text: In 2016, the largest apparel exporting nations were China ($161 billion), Bangladesh ($28 billion), Vietnam ($25 billion), India ($18 billion), Hong Kong ($16 billion), Turkey ($15 billion) and Indonesia ($7 billion).


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: The Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (translation: Maharashtra Reformation Army; MNS) is a Regionalist far-right Indian political party based in the state of Maharashtra and operates on the ideology of "Hindutva" and "Marathi" Manus. It was founded on 9 March 2006 in Mumbai by Raj Thackeray after he left the Shiv Sena party due to differences with his cousin Uddhav Thackeray, who was the 19th Chief Minister Of Maharashtra and to his sidelining by the Shiv Sena in major decisions like distribution of election tickets.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: MNS won 13 assembly seats (out of 288) in the 2009 assembly elections, which was the first Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election that the party contested. In the most recent elections of Maharashtra Legislative Assembly 2019, MNS won only 1 seat.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: The party was founded by Raj Thackeray, nephew of late Shiv Sena leader Bal Thackeray and grandson of Prabodhankar Thackeray. Raj Thackeray resigned from his uncle's party in January 2006 and announced his intention to start a new political party. The reason given by him for breaking away from the Shiv Sena was that the latter was "run by petty clerks" because of which it had "fallen from its former glory". Also, Thackeray declared his motive of building a political awareness for the development related issues of the state and giving them a center stage in national politics.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: At the time of the party's foundation, Raj Thackeray stated that he does not want to have hostilities with his uncle who "was, is and always will be (his) mentor".


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: Although the MNS is a break-away group from the Shiv Sena, the party is still based on Marathi and "Bhumiputra" ideologies. When unveiling the party in an assembly at Shivaji Park he said, that everyone is anxious to see what will happen to Hindutva. When unveiling, he also said,


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: "I shall elaborate on the party's stance on issues like Sons of Soil and Marathi, its agenda for development of Maharashtra and the significance of the party flag colours at the March 19 public meeting." Raj Thackeray considers himself an Indian nationalist. The party also recognises secularism as one of its core tenets.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: In September 2014, MNS unveiled its first look of "Maharashtra's Development Blueprint" with the slogan 'Yes, it's possible’. The blueprint discusses party's stance and key ideas on infrastructure, governance, quality of life, growth opportunities and Marathi pride.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: In February 2008, some MNS activists clashed with Samajwadi Party (SP) party workers in Mumbai when Samajwadi Party supporters attended a rally at Shivaji Park, Dadar, Mumbai, a stronghold of MNS, where Samajwadi Party leader Abu Asim Azmi made a fiery speech. After the clashes, 73 MNS activists and 19 SP workers were arrested by Mumbai Police for violence.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: On 6 February 2008, reportedly, about 200 MNS members quit the party and joined Shiv Sena due to the anti-north Indian stance of Raj Thackeray.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: A petition was filed in the Patna civil court on 8 February against Thackeray for his alleged remarks over Chhath, the most popular festival of Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh (Purvanchal). Mr. Thackeray maintains he is not against Chhath Puja, but against the "show of arrogance" and "Politicization of Chatth Puja" displayed by some people from Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh on this occasion.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: On 10 February 2008, MNS workers attacked vendors and shopkeepers from North India in various parts of Maharashtra, and destroyed government property to vent their anger against the reported move to arrest Raj Thackeray. Nashik police detained 26 MNS workers for violence.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: In February 2008, Raj Thackarey's speech on the issue of migration into Mumbai from other parts of India created a well-publicised controversy. MNS supporters clashed with activists of the Samajwadi Party leading to street violence. Thackeray also criticised noted film actor turned politician Amitabh Bachchan, a native of Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh, for business towards Uttar Pradesh because of Amar Singh. Bachchan came into fame and fortune in Mumbai's film industry;– Bollywood.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: On 8 September 2008, Infosys Technologies announced that 3,000 employee positions had been shifted from Pune due to construction delays caused earlier that year by MNS attacks on North Indian construction workers in Maharashtra.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: On 15 October 2008, Thackeray threatened to shut down Jet Airways operations in Maharashtra if they did not rehire probationary employees that had been shed in a cost-cutting move forced by the economic downturn.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: In October 2008, MNS activists beat up North Indian candidates appearing for the all-India Railway Recruitment Board entrance exam for the Western region in Mumbai. One Bihari died because of train accident and rioting ensued following coverage in Hindi Media with support from NCP/Congress. In retaliation for the MNS' attack on Biharis and North Indians in general, the Bharatiya Bhojpuri Sangh attacked the residence of a Marathi official of Tata Motors in Jamshedpur. Following the uproar in the Indian parliament, and calls that there was no pressure to arrest the MNS chief, Raj Thackeray was arrested in the early hours of 21 October. He was produced before a court on the day itself and would return the next day after spending the night in jail. Following the arrest, however, MNS party activists took out their anger on parts of Mumbai city and the region at large. The arrest resulted in applause, fear and calls for a ban on the MNS. The Shiv Sena, however, maintained a cool response, although senior party leader Manohar Joshi said they were close to supporting the MNS in their agitation against the non-Marathi candidates for the railway board exam.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: On 10 October 2006 clashes erupted between supporters of Shiv Sena and Maharashtra Navnirman Sena headed by Raj Thackeray. It was alleged that workers of MNS had torn the posters bearing the photographs of Shiv Sena Supremo Bal Thackeray near the SIES college in Mumbai. Later as a retaliation, it was alleged that Shiv Sena workers brought down the hoardings with Raj Thackeray's photo near the Sena Bhavan at Dadar. As the news spread about the incident groups gathered near the Sena Bhavan and started pelting stones at each other. In this incident a policeman was injured and many supporters of both parties were injured. To restore order the police fired tear gas shells at the mob. Decorum was eventually restored following police action and the appearance of Uddhav Thackeray and his cousin Raj Thackeray at the venue. Uddhav appealed to Sena workers to go back home. He said:


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: "The police will take necessary action. This is happening because many people are joining us from MNS. The defections have started and that is why they are resorting to such actions".


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: The division chief of the Shiv Sena Milind Vaidya said that they had lodged a complaint with the local police against an MNS worker who was involved in the incident. MNS general secretary Pravin Darekar, however, pinned the cause down to local elections in the SIES college. He alleges that the Sena is concerned about losing their hold over the colleges and that is why they are trying to color the issue, adding that the Sena's allegations had no merit. Raj Thackeray asserts that MNS could not have vandalized the pictures, seeing as how he and his members revere Bal Thackeray.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: A Parliamentary committee was set up to examine the breach of privileges notices from some MPs for remarks made by Bal Thackeray against "Uttar Bharatiyas" (North-Indians). Reacting to this, MNS chief Raj Thackeray had said he would not allow any politician from UP and Bihar to enter Mumbai if the parliamentary panel insisted on summoning Bal.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: Bal countered this by terming his nephew Raj a backstabber and reacted to the MNS chief with a "big no thank you."


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: Shiv Sena (SS) and MNS workers also clashed at Anand Nagar in Oshiwara over the issuance of Navratri posters during the holiday season. SS corporator Rajul Patel said "The MNS activists had put up huge hoardings and were demanding money from people to remove them. People complained to us and we objected. This led to a scuffle." MNS Vibhag Pramukh (Division Leader) Manish Dhuri retorted that "the Sainiks are jealous of our popularity. On Sunday afternoon, a mob of Shiv Sainiks came to the area and started pulling down posters that were put up by us. We objected to this. Unfortunately, one MNS activist sustained severe injuries."


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: On 9 November 2009 Abu Azmi of the Samajwadi Party was denounced and prevented by MLA of the MNS from taking his oath in Hindi and not in state official language Marathi. As a result of this incident, the speaker of the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly suspended the 4 MNS MLAs involved in the skirmish for a period of four years. They were also barred from entering Mumbai and Nagpur whenever the assembly met in the two cities. The MLAs suspended were Ram Kadam, Ramesh Wanjale, Shishir Shinde and Vasant Gite. The suspension was later revoked in July 2010.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: In October 2008, Jet Airways laid off almost 1,000 employees. In the frenzy for reinstatement that followed numerous political parties took the stand for the probationers’ cause. First the MNS and the SS came in, then the established national parties, the Congress and the BJP. Even the CPI M, rallied in support of the laid off Kolkata employees.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: One day after the lay off, the retrenched former staff flocked to the MNS office, even though the SS labour arm, the Bharatiya Kamgar Sena generally rules the aviation unions. The MNS then led more than 300 former employees to Jet's office in Marol. MNS general secretary Nitin Sardesai said, "We met Jet officials today while a lot of (cabin) crew and MNS workers were protesting outside. While we were talking, Jet chairman Naresh Goyal telephoned Raj Thackeray... He requested us to end the protest and offered to meet Raj in a couple of days. We had a one-point agenda that those laid off should be taken back."


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: In two days the MNS march and support got the staff re-hired. The media widely appeared to pronounce Raj as having won the game of one upmanship with the SS, whose mantle of aggressive street politics was seen as having been usurped. This was a big boost for the MNS' newly formed trade union, the Maharashtra Navnirman Kamgar Sena, which has been trying to cut into the SS' influence in the aviation, hotel and entertainment sectors.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: MNS won 13 assembly seats (out of 288) in the 2009 assembly elections Maharashtra. These include 6 in Mumbai, 2 in Thane, 3 in Nashik,1 in Pune and 1 in Kannad (Aurangabad) and remain at 2nd spot at more than 24 places. This result (4.5% seats) makes MNS, fourth in largest party in Maharashtra assembly after Congress-NCP (144 seats), BJP-Shiv-Sena (90 seats), Third Front (14 seats).


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: In the 2014 Assembly elections, the MNS was trounced. It was only able to win 1 seat across the state. It lost all 10 seats held by it. It also lost on all 6 seats held by it in Mumbai, including Mahim, a Shiv Sena stronghold, which it had previously won from the Sena. Its candidates forfeited their deposits on a record 203 seats out of the 288 seats in the state, and the 218 seats on which it fielded candidates.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: In the Bruhanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) elections held in 2017, the tally of MNS was reduced to 7 seats. In Oct 2017, 6 councillors defected to Shiv Sena, thus taking its representation down to 1 seat.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: Following an attack on North Indians who had turned up to the RRB (Railway Recruitment Board) railway exam in Mumbai, numerous politicians, mainly from the then ruling UPA central government, harshly criticised Raj Thackeray and the MNS.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: Three UPA ministers demanded tough action, including a call for a ban against the party. Railway Minister Lalu Prasad Yadav demanded a ban on the MNS and saying its chief was a "mental case," Steel Minister Ram Vilas Paswan added that he would raise the issue in the next cabinet meeting and wondered why no action was being, or had been, taken against the MNS despite a repetition of such violent incidents. He said: "I strongly condemn the incident. There should be strong action against that party... MNS should be banned. [The] Thackeray family has become a chronic problem for Maharashtra and Raj Thackeray, in particular, has become a mental case." The Minister for Food Processing Industries, as well as a Congress leader, Subodh Kant Sahay demanded the Congress-NCP coalition government in Maharashtra treat those responsible for the attacks as criminals. He said, "I have spoken to Maharashtra Chief Minister Vilasrao Deshmukh and asked him on the "goondaism" that is going on in the state." As far the government's action till date is concerned, it has been soft on them. It should take action as too much has already happened there." They are not workers. They are looters. Organisations like MNS, Bajrang Dal, VHP and RSS should be banned."


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: On the first working day following the incident, uproarious scenes were seen in the national parliament. Numerous members of Parliament condemned the attacks. They also indirectly criticised railway minister Lalu Prasad Yadav while noting that even in their regions, the maximum recruitments being made were those of people from Bihar and not from the state where the recruitment drives were held, adding some credence to the MNS' drive. Speaking first on the issue, RJD leader Devendra Prasad Yadav demanded that the Centre take action in the state under Article 355. He noted that despite the attacks, the Maharashtra chief minister has maintained a silence on the issue, adding that such actions threaten the unity and integrity of the country. Other MP's also demanded the invocation of Article 355 in the light of the attacks. Shahnawaz Hussain of the BJP made such demands in asking if people from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh needed a permit to travel to other parts of the country. The CPI M's Mohammed Salim said that such incidents threaten the country's integrity and send a wrong signal to the rest of the country. Anant Geete of the Shiv Sena, however, tried to give the other side of the story by noting the 4.2 million educated and unemployed youth in Maharashtra. The CPI (M) strongly condemned the attack, terming them a "blatant" assault on the Constitution and demanded the immediate arrest of party chief Raj Thackeray, adding that any leniency shown to "divisive forces" will have far-reaching consequences. The CPI(M) Politburo said the attack on the Constitution was a poor showing on the Maharashtra government which is duty bound to protect and take stringent action against the perpetrators of such crimes. "That it has failed to do so and in fact showing leniency to the leader of the outfit shows the utter bankruptcy of the politics of Congress and its coalition partner." The CPI also said such attacks should not be tolerated and Thackeray and his supporters must be "immediately arrested and prosecuted". Maharashtra Chief Minister Vilasrao Deshmukh said his government is responsible for failure in preventing attacks and ordered a probe into the incident, which will also inquire into why the job advertisements where not given in Marathi newspapers. He said: "What has happened is not good. Such incidents take place because of loopholes in the law. One can't hold only the Home Ministry responsible for it, it is (entire) Government's responsibility. Such incidents are affecting the image of the state and I have instructed the DGP to take stern action." On Raj Thackeray's accusation that job advertisements were not published in local newspapers to keep out Maharashtrian candidates, he said, "An inquiry would also be conducted about why advertisements about the examination were not given in Marathi newspapers and the number of Marathi candidates invited for the exam." He also assured that such incidents of vandalism would not take place in future.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: During the 2008 Mumbai Terror Attacks, NSG commandos bravely defended the city. They were several commandos from North India whereas the MNS was not seen helping. This led to a great deal of criticism for the MNS since they had vehemently opposed North Indians earlier. In January 2009, artist Pranava Prakash exhibited his painting series "Chal Hat Be Bihari" in Delhi. It showed in pop style the 2008 attacks on North Indians in Maharashtra in the context of xenophobia.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: In December 2012, MNS corporator Nitin Nikam repeatedly slapped a 65-year-old contractor over alleged delay in repairing pipeline causing water shortage.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: In March 2013, 5 MNS and Shiv Sena MLAs assaulted Assistant Police Inspector Sachin Suryavanshi in the state assembly.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: In January 2014, a mob constituting MNS workers attacked toll booths in eight cities across Maharashtra, and demanding closing of toll booths where the construction cost is below 2 crores.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: In 2017, MNS workers forcibly removed the signboards of several Gujarati shops claiming they were Belittling Marathi Language.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: In May 2018, three trans-women were attacked brutally by more than 20 MNS workers. The trans-women sustained severe injuries.


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: In June 2018, Kishor Shinde, a former corporator, slapped a multiplex manager repeatedly over high food prices and ban of food items in multiplex theaters .


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: In September 2018, a mob of MNS workers assaulted a man because of his Facebook post criticising a cartoon drawn by Raj Thackeray. The workers made the man delete his comments, and forced him to apologize. MNS leader Avinash Jadhav threatened the public with similar consequences, "if such things happened again."


title: Maharashtra Navnirman Sena

text: In January 2020 on the birth anniversary of Bal Thackeray, his nephew Raj Thackeray changed his party flag colour to Bhagwa (Bhagwa Dhwaj) and agenda from Marathi interest to Hindutva or Hindu nationalism giving a speech against Indian Muslims about disturbances caused by their prayers. He supported National Register of Citizens by saying that "only Indians can live in my country and other countries people can't live in India without passport and VISA so what's wrong in this act?". He also stated that Bangladeshis and Pakistanis should go back to their respective countries or they'll be thrown back forcefully.


title: General Electric GE90

text: The General Electric GE90 is a family of high-bypass turbofan aircraft engines built by GE Aviation for the Boeing 777, with thrust ratings from . It entered service with British Airways in November 1995. It is one of three options for the 777-200, -200ER, and -300 versions, and the exclusive engine of the -200LR, -300ER, and 777F. It was the largest jet engine, until being surpassed in January 2020 by its successor, the GE9X, which has a larger diameter fan. The GE90, however, is still more powerful than its successor, the GE9X.


title: General Electric GE90

text: The GE90 was developed from the NASA 1970s Energy Efficient Engine, a prototype variant of the General Electric CF6. GE's GE36 Un-Ducted Fan (propfan) was meant to replace the CFM International CFM56 high-bypass turbofan which was initially uncompetitive against the rival IAE V2500. However, when the V2500 ran into technical problems, sales of the CFM56 took off. GE was not interested in having the GE36 cannibalize the CFM56, and while "the UDF could be made reliable by earlier standards, turbofans were getting much, much better than that." However, GE integrated the UDF's blade technology directly into the GE90.


title: General Electric GE90

text: The GE90 engine was launched in 1990. GE Aviation teamed with Snecma (France, 24%), IHI (Japan) and Avio (Italy) for the program.


title: General Electric GE90

text: Initially the GE90 was only one of three 777 options and GE Aviation then-CEO Brian H. Rowe would have paid for the development of putting it on an A330, but Airbus' strategy for long-haul was the four-engine A340, missing the market favouring twins.


title: General Electric GE90

text: The bigger and higher-thrust -115B version that powers the second generation 777 (-300ER, -200LR, and -200F) had its first run at the GE facility in Peebles, Ohio in November 2001.


title: General Electric GE90

text: The GE90's 10-stage high-pressure compressor developed a then-industry record pressure ratio of 23:1 and is driven by a 2-stage, air-cooled, HP turbine. A 3-stage low-pressure compressor, situated directly behind the fan, supercharges the core. The fan/LPC is driven by a 6-stage low-pressure turbine.


title: General Electric GE90

text: The higher-thrust variants, GE90-110B1 and -115B, have a different architecture from that of the earlier GE90 versions. General Electric incorporated an advanced larger diameter fan made from composite materials which enhanced thrust at low flight speeds. However, GE also needed to increase core power to improve net thrust at high flight speeds. Consequently, GE elected to increase core capacity, which they achieved by removing one stage from the rear of the HP compressor and adding an additional stage to the LP compressor, which more than compensated for the reduction in HP compressor pressure ratio, resulting in a net increase in core mass flow


title: General Electric GE90

text: . The higher-thrust GE90 variants are the first production engines to feature swept rotor blades. The nacelle has a maximum diameter of . Each of the 22 fan blades on the GE90-115B have a length of and a mass of less than .


title: General Electric GE90

text: As one of the three available engines for the new Boeing 777 long-range airliner, the GE90 was an all-new $2 billion design in contrast to the offerings from Pratt & Whitney and Rolls-Royce which were modifications of existing engines.


title: General Electric GE90

text: The first General Electric-powered Boeing 777 was delivered to British Airways on November 12, 1995. The aircraft, with two GE90-77Bs, entered service five days later. Initial service was affected by gearbox bearing wear concerns, which caused the airline to temporarily withdraw its 777 fleet from transatlantic service in 1997. British Airways' aircraft returned to full service later that year.


title: General Electric GE90

text: Problems with GE90 development and testing caused delays in Federal Aviation Administration certification. In addition the GE90's increased thrust was not yet required by airlines and it was also the heaviest engine of the three available choices, making it the least popular option while the Rolls-Royce engine was the most popular. British Airways soon replaced the GE90 with Rolls-Royce engines on their 777s.


title: General Electric GE90

text: For Boeing's second-generation 777 long-range versions (later named 777-200LR, 777-300ER, and 777F), greater thrust was needed to meet the aircraft requirements. General Electric and Pratt & Whitney insisted on a winner-take-all contract due to the $500 million investment in engine modifications needed to meet the requirements. GE received sole engine supplier status for the higher-thrust engine variants for the 777-200LR, -300ER, and 777F. The improved version entered service with Air France in May 2004.


title: General Electric GE90

text: The higher thrust GE90-110B1 and -115B engines, in combination with the second-generation 777 variants -200LR and -300ER, were primary reasons for 777 sales being greater than those of the rival A330/340 series. Using two engines produces a typical operating cost advantage of around 8–9% for the -300ER over the A340-600. The 777-300ER was also seen as a 747-400 replacement amid rising fuel prices given its 20% fuel burn advantage.


title: General Electric GE90

text: Until passed by its derivative, the GE9X, the GE90 series held the title of the largest engines in aviation history. The fan diameter of the original series being , and the largest variant GE90-115B has a fan diameter of . As a result, the GE90 engine can only be air-freighted using an outsize cargo aircraft such as the Antonov An-124, which restricts shipping options if, due to an emergency diversion, a 777 were stranded needing an engine change. If the fan and fan case are removed the engine may be shipped using a 747 Freighter.


title: General Electric GE90

text: In 2011, its list price was US$27.5 million, and it had an in-flight shutdown rate (IFSD) of one per million engine flight-hours. Until November 2015, it accumulated more than 8 million cycles and 50 million flight hours in 20 years.


title: General Electric GE90

text: In July 2020, the fleet of 2,800 engines surpassed 100 million hours, powering over 1,200 aircraft for 70 operators with a dispatch reliability rate of 99.97%.


title: General Electric GE90

text: The GE90-115B has enough thrust to fly the GE Boeing 747-100 flying testbed with the other three engines at idle, an attribute demonstrated during a flight test.


title: General Electric GE90

text: According to the "Guinness Book of Records", at , the engine held the record for the highest thrust achieved by an aircraft engine (the maximum thrust for the engine in service is its rated thrust ). This thrust record was reached inadvertently as part of a one-hour, triple-red-line engine stress test using a GE90-115B development engine at GE Aviations' Peebles Test Operation, which is an outdoor test complex near Peebles, Ohio. It eclipsed the engine's previous Guinness world record of .


title: General Electric GE90

text: The initial GE90 fan shaft design loads were greatly increased for operational torque and the fan blade-off condition. To accommodate the increase in fan-shaft torsional and bending stresses, a steel alloy, GE1014, not previously used in aircraft engines was required. A significantly longer fan shaft spline-coupling was required and maintaining the required high machining accuracy was challenging.


title: General Electric GE90

text: In October 2003, a Boeing 777-300ER broke the ETOPS record by being able to fly five and a half hours (330 minutes) with one engine shut down. The aircraft, with GE90-115B engines, flew from Seattle to Taiwan as part of the ETOPS certification program.


title: General Electric GE90

text: On November 10, 2005, the GE90 entered the Guinness World Records for a second time. The GE90-110B1 powered a 777-200LR during the world's longest flight by a commercial airliner, though there were no fare-paying passengers on the flight, only journalists and invited guests. The 777-200LR flew in 22 hours, 22 minutes, flying from Hong Kong to London "the long way": over the Pacific, over the continental U.S., then over the Atlantic to London.


title: General Electric GE90

text: On August 11, 2004, a GE90-85B powering a Boeing 777-200ER on British Airways flight 2024 suffered an engine failure on takeoff from George Bush Intercontinental Airport, Houston. The pilots noticed a noise and vibration on takeoff but continued the rotation. At 1500 ft AGL they noticed smoke and haze in the cockpit and cabin crew advised cabin was filling with smoke. They returned to the airport for an immediate emergency landing.


title: General Electric GE90

text: Findings were a stage 2 turbine blade had separated at its shank damaging the trailing blades causing the vibration. The debris was contained in the engine casing.


title: General Electric GE90

text: On May 28, 2012, an Air Canada 777 taking off from Toronto en route to Japan suffered failure of a GE90-115B at and returned safely. Engine debris was found on the ground.


title: General Electric GE90

text: On September 8, 2015, a GE90-85B powering a Boeing 777-236ER on British Airways Flight 2276 suffered an uncontained failure during take-off roll at Las Vegas McCarran Airport, leading to a fire. NTSB and FAA investigations were begun to determine the cause; initial findings were reported in September 2015.


title: General Electric GE90

text: On June 27, 2016, a GE90-115B powering a Boeing 777-300ER, on Singapore Airlines Flight 368, received an engine oil warning during flight and returned to Singapore Changi Airport. On landing the malfunctioning right engine caught fire, leading to fire damage to the engine and the wing.


title: General Electric GE90

text: The FAA issued an Airworthiness Directive (AD) on May 16, 2013, and sent it to owners and operators of General Electric GE90-110B1 and GE90-115B turbofan engines. This emergency AD was prompted by reports of two failures of transfer gearbox assemblies (TGBs) which resulted in in-flight shutdowns (IFSDs). Investigation revealed that the failures were caused by TGB radial gear cracking and separation. This through the combined effect of manufacturing process and operating stresses. Further inspections found two additional radial gears with cracks. This condition, if not corrected, could result in additional IFSDs of one or more engines, loss of thrust control, and damage to the airplane. The Airworthiness Directive requires compliance by taking remedial measures within five days of receipt of the AD. All affected modules have been replaced.


title: General Electric GE90

text: The GEnx engine, that has been developed for the Boeing 787 Dreamliner and 747-8, is derived from a smaller core variant of the GE90, also featuring a fan with swept rotor blades.


title: General Electric GE90

text: GE Aviation set up a cooperative venture with Pratt & Whitney, named Engine Alliance, under which the companies have developed an engine for the Airbus A380, named GP7000, based on an 0.72 flow scale of the GE90-110B/115B core.


title: General Electric GE90

text: In February 2012, GE announced studies on a 10% more efficient derivative, dubbed the GE9X, to power the new Boeing 777-8X/9X aircraft.


title: General Electric GE90

text: The LM9000 is an aeroderivative gas turbine available in two options; the LM9000 without water augmentation outputting at a 42.4% efficiency before cogeneration, and the LM9000 with water augmentation outputting at a 42.7% efficiency before cogeneration. The engine's 33:1 pressure ratio comes from a 4-stage low pressure compressor followed by a 9 stage high pressure compressor, driven by a 2 stage high pressure turbine and a 1-stage low pressure turbine, powering a 4-stage free turbine.


title: Digital nomad

text: Digital nomads are people who travel freely while working remotely using technology and the internet. Such people generally have minimal material possessions and work remotely in temporary housing, hotels, cafes, public libraries, co-working spaces, or recreational vehicles, using Wi-Fi, smartphones or mobile hotspots to access the Internet. The majority of digital nomads describe themselves as programmers, content creators, designers, or developers. Some digital nomads are perpetual travelers, while others only maintain the lifestyle for a short period of time. While some nomads travel through multiple countries, others remain in one area, and some may choose to travel while living in a vehicle, in a practice often known as van-dwelling. In 2020, a research study found that 10.9 million American workers described themselves as digital nomads, an increase of 49% from 2019.


title: Digital nomad

text: One of the first digital nomads was Steve Roberts, who in 1983 rode on a computerized recumbent bicycle and was featured in "Popular Computing" magazine; the magazine referred to him as a "high-tech nomad".


title: Digital nomad

text: The term "digital nomad" started to be used in the early 1990s to describe a new type of high tech traveling lifestyle made possible by the growth of computer networking and popularization of mobile devices like laptops, tablets and PDAs. In his 1992 travelogue "Exploring the Internet", Carl Malamud described a "digital nomad" who "travels the world with a laptop, setting up FidoNet nodes." In 1993, Random House published the "Digital Nomad's Guide" series of guidebooks by Mitch Ratcliffe and Andrew Gore. The guidebooks, "PowerBook", "AT&T EO Personal Communicator", and "Newton's Law", used the term "digital nomad" to refer to the increased mobility and more powerful communication and productivity technologies that new mobile devices introduced.


title: Digital nomad

text: Craig McCaw predicted in 1993 that the union of telecommunication and computing would create a new nomadic industry. By enabling people to conduct business from any location, wireless communication and digital assistants would facilitate a return to a nomadic lifestyle where people moved as they wished and took their environment and possessions with them.


title: Digital nomad

text: The 1997 book "Digital Nomad" by Tsugio Makimoto and David Manners used the term to describe how technology allows for a return of societies to a nomadic lifestyle. Makimoto and Manners identified an emerging "digital nomad" lifestyle freed by technology "from the constraints of geography and distance."


title: Digital nomad

text: In contemporary usage, the term broadly describes a category of highly mobile, location-independent professionals who are able to live and work remotely from anywhere in the world with internet access, due to the integration of mobile technology into everyday life and work settings.


title: Digital nomad

text: People typically become digital nomads due to a desire to travel and location independence. and the lowered cost of living often provided by leaving expensive cities. Cost of living ranks chief among the criteria that digital nomads value when selecting a destination, followed by climate, diversity, and available leisure activities. There are also benefits for employers, as a 2021 study concluded that there is a causal relationship between worker productivity and the option to "work from anywhere," as workers who were freed from geographic limitations showed an average output increase of 4.4% while controlling for other factors. Digital nomads also typically spend more than 35% of their income in the location in which they are staying, an injection of capital that has been shown to stimulate local economies in popular destinations, primarily promoting the service industry and the sale of consumer goods.


title: Digital nomad

text: Although digital nomads enjoy advantages in freedom and flexibility, they report loneliness as their biggest struggle, followed by burnout. Feelings of loneliness are often an issue for digital nomads because nomadism usually requires freedom from personal attachments such as marriage. The importance of developing face-to-face quality relationships has been stressed to maintain mental health in remote workers.


title: Digital nomad

text: Other challenges include maintaining international health insurance with coverage globally, abiding by different local laws including payment of required taxes and obtaining work visas, and maintaining long-distance relationships with friends and family back home. Digital nomads also very rarely have access to retirement benefits, unemployment insurance, or set time off from work, and often make less money than they could make through traditional employment. As many digital nomads resort to gig work or freelancing, their oppurtunities for pay can be inconsistent and sporatic. Other challenges may also include time zone differences, the difficulty of finding a reliable connection to the internet, and the absence of delineation between work and leisure time. There are a few contributing factors to the blurring of this line; certain paid work can be viewed as leisure when it is enjoyable, but many tasks that involve travel and acquiring commdations can become viewed as another type of work, even though those would traditionally fall into the leisure category. Another issue faced by digital nomads is that of mobility; a travelling worker must be able to keep any necessary equipment with them as they move from location to location, and it is difficult to for a digital nomad to manage personal belongings. In fact, many digital nomads do not have a "home base," and must therefore adopt a minimalist lifestyle.


title: Digital nomad

text: One potentially negative impact of digital nomadism, that does not affect the nomads themselves, is the possibility of 'transnational gentrification.' Concerns have been raised about the nature of the relationship between digital nomads, who are most often from the Global North, and the countries they travel to, generally in the Global South. The problem may arise in regards to housing competition between native people and travelling workers, as well as in personal interactions and the risk of tourism over-dependency. However, the exact scope and real-world impacts of this problem have not yet been settled by research.


title: Digital nomad

text: In 2020, a research study found that 10.9 million American workers described themselves as digital nomads, an increase of 49% from 2019. The primary reason for this rapid increase is office closure and the shift toward remote work due to the COVID-19 Pandemic. Multiple countries were prompted to offer new visa programs and to change their policies towards foreign workers as a result of the pandemic.


title: Digital nomad

text: The pandemic had a larger impact, in terms of mobility, on traditional job holders than on independent workers. While the number of independent workers living as digital nomads increased slightly in 2020, the number of traditional workers who changed their lifestyle to live as digital nomads nearly doubled, from 3.2 million people in 2019 to 6.3 million in 2020. This is because of the fact that many traditional jobs stopped requiring their employees to physically report to an office or set location everyday, so many people were subsequently able to travel freely while still working. The majority of this increase consisted of Millennial and Generation Z workers, possibly due in part to their minimized concern about COVID-19. At the same time, another effect of the pandemic was the limited ability to travel, particularly across national borders. For this reason, more and more digital nomads have chosen to remain domestic, especially in the United States. Living as a digital nomad often entails travelling from high-cost areas (eg. major cities) to cheaper regions (foreign or domestic).


title: Digital nomad

text: Though the rapid increase of digital nomads in 2020 is expected to be more than just a short-lived trend, the extreme rate of change is not likely to continue indefinitely.


title: Digital nomad

text: Many digital nomads tend to come from more developed nations with passports allowing a greater degree of freedom of travel. As a result, many tend to travel on a travel visa; working while on a travel visa can be technically illegal and controversial.


title: Digital nomad

text: In 2020, Antigua and Barbuda announced a digital nomad visa called the Nomad Digital Residence (NDR). The visa allows digital nomads who work for a company outside of Antigua and Barbuda to stay in the country for two years.


title: Digital nomad

text: In May 2022, the Argentinian government announced that it would be implementing a temporary visa targeted at digital nomads. The visa is valid for six months and can be renewed for an additional six.


title: Digital nomad

text: On August 1, 2020, Bermuda opened applications for its digital nomad visa, entitled "Work From Bermuda." The visa is an expansion on an older residency program and allows digital nomads to live in the country for one year.


title: Digital nomad

text: In February 2022, Brazil announced that it would be introducing a digital nomad visa for foreign nationals employed by a foreign company, under Resolution 45. The resolution allows non-Brazilian workers to apply for a visa that lets them stay in the country for 90 days in a 180-day period, or 180 days in a one-year period. The digital nomad visa is valid for one year and renewable for another year.


title: Digital nomad

text: On October 21, 2020, the Cayman Islands launched the Global Citizen Concierge Program. Foreign workers need to have an employment letter from an entity outside of the Cayman Islands and a minimum salary of $100,000.


title: Digital nomad

text: On August 11, 2021, Costa Rica passed a law granting visas to digital nomads. The law allows foreign nationals and their families to live and work in the country for a year, and the visa can be extended for up to one year. The visa requires foreign nationals to have an income greater than $3000 USD per month. Families applying for the visa need to have an income greater than $5000 USD per month.


title: Digital nomad

text: In January 2021, Croatia began offering special visas to digital workers from outside of the European Union. The visa allows digital nomads to stay in the country for up to a year while being exempt from paying income taxes.


title: Digital nomad

text: E-Residency in Estonia was launched in December 2014, allowing remote workers to register their business in Estonia. In 2020, Estonia launched a digital nomad visa, allowing remote workers to live in Estonia for up to a year and legally work for their employer or their own company registered abroad.


title: Digital nomad

text: In August 2020, Georgia launched a program entitled "Remotely from Georgia." Under the program, citizens from 95 countries can travel and work remotely in the country for at least 360 days without a visa.


title: Digital nomad

text: In 2022, Hungary introduced the White Card, a residency permit for digital nomads. Under the permit, foreign nationals can live in Hungary while working for a company outside of the country. The permit is for one year and can be extended for an additional year.


title: Digital nomad

text: In November 2020, Iceland signed an amendment to allow foreign nationals to live in Iceland for up to six months under a long-term visa.


title: Digital nomad

text: In June 2022, Indonesia announced plans to introduce a digital nomad visa that would allow remote workers to live in the country tax-free for five years. The announcement was made by Indonesia's Minister of Tourism, Sandiaga Uno. Uno stated that he hopes to bring up to 3.6 million digital nomads to the country with this plan.


title: Digital nomad

text: In 2022, Italy announced that it would be launching a digital nomad visa. The visa was voted into law on March 28, 2022, as a part of a government decree known as "decreto sostegni ter." The bill remains to be implemented into law, and full details of the digital nomad visa application process and requirements remain unknown.


title: Digital nomad

text: In February 2022, Latvia's Cabinet of Ministers approved draft amendments to its immigration law to allow third-country nationals to apply for a one-year visa to reside in Latvia while working remotely either for a foreign-registered employer or as self-employed persons.


title: Digital nomad

text: In September 2021, Malta opened applications for its year-long digital nomad visa program. The Malta government stated that the visa can be renewed at the discretion of Residency Malta.


title: Digital nomad

text: In February 2022, Mauritius announced that it would be expanding its premium visa to digital nomads. The premium visa allows remote workers to stay in the country for up to a year.


title: Digital nomad

text: In October 2022, Portugal announced it would be accepting applications for Remote Work/Digital Nomad VISAs starting from October 30, 2022.


title: Digital nomad

text: On December 21, 2021, Romanian parliament passed legislation for a digital nomad visa. The visa is valid for six months. It can be extended for another six months if foreign workers have proof of full or part-time employment for at least three years prior to their application and have a valid proof of income for the last six months that is three times the Romanian average gross salary.


title: Digital nomad

text: In 2021, Spain announced plans for a digital nomad visa. The law responsible for the digital nomad visa is known as the Startup Law. In December 2021, the law was presented to parliament, and in January 2022, a draft of the law was approved. According to the draft of the law, the Spain Digital Nomad Visa will allow digital nomads to reside in Spain for five years and receive special tax exemptions by paying a non-income tax.


title: Digital nomad

text: In March 2022, South Africa announced that it would update its visa laws to be allow digital nomads to stay in the country for more than 90 days.


title: Digital nomad

text: In October 2020, the city of Dubai in the United Arab Emirates launched a visa program that allows digital nomads and remote workers to stay in the country for one year. To qualify, foreign workers need at least $5,000 in income per month and a letter confirming employment.


title: Digital nomad

text: Other countries such as Argentina, Barbados, Brazil, and Greece offer similar digital nomad visa programs. Some digital nomads have used Germany's residence permit for the purpose of freelance or self-employment to legalize their stay, but successful applicants must have a tangible connection and reason to stay in Germany.


title: Lady Gabriella Kingston

text: Lady Gabriella Marina Alexandra Ophelia Kingston ("née" Windsor; born 23 April 1981) is an English socialite and freelance writer. She is the daughter of Prince and Princess Michael of Kent. She is 55th in the line of succession to the British throne, at her birth she was 18th.


title: Lady Gabriella Kingston

text: Lady Gabriella was born at St Mary's Hospital, London. She has an elder brother, Frederick, born on 6 April 1979. She was christened on 8 June 1981 at the Chapel Royal, St James's Palace, London. She was educated at Godstowe and Downe House School in Cold Ash, Berkshire. In May 2004, Gabriella graduated from Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island, with a BA degree in Comparative Literature and Hispanic studies. In 2012, she earned an MPhil degree in Social Anthropology from Linacre College, Oxford.


title: Lady Gabriella Kingston

text: Lady Gabriella works as a freelance journalist. She contributes to "The London Magazine" amongst other publications.


title: Lady Gabriella Kingston

text: She is a board director of the Playing for Change Foundation, a global music and arts education nonprofit. Additionally, she has done projects in Latin America, including teaching English in Rio de Janeiro and working on music events in Buenos Aires.


title: Lady Gabriella Kingston

text: In 2020, as a singer-songwriter, she released 2 songs; "Out of Blue" and "Bam Bam" to raise money for a charity. She also sang "Put the Sea", "Half" and "This Morning".


title: Lady Gabriella Kingston

text: For three years in the early 2000s she dated journalist Aatish Taseer. The two met when she was an undergraduate at Brown University and he a graduate of Amherst College working for "Time" magazine. In 2018, he wrote a controversial article about his relationship with Lady Gabriella and the royal family for "Vanity Fair".


title: Lady Gabriella Kingston

text: Lady Gabriella's engagement to Bristol University graduate and financier Thomas Henry Robin Kingston (b. 22 June 1978) was announced by Buckingham Palace on 19 September 2018. Thomas's father is lawyer Martin Kingston, and his mother, Jill Mary Kingston "née" Bache, is the granddaughter of Sir William Joseph Pearman-Smith of Park Hall. Thomas and Lady Gabriella became engaged on the Isle of Sark in August 2018. The wedding took place at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, on 18 May 2019 and was attended by Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.


title: Gail O'Grady

text: Gail Ann O'Grady (born January 23, 1963), an American actress and producer, is best known for her roles on television. Her roles include Donna Abandando in the ABC police drama "NYPD Blue", and Helen Pryor in the NBC drama series "American Dreams". O'Grady is also well known for her lead roles in a number of television movies. She has been nominated for a Primetime Emmy Awards three times.


title: Gail O'Grady

text: O'Grady was born in Detroit, Michigan, the daughter of Jim and Jan O'Grady. Her father was a financial planner. She was raised in Wheaton, Illinois, and graduated from Wheaton North High School in 1981. She appeared in a few commercials before moving to Los Angeles in 1986.


title: Gail O'Grady

text: O'Grady began her career as a model for Montgomery Ward and as an actor in several commercials. In one commercial, she played the neighbor for whom Michael J. Fox's character chases down a Diet Pepsi. In time, she began making guest appearances, often as a villain. She made her big screen debut in the 1988 romantic comedy "She's Having a Baby", and later was cast for two episodes on the ABC drama "China Beach". She also guest starred on several other shows, and appeared in made for television and independent movies.


title: Gail O'Grady

text: Her first major role was as Donna Abandando on the ABC police drama "NYPD Blue". O'Grady played the big-haired squad secretary from 1993 to 1996, and for each year received an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series. Along with the cast, she won Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 1995. O'Grady left the series in 1996, and made a pilot for her own sitcom, "The Gail O'Grady Project", but the show was not picked up by any of the networks.


title: Gail O'Grady

text: After leaving "NYPD Blue", O'Grady began starring in numerous television movies for Lifetime and other networks, including "The Three Lives of Karen" (1997), "Two Voices" (1997), "Every 9 Seconds" (1997), "Two of Hearts" (1999), "Another Woman's Husband" (2000), "Lip Service" (2000), "Hostage Negotiator" (2001), "Hope Ranch" (2002), "Lucky 7" (2003), "Sex and the Single Mom" (2003), and "More Sex & the Single Mom" (2005). Her big screen credits include "Celtic Pride" (1996), "That Old Feeling" (1997), "" (1999) and "Walking Across Egypt" (1999).


title: Gail O'Grady

text: From 2002 to 2005, O'Grady starred as Helen Pryor in the NBC television series "American Dreams", which depicted an all-American family living in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, during the 1960s. The series was canceled after three seasons. In Fall 2005, O'Grady was lead actress in the ABC comedy series "Hot Properties", which was canceled after 13 episodes. In 2006, she guest starred on "Two and a Half Men", and in 2007 had a recurring role on "Boston Legal" as Gloria Weldon, a judge in a personal relationship with attorney Alan Shore. Also in 2007, she starred in the Hallmark Channel movie "All I Want for Christmas".


title: Gail O'Grady

text: O'Grady had regular roles on the short-lived CW series "Hidden Palms" as Karen Hardy in 2007, and on "Hellcats", playing Wanda Perkins, the mother of the main character, from 2010 to 2011. In 2008, she had a recurring role on the ABC series "Desperate Housewives" as Anne Schilling, a woman who is having an affair with the character Porter Scavo (at that point a teenager). She has made appearances on "Monk", "", "The Mentalist", "", "Drop Dead Diva", "Hawaii Five-0", and "Castle". From 2014 to 2015, she had a major recurring role as Conrad's first wife on ABC primetime soap opera "Revenge", opposite Madeleine Stowe.


title: Gail O'Grady

text: In 2019, O'Grady starred in the Lifetime film "Identity Theft of a Cheerleader" (which was inspired by the identity theft committed by Wendy Brown) as Angie Patterson, the mother of Maiara Walsh's character Vicky Patterson.


title: Gail O'Grady

text: O'Grady has been married and divorced six times. After breaking up with artist Robert Claypool, she sought a restraining order against him in 1995, claiming he was stalking her, but did not obtain one. He responded by suing her for defamation, libel and slander. In 2004, before her sixth marriage, to John Stamatakis, O'Grady gave birth to her first child with her ex-boyfriend Chris Byers, son Michael Colton O'Grady, named after her late brother.


title: RuPaul's Drag Race UK (series 1)

text: The first series of "RuPaul's Drag Race UK" began airing on 3 October 2019 on the BBC Three section of BBC iPlayer and WOW Presents Plus's WOW Presents Plus streaming service. It ran for eight episodes.


title: RuPaul's Drag Race UK (series 1)

text: The winner of first series of "RuPaul's Drag Race UK" was The Vivienne, with Divina de Campo as the runner-up.


title: RuPaul's Drag Race UK (series 1)

text: The song "Break Up (Bye Bye)", which was featured in the fifth episode, was released as a single and reached number 35 on the UK Singles Chart. It also peaked at number 44 on the "Billboard" Hot Dance/Electronic Songs chart in the US.


title: RuPaul's Drag Race UK (series 1)

text: The series received very positive reviews from critics, with The Guardian describing the series as having "saved RuPaul's Drag Race" as the recent seasons have had a less than positive reception. In their review of the series, iNews awarded the series "five stars" and described it as a "roaring success", despite criticising its omission of a stand-up comedy challenge.


title: RuPaul's Drag Race UK (series 1)

text: In a more critical review, Vulture stated in its review of the finale that although the season "may have hit some true highs... it couldn’t save Drag Race from its worst impulses".


title: Anthony Radziwiłł

text: Prince Anthony Stanisław Albert Radziwiłł (; August 4, 1959 – August 10, 1999) was a Swiss-born American television executive and filmmaker. He was a nephew of former First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy.


title: Anthony Radziwiłł

text: Born in Lausanne, Switzerland, Radziwiłł was the son of socialite/actress Lee Radziwiłł (younger sister of First Lady Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy) and Polish Prince Stanisław Albrecht Radziwiłł. He married a former ABC colleague, Emmy Award-winning journalist Carole DiFalco, on 27 August 1994 on Long Island, New York.


title: Anthony Radziwiłł

text: Radziwiłł attended Millfield School and Choate Rosemary Hall preparatory school in Wallingford, Connecticut. In 1982, he finished his studies at Boston University, earning a bachelor's degree in broadcast journalism.


title: Anthony Radziwiłł

text: Radziwiłł's career began at NBC Sports, as an associate producer. During the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, he contributed Emmy Award-winning work. In 1989, he joined ABC News as a television producer for "Primetime Live". In 1990, he won the Peabody Award for an investigation on the resurgence of Nazism in the United States. Posthumously, "Cancer: Evolution to Revolution" was awarded a Peabody. His work was nominated for two Emmys.


title: Anthony Radziwiłł

text: Around 1989 he was diagnosed with testicular cancer and underwent treatment which left him sterile but in apparent remission. However, shortly before his wedding, new tumors emerged. Radziwiłł battled metastasizing cancer throughout his five years of marriage, with his wife, Carole, serving as his primary caretaker through a succession of oncologists, hospitals, operations, and experimental treatments.


title: Anthony Radziwiłł

text: The couple lived in New York, and both Radziwiłł and Carole tried to maintain their careers as journalists between his bouts of hospitalization.


title: Anthony Radziwiłł

text: On September 21, 1996, Radziwiłł was the best man for the wedding of his best friend and cousin John F. Kennedy Jr. and Carolyn Bessette. Kennedy's older sister, Caroline, was the matron of honor.


title: Anthony Radziwiłł

text: Radziwiłł died of cancer on August 10, 1999, three weeks after his cousin John Jr., his wife Carolyn Bessette, and her sister Lauren Bessette died in a plane crash. He was survived by his wife, his mother, and a sister, Tina.


title: Anthony Radziwiłł

text: In 2000, his mother, Lee Radziwiłł, and widow, Carole Radziwiłł, set up a fund in his name to help emerging documentary filmmakers. In 2005, Carole wrote the autobiography "What Remains: A Memoir of Fate, Friendship and Love", focused largely on her marriage to Radziwiłł. Published by Scribner, the book made "The New York Times" Best Seller List.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: The Battle of Aleppo () was a major military confrontation in Aleppo, the second largest city in Syria, between the Syrian opposition (including the Free Syrian Army (FSA) and other largely-Sunni groups, such as the Levant Front and the al-Qaeda-affiliated al-Nusra Front) against the Syrian government, supported by Hezbollah, Shia militias and Russia, and against the Kurdish-majority People's Protection Units (YPG). The battle began on 19 July 2012 and was part of the ongoing Syrian Civil War. A stalemate that had been in place for four years finally ended in July 2016, when Syrian government troops closed the rebels' last supply line into Aleppo with the support of Russian airstrikes. In response, rebel forces launched unsuccessful counteroffensives in September and October that failed to break the siege; in November, government forces embarked on a decisive campaign that resulted in the recapture of all of Aleppo by December 2016. The Syrian government victory was widely seen as a turning point in Syria's civil war.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: The large-scale devastation of the battle and its importance led combatants to name it the "mother of battles" or "Syria's Stalingrad". The battle was marked by widespread violence against civilians, repeated targeting of hospitals and schools (mostly by pro-government air forces and to a lesser extent by the rebels), and indiscriminate aerial strikes and shelling against civilian areas. It was also marked by the inability of the international community to resolve the conflict peacefully. The UN special envoy to Syria proposed to end the battle by giving East Aleppo autonomy, but this was rejected by the Syrian government. Hundreds of thousands of residents were displaced by the fighting and efforts to provide aid to civilians or facilitate evacuation were routinely disrupted by continued combat and mistrust between the opposing sides.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: There were frequent instances of war crimes during the battle, including the use of chemical weapons by both Syrian government forces and rebel forces, the use of barrel bombs by the Syrian Air Force, the dropping of cluster munitions on populated areas by Russian and Syrian forces, the carrying out of "double tap" airstrikes to target rescue workers responding to previous strikes, summary executions of civilians and captured soldiers by both sides, indiscriminate shelling and use of highly inaccurate improvised artillery by rebel forces. During the 2016 Syrian government offensive, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights warned that "crimes of historic proportions" were being committed in Aleppo.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: After four years of fighting, the battle represents one of the longest sieges in modern warfare and one of the bloodiest battles of the Syrian Civil War, leaving an estimated 31,000 people dead, almost a tenth of the estimated overall war casualties at that time. Fighting also caused severe destruction to the Old City of Aleppo, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. An estimated 33,500 buildings have been either damaged or destroyed.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: In 2011, Aleppo was Syria's largest city, with a population of 2.5 million people. A UNESCO World Heritage Site, it has been described by "Time" as Syria's commercial capital. Author Diana Darke has written that "The city has long been multi-cultural, a complex mix of Kurds, Iranians, Turkmen, Armenians and Circassians overlaid on an Arab base in which multi-denominational churches and mosques still share the space."


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: Nationwide protests against President Bashar al-Assad began on 15 March 2011, as part of the Arab Spring. Anti-government protests were held in several districts of Aleppo on 12 August 2011, including the city's Sakhour district. At least two protesters were shot dead by security forces during a demonstration in Sakhour with tens of thousands of attendees. Regular large protests started in Aleppo in May 2012. During this period, government-organized rallies in support of Assad also occurred. However, Aleppo remained relatively undisturbed and largely supportive of the government during the 16-month-long conflict until 22 July 2012, when rebel fighters from the neighboring villages converged and penetrated into the city, to which the government responded with heavy-handed, indiscriminate bombardments. On 16 February 2012, the UN General Assembly issued a resolution with a vote of 137 in favour, 12 against, and 17 abstentions, and called on Syria "to immediately put an end to all human rights violations and attacks against civilians."


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: At the beginning of the Battle of Aleppo, rebels reportedly had between 6,000 and 7,000 fighters in 18 battalions. The largest rebel group was the al-Tawhid Brigade and the most prominent was the Free Syrian Army, largely composed of army defectors. Most of the rebels came from the Aleppo countryside and from towns including Al-Bab, Marea, Azaz, Tel Rifaat and Manbij. A resident of Aleppo reportedly accused the rebels of using civilian homes for shelter. On 19 November 2012, the rebel fighters—particularly the al-Tawhid Brigade and the al-Nusra Front—initially rejected the newly formed Syrian National Coalition. However, the next day the rebels withdrew their rejection.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: By December, rebel fighters were commonly looting for supplies; they switched their loyalties to groups that had more to share. This new approach led to the killing of at least one rebel commander following a dispute; fighters retreating with their loot caused the loss of a frontline position and the failure of an attack on a Kurdish neighborhood. The looting cost the rebel fighters much popular support.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: Islamic extremists and foreign fighters, many of whom were experienced and came from the ongoing insurgency in neighboring Iraq, joined the battle. Jihadists reportedly came from across the Muslim world. Jacques Bérès, a French surgeon who treated wounded fighters, reported a significant number of foreign fighters, most of whom had Islamist goals and were not directly interested in Bashar al-Assad. They included Libyans, Chechens, and Frenchmen. Bérès contrasted the situation in Aleppo with that in Idlib and Homs, where foreign forces were not common. Some FSA brigades cooperated with Mujahideen fighters. By 2016, the rebel factions still included internationally recognized terrorist groups such as Al-Nusra Front; they numbered 1,000 fighters in October 2016.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: Hezbollah, which by 2013 joined the Syrian Civil War in support for President al-Assad, was also designated as a terrorist group by various organizations. The government retained some support in Aleppo; in 2012 a rebel commander said, "around 70% of Aleppo city is with the regime". During the course of the battle, Assad lost support from Aleppo's wealthy class. In 2012, CBS News reported that 48 elite businessmen who were the primary financiers for the government switched sides. For the first time, the government's Syrian Arab Army engaged in urban warfare. They divided their forces into groups of 40 soldiers each. These were armed mostly with automatic rifles and anti-tank rockets and artillery, tanks and helicopters were only used for support. In August 2012, the army deployed its elite units. Eventually, after rebel forces executed Zeino al-Berri, tribal leader of the al-Berri tribe, the tribe joined the fight against the rebels. Initially, the Christian community tried to avoid taking sides in the conflict. However, many Christians supported the Army and some formed militias aligned with the government following the capture of their quarters by the Syrian Army. Many Christian Armenians also supported the Syrian Army. Some of Aleppo's Armenians claimed Turkey supported the FSA to attack Armenians and Arab Christians. In 2012, one Armenian militia had around 150 fighters.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: At the beginning of the battle, Aleppo's Kurds formed armed groups, most notably the Saladin Ayubi Brigade, which worked with the opposition. Units of the Kurdish Front, part of the FSA and allied with the Democratic Union Party (PYD), were formed later in 2013. The PYD had poor relations with both sides. Its People's Protection Units (YPG) stayed out of Arab areas and insisted the FSA stay out of the Kurdish area. They did not initially fight the Syrian Army unless attacked. The Kurdish areas in Aleppo mainly came under PYD control. At various points in the conflict, the Kurds joined the opposition against pro-government forces. However, the YPG-controlled neighborhood of Sheikh Maqsood came under a siege by both Syrian government forces and the rebels. In September 2015, the rebels accused the YPG of having a deal with the government, while the YPG accused the rebels of shelling the neighborhood. Between November and December 2015, the conflict between the rebels and US-backed Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) in the rest of Aleppo province escalated. Truce attempts largely failed to stop the fighting. The situation escalated in February 2016, when the SDF followed up on advances by the Syrian Armed Forces, backed by Russian airstrikes, and they themselves took territory north of Aleppo city from the rebels.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: Starting in late September 2015, Russian warplanes carried out their very first attacks in Syria. The Russian bombing campaign included strikes against rebel forces in Aleppo.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: Gunfire between rebels and security forces broke out in and around Salaheddine, a district in the city's southwest, on the night of 19 July 2012.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: In late July and early August 2012, the FSA continued its offensive in Aleppo, with both sides suffering a high level of casualties. Rebel commanders said their main aim was to capture the city center. On 30 July, the rebels seized a strategic checkpoint in Anadan, a town north of Aleppo, gaining a direct route between the city and the Turkish border—an important rebel supply base. They also captured Al-Bab, an army base northeast of the city. Later, rebels attacked the air base at Minakh, northwest of Aleppo, with arms and tanks captured at the Anadan checkpoint. Opposition forces continued to gain territory in the city, controlling most of eastern and southwestern Aleppo, including Salaheddine and parts of Hamdaniyeh. They continued to target security centers and police stations as clashes erupted near the Air Force intelligence headquarters in Aleppo's northwestern district Zahraa. Rebels over-ran several police stations and posts in the central and southern districts of Bab al-Nerab, Al-Miersa and Salhain, seizing a significant quantity of arms and ammunition.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: In December 2012, the al-Nusra Front unilaterally declared a no-fly zone and threatened to shoot down commercial aircraft, alleging that the government was using them to transport loyalist troops and military supplies. After multiple attacks on Aleppo International Airport, all flights were suspended on 1 January 2013. The following month, the rebels seized Umayyad Mosque; and during the battle, the mosque's museum caught fire and its ceiling collapsed.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: On 9 June, the Syrian Army announced the start of "Operation Northern Storm", an attempt to recapture territory in and around the city. Between 7 and 14 June, army troops, government militiamen and Hezbollah fighters launched the operation. Over a one-week period, government forces advanced in the city and the countryside, pushing back the rebels. However, according to an opposition activist, on 14 June the situation started reversing after rebels halted an armored reinforcement column from Aleppo that was heading for two Shiite villages northwest of the city.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: On 8 November, the Syrian Army started an offensive against the rebel-held Base 80, launching "the heaviest barrage in more than a year". "Al Jazeera" wrote that a government victory would cut the rebels' route between the city and al-Bab. Two days later, Reuters reported that the rebels had regrouped to fight the Syrian army. Fifteen rebels were killed and the army recaptured the base. The following month, the army partially besieged the city in Operation Canopus Star. During the offensive, Army helicopters attacked with barrel bombs, killing more than a thousand people, according to the Free Syrian Army's Abu Firas Al-Halabi.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: Government forces, having lifted the siege of Aleppo in October 2013, continued their offensive in 2014. This culminated in the capture of the Sheikh Najjar industrial district north of Aleppo and the lifting of the siege of Aleppo Central Prison on 22 May 2014, which contained a garrison of government soldiers that had resisted rebel forces since 2012. A ceasefire proposal was presented by a UN envoy in November; under the proposal humanitarian aid would be delivered to Aleppo following the cessation of hostilities. President Assad said the ceasefire plan was "worth studying", and according to the UN envoy the Syrian government was "seriously studying" the proposal. The FSA rejected the plan; its military commander Zaher al-Saket said they had "learned not to trust the [Bashar al-] Assad regime because they are cunning and only want to buy time".


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: In early January, the rebels recaptured the Majbal (sawmills) area of al-Brej and captured the southern entrance of the stone quarries known as al-Misat, forcing government troops to retreat to the north. Rebels also seized the Manasher al-Brej area. They tried to advance and take control of al-Brej Hill, with which they could seize the military supply road running between Aleppo Central Prison and the Handarat and al-Mallah areas. At the end of January, the rebels took control over some positions in al-Brej Hill.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: In mid-February, the Syrian Arab Army and its allies launched a major offensive in the northern Aleppo countryside, with the aim of cutting the last rebel supply routes into the city, and relieving the rebel siege of the Shi'a-majority towns Zahra'a and Nubl to the northwest of Aleppo. They quickly captured several villages, but bad weather conditions and an inability to call up reinforcements stalled the government offensive. A few days later, the rebels launched a counter-offensive, retaking two of four positions they had lost to Syrian government forces.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: On 9 March, opposition forces launched an assault on Handarat, north of Aleppo, after reportedly noticing confusion in the ranks of Syrian government troops after the February fighting. Opposition sources said the rebels had captured 40–50% of the village, or possibly even 75%, while the Army remained in control of the northern portion of Handarat. In contrast, a Syrian Army source stated they still controlled 80% of Handarat. On 18 March, after almost 10 days of fighting, the Syrian Army had fully expelled the rebels from Handarat, and re-established control of the village.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: On 13 April, Islamist opposition forces and al-Nusra Front renewed their assault on the Air Force Intelligence building, utilizing a tunnel bomb followed by an assault. Much of the Air Force Intelligence building was reportedly damaged as a result of the tunnel bomb. Between 27–29 April, the FSA and Ahrar ash-Sham launched an operation in the old city of Aleppo and al-Hatab Square in the Al-Jdayde (Jdeideh) District, which included tunnel bombs and the shelling of buildings where soldiers were stationed. The rebels claimed to have killed 76 troops in these operations. Sahat Al Hatab square and the buildings around it were left devastated as a result of this operation. Numerous monuments, including churches, a mosque, the Waqf of Ibshir Mustafa Pasha Complex complex, the wool souk and al-Hatab Square were heavily damaged or destroyed by the explosions.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: In preparation for a new offensive, the rebels heavily shelled government-held parts of Aleppo, leaving 43 civilians dead and 190 wounded on 15 June. On 17 June, rebel forces captured the western neighborhood of Rashideen from Syrian government forces. Throughout 19 and 20 June, a new round of rebel shelling killed 19 more civilians.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: In early July, two rebel coalitions launched an offensive against the government-held western half of the city. During five days of fighting, the rebels seized the Scientific Research Center on Aleppo's western outskirts, which was being used as a military barracks. Two rebel attacks on the Jamiyat al-Zahra area were repelled. Government forces launched an unsuccessful counter-attack against the Scientific Research Center.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: In mid-October, ISIL captured four rebel-held villages northeast of Aleppo, while the Army seized the Syria-Turkey Free Trade Zone, the al-Ahdath juvenile prison and cement plant. Meanwhile, the SAA and Hezbollah launched an offensive south of Aleppo, reporting they had captured of territory in one month. By late December, reporting that they were in control of 3/4 of the southern Aleppo countryside.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: By the end of 2015, only 80 doctors were left in eastern, rebel-held part of Aleppo, or only one for 7,000 residents, while only one bakery was left to serve 120,000 people.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: By 2016, it was estimated that the population of rebel-held Eastern Aleppo had been reduced to 300,000, while 1.5 million were living in government-held Western Aleppo.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: In early February 2016, Syrian government forces and their allies broke a three-year rebel siege of two Shi'ite towns of Nubl and Zahraa, cutting off a main insurgent route to nearby Turkey. On 4 February, the towns of Mayer and Kafr Naya were recaptured by government forces. On 5 February, the government captured the village of Ratyan, to the northwest of Aleppo.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: On 25 June, the Syrian Army and allied forces began their long-awaited North-west Aleppo offensive. The ultimate goal of the offensive was to cut off the Castello highway, which would cut off the last supply route for rebels inside the city, thus fully encircling remaining opposition forces.


title: Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

text: By late July, Syrian government forces had managed to sever the last rebel supply line coming from the north, and completely surrounded Aleppo. However, within days, the rebels launched a large-scale counterattack south of Aleppo, in an attempt to both open a new supply line into rebel-held parts of the city and cut-off the government-held side. The whole campaign, including both the Army's offensive and subsequent rebel counter-offensive, was seen by both sides as possibly deciding the fate of the entire war.