title: Richard D. Zanuck

text: Zanuck married three times. On January 14, 1958, he married Lili Charlene Gentle (b. March 4, 1940), an actress from Birmingham, Alabama, and a second cousin of actress Tallulah Bankhead. The marriage, which produced two daughters, Virginia Lorraine Zanuck (born 1959) and Janet Beverly Zanuck (born 1960), was dissolved in 1968.


title: Richard D. Zanuck

text: On October 26, 1969, Zanuck and his protégé, actress Linda Harrison, together with his friend, producer Sy Bartlett, and Harrison's sister Kay, flew to Las Vegas, where Zanuck married Harrison on a balcony of the Sands Hotel. The marriage became difficult after Harrison failed to garner the role of the wife in Zanuck's production of "Jaws".


title: Richard D. Zanuck

text: In mid-1977, as a result of his second wife's entanglement with a 65-year-old "guru", Vincentii Turriziani of the Risen Christ Foundation, and the alleged guru's claims and demands for money from Zanuck, he filed for divorce and was awarded custody of his two sons, Harrison Richard Zanuck (born 1971) and Dean Francis Zanuck (born 1972).


title: Richard D. Zanuck

text: In a 1985 interview, Zanuck said that career problems contributed to his two failed marriages. "Both girls were actresses, and neither one was well established," he said. As head of 20th Century Fox, "It was tough to try to be fair to the project and also try to help them in their careers. If I didn't give them the role, then I had to explain why they weren't right for it. It wasn't the major problem in the marriages, but it was an underlying source of discomfort."


title: Richard D. Zanuck

text: On September 23, 1978, Zanuck married his third wife, Lili Fini (born 1954), a former World Bank employee and Carnation Co. office manager, who helped him raise his sons from his second marriage, and would co-produce some of his most memorable films, including "Cocoon" (1985), "Driving Miss Daisy" (1989), and "Reign of Fire" (2002). When the Zanucks won the Best Picture Oscar in 1989 for "Driving Miss Daisy", Lili Fini Zanuck was only the second woman in history to have earned an Oscar for Best Picture. In 1998, she directed an episode of the HBO miniseries "From the Earth to the Moon", titled "We Have Cleared the Tower", and in 2000, Richard and Lili Fini Zanuck co-produced the 72nd Academy Awards ceremony.


title: Richard D. Zanuck

text: Zanuck died on July 13, 2012, of a heart attack at his home in Los Angeles. The Beverly Park home he had lived in until his death was sold for $20.1M in July 2012. On February 25, 2014, 20th Century Fox opened the Richard D. Zanuck Production Building at its Los Angeles studios. "Richard was a true giant of our industry for over five decades", Fox chairman and CEO Jim Gianopulos said at the dedication ceremony. "He was family, and an integral part of our legacy. We couldn't find a building worthy of him, so we built one." The ceremony was attended by Zanuck's widow, Lili Fini Zanuck, his sons, and four of his nine grandchildren.


title: Malik Kafur

text: Malik Kafur (died 1316), also known as Taj al-Din Izz al-Dawla, was a prominent slave-general of the Delhi Sultanate ruler Alauddin Khalji. He was captured by Alauddin's general Nusrat Khan during the 1299 invasion of Gujarat, and rose to prominence in the 1300s.


title: Malik Kafur

text: As a commander of Alauddin's forces, Kafur defeated the Mongol invaders in 1306. Subsequently, he led a series of expeditions in the southern part of India, against the Yadavas (1308), the Kakatiyas (1310), the Hoysalas (1311), and the Pandyas (1311). From these campaigns, he brought back many treasures, and many elephants and horses for the Delhi Sultanate.


title: Malik Kafur

text: From 1313 to 1315, Kafur served as Alauddin's governor of Devagiri. When Alauddin fell seriously ill in 1315, Kafur was recalled to Delhi, where he exercised power as "Na'ib" (viceroy). After Alauddin's death, he tried to usurp control by appointing Alauddin's minor son, Shihabuddin Omar, as a puppet monarch. Kafur's regency lasted for about a month, before he was assassinated by Alauddin's former bodyguards. Alauddin's elder son, Mubarak Shah, succeeded him as regent, and usurped power shortly afterward.


title: Malik Kafur

text: Kafur is described as of Hindu descent ("Marhatta", according to the 14th-century chronicler Isami). In his youth, Kafur was the slave of a wealthy Khwaja of Khambhat. He was an eunuch slave of great physical beauty, said to have been purchased by his original master for 1,000 dinars. This resulted in the epithet "hazar-dinari". It is very unlikely that the price paid was actually 1,000 dinars; the description seems rather to be a metaphorical compliment to Kafur. Ibn Batuta (1304–1369) refers to Kafur by the epithet "al-Alfi" (the Arabic equivalent of "hazar-dinari"), again in reference to the price paid for him, but Ibn Batuta may be in error in stating that the epithet refers to a sum paid by the sultan (Alauddin) himself for Kafur.


title: Malik Kafur

text: Kafur was captured from the port city of Khambhat by Alauddin's general Nusrat Khan, during the 1299 invasion of Gujarat, and converted to Islam. Nusrat Khan presented him to Alauddin in Delhi. Nothing is known about Kafur's early career in Alauddin's service. According to Isami, Alauddin favoured Kafur because "his counsel had always proved appropriate and fit for the occasion". Kafur rose rapidly, mainly because of his proven ability as a wise counsellor and military commander. By 1306, Kafur held the rank of "barbeg", used to designate a chamberlain who also served as a military commander. By 1309–1310, he held the iqta' (administrative grant) of Rapri.


title: Malik Kafur

text: In 1306, Alauddin sent an army led by Kafur to the Punjab to repulse a Mongol invasion by the Chagatai Khanate. The Mongol army had advanced to the Ravi River, ransacking the territories along the way. This army included three contingents, led by Kopek, Iqbalmand, and Tai-Bu. Kafur routed the Mongol army, with support from other commanders, including Malik Tughluq. Kafur was known by this time as Na'ib-i Barbak ("assistant master of ceremonies"). This may be the origin of his name Malik Na'ib, although some historians believe this relates instead to his later, and more important, role of Na'ib-i Sultan.


title: Malik Kafur

text: The 16th-century chronicler `Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni also credits Kafur with leading Alauddin's army in the 1305 Battle of Amroha. This claim, however, is based on the erroneous identification of another officer, called Malik Nayak ( Malik Nanak), with Malik Kafur.


title: Malik Kafur

text: Kafur was then sent to the Deccan Plateau, as the commander of a series of great military raids that laid the foundations of Muslim power in that region. In 1307, Alauddin decided to invade the Yadava kingdom of Devagiri, whose king, Ramachandra, had discontinued tribute payments to Delhi for three or four years. Alauddin had originally intended to select another slave to lead this invasion: Malik Shahin, who was the governor of Chittor Fort. But Malik Shahin had fled, fearing a Vaghela resurgence in the neighbouring territory of Gujarat. Alauddin appointed Kafur instead.


title: Malik Kafur

text: Alauddin took measures to raise Kafur above all other officers. The royal canopy and the royal pavilion were sent with Kafur, and the officers were directed to pay their respects to Kafur daily and to take their orders from him. Kafur easily subjugated the Yadavas. Along with rich spoils, Kafur brought Ramachandra back to Delhi, where the Yadava king acknowledged Alauddin's suzerainty.


title: Malik Kafur

text: In 1309, Alauddin sent Kafur on an expedition to the Kakatiya kingdom. Kafur's army reached the Kakatiya capital, Warangal, in January 1310, and breached its outer fort after a month-long siege. The Kakatiya ruler, Prataparudra, surrendered and agreed to pay tribute. Kafur returned to Delhi in June 1310 with a huge amount of wealth obtained from the defeated king. The Koh-i-Noor diamond was said to be among the loot. Alauddin was very pleased with Kafur, and rewarded him generously.


title: Malik Kafur

text: In Warangal, Kafur had learned that the southernmost regions of India were also very wealthy. He obtained Alauddin's permission to lead an expedition there. The expedition set off on 19 October 1310, and reached the extremity of peninsular India. On 25 February 1311, Kafur besieged Dwarasamudra, the Hoysala capital, with 10,000 soldiers. The Hoysala king, Ballala, surrendered vast wealth as part of a truce negotiation, and agreed to pay an annual tribute to the Delhi Sultanate. From Dwarasamudra, Kafur proceeded to the Pandya kingdom, where he raided several places, obtaining much treasure and many elephants and horses. Kafur occupied Madurai on 24 April, and reached Delhi in triumph on 18 October 1311.


title: Malik Kafur

text: At court, Kafur seems to have excited the enmity of a faction led by Mahru, Alauddin's second wife; Khizr Khan, his eldest son by her; and Alp Khan, Mahru's brother, who was also Khizr Khan's father-in-law and the governor of Gujarat. In 1313, probably at his own request, Kafur led another expedition to Devagiri, when Ramachandra's successor Singhana (or Shankaradeva) refused to continue the tribute payments. Kafur subdued him, and annexed Devagiri to the Delhi Sultanate. Kafur remained in Devagiri as governor of the newly annexed territory for two years, until he was urgently summoned to Delhi when Alauddin's health began deteriorating. He had administered the territory with sympathy and efficiency.


title: Malik Kafur

text: Kafur ultimately rose to the position of "Na'ib" (viceroy), although the date of his appointment to this position is not known. In 1315, when Alauddin fell seriously ill, Kafur was recalled from Devagiri to Delhi. Kafur handed over charge of Devagiri to Ayn al-Mulk Multani.


title: Malik Kafur

text: During Alaudidn's last days, Kafur held the executive power. During this period, Alauddin became very distrustful of his other officers, and started concentrating power in the hands of his family and his slaves. He removed several experienced administrators, abolished the office of "wazir" (prime minister), and even executed the minister Sharaf Qa'ini. It appears that Kafur, who considered these officers his rivals and a threat, convinced Alauddin to carry out this purge. Alauddin had greater trust in Kafur than other officers because, unlike the other officers, Kafur had no family or followers. According to Isami, during the final days of Alauddin's reign, Kafur allowed no one to see the sultan, and became de facto ruler of the Sultanate.


title: Malik Kafur

text: Kafur had been captured by Khalji forces in 1299, and had caught the fancy of Alauddin. A deep emotional bond developed between the two. During his reign (even before his illness), Alauddin was infatuated with Kafur, distinguishing him above all his other friends and helpers, and Kafur held the highest place in his esteem. Regarding the time when Alauddin was ill, the chronicler Ziauddin Barani (1285–1357) states:


title: Malik Kafur

text: Based on Barani's description, several scholars including Ruth Vanita and Saleem Kidwai among others believe that Alauddin and Kafur were in a homosexual relationship. Historian Banarsi Prasad Saksena states that Alauddin was infatuated with Kafur during the last years of his reign, but believes that the closeness between the two was not sexual.


title: Malik Kafur

text: Kafur's hold on power was threatened by Alp Khan, an influential noble whose two daughters were married to Alauddin's sons, Khizr Khan (the heir apparent) and Shadi Khan. Kafur convinced Alauddin to order the killing of Alp Khan in the royal palace. He also had Khizr Khan first banished from court to Amroha, and then imprisoned in Gwalior, and had Khizr's brother Shadi Khan imprisoned. According to stories that circulated as far as Persia, Khizr Khan, his mother and Alp Khan had hatched a conspiracy to poison Alauddin, so that Khizr Khan could be appointed as the new Sultan, but Alauddin was able to execute them all before he died. This story was corroborated to some extent by Ibn Battuta. The story may just have been Kafur's propaganda.


title: Malik Kafur

text: Next, Kafur convened a meeting of important officers at Alauddin's bedside. At this meeting, Alauddin's six-year-old son Shihabuddin was declared the new heir apparent, and it was decided that Kafur would act as his regent after Alauddin's death. According to Isami, Alauddin was too weak to speak during the meeting, but his silence was taken as consent.


title: Malik Kafur

text: The officers supportive of Kafur included Kamal al-Din "Gurg", whose family came from Kabul. It appears that Kafur and other officers of non-Turkic origin allied to counter the Khalaj establishment of the Sultanate.


title: Malik Kafur

text: When Alauddin died, on the night of 4 January 1316, Kafur brought his body from the Siri Palace and had it buried in the mausoleum that had been built before Alauddin's death. Barani claims that, according to "some people", Kafur murdered Alauddin.


title: Malik Kafur

text: The day after Alauddin's death, Kafur convened a meeting of important officers and nobles in the palace. There, he read out a will of the late sultan that named Shihabuddin as his successor while disinheriting Khizr Khan, and then seated Shihabuddin on the throne as the new Sultan. As regent, Kafur held power for a short time—35 days, according to Barani; 1 month, according to Isami; and 25 days, according to the 16th-century historian Firishta. During this period, he held a daily ceremonial court in the morning at the Hazar Sutun Palace. After the short ceremony, Kafur would send Shihabuddin to his mother, and dismiss the courtiers. He would then meet the officers in his chambers on the ground floor, and issue various orders. He ordered the ministries of revenue, secretariat, war, and commerce to maintain the laws and regulations established by Alauddin. The officers of the ministries were asked to consult Kafur on all policy matters.


title: Malik Kafur

text: Kafur took several actions to maintain his control over the throne. Before burying Alauddin, he had taken the royal ring from the Sultan's finger. He gave this ring to his general, Sumbul, and asked him to march to Gwalior and take control of the fort, using the ring as a symbol of royal authority. He asked Sumbul to send the fort's governor to Delhi, and ordered Sumbul to return to Delhi after blinding Khizr Khan, who had been imprisoned in Gwalior. Sumbul carried out these orders, and was appointed "Amir-i Hijab"(Commander of the Faithful) as a reward. On his first day as regent, Kafur also ordered his barber to blind Khizr Khan's uterine brother Shadi Khan. This incident intensified resentment of Kafur among the Turkic nobles. Kafur deprived Alauddin's senior queen, who bore the title "Malika-i Jahan", of all her property, and later imprisoned her at Gwalior fort. He also imprisoned Mubarak Shah, another adult son of Alauddin. According to Firishta, Kafur married Alauddin's widow Jhatyapalli, the mother of Shihabuddin. Becoming the new Sultan's step-father was probably Kafur's way of legitimizing his power.


title: Malik Kafur

text: Alp Khan's murder had led to a rebellion in Gujarat, and Kafur had sent Kamal al-Din "Gurg" to suppress it. Meanwhile, Kafur summoned the Devagiri governor, Ayn al-Mulk Multani, to Delhi with all his soldiers. While Multani was on his way, Kamal al-Din was killed in Gujarat. Kafur then appointed Multani as governor of Gujarat, and asked him to march there to suppress the rebellion. The rebellion could be suppressed only after Kafur's death.


title: Malik Kafur

text: Alauddin's former bodyguards ("paiks") disapproved of Kafur's actions against the family of their deceased master. Led by Mubashshir, Bashir, Saleh, and Munir, these bodyguards decided to kill Kafur. When Kafur became suspicious of a conspiracy against him, he summoned Mubashshir to his room. Mubashshir, who had been permitted to carry arms in the royal quarters since Alauddin's day, wounded Kafur with his sword. His associates then entered the room and beheaded Kafur, also killing two or three gatekeepers who had attempted to protect him. This event took place sometime in February 1316.


title: Malik Kafur

text: According to an account cited by the 16th-century chronicler Firishta, Kafur had sent some "paiks" to blind Mubarak Shah, but the captive prince gave them his jeweled necklace and convinced them to kill Kafur instead. Another legend attributes Kafur's death to his mother's prayers to the mystic Shaikhzada Jam. These accounts are latter-day fabrications. According to Barani's near-contemporary account, the "paiks" decided to kill Kafur on their own initiative.


title: Malik Kafur

text: Kafur's killers freed Mubarak Shah, who was appointed as the new regent. A few months later, Mubarak Shah usurped control by blinding Shihabuddin. Kafur's killers claimed credit for making him king, and began demanding high positions in the royal court. Instead, Mubarak Shah had them executed.


title: Malik Kafur

text: The chronicler Barani was severely critical of Kafur. Historian Abraham Eraly, however, believes that Barani's criticism of Kafur is not credible as Barani was deeply prejudiced against Kafur, presumably because of Kafur's non-Turkic, Hindu origins and eunuch status.


title: Malik Kafur

text: The location of Kafur's grave is unknown today. His mausoleum existed in the 14th century, when it was repaired by Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq (r. 1351–1388). Firuz Shah's autobiography "Futuhat-i-Firuzshahi" states:


title: Alisha Newton

text: Alisha Newton (born July 22, 2001) is a Canadian actress. She is known for her role as Georgie Fleming Morris on the Canadian television drama series "Heartland".


title: Alisha Newton

text: Born in Vancouver, Alisha Newton began appearing in commercials at the age of four and began acting four years later.


title: Alisha Newton

text: Since 2012, Newton has been a series regular on the CBC drama series "Heartland". She portrays Georgie Fleming Morris, a child who finds a nurturing home at Heartland Ranch, owned by Jack Bartlett (Shaun Johnston), who runs the ranch with his granddaughters Amy (Amber Marshall), and her sister Lou (Michelle Morgan).


title: Alisha Newton

text: In 2014, Newton played the minor role of Sofia Dunlap in the 2014 film "The Tree That Saved Christmas".


title: Emulator

text: In computing, an emulator is hardware or software that enables one computer system (called the "host") to behave like another computer system (called the "guest"). An emulator typically enables the host system to run software or use peripheral devices designed for the guest system.


title: Emulator

text: Emulation refers to the ability of a computer program in an electronic device to emulate (or imitate) another program or device.


title: Emulator

text: Many printers, for example, are designed to emulate HP LaserJet printers because so much software is written for HP printers. If a non-HP printer emulates an HP printer, any software written for a real HP printer will also run in the non-HP printer emulation and produce equivalent printing. Since at least the 1990s, many video game enthusiasts and hobbyists have used emulators to play classic arcade games from the 1980s using the games' original 1980s machine code and data, which is interpreted by a current-era system, and to emulate old video game consoles.


title: Emulator

text: A hardware emulator is an emulator which takes the form of a hardware device. Examples include the DOS-compatible card installed in some 1990s-era Macintosh computers, such as the Centris 610 or Performa 630, that allowed them to run personal computer (PC) software programs and field-programmable gate array-based hardware emulators. The Church-Turing thesis implies that theoretically, any operating environment can be emulated within any other environment, assuming memory limitations are ignored. However, in practice, it can be quite difficult, particularly when the exact behavior of the system to be emulated is not documented and has to be deduced through reverse engineering. It also says nothing about timing constraints; if the emulator does not perform as quickly as it did using the original hardware, the software inside the emulation may run much more slowly (possibly triggering timer interrupts that alter behavior).


title: Emulator

text: Most emulators just emulate a hardware architecture—if operating system firmware or software is required for the desired software, it must be provided as well (and may itself be emulated). Both the OS and the software will then be interpreted by the emulator, rather than being run by native hardware. Apart from this interpreter for the emulated binary machine's language, some other hardware (such as input or output devices) must be provided in virtual form as well; for example, if writing to a specific memory location should influence what is displayed on the screen, then this would need to be emulated. While emulation could, if taken to the extreme, go down to the atomic level, basing its output on a simulation of the actual circuitry from a virtual power source, this would be a highly unusual solution. Emulators typically stop at a simulation of the documented hardware specifications and digital logic. Sufficient emulation of some hardware platforms requires extreme accuracy, down to the level of individual clock cycles, undocumented features, unpredictable analog elements, and implementation bugs. This is particularly the case with classic home computers such as the Commodore 64, whose software often depends on highly sophisticated low-level programming tricks invented by game programmers and the "demoscene".


title: Emulator

text: In contrast, some other platforms have had very little use of direct hardware addressing, such as an emulator for the PlayStation 4. In these cases, a simple compatibility layer may suffice. This translates system calls for the foreign system into system calls for the host system e.g., the Linux compatibility layer used on *BSD to run closed source Linux native software on FreeBSD and NetBSD. For example, while the Nintendo 64 graphic processor was fully programmable, most games used one of a few pre-made programs, which were mostly self-contained and communicated with the game via FIFO; therefore, many emulators do not emulate the graphic processor at all, but simply interpret the commands received from the CPU as the original program would. Developers of software for embedded systems or video game consoles often design their software on especially accurate emulators called simulators before trying it on the real hardware. This is so that software can be produced and tested before the final hardware exists in large quantities, so that it can be tested without taking the time to copy the program to be debugged at a low level and without introducing the side effects of a debugger. In many cases, the simulator is actually produced by the company providing the hardware, which theoretically increases its accuracy. Math co-processor emulators allow programs compiled with math instructions to run on machines that do not have the co-processor installed, but the extra work done by the CPU may slow the system down. If a math coprocessor is not installed or present on the CPU, when the CPU executes any co-processor instruction it will make a determined interrupt (coprocessor not available), calling the math emulator routines. When the instruction is successfully emulated, the program continues executing.


title: Emulator

text: Logic simulation is the use of a computer program to simulate the operation of a digital circuit such as a processor. This is done after a digital circuit has been designed in logic equations, but before the circuit is fabricated in hardware.


title: Emulator

text: Functional simulation is the use of a computer program to simulate the execution of a second computer program written in symbolic assembly language or compiler language, rather than in binary machine code. By using a functional simulator, programmers can execute and trace selected sections of source code to search for programming errors (bugs), without generating binary code. This is distinct from simulating execution of binary code, which is software emulation. The first functional simulator was written by Autonetics about 1960 for testing assembly language programs for later execution in military computer D-17B. This made it possible for flight programs to be written, executed, and tested before D-17B computer hardware had been built. Autonetics also programmed a functional simulator for testing flight programs for later execution in the military computer D-37C.


title: Emulator

text: Video game console emulators are programs that allow a personal computer or video game console to emulate another video game console. They are most often used to play older 1980s to 2000s-era video games on modern personal computers and more contemporary video game consoles. They are also used to translate games into other languages, to modify existing games, and in the development process of "home brew" DIY demos and in the creation of new games for older systems. The Internet has helped in the spread of console emulators, as most - if not all - would be unavailable for sale in retail outlets. Examples of console emulators that have been released in the last few decades are: RPCS3, Dolphin, Cemu, PCSX2, PPSSPP, ZSNES, Citra, ePSXe, Project64, Visual Boy Advance, Nestopia, and Yuzu.


title: Emulator

text: Due to their popularity, emulators have been impersonated by malware. Most of these emulators are for video game consoles like the Xbox 360, Xbox One, Nintendo 3DS, etc. Generally such emulators make currently impossible claims such as being able to run Xbox One and Xbox 360 games in a single program.


title: Emulator

text: As computers and global computer networks continued to advance and emulator developers grew more skilled in their work, the length of time between the commercial release of a console and its successful emulation began to shrink. Fifth generation consoles such as Nintendo 64, PlayStation and sixth generation handhelds, such as the Game Boy Advance, saw significant progress toward emulation during their production. This led to an effort by console manufacturers to stop unofficial emulation, but consistent failures such as "Sega v. Accolade" 977 F.2d 1510 (9th Cir. 1992), "Sony Computer Entertainment, Inc. v. Connectix Corporation" 203 F.3d 596 (2000), and "Sony Computer Entertainment America v. Bleem" 214 F.3d 1022 (2000), have had the opposite effect. According to all legal precedents, emulation is legal within the United States. However, unauthorized distribution of copyrighted code remains illegal, according to both country-specific copyright and international copyright law under the Berne Convention. Under United States law, obtaining a dumped copy of the original machine's BIOS is legal under the ruling "Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc.", 964 F.2d 965 (9th Cir. 1992) as fair use as long as the user obtained a legally purchased copy of the machine. To mitigate this however, several emulators for platforms such as Game Boy Advance are capable of running without a BIOS file, using high-level emulation to simulate BIOS subroutines at a slight cost in emulation accuracy.


title: Emulator

text: Terminal emulators are software programs that provide modern computers and devices interactive access to applications running on mainframe computer operating systems or other host systems such as HP-UX or OpenVMS. Terminals such as the IBM 3270 or VT100 and many others are no longer produced as physical devices. Instead, software running on modern operating systems simulates a "dumb" terminal and is able to render the graphical and text elements of the host application, send keystrokes and process commands using the appropriate terminal protocol. Some terminal emulation applications include Attachmate Reflection, IBM Personal Communications, and Micro Focus Rumba.


title: Emulator

text: Typically, an emulator is divided into modules that correspond roughly to the emulated computer's subsystems.


title: Emulator

text: Buses are often not emulated, either for reasons of performance or simplicity, and virtual peripherals communicate directly with the CPU or the memory subsystem.


title: Emulator

text: It is possible for the memory subsystem emulation to be reduced to simply an array of elements each sized like an emulated word; however, this model fails very quickly as soon as any location in the computer's logical memory does not match physical memory. This clearly is the case whenever the emulated hardware allows for advanced memory management (in which case, the MMU logic can be embedded in the memory emulator, made a module of its own, or sometimes integrated into the CPU simulator). Even if the emulated computer does not feature an MMU, though, there are usually other factors that break the equivalence between logical and physical memory: many (if not most) architectures offer memory-mapped I/O; even those that do not often have a block of logical memory mapped to ROM, which means that the memory-array module must be discarded if the read-only nature of ROM is to be emulated. Features such as bank switching or segmentation may also complicate memory emulation. As a result, most emulators implement at least two procedures for writing to and reading from logical memory, and it is these procedures' duty to map every access to the correct location of the correct object.


title: Emulator

text: On a base-limit addressing system where memory from address "0" to address "ROMSIZE-1" is read-only memory, while the rest is RAM, something along the line of the following procedures would be typical:


title: Emulator

text: The CPU simulator is often the most complicated part of an emulator. Many emulators are written using "pre-packaged" CPU simulators, in order to concentrate on good and efficient emulation of a specific machine. The simplest form of a CPU simulator is an interpreter, which is a computer program that follows the execution flow of the emulated program code and, for every machine code instruction encountered, executes operations on the host processor that are semantically equivalent to the original instructions. This is made possible by assigning a variable to each register and flag of the simulated CPU. The logic of the simulated CPU can then more or less be directly translated into software algorithms, creating a software re-implementation that basically mirrors the original hardware implementation.


title: Emulator

text: The following example illustrates how CPU simulation can be accomplished by an interpreter. In this case, interrupts are checked-for before every instruction executed, though this behavior is rare in real emulators for performance reasons (it is generally faster to use a subroutine to do the work of an interrupt).


title: Emulator

text: Interpreters are very popular as computer simulators, as they are much simpler to implement than more time-efficient alternative solutions, and their speed is more than adequate for emulating computers of more than roughly a decade ago on modern machines. However, the speed penalty inherent in interpretation can be a problem when emulating computers whose processor speed is on the same order of magnitude as the host machine. Until not many years ago, emulation in such situations was considered completely impractical by many.


title: Emulator

text: What allowed breaking through this restriction were the advances in dynamic recompilation techniques. Simple "a priori" translation of emulated program code into code runnable on the host architecture is usually impossible because of several reasons:


title: Emulator

text: Various forms of dynamic recompilation, including the popular Just In Time compiler (JIT) technique, try to circumvent these problems by waiting until the processor control flow jumps into a location containing untranslated code, and only then ("just in time") translates a block of the code into host code that can be executed.


title: Emulator

text: The translated code is kept in a "code cache", and the original code is not lost or affected; this way, even data segments can be (meaninglessly) translated by the recompiler, resulting in no more than a waste of translation time. Speed may not be desirable as some older games were not designed with the speed of faster computers in mind. A game designed for a 30 MHz PC with a level timer of 300 game seconds might only give the player 30 seconds on a 300 MHz PC. Other programs, such as some DOS programs, may not even run on faster computers. Particularly when emulating computers which were "closed-box", in which changes to the core of the system were not typical, software may use techniques that depend on specific characteristics of the computer it ran on (e.g. its CPU's speed) and thus precise control of the speed of emulation is important for such applications to be properly emulated.


title: Emulator

text: Most emulators do not, as mentioned earlier, emulate the main system bus; each I/O device is thus often treated as a special case, and no consistent interface for virtual peripherals is provided. This can result in a performance advantage, since each I/O module can be tailored to the characteristics of the emulated device; designs based on a standard, unified I/O API can, however, rival such simpler models, if well thought-out, and they have the additional advantage of "automatically" providing a plug-in service through which third-party virtual devices can be used within the emulator. A unified I/O API may not necessarily mirror the structure of the real hardware bus: bus design is limited by several electric constraints and a need for hardware concurrency management that can mostly be ignored in a software implementation.


title: Emulator

text: Even in emulators that treat each device as a special case, there is usually a common basic infrastructure for:


title: Emulator

text: Emulation is one strategy in pursuit of digital preservation and combating obsolescence. Emulation focuses on recreating an original computer environment, which can be time-consuming and difficult to achieve, but valuable because of its ability to maintain a closer connection to the authenticity of the digital object, operating system, or even gaming platform. Emulation addresses the original hardware and software environment of the digital object, and recreates it on a current machine. The emulator allows the user to have access to any kind of application or operating system on a current platform, while the software runs as it did in its original environment. Jeffery Rothenberg, an early proponent of emulation as a digital preservation strategy states, "the ideal approach would provide a single extensible, long-term solution that can be designed once and for all and applied uniformly, automatically, and in organized synchrony (for example, at every refresh cycle) to all types of documents and media". He further states that this should not only apply to out of date systems, but also be upwardly mobile to future unknown systems. Practically speaking, when a certain application is released in a new version, rather than address compatibility issues and migration for every digital object created in the previous version of that application, one could create an emulator for the application, allowing access to all of said digital objects.


title: Emulator

text: Because of its primary use of digital formats, new media art relies heavily on emulation as a preservation strategy. Artists such as Cory Arcangel specialize in resurrecting obsolete technologies in their artwork and recognize the importance of a decentralized and deinstitutionalized process for the preservation of digital culture. In many cases, the goal of emulation in new media art is to preserve a digital medium so that it can be saved indefinitely and reproduced without error, so that there is no reliance on hardware that ages and becomes obsolete. The paradox is that the emulation and the emulator have to be made to work on future computers.


title: Emulator

text: Emulation techniques are commonly used during the design and development of new systems. It eases the development process by providing the ability to detect, recreate and repair flaws in the design even before the system is actually built. It is particularly useful in the design of multi-core systems, where concurrency errors can be very difficult to detect and correct without the controlled environment provided by virtual hardware. This also allows the software development to take place before the hardware is ready, thus helping to validate design decisions and give a little more control.


title: Emulator

text: The word "emulator" was coined in 1963 at IBM during development of the NPL (IBM System/360) product line, using a "new combination of software, microcode, and hardware". They discovered that simulation using additional instructions implemented in microcode and hardware, instead of software simulation using only standard instructions, to execute programs written for earlier IBM computers dramatically increased simulation speed. Earlier, IBM provided simulators for, e.g., the 650 on the 705. In addition to simulators, IBM had compatibility features on the 709 and 7090, for which it provided the IBM 709 computer with a program to run legacy programs written for the IBM 704 on the 709 and later on the IBM 7090. This program used the instructions added by the compatibility feature to trap instructions requiring special handling; all other 704 instructions ran the same on a 7090. The compatibility feature on the 1410 only required setting a console toggle switch, not a support program.


title: Emulator

text: In 1963, when microcode was first used to speed up this simulation process, IBM engineers coined the term "emulator" to describe the concept. In the 2000s, it has become common to use the word "emulate" in the context of software. However, before 1980, "emulation" referred only to emulation with a hardware or microcode assist, while "simulation" referred to pure software emulation. For example, a computer specially built for running programs designed for another architecture is an emulator. In contrast, a simulator could be a program which runs on a PC, so that old Atari games can be simulated on it. Purists continue to insist on this distinction, but currently the term "emulation" often means the complete imitation of a machine executing binary code while "simulation" often refers to computer simulation, where a computer program is used to simulate an abstract model. Computer simulation is used in virtually every scientific and engineering domain and Computer Science is no exception, with several projects simulating abstract models of computer systems, such as network simulation, which both practically and semantically differs from network emulation.


title: Emulator

text: Hardware virtualization is the virtualization of computers as complete hardware platforms, certain logical abstractions of their components, or only the functionality required to run various operating systems. Virtualization hides the physical characteristics of a computing platform from the users, presenting instead an abstract computing platform. At its origins, the software that controlled virtualization was called a "control program", but the terms "hypervisor" or "virtual machine monitor" became preferred over time. Each hypervisor can manage or run multiple virtual machines.


title: Kathy Reichs

text: Kathleen Joan Reichs (née Toelle, born 1950) is an American crime writer, forensic anthropologist and academic. She is an adjunct professor of anthropology at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte.


title: Kathy Reichs

text: She earned her Bachelor of Arts degree with a major in anthropology from American University in 1971. In 1972, she completed her Master of Arts in physical anthropology at Northwestern University, where, in 1975, she completed her PhD, also in physical anthropology.


title: Kathy Reichs

text: Since 1975, Reichs has taught at Northern Illinois University, University of Pittsburgh, Concordia University, and McGill University, and currently holds a position as adjunct professor of anthropology at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. In the past, Kathy Reichs has consulted for the Office of the Chief Medical Examiner in North Carolina.


title: Kathy Reichs

text: Reichs has appeared in Tanzania to testify at the United Nations's International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. She has assisted Clyde Snow and the Foundation for Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology in an exhumation in the area of Lake Atitlan in the highlands of southwest Guatemala. She was a member of the Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Team assigned to assist at the World Trade Center disaster.


title: Kathy Reichs

text: She is one of 100 anthropologists certified by the American Board of Forensic Anthropology and is on the board of directors of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences. She is also affiliated with the Laboratoire des Sciences Judiciaires et de Médecine Légale for the province of Quebec.


title: Kathy Reichs

text: In addition to technical books, as of January 2019, Reichs has written 21 novels, which have been translated into 30 languages. 20 of those novels constitute the "Temperance Brennan" series. Her first novel, "Déjà Dead", won the 1997 Arthur Ellis Award for Best First Novel.


title: Kathy Reichs

text: The fictional heroine in her novels, Temperance "Tempe" Brennan, is also a forensic anthropologist. Her lifestyle closely mimics that of her creator, with Reichs stating that Brennan and she "have the same CV" and that "Some of Tempe's personality traits are also mine," but there are differences in their personal lives, such as the character's alcoholism. A good portion of the novels are based on real life science, and Reichs has stated that she is "fastidiously conscientious about getting the science right."


title: Kathy Reichs

text: She has also written the young adult novels series named "Virals", centered on Tempe's great-niece, Tory Brennan, and a pack of her friends, Ben, Hiram, Shelton, and wolfdog Cooper.


title: Kathy Reichs

text: A stand-alone novel, "Two Nights", published July 11, 2017, features Sunday Night, a tough-talking, scarred heroine.


title: Kathy Reichs

text: The 2005 Fox television series "Bones" is inspired by Reichs' life and novels. The series borrows the name of her books' heroine, Temperance "Bones" Brennan. As in the books, Brennan (Emily Deschanel) is a forensic anthropologist; however, there are many differences: the television character is younger, more socially awkward, and is based in the Jeffersonian, a fictionalized version of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. Additionally, the TV-Brennan moonlights as an author, writing about a fictional forensic anthropologist named Kathy Reichs. Aside from the character's name and occupation, there are few similarities between the TV show and the novels.


title: Kathy Reichs

text: Reichs works as a producer on the show to "keep the science honest". She appeared in the second-season episode "Judas on a Pole", playing Professor Constance Wright, a forensic anthropologist on the Jeffersionian"s board of trustees who conducts Zack Addy's dissertation defense.


title: Kathy Reichs

text: Reichs wrote the season five episode, "The Witch in the Wardrobe," the season nine episode, "The Dude in the Dam," and wrote the season eleven episode, "The Stiff in the Cliff" with her daughter Kerry.


title: Kathy Reichs

text: In 2011, Reichs was an expert witness in the Casey Anthony murder trial. Reichs was reluctant to get involved, but later agreed and performed a full skeletal analysis of Anthony's daughter, Caylee, but could not determine a cause of death. She concluded that there was no evidence of abuse and that the child appeared to be well-nourished.


title: Kathy Reichs

text: This series was co-authored by Reich's son, Brendan Reichs. Tory Brennan, the great niece of Temperance Brennan, is the titular character of this series.


title: Elendil

text: Elendil is a fictional character in J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium. He is mentioned in "The Lord of the Rings", "The Silmarillion" and "Unfinished Tales". He was the father of Isildur and Anárion, last lord of Andúnië on the island of Númenor, and having escaped its downfall by sailing to Middle-earth, became the first High King of Arnor and Gondor. In the Last Alliance of Men and Elves, Elendil and Gil-galad laid siege to the Dark Lord Sauron's fortress of Barad-dûr, and fought him hand-to-hand for the One Ring. Both Elendil and Gil-galad were killed, and Elendil's son Isildur took the Ring for himself.


title: Elendil

text: Tolkien called Elendil a "Noachian figure", an echo of the biblical Noah. Elendil escaped from the flood that drowned Númenor, itself an echo of the myth of Atlantis, founding new Númenórean kingdoms in Middle-earth.


title: Elendil

text: Elendil was born in Númenor, son of Amandil, Lord of Andúnië and leader of the "Faithful" (those who remained loyal to the Valar), who maintained a strong friendship with the Elves and preserved the old ways against the practices of king Ar-Pharazôn and Sauron. His father Amandil had been a great admiral of the Númenórean fleet and a close friend to Ar-Pharazôn in their youth, but as Sauron's influence grew, he resorted to doing what their ancestor Eärendil had done: sailing to Valinor and asking for the pardon of the Valar. Amandil was never heard of again, but on his urging, Elendil, his sons Isildur and Anárion, and their supporters fled the downfall of Númenor at the end of the Second Age, escaping to Middle-earth in nine ships. Elendil landed in Lindon, where he was befriended by Gil-galad, the Elven King. The waves carried Isildur and Anárion south to the Bay of Belfalas and the mouth of the River Anduin. With them the leaders took the "palantíri", the "Seeing Stones" that were given to the Lords of Andúnië by the Elves of Tol Eressëa, and a seedling of Nimloth, the White Tree of Númenor.


title: Elendil

text: "Unfinished Tales" states that, upon landing in Middle-earth, Elendil proclaimed in Quenya: "Out of the Great Sea to Middle-earth I am come. In this place will I abide, and my heirs, unto the ending of the world." His heir and 40th generation descendant in father-to-son line Aragorn spoke these traditional words again when he took up the crown of Gondor in "The Return of the King".


title: Elendil

text: Elendil founded the northern realm of Arnor and its capital city of Annúminas. His sons founded the southern realm of Gondor; Anárion founded the city of Minas Anor (later Minas Tirith) in Anórien, and Isildur founded Minas Ithil (later Minas Morgul) in Ithilien. Elendil was the High King, ruling directly over Arnor and indirectly over Gondor, via its King.


title: Elendil

text: As explained in "The Fellowship of the Ring", Sauron eventually returned to Middle-earth, establishing a stronghold in Mordor, which was next to Gondor. He attacked, seizing Minas Ithil. Isildur fled north to his father, leaving Anárion in charge of Gondor. Elendil and Isildur returned south, together with Gil-galad and their combined armies, in the Last Alliance of Elves and Men. They defeated Sauron in the Battle of Dagorlad, and laid siege to his stronghold of Barad-dûr. During this long siege Anárion was killed. Finally, Sauron came out personally to do battle. Gil-galad and Elendil fought him, but both were killed, and Elendil's sword was broken beneath him. Isildur used his father's broken sword to cut the One Ring from Sauron's hand.


title: Elendil

text: Nicholas Birns, a scholar of literature, notes Elendil's survival of Númenor's fall, an event that recalls to him both Plato's Atlantis and the Biblical fall of man; he notes that Tolkien called Elendil a "Noachian figure", an echo of the biblical Noah. Tolkien explains that Elendil "held off" from the Númenórean rebellion, and had kept ships ready; he "flees before the overwhelming storm of the wrath of the West [from Valinor], and is borne high upon the towering waves that bring ruin to the west of the Middle-earth." Birns notes that Elendil, who he calls a hugely important figure in Middle-earth, must be later "in comparative time" than Noah; where Noah was a refugee, Elendil was "an imperialist, a founder of realms". However, he grants that "Noachian" implies a class of people like Noah, and the possibility of different kinds of flood. Birns comments that Middle-earth has its Creation and Flood myths, but not exactly a fall of man. He suggests that Tolkien, as a Catholic, may have been more comfortable working with the forces of nature seen in Creation and Flood, but preferred to leave the fall alone; he notes that both Creation and Flood are found in non-Christian tales from the Middle East, citing the "Epic of Gilgamesh" for the Flood and the Enuma Elish for Creation.


title: Elendil

text: The priest and Tolkien scholar Fleming Rutledge writes that Aragorn, narrating the Lay of Beren and Lúthien to the hobbits, tells them that Lúthien's line "shall never fail". Rutledge talks of the "kings of Númenor, that is Westernesse", and as they gaze at him, they see that the moon "climbs behind him as if to crown him", which Rutledge calls an echo of the Transfiguration. Rutledge explains that Aragorn is of the line of Elendil and knows he will inherit "the crown of Elendil and the other Kings of vanished Númenor", just as Jesus is of the line of King David, fulfilling the prophecy that the line of Kings would not fail.


title: Elendil

text: Zak Cramer notes in "Mallorn" that Tolkien's middle name, Reuel, means "God's friend", and could be written "El's friend" with reference to the Hebrew word for "God". He speculates that Elendil, "Elf-friend", may have been a wordplay on this name.


title: Elendil

text: The classical scholar J. K. Newman compares the myth of Elendil and the defeat of Sauron with Jason's taking of the Golden Fleece. In both, a golden prize is taken; in both, there are evil consequences – Elendil's son Isildur is betrayed and the Ring is lost, leading to the War of the Ring and Frodo's quest; Medea murders Jason's children.


title: Elendil

text: Tolkien wrote in a 1964 letter that the story of Elendil began when C. S. Lewis and he agreed to write a space travel and a time travel story, respectively. Tolkien's tale was to be called "Númenor, the Land in the West", with repeated father–son pairs whose names meant "Bliss-friend" and "Elf-friend" each time. It was not completed, but survives as two unfinished time-travel novels, "The Lost Road" and "The Notion Club Papers". The Elf-friends were to be Elwin in present time; Ælfwine (Old English) around 918 AD; Alboin from "Lombardic legend"; and eventually Elendil of Númenor. Tolkien states that he lost interest in the others, and focussed on Elendil, whose story he incorporated into his "main mythology". One of Tolkien's correspondents, the scholar of English, Rhona Beare, writes in "Mythlore" that Elendil is a "remote ancestor" of Alboin; when Alboin travels back in time he finds Númenor simultaneously familiar and strange, because he can see it both with Elendil's eyes and with his own.


title: Elendil

text: In Peter Jackson's "", Elendil is portrayed by Peter McKenzie. He appears briefly in the prologue, where he is killed by Sauron. The action differs from the book, where Gil-galad and Elendil heroically defeated Sauron, at the cost of their own lives, allowing Isildur to take the Ring without difficulty. In the film, Sauron defeats Elendil, and Isildur fights Sauron, the action of cutting off his finger and the Ring serving to vanquish Sauron. Tolkien instructed that "Sauron should not be thought of as very terrible. The form that he took was that of a more than human stature, but not gigantic", though he "could appear as a commanding figure of great strength of body and supremely royal demeanor and countenance." Jackson chooses to make Sauron much larger than Elendil for his final battle. The scholar of English literature Robert Tally comments that it is ironic that Jackson may have come closest to Tolkien's intentions in the prologue by representing Sauron in humanoid form, while he is a disembodied eye everywhere else in the film series.


title: Elendil

text: In the 2022 television series, "", Elendil is played by Lloyd Owen. The show introduces Elendil as a Númenórean nobleman, who serves as a sea captain. He is a widower with three adult children: sons Isildur and Anárion, and a daughter Eärien.


title: Crown colony

text: A Crown colony or royal colony was a colony administered by The Crown within the British Empire. There was usually a Governor, appointed by the monarch of the UK on the advice of the "Home" (UK) Government, with or without the assistance of a local Council. In some cases, this Council was split into two: an Executive Council and a Legislative Council, and was similar to the Privy Council that advises the Monarch. Members of Executive Councils were appointed by the Governors, and British citizens resident in Crown colonies either had no representation in local government, or limited representation. In several Crown colonies, this limited representation grew over time. As the House of Commons of the British Parliament has never included seats for any of the colonies, there was no direct representation in the sovereign government for British subjects or citizens residing in Crown colonies.


title: Crown colony

text: The administration of Crown colonies changed over time and in the 1800s some became, with a loosening of the power of royal governors, self-governing colonies, within which the Sovereign state (the UK Government) delegated legislation for most local internal matters of governance to elected assemblies, with consent of the governor. The elected assemblies had their beginnings in the House of Burgesses of the colony of Virginia in 1619 and the House of Assembly of the Parliament of Bermuda in 1620. Over the centuries in some Crown colonies, more independent authority was given.


title: Crown colony

text: All British colonies, whether Crown (such as Hong Kong and the Falkland Islands) or self-governing (such as Bermuda), were renamed "British Dependent Territories" from 1 January 1983 under the British Nationality Act 1981. Many British citizens in the colonies (with the exceptions of the Falkland Islanders and subsequently the Gibraltarians) found that their "Citizenship of the United Kingdom and Colonies" From 2002 the colonies have been known officially as British Overseas Territories.


title: Crown colony

text: Early English colonies were usually established and administered by companies under charters granted by the monarch. The first "royal colony" was the Colony of Virginia, after 1624, when the Crown of the Kingdom of England revoked the royal charter it had granted to the Virginia Company and assumed control of the administration.


title: Crown colony

text: Executive governors are sometimes complemented by a locally appointed and/or elected legislature with limited powers — that is, such territories lack responsible government. For example, while the House of Assembly of Bermuda has existed continuously since its first session in 1620, Bermuda has only had responsible government since 1968. (Bermuda became a Crown colony in 1684, when the government revoked a royal charter given to the Somers Isles Company, successor to the Virginia Company, which had previously controlled administration, including the appointment of governors. Afterwards the British government appointed the Governor of Bermuda.)


title: Crown colony

text: Despite its later usage, the term "Crown colony" was used primarily, until the mid-19th century, to refer to colonies that had been acquired through wars, such as Trinidad and Tobago. After that time it was more broadly applied to every British territory other than British India, and self-governing colonies, such as the Province of Canada, Newfoundland, British Columbia, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia, and New Zealand.


title: Crown colony

text: By the mid-19th century, the monarch was appointing colonial governors only on the advice of the Secretary of State for the Colonies.


title: Crown colony

text: The term Crown colony continued to be used until 1981, when the British Nationality Act 1981 reclassified the remaining British colonies as "British Dependent Territories". By this time, the term "Crown colony" referred specifically to colonies lacking substantial autonomy, which were administered by an executive governor, appointed by the British Government — such as Hong Kong, before its transfer in 1997 to the People's Republic of China.


title: Crown colony

text: Crown colonies "with representative councils", such as Bermuda, Jamaica, Ceylon and Fiji, contained two legislative chambers, consisting of Crown-appointed and locally elected members.


title: Crown colony

text: Crown colonies "with nominated councils", such as British Honduras, Sierra Leone, British Windward Islands and Hong Kong, were staffed entirely by Crown-appointed members, with some appointed representation from the local population. Hong Kong had a representative council following the introduction of election for the Hong Kong Legislative Council in 1995.


title: Crown colony

text: Crown colonies "ruled directly by a governor", such as Basutoland, Gibraltar, Saint Helena and Singapore, were fewest in number and had the least autonomy.


title: 2021 United States elections

text: The 2021 United States elections were held in large part on Tuesday, November 2, 2021. This off-year election included the regular gubernatorial elections in New Jersey and Virginia. In addition, state legislative elections were held for the New Jersey Legislature and Virginia House of Delegates (the lower house of the Virginia General Assembly), along with numerous state legislative special elections, citizen initiatives, mayoral races, and a variety of other local elections. Six special elections to the United States House of Representatives also took place on November 2 or earlier as a result of either deaths or vacancies. The first of these was held on March 20.


title: 2021 United States elections

text: Republican candidates made significant gains up and down the ballot. Glenn Youngkin, the Republican nominee in the Virginia gubernatorial election, prevailed against Democratic nominee Terry McAuliffe in an upset. Youngkin promised to ban the teaching of critical race theory within public schools on day one of his administration, push back against certain COVID-19 mandates and restrictions, and advocate for a low tax and small government agenda within the state of Virginia. Within the factions in the Democratic Party, moderate nominees generally prevailed against left-wing candidates, and progressive policies by and large saw rejection; a proposal to defund and replace the Minneapolis Police Department was defeated. While this election was largely speculated as a prelude to the 2022 midterms, large Republican gains ultimately did not manifest in that election.


title: 2021 United States elections

text: The results were interpreted by some political commentators as a backlash against the policies of the Biden administration, and/or cultural liberalism and wokeism within the party. Others saw Democrats' perceived failure to enact their legislative agenda in the United States Congress as the main impetus behind Republican victories, interpreting Democratic losses as public frustration at the Biden administration not following through on its promises to implement transformative policy.


title: 2021 United States elections

text: As part of the 2020 United States Senate elections, Georgia held run-off elections for both of its Senate seats on January 5, 2021. The run-off elections were triggered because of a Georgia law requiring a second round when no individual wins a majority of the vote in most federal, state, and local elections. Democrats Jon Ossoff and Raphael Warnock were the victors in those special elections, which gave the Democrats a total of 48 seats to the Republicans' 50. However, the victories resulted in a shift of power to the Democrats; the other two senators, Bernie Sanders of Vermont and Angus King of Maine, are both independents who belong to the Democrats' caucus, and since any tied vote is broken by the President of the Senate—in this case Vice President Kamala Harris, also a Democrat—the Democrats technically hold a one-seat majority.


title: 2021 United States elections

text: In May, Puerto Rico held a shadow congressional delegation election to elect two senators and four representatives to replace the shadow delegation first appointed in 2017. The shadow senators and representatives are not seated in Congress, but are charged with advancing Puerto Rico's statehood efforts. In the preliminary results from election night, former at-large senator Melinda Romero and lawyer Zoraida Buxo earned the most votes for senator, and conservative commentator Elizabeth Torres, municipal lawmaker Roberto Lefranc Fortuño, former Ponce Mayor María Meléndez, and Junventud PNP director Adriel Vélez earned the most votes for the House delegation. However, former governor Ricardo Rosselló earned enough write-in votes to gain a seat in the House delegation over Vélez. Voter turnout was at a record low level — 3.92% — in the election.


title: 2021 United States elections

text: Two states held regularly scheduled gubernatorial elections in 2021, and one more state held a recall election:


title: 2021 United States elections

text: Legislative elections were held for both houses of the New Jersey Legislature and the lower house of the Virginia General Assembly. Democrats maintained majority control of the New Jersey Senate and the General Assembly. Republicans regained control of the Virginia House of Delegates, which had been held by Democrats since 2019.


title: 2021 United States elections

text: Since the beginning of 2021, various major cities have seen incumbent mayors re-elected, including Birmingham (Randall Woodfin) and Mobile, Alabama (Sandy Stimpson); Miami (Francis X. Suarez) and North Miami, Florida (Philippe Bien-Aime); New Orleans, Louisiana (LaToya Cantrell); Detroit (Mike Duggan) and Lansing, Michigan (Andy Schor); Minneapolis (Jacob Frey) and St. Paul, Minnesota (Melvin Carter); Jackson, Mississippi (Chokwe Antar Lumumba); Springfield, Missouri (Ken McClure); Omaha, Nebraska (Jean Stothert); Manchester, New Hampshire (Joyce Craig); Jersey City, New Jersey (Steven Fulop); Albuquerque, New Mexico (Tim Keller); Buffalo (Byron Brown) and Syracuse, New York (Ben Walsh); Toledo, Ohio (Wade Kapszukiewicz); Lancaster, Pennsylvania (Danene Sorace); San Antonio, Texas (Ron Nirenberg); Burlington, Vermont (Miro Weinberger); and Alexandria, Virginia (Justin Wilson).


title: 2021 United States elections

text: Open mayoral seats were won in Anchorage, Alaska (Dave Bronson); St. Petersburg, Florida (Ken Welch); Atlanta, Georgia (Andre Dickens); St. Louis, Missouri (Tishaura Jones); New York City (Eric Adams); Durham, North Carolina (Elaine O'Neal); Cincinnati (Aftab Pureval) and Cleveland, Ohio (Justin Bibb); Arlington (Jim Ross), Fort Worth (Mattie Parker) and Plano, Texas (John Muns); and Seattle, Washington (Bruce Harrell).


title: 2021 United States elections

text: In Kansas City, Kansas, former KCKPD deputy chief Tyrone Garner narrowly defeated incumbent David Alvey in a runoff election. In Boston, Massachusetts, city councilwoman Michelle Wu was elected to succeed acting mayor Kim Janey, who came in fourth in the blanket primary. Janey was appointed to replace Marty Walsh, who resigned on March 22, 2021, to become the United States Secretary of Labor. In Rochester, New York, city councilman Malik Evans ran unopposed after defeating incumbent two-term Lovely Warren in the primary election. In Allentown, Pennsylvania, businessman Matthew Tuerk was elected to replace incumbent Ray O'Connell, who lost renomination in the Democratic primary. In Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, two-term incumbent Eric Papenfuse ran a write-in campaign after losing nomination to city council president Wanda Williams, who ultimately won the general election. In Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, state representative Ed Gainey was elected to replace two-term incumbent Bill Peduto, who lost renomination in the Democratic primary. In Cedar Rapids, Iowa, Republican Tiffany O'Donnell was elected after incumbent Republican Brad Hart failed to advance to the runoff.


title: 2021 United States elections

text: Several notable Native American tribes held elections in 2021 for tribal executives, including the Aroostook Band of Micmacs, Citizen Potawatomi Nation, Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians, Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe, and the Nisqually Indian Tribe. Tim Nuvangyaoma was reelected as chairman of the Hopi Tribe.


title: 2021 United States elections

text: The Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina elected John Lowery as chairman. In the Rosebud Sioux Tribe's elections, Vice President Scott Herman unseated Tribal President Rodney M. Bordeaux.


title: 2021 United States elections

text: In July 2021, St. Regis Mohawk Tribe voters elected Ronald LaFrance Jr. chief in a special election, ousting incumbent chief Eric Thompson. Thompson had narrowly beaten LaFrance, who ran as a write-in candidate in the regular June election, but appeals called that election into question, resulting in the special election.


title: 2021 United States elections

text: This table shows the partisan results of president, congressional, gubernatorial, and state legislative races held in each state and territory in 2021. Note that not all states and territories hold gubernatorial, state legislative, and Senate elections in 2021. The five territories and Washington, D. C., do not elect members of the Senate, and the territories do not take part in presidential elections; instead, they each elect one non-voting member of the House. Nebraska's unicameral legislature and the governorship and legislature of American Samoa are elected on a non-partisan basis, and, therefore, political party affiliation is not listed.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) is a rare but life-threatening reaction that can occur in response to neuroleptic or antipsychotic medication. Symptoms include high fever, confusion, rigid muscles, variable blood pressure, sweating, and fast heart rate. Complications may include rhabdomyolysis, high blood potassium, kidney failure, or seizures.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: Any medications within the family of neuroleptics can cause the condition, though typical antipsychotics appear to have a higher risk than atypicals, specifically first generation antipsychotics like haloperidol. Onset is often within a few weeks of starting the medication but can occur at any time. Risk factors include dehydration, agitation, and catatonia.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: Rapidly decreasing the use of levodopa or other dopamine agonists, such as pramipexole, may also trigger the condition. The underlying mechanism involves blockage of dopamine receptors. Diagnosis is based on symptoms.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: Management includes stopping the triggering medication, rapid cooling, and starting other medications. Medications used include dantrolene, bromocriptine, and diazepam. The risk of death among those affected is about 10%. Rapid diagnosis and treatment is required to improve outcomes. Many people can eventually be restarted on a lower dose of antipsychotic.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: As of 2011, among those in psychiatric hospitals on neuroleptics about 15 per 100,000 are affected per year (0.015%). In the second half of the 20th century rates were over 100 times higher at about 2% (2,000 per 100,000). Males appear to be more often affected than females. The condition was first described in 1956.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: The first symptoms of neuroleptic malignant syndrome are usually muscle cramps and tremors, fever, symptoms of autonomic nervous system instability such as unstable blood pressure, and sudden changes in mental status (agitation, delirium, or coma). Once symptoms appear, they may progress rapidly and reach peak intensity in as little as three days. These symptoms can last anywhere from eight hours to forty days.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: Symptoms are sometimes misinterpreted by doctors as symptoms of mental illness which can result in delayed treatment. NMS is less likely if a person has previously been stable for a period of time on antipsychotics, especially in situations where the dose has not been changed and there are no issues of noncompliance or consumption of psychoactive substances known to worsen psychosis.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: NMS is usually caused by antipsychotic drug use, and a wide range of drugs can result in NMS. Individuals using butyrophenones (such as haloperidol and droperidol) or phenothiazines (such as promethazine and chlorpromazine) are reported to be at greatest risk. However, various atypical antipsychotics such as clozapine, olanzapine, risperidone, quetiapine, and ziprasidone have also been implicated in cases.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: NMS may also occur in people taking dopaminergic drugs (such as levodopa) for Parkinson's disease, most often when the drug dosage is abruptly reduced. In addition, other drugs with anti-dopaminergic activity, such as the antiemetic metoclopramide, can induce NMS. Tetracyclics with anti-dopaminergic activity have been linked to NMS in case reports, such as the amoxapines. Additionally, desipramine, dothiepin, phenelzine, tetrabenazine, and reserpine have been known to trigger NMS. Whether lithium can cause NMS is unclear. However, concomitant use of lithium is associated with a higher risk of NMS when the patient starts on a neuroleptic drug e.g. anti-psychotics.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: At the molecular level, NMS is caused by a sudden, marked reduction in dopamine activity, either from withdrawal of dopaminergic agents or from blockade of dopamine receptors.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: One of the clearest risk factors in the development of NMS is the course of drug therapy chosen to treat a condition. Use of high-potency neuroleptics, a rapid increase in the dosage of neuroleptics, and use of long-acting forms of neuroleptics are all known to increase the risk of developing NMS.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: It has been purported that there is a genetic risk factor for NMS. In one study, identical twins presented with NMS, and a mother and two of her daughters have presented with NMS in another case.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: Demographically, it appears that males, especially those under forty, are at greatest risk for developing NMS, although it is unclear if the increased incidence is a result of greater neuroleptic use in men under forty. It has also been suggested that postpartum women may be at a greater risk for NMS.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: An important risk factor for this condition is Lewy body dementia. These patients are extremely sensitive to neuroleptics. As a result, neuroleptics should be used cautiously in all cases of dementia.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: It has been proposed that blockade of D2-like (D2, D3 and D4) receptors induce massive glutamate release, generating catatonia, neurotoxicity and myotoxicity. Additionally, the blockade of diverse serotonin receptors by atypical antipsychotics and activation of 5HT1 receptors by certain of them reduces GABA release and indirectly induces glutamate release, worsening this syndrome.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: The muscular symptoms are most likely caused by blockade of the dopamine receptor D, leading to abnormal function of the basal ganglia similar to that seen in Parkinson's disease.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: In the past, research and clinical studies seemed to corroborate the D receptor blockade theory in which antipsychotic drugs were thought to significantly reduce dopamine activity by blocking the D receptors associated with this neurotransmitter. The introduction of atypical antipsychotic drugs, with lower affinity to the D dopamine receptors, was thought to have reduced the incidence of NMS. However, recent studies suggest that the decrease in mortality may be the result of increased physician awareness and earlier initiation of treatment rather than the action of the drugs themselves. NMS induced by atypical drugs also resembles "classical" NMS (induced by "typical" antipsychotic drugs), further casting doubt on the overall superiority of these drugs.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: However, the failure of D dopamine receptor antagonism, or dopamine receptor dysfunction, do not fully explain the presenting symptoms and signs of NMS, as well as the occurrence of NMS with atypical antipsychotic drugs with lower D dopamine activity. This has led to the hypothesis of sympathoadrenal hyperactivity (results from removing tonic inhibition from the sympathetic nervous system) as a mechanism for NMS. Release of calcium is increased from the sarcoplasmic reticulum with antipsychotic usage. This can result in increased muscle contractility, which can play a role in the breakdown of muscle, muscle rigidity, and hyperthermia. Some antipsychotic drugs, such as typical neuroleptics, are known to block dopamine receptors; other studies have shown that when drugs supplying dopamine are withdrawn, symptoms similar to NMS present themselves.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: In support of the sympathoadrenal hyperactivity model, it has been hypothesized that a defect in calcium regulatory proteins within the sympathetic neurons may bring about the onset of NMS. This model of NMS strengthens its suspected association with malignant hyperthermia in which NMS may be regarded as a neurogenic form of this condition which itself is linked to defective calcium-related proteins.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: There is also thought to be considerable overlap between malignant catatonia and NMS in their pathophysiology, the former being idiopathic and the latter being the drug-induced form of the same syndrome.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: The raised white blood cell count and creatine phosphokinase (CPK) plasma concentration seen in those with NMS is due to increased muscular activity and rhabdomyolysis (destruction of muscle tissue). The patient may experience hypertensive crisis and metabolic acidosis. A non-generalized slowing on an EEG is reported in around 50% of cases.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: The fever seen with NMS is believed to be caused by hypothalamic dopamine receptor blockade. The peripheral problems (the high white blood cell and CPK count) are caused by the antipsychotic drugs. They cause an increased calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells which can result in rigidity and eventual cell breakdown. No major studies have reported an explanation for the abnormal EEG, but it is likely also attributable to dopamine blockage leading to changes in neuronal pathways.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: Differentiating NMS from other neurological disorders can be very difficult. It requires expert judgement to separate symptoms of NMS from other diseases. Some of the most commonly mistaken diseases are encephalitis, toxic encephalopathy, status epilepticus, heat stroke, catatonia and malignant hyperthermia. Due to the comparative rarity of NMS, it is often overlooked and immediate treatment for the syndrome is delayed. Drugs such as cocaine and amphetamine may also produce similar symptoms.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: The differential diagnosis is similar to that of hyperthermia, and includes serotonin syndrome. Features which distinguish NMS from serotonin syndrome include bradykinesia, muscle rigidity, and a high white blood cell count.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: NMS is a medical emergency and can lead to death if untreated. The first step is to stop the antipsychotic medication and treat the hyperthermia aggressively, such as with cooling blankets or ice packs to the axillae and groin. Supportive care in an intensive care unit capable of circulatory and ventilatory support is crucial. The best pharmacological treatment is still unclear. Dantrolene has been used when needed to reduce muscle rigidity, and more recently dopamine pathway medications such as bromocriptine have shown benefit.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: Apomorphine may be used however its use is supported by little evidence. Benzodiazepines may be used to control agitation. Highly elevated blood myoglobin levels can result in kidney damage, therefore aggressive intravenous hydration with diuresis may be required. When recognized early NMS can be successfully managed; however, up to 10% of cases can be fatal.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: Should the affected person subsequently require an antipsychotic, trialing a low dose of a low-potency atypical antipsychotic is recommended.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: The prognosis is best when identified early and treated aggressively. In these cases NMS is not usually fatal. In earlier studies the mortality rates from NMS ranged from 20%–38%, but by 2009 mortality rates were reported to have fallen below 10% over the previous two decades due to early recognition and improved management. Re-introduction to the drug that originally caused NMS to develop may also trigger a recurrence, although in most cases it does not.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: Memory impairment is a consistent feature of recovery from NMS, and is usually temporary though in some cases may become persistent.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: Pooled data suggest the incidence of NMS is between 0.2%–3.23%. However, greater physician awareness coupled with increased use of atypical anti-psychotics have likely reduced the prevalence of NMS. Additionally, young males are particularly susceptible and the male:female ratio has been reported to be as high as 2:1.


title: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

text: NMS was known about as early as 1956, shortly after the introduction of the first phenothiazines. NMS was first described in 1960 by French clinicians who had been working on a study involving haloperidol. They characterized the condition that was associated with the side effects of haloperidol ""syndrome malin des neuroleptiques"", which was translated to neuroleptic malignant syndrome.


title: John Vernou Bouvier III

text: John Vernou "Black Jack" Bouvier III ( ; May 19, 1891 – August 3, 1957) was an American Wall Street stockbroker and socialite. He was the father of First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis and of socialite Lee Radziwill, and was the father-in-law of John F. Kennedy.


title: John Vernou Bouvier III

text: John Vernou Bouvier III was born in Manhattan in 1891. His nickname, "Black Jack", referred to his flamboyant lifestyle.


title: John Vernou Bouvier III

text: Bouvier's great-grandfather, Michel Charles Bouvier (1792-1874), was a French cabinetmaker from Pont-Saint-Esprit, Provence. Michel emigrated to Philadelphia in 1815 after fighting in the Napoleonic Wars, worked for Joseph Bonaparte, married, was widowed, and then married Louise Clifford Vernou (1811-1872).


title: John Vernou Bouvier III

text: In addition to crafting fine furniture, Michel Bouvier had a business distributing firewood. To support that business, he acquired large tracts of forested land, some of which contained a large reserve of coal. Michel further grew his fortune in real estate speculation. His sons, Eustes, Michel Charles (M.C.), and John V. Bouvier Sr., distinguished themselves in the world of finance on Wall Street. They left their fortunes to their only remaining male Bouvier heir, Major John Vernou Bouvier Jr. (1866-1948), who used some of the money to buy an estate known as Lasata in East Hampton, Long Island.


title: John Vernou Bouvier III

text: Major John Vernou Bouvier, Jr., a successful attorney, and Maude Frances Sergeant (1869-1940) had five children, of whom John Vernou Bouvier III was the eldest. Their other children were William Sergeant "Bud" Bouvier, who was born in 1893 and died from alcoholism in 1929; Edith Ewing Bouvier Beale, who was born in 1895 and became the wife of Phelan Beale, Sr. and the mother of Edith Bouvier Beale, Phelan Beale, Jr., and Bouvier Beale; and twins Maude Reppelin Bouvier Davis and Michelle Caroline Bouvier Scott Putnam (born 1905).


title: John Vernou Bouvier III

text: John Vernou Bouvier III attended Philips Exeter Academy and Columbia Grammar & Preparatory School. He then studied at Columbia College, his father's alma mater, where he played tennis for two years before transferring to the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale University. While attending Yale, he was a member of the Book and Snake secret society and the Cloister Club. He graduated in 1914.


title: John Vernou Bouvier III

text: Upon his graduation, he went to work as a stockbroker at his father and uncle's firm: Bouvier, Bouvier & Bouvier. In 1917, he left the firm to join the United States Navy. When the Navy proved to be too strenuous , he transferred to the United States Army, where he served as a major. His 1920 engagement announcement stated he had served in the Army Air Service. Bouvier was discharged in 1919, whereupon he went back to work as a stockbroker on Wall Street.


title: John Vernou Bouvier III

text: On April 7, 1920, the New York "Sun" published an engagement announcement for Bouvier and Miss Eleanor Carroll Daingerfield Carter, of Baltimore. The announcement stated she was a descendant of Reverdy Johnson. The engagement was later called off.


title: John Vernou Bouvier III

text: Bouvier later married Janet Norton Lee, a daughter of real estate developer James T. Lee, on July 7, 1928, at St. Philomena's Church in East Hampton. They had two daughters, Jacqueline Lee "Jackie" Bouvier (1929–1994) and Caroline Lee Bouvier (1933–2019). Bouvier's drinking, gambling, and philandering led to the couple's divorce in June 1940. Bouvier never remarried.


title: John Vernou Bouvier III

text: In June 1942, Janet Lee Bouvier married Hugh Dudley Auchincloss, Jr. Janet reportedly did not want her ex-husband to escort his daughter, Jacqueline, down the aisle for her 1953 wedding to John F. Kennedy as he had done at the wedding of his other daughter Lee's wedding the previous year, so Jacqueline was instead escorted by her step-father. However, some reports indicated Bouvier was too intoxicated to escort his daughter, leading Auchincloss to step in to give the bride away.


title: John Vernou Bouvier III

text: By the mid-1950s, Bouvier had sporadic contact with his daughters and family. He spent the majority of his time drinking alone at his New York City apartment located at 125 East 74th Street.


title: John Vernou Bouvier III

text: In the spring of 1957, Bouvier was diagnosed with terminal liver cancer. He checked into Lenox Hill Hospital on July 27, 1957 to undergo chemotherapy. On August 1, he fell into a coma. He died two days later, on August 3, aged 66. His funeral, which was arranged by his daughters Jacqueline and Lee, was held at St. Patrick's Cathedral in Manhattan after which his body was buried in the Bouvier family plot at Most Holy Trinity Catholic Cemetery in East Hampton, New York.


title: John Vernou Bouvier III

text: Bouvier is thought to be the "Wall Street Jack" mentioned in the lyrics of "Forty Second Street", from the musical "42nd Street".


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: Project Orion was a study conducted between the 1950s and 1960s by the United States Air Force, DARPA, and NASA for the purpose of identifying the efficacy of a starship directly propelled by a series of explosions of atomic bombs behind the craft—nuclear pulse propulsion. Early versions of this vehicle were proposed to take off from the ground; later versions were presented for use only in space. Six non-nuclear tests were conducted using models. The project was eventually abandoned for multiple reasons, including the Partial Test Ban Treaty, which banned nuclear explosions in space, and concerns over nuclear fallout.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: The idea of rocket propulsion by combustion of explosive substance was first proposed by Russian explosives expert Nikolai Kibalchich in 1881, and in 1891 similar ideas were developed independently by German engineer Hermann Ganswindt. Robert A. Heinlein mentions powering spaceships with nuclear bombs in his 1940 short story "Blowups Happen". Real life proposals of nuclear propulsion were first made by Stanislaw Ulam in 1946, and preliminary calculations were made by F. Reines and Ulam in a Los Alamos memorandum dated 1947. The actual project, initiated in 1958, was led by Ted Taylor at General Atomics and physicist Freeman Dyson, who at Taylor's request took a year away from the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton to work on the project.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: The Orion concept offered high thrust and high specific impulse, or propellant efficiency, at the same time. The unprecedented extreme power requirements for doing so would be met by nuclear explosions, of such power relative to the vehicle's mass as to be survived only by using external detonations without attempting to contain them in internal structures. As a qualitative comparison, traditional chemical rockets—such as the Saturn V that took the Apollo program to the Moon—produce high thrust with low specific impulse, whereas electric ion engines produce a small amount of thrust very efficiently. Orion would have offered performance greater than the most advanced conventional or nuclear rocket engines then under consideration. Supporters of Project Orion felt that it had potential for cheap interplanetary travel, but it lost political approval over concerns about fallout from its propulsion.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: The Partial Test Ban Treaty of 1963 is generally acknowledged to have ended the project. However, from Project Longshot to Project Daedalus, Mini-Mag Orion, and other proposals which reach engineering analysis at the level of considering thermal power dissipation, the principle of external nuclear pulse propulsion to maximize survivable power has remained common among serious concepts for interstellar flight without external power beaming and for very high-performance interplanetary flight. Such later proposals have tended to modify the basic principle by envisioning equipment driving detonation of much smaller fission or fusion pellets, in contrast to Project Orion's larger nuclear pulse units (full nuclear bombs) based on less speculative technology.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: The Orion nuclear pulse drive combines a very high exhaust velocity, from 19 to 31 km/s (12 to 19 mi/s) in typical interplanetary designs, with meganewtons of thrust. Many spacecraft propulsion drives can achieve one of these or the other, but nuclear pulse rockets are the only proposed technology that could potentially meet the extreme power requirements to deliver both at once (see spacecraft propulsion for more speculative systems).


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: Specific impulse ("I") measures how much thrust can be derived from a given mass of fuel, and is a standard figure of merit for rocketry. For any rocket propulsion, since the kinetic energy of exhaust goes up with velocity squared (kinetic energy = ½ mv), whereas the momentum and thrust go up with velocity linearly (momentum = mv), obtaining a particular level of thrust (as in a number of g acceleration) requires far more power each time that exhaust velocity and "I" are much increased in a design goal. (For instance, the most fundamental reason that current and proposed electric propulsion systems of high "I" tend to be low thrust is due to their limits on available power. Their thrust is actually inversely proportional to "I" if power going into exhaust is constant or at its limit from heat dissipation needs or other engineering constraints.) The Orion concept detonates nuclear explosions externally at a rate of power release which is beyond what nuclear reactors could survive internally with known materials and design.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: Since weight is no limitation, an Orion craft can be extremely robust. An uncrewed craft could tolerate very large accelerations, perhaps 100 "g". A human-crewed Orion, however, must use some sort of damping system behind the pusher plate to smooth the near instantaneous acceleration to a level that humans can comfortably withstand – typically about 2 to 4 "g".


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: The high performance depends on the high exhaust velocity, in order to maximize the rocket's force for a given mass of propellant. The velocity of the plasma debris is proportional to the square root of the change in the temperature ("T") of the nuclear fireball. Since such fireballs typically achieve ten million degrees Celsius or more in less than a millisecond, they create very high velocities. However, a practical design must also limit the destructive radius of the fireball. The diameter of the nuclear fireball is proportional to the square root of the bomb's explosive yield.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: The shape of the bomb's reaction mass is critical to efficiency. The original project designed bombs with a reaction mass made of tungsten. The bomb's geometry and materials focused the X-rays and plasma from the core of nuclear explosive to hit the reaction mass. In effect each bomb would be a nuclear shaped charge.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: A bomb with a cylinder of reaction mass expands into a flat, disk-shaped wave of plasma when it explodes. A bomb with a disk-shaped reaction mass expands into a far more efficient cigar-shaped wave of plasma debris. The cigar shape focuses much of the plasma to impinge onto the pusher-plate. For greatest mission efficiency the rocket equation demands that the greatest fraction of the bomb's explosive force be directed at the spacecraft, rather than being spent isotropically.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: where "C" is the collimation factor (what fraction of the explosion plasma debris will actually hit the impulse absorber plate when a pulse unit explodes), "V" is the nuclear pulse unit plasma debris velocity, and "g" is the standard acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s; this factor is not necessary if "I" is measured in N·s/kg or m/s). A collimation factor of nearly 0.5 can be achieved by matching the diameter of the pusher plate to the diameter of the nuclear fireball created by the explosion of a nuclear pulse unit.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: The smaller the bomb, the smaller each impulse will be, so the higher the rate of impulses and more than will be needed to achieve orbit. Smaller impulses also mean less "g" shock on the pusher plate and less need for damping to smooth out the acceleration.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: The optimal Orion drive bomblet yield (for the human crewed 4,000 ton reference design) was calculated to be in the region of 0.15 kt, with approx 800 bombs needed to orbit and a bomb rate of approx 1 per second.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: The following can be found in George Dyson's book. The figures for the comparison with Saturn V are taken from this section and converted from metric (kg) to US short tons (abbreviated "t" here).


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: In late 1958 to early 1959, it was realized that the smallest practical vehicle would be determined by the smallest achievable bomb yield. The use of 0.03 kt (sea-level yield) bombs would give vehicle mass of 880 tons. However, this was regarded as too small for anything other than an orbital test vehicle and the team soon focused on a 4,000 ton "base design".


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: At that time, the details of small bomb designs were shrouded in secrecy. Many Orion design reports had all details of bombs removed before release. Contrast the above details with the 1959 report by General Atomics, which explored the parameters of three different sizes of hypothetical Orion spacecraft:


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: The biggest design above is the "super" Orion design; at 8 million tonnes, it could easily be a city. In interviews, the designers contemplated the large ship as a possible interstellar ark. This extreme design could be built with materials and techniques that could be obtained in 1958 or were anticipated to be available shortly after.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: Most of the three thousand tonnes of each of the "super" Orion's propulsion units would be inert material such as polyethylene, or boron salts, used to transmit the force of the propulsion units detonation to the Orion's pusher plate, and absorb neutrons to minimize fallout. One design proposed by Freeman Dyson for the "Super Orion" called for the pusher plate to be composed primarily of uranium or a transuranic element so that upon reaching a nearby star system the plate could be converted to nuclear fuel.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: The Orion nuclear pulse rocket design has extremely high performance. Orion nuclear pulse rockets using nuclear fission type pulse units were originally intended for use on interplanetary space flights.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: Missions that were designed for an Orion vehicle in the original project included single stage (i.e., directly from Earth's surface) to Mars and back, and a trip to one of the moons of Saturn.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: Freeman Dyson performed the first analysis of what kinds of Orion missions were possible to reach Alpha Centauri, the nearest star system to the Sun. His 1968 paper "Interstellar Transport" ("Physics Today", October 1968, pp. 41–45) retained the concept of large nuclear explosions but Dyson moved away from the use of fission bombs and considered the use of one megaton deuterium fusion explosions instead. His conclusions were simple: the debris velocity of fusion explosions was probably in the 3000–30,000 km/s range and the reflecting geometry of Orion's hemispherical pusher plate would reduce that range to 750–15,000 km/s.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: To estimate the upper and lower limits of what could be done using contemporary technology (in 1968), Dyson considered two starship designs. The more conservative "energy limited" pusher plate design simply had to absorb all the thermal energy of each impinging explosion (4×10 joules, half of which would be absorbed by the pusher plate) without melting. Dyson estimated that if the exposed surface consisted of copper with a thickness of 1 mm, then the diameter and mass of the hemispherical pusher plate would have to be 20 kilometers and 5 million tonnes, respectively. 100 seconds would be required to allow the copper to radiatively cool before the next explosion. It would then take on the order of 1000 years for the energy-limited heat sink Orion design to reach Alpha Centauri.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: In order to improve on this performance while reducing size and cost, Dyson also considered an alternative "momentum limited" pusher plate design where an ablation coating of the exposed surface is substituted to get rid of the excess heat. The limitation is then set by the capacity of shock absorbers to transfer momentum from the impulsively accelerated pusher plate to the smoothly accelerated vehicle. Dyson calculated that the properties of available materials limited the velocity transferred by each explosion to ~30 meters per second independent of the size and nature of the explosion. If the vehicle is to be accelerated at 1 Earth gravity (9.81 m/s) with this velocity transfer, then the pulse rate is one explosion every three seconds. The dimensions and performance of Dyson's vehicles are given in the following table:


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: Later studies indicate that the top cruise velocity that can theoretically be achieved are a few percent of the speed of light (0.08–0.1c). An atomic (fission) Orion can achieve perhaps 9%–11% of the speed of light. A nuclear pulse drive starship powered by fusion-antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion units would be similarly in the 10% range and pure Matter-antimatter annihilation rockets would be theoretically capable of obtaining a velocity between 50% to 80% of the speed of light. In each case saving fuel for slowing down halves the maximum speed. The concept of using a magnetic sail to decelerate the spacecraft as it approaches its destination has been discussed as an alternative to using propellant; this would allow the ship to travel near the maximum theoretical velocity.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: At 0.1"c", Orion thermonuclear starships would require a flight time of at least 44 years to reach Alpha Centauri, not counting time needed to reach that speed (about 36 days at constant acceleration of 1"g" or 9.8 m/s). At 0.1"c", an Orion starship would require 100 years to travel 10 light years. The astronomer Carl Sagan suggested that this would be an excellent use for current stockpiles of nuclear weapons.


title: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)

text: As part of the development of Project Orion, to garner funding from the military, a derived "space battleship" space-based nuclear-blast-hardened nuclear-missile weapons platform was mooted in the 1960s by the United States Air Force. It would comprise the USAF "Deep Space Bombardment Force".