title: Mactan–Cebu International Airport

text: Occupying an area of , the terminal has four check-in halls with 48 check-in counters in the departures area, seven jet bridges, 12 escalators, 15 elevators, duty-free shops, and a departure lobby.


title: Mactan–Cebu International Airport

text: The airport has a single runway with a width of that was built by the United States in 1956 as an emergency airport for U.S. Air Forces' Strategic Air Command bombers and was known as Mactan Air Base. The runway is complemented by a full-length taxiway that it shares with the current Mactan Air Base of the Philippine Air Force.


title: Mactan–Cebu International Airport

text: A second runway is being constructed since January 2020. It would be long and wide. The runway is estimated to be completed in December and will fully operate in 2023. The runway will be used for landings and takeoff's and it can also serve as an emergency runway in case of major situations in the main runway.


title: Mactan–Cebu International Airport

text: The airport has other government buildings like the two-level CAAP Administration Building and the six-level MCIAA Corporate Building, both located within the airport complex. The parking area outside the terminals has a total capacity of 750 cars.


title: Maersk Line

text: Maersk Line or Maersk SeaLand is a Danish international container shipping company and the largest operating subsidiary of the Maersk Group, a Danish business conglomerate. Founded in 1928, it is the world's largest container shipping company by both fleet size and cargo capacity, offering regular services to 374 ports in 116 countries. In 2019, it employed 83,625 people where 18,398 of which are vessel crew and the other 65,227 are processing and operations personnel in offices and ports. Maersk Line operates over 708 vessels and has a total capacity of about 4.1 million TEU.


title: Maersk Line

text: At the beginning of the 1920s, A.P. Moller considered possibilities of going into liner trade business. The tramp trade, where vessels sailed from port to port depending on the demand, was expected to lose ground to liners in time. On 12 July 1928, the vessel "Leise Mærsk" left Baltimore on its first voyage from the American East Coast via the Panama Canal to the Far East and back. The cargo consisted of Ford car parts and other general cargo. This heralded the start of Maersk's shipping services. Maersk Line began to grow in 1946 after the Second World War by transporting goods between America and Europe before expanding services in 1950. On 26 April 1956, ocean-borne container transport was introduced with the shipment of a SeaLand container aboard the SS Ideal X from Port Newark, New Jersey, to Houston, Texas. In 1967, British carrier P&O was part of the first European initiative, a pooling of liner services from four companies, into the new company Overseas Containers Limited (OCL). Both Sea-land and P&O would later be taken over by Maersk Line as it expanded operations between 1999 and 2005.


title: Maersk Line

text: In 1999, Maersk entered into an agreement on acquisition of Safmarine Container Lines (SCL) and its related liner activities from South African Marine Corporation Limited (Safmarine). At the time of acquisition, Safmarine Container Lines operated approximately 50 liner vessels and a fleet of about 80,000 containers. It covered a total of ten trades and fully complemented Maersk Line's existing network. Safmarine Container Lines joined the A.P. Moller – Maersk Group as an independent unit with its own liner activities.


title: Maersk Line

text: On 10 December 1999, the A.P. Moller Group acquired the international container business of SeaLand Service Inc. The business was integrated with the A.P. Moller Group companies and as part of the integration, Maersk Line changed its name to Maersk Sealand. The acquisition comprised 70 vessels, almost 200,000 containers as well as terminals, offices and agencies around the world.


title: Maersk Line

text: In May 2005 Maersk announced plans to purchase P&O Nedlloyd for 2.3 billion euros. At the time of the acquisition, P&O Nedlloyd had 6% of the global industry market share, and Maersk-Sealand had 12%. The combined company would be about 18% of world market share. Maersk completed the buyout of the company on 13 August 2005, Royal P&O Nedlloyd shares terminated trading on 5 September. In February 2006, the new combined entity adopted the name Maersk Line"."


title: Maersk Line

text: At the time the company was folded into A.P. Moller, it owned and chartered a fleet of over 160 vessels. Its container fleet, consisting of owned and leased vessels, had a capacity of . Royal P&O Nedlloyd N.V. had 13,000 employees in 146 countries.


title: Maersk Line

text: By the end of 2006, Maersk global market share had fallen from 18.2% to 16.8%, at the same time, the next two largest carriers increased their market share, MSC went from 8.6% to 9.5% and CMA CGM from 5.6% to 6.5%. In January 2008, Maersk Line announced drastic reorganisational measures.


title: Maersk Line

text: In November 2015, after lower than expected results, Maersk Line announced its decision to lay off 4000 employees by 2017. The group said it would cut its annual administration costs by $250 million over the next two years and would cancel 35 scheduled voyages in the fourth quarter of 2015 on top of four regularly scheduled sailings it canceled earlier in the year.


title: Maersk Line

text: As of October 2015, Maersk Line along with its subsidiaries such as Seago, MCC, Safmarine and SeaLand, control a combined 18% share of the total container shipping market.


title: Maersk Line

text: In March 2021, Maersk announced that is aiming to have the world's first carbon neutral liner vessel launched in 2023, seven years ahead of its original schedule. In August of that year, the company purchased eight methanol powered shipping vessels for $1.4 billion from Hyundai Heavy Industries.


title: Maersk Line

text: In 2015, Maersk and Mediterranean Shipping Co. (MSC) launched the 2M Alliance, a vessel-sharing agreement on the Asia-Europe, trans-Pacific and trans-Atlantic trades. The arrangement, which includes a series of slot exchanges and slot purchases on east–west routes, also involves Maersk Line and MSC taking over a number of charters and operations of vessels chartered to HMM. The 2M Alliance include 185 vessels with an estimated capacity of 2.1 million TEU, deployed on 21 strings.


title: Maersk Line

text: In 2011–12, Maersk Line cooperated with the US Navy on testing between 7 and 100% algae biofuel on "Maersk Kalmar". From 2007 to 2014, and mainly due to slow steaming, Maersk Line reduced its CO emissions by 40% or 11 million tonnes, about the same reduction as the rest of Denmark.


title: Maersk Line

text: Maersk set a goal in December 2018 to be carbon neutral by 2050. In 2017, the company's ships emitted 35.5 million tonnes of CO2e, and it hopes to eliminate that by using biofuels to power its fleet. In 2022, Maersk ordered 12 dual-fuel container ships from Hyundai by 2025, capable of sailing on both fossil bunker fuel and methanol.


title: Maersk Line

text: Maersk Line is best known for its vast coverage across the globe. Other than its main trade lanes of Asia-Europe and Trans-Atlantic trades, Maersk Line also offers extensive coverage between South America and Europe as well as to Africa. The company also pioneered the innovative concept of Daily Maersk in 2011 which provided a premium guaranteed service between supply ports of China and European base ports. Despite support from the trade, Maersk Line was forced to cut down services due to oversupply. Recent restructuring of its products have included upgrades to their Asia to Australia, India to West Africa, and China to America routes.


title: Maersk Line

text: Other than those main trade routes, Maersk Line also operates many continental trade lines. It operates in its Intra-Asia route through MCC Transport, its European route through Seago Lines, and recently re-launched the famous SeaLand Service brand for its American trade lanes.


title: Maersk Line

text: As of July 2011, the Maersk Line fleet comprises more than 700 vessels (with Hamburg Süd and Safmarine combined) and a multitude of containers corresponding to more than 3.8 million TEU (twenty-foot equivalent unit)


title: Maersk Line

text: In 2006, the E-class vessel "Emma Maersk", was delivered to Maersk Line from Odense Steel Shipyard. It was by far, the largest container ship in the world at the time.


title: Maersk Line

text: Seven other sister ships have since been built, and in 2011, Maersk ordered 20 even larger container ships from Daewoo, the Triple E class, each with a capacity of 18,000 containers. The first of these Triple E Class ships was delivered on June 14, 2013, and was christened with the name "Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller" after the son of the founder of the Maersk Line.


title: Maersk Line

text: This 3,330-ton, 314-foot freighter was built in 1938 at Fredrikstad, Norway. She was commissioned as a naval transport for the Royal Hellenic Navy through the Hellenic Maritime Commission in London on 27 November 1940. Used as a support ship for the armored cruiser "Giorgios Averoff" in 1942-44, "Marit Maersk" was returned to her owners on 14 November 1945. In 1954 she was sold to Greek owners and renamed "Belgium".


title: Maersk Line

text: In March and May 1996, three stowaways were murdered on when they were forced off the ship by the captain upon discovery. A fourth stowaway was hidden by some members of the crew and survived.


title: Maersk Line

text: On 8 April 2009, the container ship "Maersk Alabama" was seized by pirates in the Indian Ocean at a distance of 240 nautical miles (440 km; 280 mi) southeast of Eyl, Somalia. The siege ended after a rescue effort by the United States Navy on 12 April.


title: Maersk Line

text: On 1 February 2013, the container ship "Emma Maersk" suffered a damaged stern thruster and took on so much water in the Suez Canal that she became unmaneuverable. Tugs, anchors and the wind took her to Port Said to offload 13,500 containers, drain her and be investigated by divers. She had not been in danger of sinking.


title: Maersk Line

text: On 15 February 2013, the Maersk Line confirmed that she was about to leave Port Said under tow to a yard for further assessment and repair. On 25 February she reached the yard of Palermo, Sicily, where she was scheduled to stay for four months. The flooded engine was disassembled, repaired and assembled, and in August 2013, she was in service again after a DKK 250 million (roughly US$44.5m) repair.


title: Maersk Line

text: On 6 March 2018 a major fire broke out in the No.3 forward cargo hold of "Maersk Honam" while the vessel was in the Arabian Sea about 900 nautical miles (1,700 km; 1,000 mi) southeast of Salalah, Oman, en route from Singapore to Suez. It took more than 3 days to get the fire under control and the ship continued to burn for several more weeks. The ship was salvaged and the damaged parts of the vessel were rebuilt. The ship was renamed "Maersk Halifax" before entering into service again.


title: Maersk Line

text: On 21 December 2021, the container ship "Maersk Roubaix" suffered from engine issues and became adrift in the Mediterranean 370 kilometres from Malta, while it was en route to the port of Algeciras in Spain. A tugboat was dispatched to assist.


title: Maersk Line

text: On on 2 February 2022, container ship "Mumbai Maersk" run aground near the Port of Bremerhaven in Germany. A first attempt to tow the container ship into deeper water two multi-purpose vessels and five tugboats failed. On 4 February, the ship was refloated with the help of eight tugboats. A vessel assessment was done when she arrived at the Port of Bremerhaven.


title: Júlio César (football goalkeeper, born 1979)

text: Júlio César Soares de Espíndola (born 3 September 1979), known as Júlio César (), is a Brazilian former professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper.


text: Júlio César spent seven years at Italian club Inter Milan, with whom they won five "Scudetti", the 2009–10 UEFA Champions League, and the 2010 FIFA Club World Cup. He was awarded the Serie A Goalkeeper of the Year title in both 2009 and 2010, and was nominated for the 2009 Ballon d'Or, where he was voted into 21st place. He was also named UEFA Club Goalkeeper of the Year after the 2009–10 season and won the Golden Glove award at the 2013 Confederations Cup.


text: César won 87 international caps for Brazil. He was selected for the 2006, 2010 and 2014 FIFA World Cups, and two Copa América tournaments.


text: Júlio César began his professional career with Clube de Regatas do Flamengo in 1997. He made his debut that year on 17 May in a match versus Fluminense where he saved a penalty kick which was not enough as the team lost 2–0. From 1997 to 2000, he served as Clemer understudy, only taking his spot during Copa João Havelange, showing good skills on goal.


text: Júlio César's performances on goal also earned him the first call-up to the Brazil senior squad in 2002, also helping Flamengo to escape relegation in several times in 2001, 2002 and 2004. His best match for the team was the second match of 2001 Campeonato Carioca final against Vasco da Gama, making several great saves. Following the match, while still on the dressing room, he interrupted a live interview of Beto to make a provocation to Vasco da Gama president Eurico Miranda, who, according to him, had already reserved the party at Basque.


text: In 2003, Júlio César become embroiled in a controversy during the loss to Fluminense. With Flamengo already trailing 4–0, César, after making a save, dropped the ball on the ground and begun playing with the feet, dribbling several players until the ball was taken by Zé Carlos. This attitude was heavily criticized by then coach of the team, Evaristo de Macedo, who called him an "idiot". According to César, he did this because he was desperate and was feeling helpless, stating: "Fluminense was giving us the runaround and I wanted to help my teammates, who were going through a difficult situation. I overdid it because I was sad and hurt, but I already apologized on Saturday."


text: He left the club at the beginning of 2005, having made 285 appearances for the club in all competitions. He was the third goalkeeper with most appearances for the club, behind only Cantarele (557) and Zé Carlos (352).


text: In January 2005, he moved to Italian Serie A club Chievo. Due to Serie A regulations that impose a cap on the number of non-EU players clubs can sign from abroad, Júlio César could not join Inter Milan at the time and was initially registered to Chievo through a deal between the two clubs.


text: In July 2005, following a deal between Chievo and Inter, Júlio César officially signed a three-year contract with Inter. The deal cost Inter €2.45 million.


text: Júlio César was given squad number 12, and made his official debut on 10 August in the first leg of 2005–06 UEFA Champions League third qualifying round versus Shakhtar Donetsk, keeping a clean-sheet in the 2–0 win at RSC Olimpiyskiy. His first title with the club came to him when he was benched at the Supercoppa Italiana against Juventus. César made his Serie A debut on 28 August in the season opener against Treviso, making a good overall performance and keeping a clean-sheet as the match was won 3–0. On 24 November, during a Champions League group stage match against Petržalka, Júlio César played in a line-up of 11 foreign players on the pitch; Luís Figo was the only european.


text: Júlio César finished his first season with "Nerazzurri" by making 40 appearances in all competitions, as Inter won the championship following the relegation of Juventus due to match-fixing, and also conquered Coppa Italia by defeating Roma 4–2 on aggregate, with César playing on both finals. Inter thus completed the domestic treble. His performances were noted during his first season, as he was distinguished for saving penalties and making great saves, which made Francesco Toldo lose his place as starting keeper after four seasons.


text: The 2006–07 season was even more successful for Júlio César and Inter, as the player and the team set several records in the league. He played 32 matches as the championship ended in conquest, with Inter winning it for the 15th time in history. He kept 12 clean-sheets and conceded 30 goals, with Inter losing only once; they won the title with 5 games to spare, and collected 97 points and setting a record for most consecutive matches without defeat, 31.


text: Júlio César begun 2007–08 season by receiving a red card, his first in Inter colours, in a 1–1 draw versus Udinese in the opening week of championship. He kept three clean-sheets in the Champions League group stage to help Inter finish top of Group G. He finished the season by winning another championship, contributing with a clean-sheet in the decisive last match against Parma. By keeping 17 clean-sheets in 35 Serie A matches, Júlio César set a personal record in terms of clean sheets, with a 53 percent average. In the Champions League, he made 8 appearances, but the team was eliminated in the round of 16 by Liverpool.


text: Júlio César commenced his 4th Inter season on 24 August 2008 by playing in the Supercoppa Italiana match against Roma; the regular and extra-time ended in a 2–2 draw. In the penalty shoot-out, he stopped the attempt of his Brazil teammate Juan which paved Inter's way to victory as the "Nerazzurri" won 8–7. One month later, he made his 100th Serie A appearance as Inter won 1–0 versus Lecce in the 2008–09 Serie A week 4. Inter finished the championship again in the first place with 84 points, 10 more than the second place Juventus, with Júlio César contributing with 17 clean-sheets in 36 matches, equaling his personal best set the previous season.


text: In July 2009, Júlio César was chosen by "ESPN Brasil" as the best player of the 2008–09 season. He also received the "Prêmio Futebol no Mundo" (Football in the World Award), designated to the best Brazilian footballer playing outside Brazil in that season.


text: Júlio César was one of the main protagonists during the 2009–10 season, where he played 54 matches in all competitions. In November 2009, he signed a contract with Inter which would last until 2014, adding two more years to his contract. On 1 December, Júlio César finished 21st in the 2009 Ballon d'Or ranking. Later on 24 January 2010, in the Derby della Madonnina versus Milan, he kept his goal intact by saving a penalty of his international teammate Ronaldinho as Inter won 2–0 with 9 players to increase their league lead. Júlio César then was involved in a car accident just two days before the first leg of 2009–10 UEFA Champions League round of 16 against Chelsea which left him bruised and nursing lacerations to his face. He was, however, able to start the game and despite conceding in the second half made a decent overall performance as Inter won the first leg 2–1. Júlio César was vital also in team's Coppa Italia campaign where he kept two clean-sheets in the semi-final tie against Fiorentina which sent Inter to the final 2–0 on aggregate. He also was on top of his game in the semi-final tie of Champions League versus Barcelona, saving several shots, including one in the second leg against Lionel Messi that was dubbed as "career defining" by Júlio César himself. Inter won 3–2 on aggregate to reach the final for the first time since 1972. He won his first trophy of the season on 5 May by making an excellent performance against Roma as Inter won 1–0 to claim the Coppa Italia trophy. Eleven days later, Júlio César won his fifth consecutive "Scudetto" as Inter won at Siena to finish the championship two points ahead of Roma. On 22 May in the Champions League final against Bayern Munich, he made another splendid performance, making vital saves against Thomas Müller and Arjen Robben as Inter won 2–0 thanks to the brace of Diego Milito, winning their first European title in 45 years. By winning Serie A, Coppa Italia and UEFA Champions League, Inter became the first Italian club to win the treble. His performances in league, where he was ever-present and kept 17 clean-sheets earned him Serie A Goalkeeper of the Year award for the second consecutive year, also becoming only the third goalkeeper to win it more than once. For his performances in the Champions League, he won the award UEFA Club Goalkeeper of the Year. His impressive form for Inter earned him praise from former Inter and Italy goalkeeper Gianluca Pagliuca, who stated his belief that Júlio César was the best goalkeeper in the world.


text: Ahead of the new season, César changed his squad number from 12 to 1, which was vacated by the retired Francesco Toldo. His old squad number became part of newcomer Luca Castellazzi. On 21 August 2010, he won his 4th Supercoppa Italiana trophy; Inter faced Roma in a 3–1 comeback win at San Siro. In November 2010, the medical staff discovered a torn thigh injury at Júlio César and put his presence at FIFA Club World Cup in doubt. He was recovered in time and was called for the tournament, keeping a clean-sheet in the semi-final match against Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma. He kept his goal intact in the final as well which helped the team to win the trophy for the first time after defeating TP Mazembe 3–0. Inter thus completed the Quintuple to become the fourth team in the world after Liverpool in 2001, Al-Ahly in 2006 and Barcelona in 2009. Júlio César ended 2010 by being named second best goalkeeper of 2010 by IFFHS, only behind Iker Casillas. He was also named Inter Player of the Year for 2010 for his outstanding appearances throughout the year, receiving Pirata d'Oro Award. He finished 19th in the 2010 FIFA Ballon d'Or ranking, winning two places compare to last year ranking.


text: His torn thigh injury reappeared at the beginning of 2011 which kept him sidelined for 28 days, missing 8 matches in the process. He returned on action on 30 January in the league match against Palermo and despite conceding twice in the first half, contributed by saving a Javier Pastore penalty and his rebound as well as Inter bounced back to win 3–2. In February, Júlio César made a poor performance in the first leg of 2010–11 UEFA Champions League round of 16 against Bayern Munich, as his weak save against Arjen Robben turned into a rebound Mario Gómez who scored for a 1–0 win at San Siro. He repeated the howler in the second leg as well, making another poor save against Robben only for Gómez to score again. However, he was decisive in a one-on-one save against Franck Ribéry and another one against Gómez; Inter eventually overturned the game and won 3–2, meaning they progressed on the away goal rule. In the Coppa Italia, he played in both legs of semi-final tie against Roma, keeping a clean-sheet in the first one as Inter reached the final for the second consecutive season, where they defeating Palermo to win the third trophy of the season. Júlio César finished 2010–11 campaign by making 39 appearances in all competitions, including 25 in league, where Inter failed to win the title for the first time after 5 seasons. In the Champions League, where Júlio César played 7 matches, the team lost the crown after being eliminated by Schalke 04 in the quarter-finals.


text: In 2011–12 season, Júlio César played his 200th Serie A match on 1 October 2011 in the 3–0 home loss to Napoli, saving a penalty kick in the first half. Later on 22 November, Júlio César made his 50th UEFA Champions League appearance in the 1–1 draw against Trabzonspor in the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League Group B matchday 4. This draw was enough for Inter to secure a spot in the round of 16. He reached a century of clean sheets in Serie A on 18 March 2012 by playing in the goalless draw against Atalanta in the matchday 28. This draw meant that Inter have won only one of their last nine league matches. Júlio César's 300th appearance in all competitions for Inter occurred on 6 May in the penultimate week of Serie A against Milan in which Inter won 4–2. He conceded a controversial penalty to Kevin-Prince Boateng and was included in a verbal confrontation with Zlatan Ibrahimović who went on to convert the penalty. He was booked for the penalty which made him miss the final match of the season against Lazio. He concluded his 7th season at Inter by amassing 40 appearances in all competitions as Inter finished sixth in league, with the team just five goals short of equalling their all-time worst concession in a single Serie A campaign. In the Champions League, the team was eliminated in the round of 16 by Marseille on away goal rule and was knocked out of Coppa Italia by Napoli. With some critics believing Júlio César had declined in form since the 2009–10 season, Inter signed Slovenian goalkeeper Samir Handanović from Udinese to take over as first-choice goalkeeper.


text: On 31 July 2012, Júlio César stated his intention to leave Inter, saying, "They have been seven beautiful and successful years, but, in a few days, my adventure with the Inter shirt will end. I would like to thank all of you fans for the support you have given me and I hope you have a lot more success to enjoy." He explained that the decision came after Inter suggested to reduce his salary, which Júlio César refused by stating: "no player in my situation would have done that". He gave his farewell before the match against Vaslui, entering on the field accompanied by his children to greet the fans with an open letter written by himself.


text: On 29 August 2012, Júlio César confirmed that he had signed for English Premier League club Queens Park Rangers on a four-year contract. He became the fourth Champions League winner in the QPR squad, along with Djibril Cissé (2005), Park Ji-sung (2008) and José Bosingwa (2004 and 2012).


text: Júlio César made his Premier League debut on 15 September 2012 in the home match versus Chelsea, making an excellent performance by keeping a clean-sheet as the match ended in a goalless draw. He managed to play 26 games in his debut season, including 24 in league, keeping 6 clean-sheets as QPR was relegated to EFL Championship after only two seasons.


text: Following QPR's relegation from the Premier League at the end of his debut campaign, Júlio César was frozen out of the team. Despite this, he did not leave the club before the summer transfer window closed. On 4 January 2014, Júlio César started his first game for Rangers against Everton in the third round of the FA Cup, which QPR lost 4–0.


text: On 7 February 2014, Júlio César confirmed that he had signed a loan for Major League Soccer (MLS) club Toronto FC. The move was made to get some match action for him, prior to representing Brazil in the 2014 FIFA World Cup, as he had been replaced by Robert Green as QPR's first choice goalkeeper. César made his debut with Toronto in their season opener at the Seattle Sounders on 15 March, which ended in a 2–1 away victory with both goals coming from newly acquired Jermain Defoe. During week seven of the season, he was awarded MLS Save of the Week against David Texeira of FC Dallas. He was recalled from loan and returned to QPR on 25 July 2014.


text: On 19 August 2014, the club announced via a statement that they have terminated the contract with Júlio César by mutual consent. He stated that he didn't play in his second season at Rangers due to "contractual problems". He added: "I’d have to go to the park by myself. I even bought some goalkeeper gloves because I didn’t want my team to know about it."


text: On 19 August 2014, Júlio César signed a two-year deal with Portuguese champions Benfica. He debuted for the team in a 3–1 Primeira Liga home win against Moreirense on 21 September. On 26 January 2015, he set the fourth-best record ever at Benfica without conceding a goal in the Portuguese league, at 808 minutes. Then, on 9 May, he set a personal record in terms of clean sheets, with a 59 percent average (16 clean sheets in 27 matches), surpassing his 53 percent record with Inter. Later in early July, he was awarded Best Goalkeeper in Primeira Liga. On 25 May 2016, he renewed his contract with Benfica until 2018. However, his contract was terminated by mutual consent on 28 November 2017. During his spell at the Lisbon side, he won six trophies, including three league titles.


text: On 29 January 2018, Flamengo announced the return of Júlio César to the club, 13 years after originally leaving for Europe. Júlio César rejoined the club to make his farewell, signing a three-month contract. The contract will earn him a symbolic fee of 15,000 Brazilian real. He took squad number 12 which was previously retired in honour of the fans.


text: Júlio César played his first match for Flamengo in 13 years on 8 March, starting and wearing the captain armband in a 3–0 away win over Boavista in 2018 Campeonato Carioca.


text: Júlio César played in the 2–0 win over América Mineiro on 22 April in what was his final match as a professional footballer. He delivered a great performance, making 5 saves. Before the match, Júlio César stated:


text: Júlio César was the starting keeper of Brazil under-17 squad in the 1995 FIFA U-17 World Championship in Ecuador. He kept clean-sheets in all three Group C matches, respectively against Germany, Oman and Canada, helping Brazil finish on top. Brazil made their way to the final, also defeating their rivals Argentina in the semi-final, only to lose 3–2 to Ghana.


text: Four years later, Júlio César was part of Brazil under-20 side in their 1999 FIFA World Youth Championship campaign. He was the second choice behind Fábio, making no appearances as Brazil was eliminated in the quarter-finals by Uruguay.


text: Júlio César was first included in Brazil senior team for the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup, where he did not play as the team was eliminated in the group stage. The next year, he was included in the squad for the 2004 Copa América, where he also made his first international appearance, starting in the opening Group C against Chile, keeping a clean-sheet as "Seleção" won 1–0. He became the 963rd player to play at least a match for Brazil. He was the starting keeper during the tournament, leading the team to the final versus Argentina. In the final, the regular time ended in a 2–2 draw which lead the match to penalty shootouts where Júlio César saved the first penalty executed by Andrés D'Alessandro in a 4–2 win. This win constituted his first international trophy and Brazil's 7th title.


text: Júlio César spend the majority of 2006 FIFA World Cup qualification campaign on bench as Dida's understudy, making only two appearances in both matches against Bolivia. He was included in the manager Carlos Alberto Parreira's list for the final tournament, taking squad number 22 as the third keeper. He didn't play in the tournament as Brazil was eliminated in the quarter-final by France.


text: After the World Cup and the international retirement of Dida, the competition to become Brazil's new first-choice goalkeeper began. He initially was out of favor, as new coach Dunga preferred Gomes, Helton and Doni ahead of him. However, he forced his way into the team and finally, he replaced Doni as first-choice goalkeeper in September 2007. Until that period, he had only 14 international caps to his name.


text: Júlio César begun his 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification campaign by keeping two clean-sheets in the opening two matches against Colombia, a goalless draw, and Ecuador, a 5–0 win. He was ever-presented during the qualifying campaign, making 18 appearances, keeping 10 clean-sheets and conceding only 11 goals, being the goalkeeper with most clean-sheets achieved and less goals conceded as Brazil clinched the first place and secured a spot to 2010 FIFA World Cup. During the qualifying campaign Júlio César also set a Brazil record by keeping his goal intact for 581 minutes, starting the streak in the match against Paraguay and finishing it in the last regular minute of the match against Ecuador. This made him the Brazil keeper with most minutes without conceding, breaking the previous record of 491 minutes set by Claudio Taffarel.


text: In June 2009, Júlio César was named in the Brazil squad by manager Dunga for the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup. He played his first match in the tournament on 15 June 2009 in Brazil's 4–3 defeat of Egypt. His performance was rated as positive whatsoever. Júlio César, however, kept clean-sheets in the remaining two matches of Group B as Brazil finished on top with full points. Brazil defeated South Africa in the semi-final, with Júlio César giving a Man of the Match performance. In the final on 28 June against the United States, Júlio César won his second international trophy after Brazil won 3–2 despite conceding twice in the first half. Individually, he was the keeper with most clean-sheets in the tournament, 3 in 5 matches.


text: In the 2010 FIFA World Cup, Brazil was shorted in Group G. He joined the team in May 2010 and also played in a friendly against Zimbabwe which was won 3–0. He was included in the final list by manager Dunga along with Inter teammates Lúcio and Maicon whom he won the Treble with. Júlio César played his first FIFA World Cup match on 15 June in the opening match of Group G, a 2–1 win over North Korea. He made his 50th international appearance in the second group match, a 3–1 win against Ivory Coast. He kept his first FIFA World Cup clean-sheet in the last group match against Portugal which ended 0–0. The result sent them to the knockout stage as Group G winners. Júlio César was at fault in the quarter-final match versus Netherlands as his flap at a Wesley Sneijder cross led to the goal that saw the Dutch draw level; Brazil lost 2–1 and were eliminated. Following the elimination, speaking about the first Netherlands goal, he told that "he had doubts on how to go to the ball with Melo." He finished his World Cup campaign by keeping two clean-sheets in 5 matches.


text: On 8 June 2011, Júlio César was called by manager Mano Menezes for the 2011 Copa América, which was his 6th international tournament. He made his first Copa América appearance on 3 July by keeping a clean-sheet in the 0–0 draw against Venezuela. "Seleção" finished Group B on first place with 5 points. In the quarter-final match against Paraguay, Júlio César kept his goal intact in the regular and extra-time before the match went to penalty shoot-out, where Brazil was eliminated 0–2 after missing all of their attempts.


text: After Copa América had ended, Júlio César continued to be part of the team; he was in goal in the first friendly of 2012 against Bosnia and Herzegovina. His poor attempt to save a shot from Vedad Ibišević resulted in Bosnia's only goal as the match was won by Brazil. This howler resulted in him being dropped by manager Mano Menezes for the rest of 2012.


text: The returned Luiz Felipe Scolari included Júlio César in the 23 players list for the friendly against England on 6 February 2013. Speaking of his return to the national team after almost a year, Júlio César commented: "I never gave up on playing for Brazil." He made his first international appearance after 12 months by starting in the match, conceding in each half as Brazil lost 2–1 at Wembley Stadium. This win was also England's first over ""Verde-Amarela"" in 23 years.


text: Júlio César was part of the 23 players called by coach Luiz Felipe Scolari to play in the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup on home soil. He played three matches in Group A and kept two clean sheets; the first in the opening match against Japan (3–0) and the second against Mexico (2–0). In the semifinal against Uruguay, Júlio César saved a penalty kick taken by Diego Forlán in the 14th minute. Brazil went to win the match by 2–1, and Júlio César was named man of the match. He kept his goal intact in the final as well against Spain as Brazil won 3–0 to claim their 4th title. For his performances he was given Golden Glove award as the best goalkeeper of the tournament; he was also part of the FIFA.com Users' Dream Team. Júlio César received the award while wearing the shirt of Iker Casillas, to make "a tribute for everything he did".


text: On 2 June 2014, Júlio César was named in Brazil's squad for the 2014 World Cup on home soil once again. In the team's round of 16 match, Júlio César saved from Mauricio Pinilla and Alexis Sánchez in the penalty shootout against Chile, sending Brazil through to a quarter-final against Colombia. His efforts earned him the Man of the Match award. However, he conceded five goals against Germany in the first half of the semi-final that the Germans won 7–1, and after Brazil lost 3–0 to the Netherlands in the third-place play-off match, Júlio César retired from the national team.


text: Regarded by pundits as one of the best goalkeepers in the world in his prime, and as one of Brazil's greatest goalkeepers ever, Júlio César was a well-rounded, commanding, and courageous goalkeeper, who was known for his athleticism, strength, and quick reflexes, as well as his agility, positional sense, shot-stopping, ability to read the game, and speed when rushing off his line; he also stood out for his ability to collect crosses and command his box effectively, despite his relatively average stature for a goalkeeper, standing at . A left-footed goalkeeper, he was also known for his ball skills and distribution, as well as for his penalty stopping abilities.


text: Júlio César is a Roman Catholic. He married Brazilian model and actress Susana Werner at the Candelária Church. Together, they have two children: Cauet, born in 2002, and Giulia, born in 2005. They both went to ACS Hillingdon International School. He is sponsored by Asics.


title: Pamela Harriman

text: Pamela Beryl Harriman ("née" Digby; 20 March 1920 – 5 February 1997), also known as Pamela Churchill Harriman, was an English-born American political activist for the Democratic Party, diplomat, and socialite. She married three times, her first husband was Randolph Churchill, the son of prime minister Winston Churchill, Her third husband was W. Averell Harriman, an American diplomat who also served as Governor of New York. Her only child, Winston Churchill, was named after his famous grandfather. She served as US ambassador to France from 1993 to 1997.


title: Pamela Harriman

text: Pamela Digby was born in Farnborough, Hampshire, England, the daughter of Edward Digby, 11th Baron Digby, and his wife, Constance Pamela Alice, the daughter of Henry Campbell Bruce, 2nd Baron Aberdare. She was educated by governesses in the ancestral home at Minterne Magna in Dorset, along with her three younger siblings. Her great-great aunt was the nineteenth-century adventurer and courtesan Jane Digby (1807–1881), notorious for her exotic travels and scandalous personal life. Pamela was to follow in her relative's footsteps, and has been called "the 20th-century's most influential courtesan".


title: Pamela Harriman

text: Raised amid acres of Dorset farmland and woods, from an early age Pamela was a very good horsewoman. She competed at shows at the International Olympia, Royal Bath and West Show, and local shows at Dorchester and Melplash. She show-jumped a tiny pony called Stardust that did a clear round at Olympia when every fence was above the animal's withers.


title: Pamela Harriman

text: At the age of seventeen, she was sent to a Munich boarding school for six months. While there she was introduced to Adolf Hitler by Unity Mitford. She subsequently went to Paris, taking some classes at the Sorbonne. Although in her "Who's Who" biography she identified these classes as "post-graduate" work, she actually never completed a college degree. By 1937, she had returned to Britain.


title: Pamela Harriman

text: She was a descendant of the Earls of Leicester and Ilchester and the Dukes of Atholl. She was a first cousin of Lavinia Fitzalan-Howard, Duchess of Norfolk. She was also a third cousin, once removed, of Angus Ogilvy, husband of Queen Elizabeth's cousin, Alexandra of Kent. She was also a fourth cousin, once removed, of Sarah, Duchess of York.


title: Pamela Harriman

text: In 1939, while working at the Foreign Office in London doing French-to-English translations, 19 year old Pamela met Randolph Churchill, the son of Winston Churchill, who according to British writer Sonia Purnell was, "a womaniser and alcoholic, desperate for a wife having already proposed to eight women in the space of two weeks". Randolph proposed to her on the very evening they met, and they were married on 4 October 1939. Two days after Randolph Churchill took his seat in the House of Commons, their son Winston was born. Shortly after giving birth, Pamela and the newborn were photographed by Cecil Beaton for "Life" magazine, its first cover of a mother with baby.


title: Pamela Harriman

text: In February 1941, Randolph was sent to Cairo with the British Commandos, acquiring more gambling debts during the boat journey. Pamela was left to cope alone with a young baby and Randolph's creditors. His letter to Pamela asking her to make good on new gambling debt of $12,000 (equivalent to over $190,000 in 2020) forced her to take a £12-a-week job at the Ministry of Supply and sell her wedding presents and much of her jewellery, while keeping it a secret from her in-laws. She fell in love and started an affair with American envoy Averell Harriman, who was married and almost 30 years her senior.


title: Pamela Harriman

text: She filed for divorce in December 1945 on the grounds that Churchill had deserted her for three years. Later, after having converted to Catholicism, she obtained an annulment from the Catholic Church.


title: Pamela Harriman

text: Beside two additional marriages, Pamela Harriman had numerous affairs with men of prominence and wealth. When her marriage to Randolph Churchill started to fall apart, she became romantically involved with Averell Harriman, who later became her third husband; Edward R. Murrow; and John Hay "Jock" Whitney. After her divorce from Churchill she was involved with Prince Aly Khan, Alfonso de Portago, Gianni Agnelli, and Baron Elie de Rothschild.


title: Pamela Harriman

text: According to American author Michael Gross, Churchill became well known for her attention to detail with men. William S. Paley, briefly a consort during WWII, said: "She is the greatest courtesan of the century", meaning it as a compliment. The more critical Max Hastings said, acerbically, "she was ... described as having become 'a world expert on rich men's bedroom ceilings'."


title: Pamela Harriman

text: In 1948 she moved to Paris and began a five-year-long romance with Gianni Agnelli, a noted playboy and heir to the Fiat empire, who was a year younger than she was. She described this as the happiest period of her life. In August 1952 Pamela walked in on him embracing a young woman, Anne-Marie d'Estainville, at a party. Later that night Agnelli sustained a severe leg injury in a car accident while bringing d'Estainville home. By Pamela's account, she nursed him back to health while he was in the hospital, then while he was convalescing in Turin they decided together to end their relationship.


title: Pamela Harriman

text: Her next significant relationship was with Baron de Rothschild, who was married. He supported her financially, and she was schooled in art history and wine-making during this clandestine and short relationship. During this time she also had affairs with the writer Maurice Druon and with the shipping magnate Stavros Niarchos.


title: Pamela Harriman

text: In 1959, she met Broadway producer Leland Hayward, who was still married to Slim Hawks. He proposed to her, and after her marriage ultimatum to Rothschild was rejected, she accepted Hayward's offer and moved to New York City. The day Hayward's divorce was final, she became the fifth Mrs. Hayward with the ceremony taking place in Carson City, Nevada, on 4 May 1960. Hayward was rich with income from his productions, notably the very successful "The Sound of Music", allowing for a lavish and luxurious lifestyle mostly between their residence in New York City and the Westchester County estate "Haywire." "Haywire" also became the name of the memoirs of her stepdaughter Brooke Hayward. Her step granddaughter through Brooke was Marin Hopper. Pamela Hayward stayed with her husband until his death on 18 March 1971.


title: Pamela Harriman

text: The day after Hayward's funeral, Pamela arranged to resume her acquaintance with her former lover, Harriman, then 79 years old and recently widowed. They were married on 27 September 1971. With this marriage, her social focus was moved to Washington, D.C., where he owned a townhouse in Georgetown from which they entertained many notable people. Harriman, a railroad heir, was wealthy and also bought an estate in Virginia and a private jet. With Harriman's involvement and links in the Democratic Party, her political career began. Her last marriage lasted until his death in 1986. In later years, she had many legal problems with Harriman's children concerning the inheritance.


title: Pamela Harriman

text: Pamela Harriman served on The Rockefeller University Council from 1977 to 1979, and on the Board of Trustees from 1979 to 1993. She also served on the Board of Visitors of the College of William and Mary from 1986–1990 where she established The Pamela Harriman Professorship of Government and Public Policy and sponsored a scholarship in her name for three students to serve each summer at the US Embassy to France.


title: Pamela Harriman

text: As Pamela Churchill Harriman she became a United States citizen in 1971 and became involved with the Democratic Party, creating a fund-raising system—a political action committee—named "Democrats for the 80s", later "Democrats for the 90s", and nicknamed "PamPAC". In 1980, the Woman's National Democratic Club named her "Woman of the Year". U.S. President Bill Clinton appointed her United States Ambassador to France in 1993. The Dayton Agreement was signed in Paris in 1995 while she served as ambassador.


title: Pamela Harriman

text: Pamela Harriman died on 5 February 1997 at the American Hospital, Neuilly-sur-Seine, after suffering a cerebral hemorrhage while swimming at the Paris Ritz one day earlier. The morning after her death, President Jacques Chirac of France placed the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur on her flag-draped coffin. She was the first female foreign diplomat to receive this honor. Clinton, in further recognition of her contributions and significance, dispatched Air Force One to return her body to the US and spoke at her funeral at the Washington National Cathedral in Washington, D.C., mentioning her public service in glowing terms. Harriman was buried 14 February 1997 at Arden, the former Harriman estate in New York.


title: Sky burial

text: Sky burial (, "bird-scattered") is a funeral practice in which a human corpse is placed on a mountaintop to decompose while exposed to the elements or to be eaten by scavenging animals, especially carrion birds. It is a specific type of the general practice of excarnation. It is practiced in the Chinese provinces and autonomous regions of Tibet, Qinghai, Sichuan, and Inner Mongolia, as well as in Mongolia, Bhutan, and parts of India such as Sikkim and Zanskar. The locations of preparation and sky burial are understood in the Vajrayana Buddhist traditions as charnel grounds. Comparable practices are part of Zoroastrian burial rites where deceased are exposed to the elements and scavenger birds on stone structures called Dakhma. Few such places remain operational today due to religious marginalisation, urbanisation and the decimation of vulture populations.


title: Sky burial

text: The majority of Tibetan people and many Mongols adhere to Vajrayana Buddhism, which teaches the transmigration of spirits. There is no need to preserve the body, as it is now an empty vessel. Birds may eat it or nature may cause it to decompose. The function of the sky burial is simply to dispose of the remains in as generous a way as possible (the origin of the practice's Tibetan name). In much of Tibet and Qinghai, the ground is too hard and rocky to dig a grave, and due to the scarcity of fuel and timber, sky burials were typically more practical than the traditional Buddhist practice of cremation. In the past, cremation was limited to high lamas and some other dignitaries, but modern technology and difficulties with sky burial have led to an increased use of cremation by commoners.


title: Sky burial

text: Other nations which performed air burial were the Caucasus nations of Georgians, Abkhazians, and Adyghe people, in which they put the corpse in a hollow tree trunk.


title: Sky burial

text: The Tibetan sky-burials appear to have evolved from ancient practices of defleshing corpses as discovered in archeological finds in the region. These practices most likely came out of practical considerations, but they could also be related to more ceremonial practices similar to the suspected sky burial evidence found at Göbekli Tepe (11,500 years before present) and Stonehenge (4,500 years BP). Most of Tibet is above the tree line, and the scarcity of timber makes cremation economically unfeasible. Additionally, subsurface interment is difficult since the active layer is not more than a few centimeters deep, with solid rock or permafrost underlying the surface.


title: Sky burial

text: The customs are first recorded in an indigenous 12th-century Buddhist treatise, which is colloquially known as the "Book of the Dead" (Bardo Thodol). Tibetan tantricism appears to have influenced the procedure. The body is cut up according to instructions given by a lama or adept.


title: Sky burial

text: Mongolians traditionally buried their dead (sometimes with human or animal sacrifice for the wealthier chieftains) but the Tümed adopted sky burial following their conversion to Tibetan Buddhism under Altan Khan during the Ming dynasty and other banners subsequently converted under the Manchu Qing dynasty.


title: Sky burial

text: Sky burial was initially treated as a primitive superstition and sanitation concern by the Communist governments of both the PRC and Mongolia; both states closed many temples and China banned the practice completely from the Cultural Revolution of the late 1960s until the 1980s. During this period, sky burials were considered among the Four Olds, which was the umbrella term used by Communists to describe anti-proletarian customs, cultures and ideas. As a result of these policies, many corpses would simply be buried or thrown in rivers. Many families believed the souls of these people would never escape purgatory and became ghosts. Sky burial nonetheless continued to be practiced in rural areas and has even received official protection in recent years. However, the practice continues to diminish for a number of reasons, including restrictions on its practice near urban areas and diminishing numbers of vultures in rural districts. Finally, Tibetan practice holds that the yak carrying the body to the charnel grounds should be set free, making the rite much more expensive than a service at a crematorium.


title: Sky burial

text: For Tibetan Buddhists, sky burial and cremation are templates of instructional teaching on the impermanence of life. "Jhator" is considered an act of generosity on the part of the deceased, since the deceased and their surviving relatives are providing food to sustain living beings. Such generosity and compassion for all beings are important virtues in Buddhism.


title: Sky burial

text: Although some observers have suggested that "jhator" is also meant to unite the deceased person with the sky or sacred realm, this does not seem consistent with most of the knowledgeable commentary and eyewitness reports, which indicate that Tibetans believe that at this point life has completely left the body and the body contains nothing more than simple flesh.


title: Sky burial

text: Only people who directly know the deceased usually observe it, when the excarnation happens at night.


title: Sky burial

text: The tradition and custom of the "jhator" afforded Traditional Tibetan medicine and "thangka" iconography with a particular insight into the interior workings of the human body. Pieces of the human skeleton were employed in ritual tools such as the kapala (skullcup) and kangling (thigh-bone trumpet).


title: Sky burial

text: The 'symbolic bone ornaments' (Sanskrit: ; Tibetan: "rus pa'i rgyan phyag rgya") are also known as "mudra" or 'seals'. The "Hevajra Tantra" identifies the Symbolic Bone Ornaments with the Five Wisdoms and Jamgon Kongtrul in his commentary to the "Hevajra Tantra" explains this further.


title: Sky burial

text: A traditional "jhator" is performed in specified locations in Tibet (and surrounding areas traditionally occupied by Tibetans). Drigung Monastery is one of the three most important "jhator" sites.


title: Sky burial

text: The procedure takes place on a large flat rock long used for the purpose. The charnel ground ("durtro") is always higher than its surroundings. It may be very simple, consisting only of the flat rock, or it may be more elaborate, incorporating temples and stupa ("chorten" in Tibetan).


title: Sky burial

text: Relatives may remain nearby during the "jhator", possibly in a place where they cannot see it directly. The "jhator" usually takes place at dawn.


title: Sky burial

text: The full "jhator" procedure (as described below) is elaborate and expensive. Those who cannot afford it simply place their deceased on a high rock where the body decomposes or is eaten by birds and animals.


title: Sky burial

text: In 2010, a prominent Tibetan incarnate lama, Metrul Tendzin Gyatso, visited the sky burial site near the Larung Gar Buddhist Institute in Sertar County, Sichuan, and was dismayed by its poor condition. With the stated goal of restoring dignity to the dead and creating a better environment for the vultures, the lama subsequently rebuilt and improved the platform where bodies are cut up, adding many statues and other carved features around it, and constructed a large parking lot for the convenience of visitors.


title: Sky burial

text: Accounts from observers vary. The following description is assembled from multiple accounts by observers from the U.S. and Europe. References appear at the end.


title: Sky burial

text: Prior to the procedure, monks may chant mantra around the body and burn juniper incense – although ceremonial activities often take place on the preceding day.


title: Sky burial

text: The work of disassembling of the body may be done by a monk, or, more commonly, by "rogyapas" ("body-breakers"). All the eyewitness accounts remarked on the fact that the "rogyapas" did not perform their task with gravity or ceremony, but rather talked and laughed as during any other type of physical labor. According to Buddhist teaching, this makes it easier for the soul of the deceased to move on from the uncertain plane between life and death onto the next life.


title: Sky burial

text: Some accounts refer to individuals who carry out sky burial rituals as a "tokden" which is Tibetan for 'sky burial master'. While a Tokden has an important role in burial rites, they are often people of low social status and sometimes receive payment from the families of the deceased.


title: Sky burial

text: According to most accounts, vultures are given the whole body. Then, when only the bones remain, these are broken up with mallets, ground with tsampa (barley flour with tea and yak butter, or milk) and given to the crows and hawks that have waited for the vultures to depart.


title: Sky burial

text: In one account, the leading "rogyapa" cut off the limbs and hacked the body to pieces, handing each part to his assistants, who used rocks to pound the flesh and bones together to a pulp, which they mixed with tsampa before the vultures were summoned to eat. In some cases, a Tokden will use butcher's tools to divide the body.


title: Sky burial

text: Sometimes the internal organs were removed and processed separately, but they too were consumed by birds. The hair is removed from the head and may be simply thrown away; at Drigung, it seems, at least some hair is kept in a room of the monastery.


title: Sky burial

text: None of the eyewitness accounts specify which kind of knife is used in the "jhator". One source states that it is a "ritual flaying knife" or "trigu" (Sanskrit "kartika"), but another source expresses skepticism, noting that the "trigu" is considered a woman's tool (whereas "rogyapas" seem to be exclusively male).


title: Sky burial

text: In places where there are several "jhator" offerings each day, the birds sometimes have to be coaxed to eat, which may be accomplished with a ritual dance. If a small number of vultures come down to eat, or if portions of the body are left over after the vultures fly away, or if the body is completely left untouched, it is considered to be a bad omen in Buddhist beliefs. In these cases, according to Buddhist belief, there are negative implications for the individual and/or the individual's family, such as the individual being buried having lived a bad life or accumulated bad karma throughout their lifetime and throughout their past lives, thus predetermining them to a bad rebirth.


title: Sky burial

text: In places where fewer bodies are offered, the vultures are more eager, and sometimes have to be fended off with sticks during the initial preparations. Often there is a limit to how many corpses can be consumed at a certain burial site, prompting lamas to find different areas. It is believed that if too many corpses are disposed in a certain burial site, ghosts may appear.


title: Sky burial

text: Not only are vultures an important aspect to celestial burial but also to its habitat's ecology. They contribute to carcass removal and nutrient recycling, as they are scavengers of the land. Due to an alarming drop in their population, in 1988, the Law of the People's Republic of China on the Protection of Wildlife added certain species of vultures into the "rare" or "threatened" categories of their national list of protected wild animals. Local Chinese governments surrounding sky burial locations have established regulations to avoid disturbance of the vultures during these rituals, as well as to not allow individuals who have passed away due to infectious diseases or toxicosis from receiving a sky burial in order to prevent compromising the health of the vultures.


title: Intimacy (2001 film)

text: Intimacy is a 2001 erotic drama film directed by Patrice Chéreau from a screenplay he co-wrote with Anne-Louise Trividic, based on stories by Hanif Kureishi (who also wrote a novel of the same title). It stars Kerry Fox and Mark Rylance. The film is an international co-production between France, the United Kingdom, Germany and Italy, featuring a soundtrack of pop songs from the 1970s and 1980s. "Intimacy" contains an unsimulated fellatio scene by Fox on Rylance. A French-dubbed version features voice actors Jean-Hugues Anglade and Nathalie Richard.


title: Intimacy (2001 film)

text: Jay is a bartender who abandoned his family because his wife lost interest in him and their relationship. Now living alone in a decrepit house, he has casual weekly sex with an anonymous woman, whose name he does not know. At first, their relationship is purely physical, but he eventually falls in love with her.


title: Intimacy (2001 film)

text: Wanting to know more about her, Jay follows her across the streets of London to the grey suburbs where she lives. He then follows her to a pub theatre where she is working as an actress in the evenings. Jay learns that her name is Claire, and she has a husband and a son. Subsequently, it is made clear to Jay that Claire will not leave her family. They meet for a final time and have sex with an intimacy that has been missing during the sex sessions of their previous encounters.


title: Intimacy (2001 film)

text: In a 2001 lengthy column for "The Guardian", Alexander Linklater described the jealousy he experienced when his partner Kerry Fox took the real-sex role in this movie. Linklater concludes that he accepted the unsimulated oral scene, but he insists that the sexual intercourse is an illusion. Nevertheless, critics have declared its realist tendencies. Linda Williams, for instance, writes that ""Intimacy" opens with urgent, hurried and explicit penetrative sex" and Tanya Krzywinska writes that in this first scene "the spectator is left in little doubt that penetration has occurred".


title: Intimacy (2001 film)

text: In a 2015 interview with "The Wall Street Journal", Mark Rylance spoke of his experience on the film. At the time of the film’s release, talk of the film’s unsimulated sex scenes in tabloids added stress on his marriage. Rylance commented, "It soured me on my life two months. It’s my mistake, but I felt Patrice [Chéreau] put undue pressure on me on set to do that. And at that point I didn’t have the confidence as a film actor to say no. Now I think a lot of actors that people say are difficult are actually just being sensible.”


title: Intimacy (2001 film)

text: "Intimacy" won the Golden Bear for Best Film and the Silver Bear for Best Actress (Kerry Fox) at the Berlin Film Festival in 2001.


title: Straight man

text: The straight man is a stock character in a comedy performance, especially a double act, sketch comedy, or farce. When a comedy partner behaves eccentrically, the straight man is expected to maintain composure. The direct contribution to the comedy a straight man provides usually comes in the form of a deadpan. A straight man with no direct comedic role has historically been known as a stooge. Typically, he is expected to feed the funny man lines that he can respond to for laughs (and is hence sometimes known as a feed), while seeking no acclamation for himself. If a straight man unintentionally breaks composure and laughs, it is known in British English as corpsing.


title: Straight man

text: In vaudeville, effective straight men were much less common than comedians. The straight man's name usually appeared first and he usually received 60% of the take. This helped take the sting out of not being the laugh-getter and helped ensure the straight man's loyalty to the team. Abbott and Costello, one of America's most popular comedy duos of the 1940s and 50s in radio, film and television, began as nightclub performers when the straight-faced Bud Abbott contrasted against the bumbling Lou Costello; Abbott, unusually, allowed Costello a larger paycheck to keep him on the team.


title: Straight man

text: Despite the usual name, women can fulfill an equivalent role, although they are often described as a "comedic foil". Examples of noteworthy female foils include Margaret Dumont, who often performed with the Marx Brothers in their films, Bernardine Flynn up against Art van Harvey on "Vic and Sade", Marian Jordan against her husband Jim on "Smackout" and "Fibber McGee and Molly", and Pam Dawber, who performed with Robin Williams on the television series "Mork & Mindy".


title: Straight man

text: The role is still found today in sitcoms and several Japanese comedy anime, where they are known as "tsukkomi". Prominent sitcom characters illustrating this role include Jim Halpert from "The Office", Ben Wyatt from "Parks and Recreation", and Jerry Seinfeld from "Seinfeld". Some notable "tsukkomi" characters include "Gintama"'s Shinpachi Shimura and Toshiro Hijikata, Himeko from "Sket Dance", Saiki Kusuo from "The Disastrous Life of Saiki K.", Yuuko from "Nichijou", and Tadakuni from "Daily Lives of High School Boys".


title: History of psychology

text: Psychology is defined as "the scientific study of behavior and mental processes". Philosophical interest in the human mind and behavior dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Persia, Greece, China, and India.


title: History of psychology

text: Psychology as a field of experimental study began in 1854 in Leipzig, Germany when Gustav Fechner created the first theory of how judgments about sensory experiences are made and how to experiment on them. Fechner's theory, recognized today as Signal Detection Theory foreshadowed the development of statistical theories of comparative judgment and thousands of experiments based on his ideas (Link, S. W. Psychological Science, 1995). Later, 1879, Wilhelm Wundt founded in Leipzig, Germany, the first Psychological laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research. Wundt was also the first person to refer to himself as "a psychologist." A notable precursor of Wundt was Ferdinand Ueberwasser (1752-1812) who designated himself "Professor of Empirical Psychology and Logic" in 1783 and gave lectures on empirical psychology at the Old University of Münster, Germany. Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in the study of memory), William James (the American father of pragmatism), and Ivan Pavlov (who developed the procedures associated with classical conditioning).


title: History of psychology

text: Soon after the development of experimental psychology, various kinds of applied psychology appeared. G. Stanley Hall brought scientific pedagogy to the United States from Germany in the early 1880s. John Dewey's educational theory of the 1890s was another example. Also in the 1890s, Hugo Münsterberg began writing about the application of psychology to industry, law, and other fields. Lightner Witmer established the first psychological clinic in the 1890s. James McKeen Cattell adapted Francis Galton's anthropometric methods to generate the first program of mental testing in the 1890s. In Vienna, meanwhile, Sigmund Freud developed an independent approach to the study of the mind called psychoanalysis, which has been widely influential.


title: History of psychology

text: The 20th century saw a reaction to Edward Titchener's critique of Wundt's empiricism. This contributed to the formulation of behaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B. F. Skinner. Behaviorism proposed emphasizing the study of overt behavior, because that could be quantified and easily measured. Early behaviorists considered the study of the "mind" too vague for productive scientific study. However, Skinner and his colleagues did study thinking as a form of covert behavior to which they could apply the same principles as overt (publicly observable) behavior.


title: History of psychology

text: The final decades of the 20th century saw the rise of cognitive science, an interdisciplinary approach to studying the human mind. Cognitive science again considers the "mind" as a subject for investigation, using the tools of cognitive psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, behaviorism, and neurobiology. This form of investigation has proposed that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.


title: History of psychology

text: There are conceptual divisions of psychology in so-called "forces" or "waves," based on its schools and historical trends. This terminology is popularized among the psychologists to differentiate a growing humanism in therapeutic practice from the 1930s onwards, called the "third force," in response to the deterministic tendencies of Watson's behaviourism and Freud's psychoanalysis. Humanistic psychology has as important proponents Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, Gordon Allport, Erich Fromm, and Rollo May. Their humanistic concepts are also related to existential psychology, Viktor Frankl's logotherapy, positive psychology (which has Martin Seligman as one of the leading exponents), C. R. Cloninger's approach to well-being and character development, as well as to transpersonal psychology, incorporating such concepts as spirituality, self-transcendence, self-realization, self-actualization, and mindfulness. In cognitive behavioral psychotherapy, similar terms have also been incorporated, by which "first wave" is considered the initial behavioral therapy; a "second wave", Albert Ellis's cognitive one; and a "third wave", with the acceptance and commitment therapy, which emphasizes one's pursuit of values, methods of self-awareness, acceptance and psychological flexibility, instead of challenging negative thought schemes. A "fourth wave" would be the one that incorporates transpersonal concepts and positive flourishing, in a way criticized by some researchers for its heterogeneity and theoretical direction dependent on the therapist's view. A "fifth wave" has now been proposed by a group of researchers seeking to integrate earlier concepts into a unifying theory.


title: History of psychology

text: Many cultures throughout history have speculated on the nature of the mind, heart, soul, spirit, brain, etc. For instance, in Ancient Egypt, the Edwin Smith Papyrus contains an early description of the brain, and some speculations on its functions (described in a medical/surgical context) and the descriptions could be related to Imhotep who was the first Egyptian physician who anatomized and discovered the body of the human being. Though other medical documents of ancient times were full of incantations and applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons and other superstition, the Edwin Smith Papyrus gives remedies to almost 50 conditions and only two contain incantations to ward off evil.


title: History of psychology

text: Ancient Greek philosophers, from Thales (fl. 550 BC) through even to the Roman period, developed an elaborate theory of what they termed the "psuchẽ" (psyche) (from which the first half of "psychology" is derived), as well as other "psychological" terms – "nous", "thumos", "logistikon", etc. Classical Greece (fifth century BCE), philosophers taught “naturalism,” the belief that laws of nature shape our world, as opposed to gods and demons determining human fate. Alcmaeon, for example, believed the brain, not the heart, was the “organ of thought.”He tracked the ascending sensory nerves from the body to the brain, theorizing that mental activity originated in the CNS and that the cause of mental illness resided within the brain. He applied this understanding to classify mental diseases and treatments.The most influential of these psychologists are the accounts of Plato (especially in the "Republic"), Pythagoras and of Aristotle (esp. "Peri Psyches", better known under its Latin title, "De Anima"). Plato's tripartite theory of the soul, Chariot Allegory and concepts such as "eros" defined the subsequent Western Philosophy views of the psyche and anticipated modern psychological proposals, such as Freud's id, ego and super-ego and libido; to the point that "in 1920, Freud decided to present Plato as the precursor of his own theory, as part of a strategy directed to define the scientific and cultural collocation of psychoanalysis". Hellenistic philosophers (viz., the Stoics and Epicurians) diverged from the Classical Greek tradition in several important ways, especially in their concern with questions of the physiological basis of the mind. The Roman physician Galen addressed these issues most elaborately and influentially of all. The Greek tradition influenced some Christian and Islamic thought on the topic.


title: History of psychology

text: In the Judeo-Christian tradition, the Manual of Discipline (from the Dead Sea Scrolls, ca. 21 BC–61 AD) notes the division of human nature into two temperaments or opposing spirits of either veracity or perversity


title: History of psychology

text: Walter M Freeman proposes that Thomism is the philosophical system explaining cognition that is most compatible with neurodynamics, in a 2008 article in the journal "Mind and Matter" entitled "Nonlinear Brain Dynamics and Intention According to Aquinas".


title: History of psychology

text: In Asia, China had a long history of administering tests of ability as part of its education system. Chinese texts from 2500 years ago mention neuropsychiatric illness, including descriptions of mania and psychosis with or without epilepsy. “Imbalance” was the mechanism of psychosis. Other conditions described include confusion, visual illusions, intoxication, stress, and even malingering. Psychological theories about stages of human development can be traced to the time of Confucius, about 2500 years ago.


title: History of psychology

text: In the 6th century AD, Lin Xie carried out an early experiment, in which he asked people to draw a square with one hand and at the same time draw a circle with the other (ostensibly to test people's vulnerability to distraction). It has been cited that this was the first psychology experiment.


title: History of psychology

text: India had a theory of "the self" in its Vedanta philosophical writings. Additionally, Indians thought about the individual's self as being enclosed by different levels known as koshas. Additionally, the Sankya philosophy said that the mind has 5 components, including manas (lower mind), ahankara (sense of I-ness), chitta (memory bank of mind), buddhi (intellect), and atman (self/soul). Patanjali was one of the founders of the yoga tradition, sometime between 200 and 400 BC (pre-dating Buddhist psychology) and a student of the Vedas. He developed the science of breath and mind and wrote his knowledge in the form of between 194 and 196 aphorisms called the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. He developed modern Yoga for psychological resilience and balance . He is reputed to have used yoga therapeutically for anxiety, depression and mental disorders as common then as now. Buddhist philosophies have developed several psychological theories (see Buddhism and psychology), formulating interpretations of the mind and concepts such as aggregates ("skandhas"), emptiness ("sunyata"), non-self ("anatta"), mindfulness and Buddha-nature, which are addressed today by theorists of humanistic and transpersonal psychology. Several Buddhist lineages have developed notions analogous to those of modern Western psychology, such as the unconscious, personal development and character improvement, the latter being part of the Noble Eightfold Path and expressed, for example, in the Tathagatagarbha Sutra. Hinayana traditions, such as the Theravada, focus more on individual meditation, while Mahayana traditions also emphasize the attainment of a Buddha nature of wisdom (prajña) and compassion (karuṇā) in the realization of the boddhisattva ideal, but affirming it more metaphysically, in which charity and helping sentient beings is cosmically fundamental. Buddhist monk and scholar D. T. Suzuki describes the importance of the individual's inner enlightenment and the self-realization of the mind. Researcher David Germano, in his thesis on Longchenpa, also shows the importance of self-actualization in the dzogchen teaching lineage.


title: History of psychology

text: Medieval Muslim physicians also developed practices to treat patients with a variety of "diseases of the mind".


title: History of psychology

text: Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi (850–934) was among the first, in this tradition, to discuss disorders related to both the body and the mind. Al-Balkhi recognized that the body and the soul can be healthy or sick, or "balanced or imbalanced". He wrote that imbalance of the body can result in fever, headaches and other bodily illnesses, while imbalance of the soul can result in anger, anxiety, sadness and other "nafs"-related symptoms.


title: History of psychology

text: Avicenna, similarly, did early work in the treatment of "nafs"-related illnesses, and developed a system for associating changes in the mind with inner feelings. Avicenna also described phenomena we now recognize as neuropsychiatric conditions, including hallucination, mania, nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy and tremor.


title: History of psychology

text: Witelo is considered a precursor of perception psychology. His "Perspectiva" contains much material in psychology, outlining views that are close to modern notions on the association of idea and on the subconscious.


title: History of psychology

text: Many of the Ancients' writings would have been lost without the efforts of Muslim, Christian, and Jewish translators in the House of Wisdom, the House of Knowledge, and other such institutions in the Islamic Golden Age, whose glosses and commentaries were later translated into Latin in the 12th century. However, it is not clear how these sources first came to be used during the Renaissance, and their influence on what would later emerge as the discipline of psychology is a topic of scholarly debate.


title: History of psychology

text: The first print use of the term "psychology", that is, Greek-inspired neo-Latin "psychologia", is dated to multiple works dated 1525. Etymology has long been attributed to the German scholastic philosopher Rudolf Göckel (1547–1628, often known under the Latin form Rodolphus Goclenius), who published the "Psychologia hoc est: de hominis perfectione, animo et imprimis ortu hujus..." in Marburg in 1590. Croatian humanist Marko Marulić (1450–1524) likely used the term in the title of a Latin treatise entitled "Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae" (c.1520?). Although the treatise itself has not been preserved, its title appears in a list of Marulic's works compiled by his younger contemporary, Franjo Bozicevic-Natalis in his "Vita Marci Maruli Spalatensis" (Krstić, 1964).


title: History of psychology

text: The term did not come into popular usage until the German Rationalist philosopher, Christian Wolff (1679–1754) used it in his works "Psychologia empirica" (1732) and "Psychologia rationalis" (1734). This distinction between empirical and rational psychology was picked up in Denis Diderot's (1713–1780) and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's (1717–1783) "Encyclopédie" (1751–1784) and was popularized in France by Maine de Biran (1766–1824). In England, the term "psychology" overtook "mental philosophy" in the middle of the 19th century, especially in the work of William Hamilton (1788–1856).


title: History of psychology

text: Early psychology was regarded as the study of the soul (in the Christian sense of the term). The modern philosophical form of psychology was heavily influenced by the works of René Descartes (1596–1650), and the debates that he generated, of which the most relevant were the objections to his "Meditations on First Philosophy" (1641), published with the text. Also important to the later development of psychology were his "Passions of the Soul" (1649) and "Treatise on Man" (completed in 1632 but, along with the rest of "The World", withheld from publication after Descartes heard of the Catholic Church's condemnation of Galileo; it was eventually published posthumously, in 1664).


title: History of psychology

text: Although not educated as a physician, Descartes did extensive anatomical studies of bulls' hearts and was considered important enough that William Harvey responded to him. Descartes was one of the first to endorse Harvey's model of the circulation of the blood, but disagreed with his metaphysical framework to explain it. Descartes dissected animals and human cadavers and as a result was familiar with the research on the flow of blood leading to the conclusion that the body is a complex device that is capable of moving without the soul, thus contradicting the "Doctrine of the Soul". The emergence of psychology as a medical discipline was given a major boost by Thomas Willis, not only in his reference to psychology (the "Doctrine of the Soul") in terms of brain function, but through his detailed 1672 anatomical work, and his treatise ("Two Discourses on the Souls of Brutes"—meaning "beasts"). However, Willis acknowledged the influence of Descartes's rival, Pierre Gassendi, as an inspiration for his work.


title: History of psychology

text: The philosophers of the British Empiricist and Associationist schools had a profound impact on the later course of experimental psychology. John Locke's "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1689), George Berkeley's "Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge" (1710), and David Hume's "A Treatise of Human Nature" (1739–1740) were particularly influential, as were David Hartley's "Observations on Man" (1749) and John Stuart Mill's "A System of Logic". (1843). Also notable was the work of some Continental Rationalist philosophers, especially Baruch Spinoza's (1632–1677) "On the Improvement of the Understanding" (1662) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's (1646–1716) "New Essays on Human Understanding" (completed 1705, published 1765). Another important contribution was Friedrich August Rauch's (1806–1841) book "Psychology: Or, A View of the Human Soul; Including Anthropology" (1840), the first English exposition of Hegelian philosophy for an American audience.


title: History of psychology

text: German idealism pioneered the proposition of the unconscious, which Jung considered to have been described psychologically for the first time by physician and philosopher Carl Gustav Carus. Also notable was its use by Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling (1775-1835), and by Eduard von Hartmann in "Philosophy of the Unconscious" (1869); psychologist Hans Eysenck writes in "Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire" (1985) that Hartmann's version of the unconscious is very similar to Freud's.


title: History of psychology

text: The Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard also influenced the humanistic, existential, and modern psychological schools with his works "The Concept of Anxiety" (1844) and "The Sickness Unto Death" (1849).


title: History of psychology

text: Also influential on the emerging discipline of psychology were debates surrounding the efficacy of Mesmerism (a precursor to hypnosis) and the value of phrenology. The former was developed in the 1770s by Austrian physician Franz Mesmer (1734–1815) who claimed to use the power of gravity, and later of "animal magnetism", to cure various physical and mental ills. As Mesmer and his treatment became increasingly fashionable in both Vienna and Paris, it also began to come under the scrutiny of suspicious officials. In 1784, an investigation was commissioned in Paris by King Louis XVI which included American ambassador Benjamin Franklin, chemist Antoine Lavoisier and physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin (later the popularizer of the guillotine). They concluded that Mesmer's method was useless. Abbé Faria, an Indo-Portuguese priest, revived public attention in animal magnetism. Unlike Mesmer, Faria claimed that the effect was 'generated from within the mind’ by the power of expectancy and cooperation of the patient.


title: History of psychology

text: Although disputed, the "magnetic" tradition continued among Mesmer's students and others, resurfacing in England in the 19th century in the work of the physician John Elliotson (1791–1868), and the surgeons James Esdaile (1808–1859), and James Braid (1795–1860) (who reconceptualized it as property of the subject's mind rather than a "power" of the Mesmerist's, and relabeled it "hypnotism"). Mesmerism also continued to have a strong social (if not medical) following in England through the 19th century (see Winter, 1998). Faria's approach was significantly extended by the clinical and theoretical work of Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault and Hippolyte Bernheim of the Nancy School. Faria's theoretical position, and the subsequent experiences of those in the Nancy School made significant contributions to the later autosuggestion techniques of Émile Coué. It was adopted for the treatment of hysteria by the director of Paris's Salpêtrière Hospital, Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893).


title: History of psychology

text: Phrenology began as "organology", a theory of brain structure developed by the German physician, Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828). Gall argued that the brain is divided into a large number of functional "organs", each responsible for particular human mental abilities and dispositions – hope, love, spirituality, greed, language, the abilities to detect the size, form, and color of objects, etc. He argued that the larger each of these organs are, the greater the power of the corresponding mental trait. Further, he argued that one could detect the sizes of the organs in a given individual by feeling the surface of that person's skull. Gall's ultra-localizationist position with respect to the brain was soon attacked, most notably by French anatomist Pierre Flourens (1794–1867), who conducted ablation studies (on chickens) which purported to demonstrate little or no cerebral localization of function. Although Gall had been a serious (if misguided) researcher, his theory was taken by his assistant, Johann Gaspar Spurzheim (1776–1832), and developed into the profitable, popular enterprise of phrenology, which soon spawned, especially in Britain, a thriving industry of independent practitioners. In the hands of Scottish religious leader George Combe (1788–1858) (whose book "The Constitution of Man" was one of the best-sellers of the century), phrenology became strongly associated with political reform movements and egalitarian principles (see, e.g., Shapin, 1975; but also see van Wyhe, 2004). Spurzheim soon spread phrenology to America as well, where itinerant practical phrenologists assessed the mental well-being of willing customers (see Sokal, 2001; Thompson 2021).


title: History of psychology

text: The development of modern psychology was closely linked to psychiatry in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (see History of psychiatry), when the treatment of the mentally ill in hospices was revolutionized after Europeans first considered their pathological conditions. In fact, there was no distinction between the two areas in psychotherapeutic practice, in an era when there was still no drug treatment (of the so-called psychopharmacologicy revolution from 1950) for mental disorders, and its early theorists and pioneering clinical psychologists generally had medical background. The first to implement in the Western a humanitarian and scientific treatment of mental health, based on Enlightenment ideas, were the French alienists, who developed the empirical observation of psychopathology, describing the clinical conditions, their physiological relationships and classifying them. It was called the rationalist-empirical school, which most known exponents were Pinel, Esquirol, Falret, Morel and Magnan. In the late nineteenth century, the French current was gradually overcome by the German field of study. At first, the German school was influenced by romantic ideals and gave rise to a line of mental process speculators, based more on empathy than reason. They became known as "Psychiker", mentalists or psychologists, with different currents being highlighted by Reil (creator of the word "psychiatry"), Heinroth (first to use the term "psychosomatic") Ideler and Carus. In the middle of the century, a "somatic reaction" () formed against the speculative doctrines of mentalism, and it was based on neuroanatomy and neuropathology. In it, those who made important contributions to the psychopathological classification were Griesinger, Westphal, Krafft-Ebbing and Kahlbaum, which, in their turn, would influence Wernicke and Meynert. Kraepelin revolutionized as the first to define the diagnostic aspects of mental disorders in syndromes, and the work of psychological classification was followed to the contemporary field by contributions from Schneider, Kretschmer, Leonhard, and Jaspers. In Great Britain, there stand out in the nineteenth century Alexander Bain founder of the first journal of psychology, "Mind", and writer of reference books on the subject at the time, such as "Mental Science: The Compendium of Psychology, and the History of Philosophy" (1868), and Henry Maudsley. In Switzerland, Bleuler coined the terms "depth psychology", "schizophrenia", "schizoid" and "autism". In the United States, the Swiss psychiatrist Adolf Meyer maintained that the patient should be regarded as an integrated "psychobiological" whole, emphasizing psychosocial factors, concepts that propitiated the so-called psychosomatic medicine.


title: History of psychology

text: Until the middle of the 19th century, psychology was widely regarded as a branch of philosophy. Whether it could become an independent scientific discipline was questioned already earlier on: Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) declared in his "Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science" (1786) that psychology might perhaps never become a "proper" natural science because its phenomena cannot be quantified, among other reasons. Kant proposed an alternative conception of an empirical investigation of human thought, feeling, desire, and action, and lectured on these topics for over twenty years (1772/73-1795/96). His "Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View" (1798), which resulted from these lectures, looks like an empirical psychology in many respects.


title: History of psychology

text: Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) took issue with what he viewed as Kant's conclusion and attempted to develop a mathematical basis for a scientific psychology. Although he was unable to empirically realize the terms of his psychological theory, his efforts did lead scientists such as Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878) and Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801–1887) to attempt to measure the mathematical relationships between the physical magnitudes of external stimuli and the psychological intensities of the resulting sensations. Fechner (1860) is the originator of the term psychophysics.


title: History of psychology

text: Meanwhile, individual differences in reaction time had become a critical issue in the field of astronomy, under the name of the "personal equation". Early researches by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (1784–1846) in Königsberg and Adolf Hirsch led to the development of a highly precise chronoscope by Matthäus Hipp that, in turn, was based on a design by Charles Wheatstone for a device that measured the speed of artillery shells (Edgell & Symes, 1906). Other timing instruments were borrowed from physiology (e.g., Carl Ludwig's kymograph) and adapted for use by the Utrecht ophthalmologist Franciscus Donders (1818–1899) and his student Johan Jacob de Jaager in measuring the duration of simple mental decisions.


title: History of psychology

text: The 19th century was also the period in which physiology, including neurophysiology, professionalized and saw some of its most significant discoveries. Among its leaders were Charles Bell (1774–1843) and François Magendie (1783–1855) who independently discovered the distinction between sensory and motor nerves in the spinal column, Johannes Müller (1801–1855) who proposed the doctrine of specific nerve energies, Emil du Bois-Reymond (1818–1896) who studied the electrical basis of muscle contraction, Pierre Paul Broca (1824–1880) and Carl Wernicke (1848–1905) who identified areas of the brain responsible for different aspects of language, as well as Gustav Fritsch (1837–1927), Eduard Hitzig (1839–1907), and David Ferrier (1843–1924) who localized sensory and motor areas of the brain. One of the principal founders of experimental physiology, Hermann Helmholtz (1821–1894), conducted studies of a wide range of topics that would later be of interest to psychologists – the speed of neural transmission, the natures of sound and color, and of our perceptions of them, etc. In the 1860s, while he held a position in Heidelberg, Helmholtz engaged as an assistant a young physician named Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt employed the equipment of the physiology laboratory – chronoscope, kymograph, and various peripheral devices – to address more complicated psychological questions than had, until then, been investigated experimentally. In particular he was interested in the nature of apperception – the point at which a perception occupies the central focus of conscious awareness.


title: History of psychology

text: In 1864 Wundt took up a professorship in Zürich, where he published his landmark textbook, "Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie" ("Principles of Physiological Psychology", 1874). Moving to a more prestigious professorship in Leipzig in 1875, Wundt founded a laboratory specifically dedicated to original research in experimental psychology in 1879, the first laboratory of its kind in the world. In 1883, he launched a journal in which to publish the results of his, and his students', research, "Philosophische Studien" ("Philosophical Studies") (For more on Wundt, see, e.g., Bringmann & Tweney, 1980; Rieber & Robinson, 2001). Wundt attracted a large number of students not only from Germany, but also from abroad. Among his most influential American students were G. Stanley Hall (who had already obtained a PhD from Harvard under the supervision of William James), James McKeen Cattell (who was Wundt's first assistant), and Frank Angell (who founded laboratories at both Cornell and Stanford). The most influential British student was Edward Bradford Titchener (who later became professor at Cornell).


title: History of psychology

text: Experimental psychology laboratories were soon also established at Berlin by Carl Stumpf (1848–1936) and at Göttingen by Georg Elias Müller (1850–1934). Another major German experimental psychologist of the era, though he did not direct his own research institute, was Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909).


title: History of psychology

text: Experimentation was not the only approach to psychology in the German-speaking world at this time. Starting in the 1890s, employing the case study technique, the Viennese physician Sigmund Freud developed and applied the methods of hypnosis, free association, and dream interpretation to reveal putatively unconscious beliefs and desires that he argued were the underlying causes of his patients' "hysteria". He dubbed this approach psychoanalysis. Freudian psychoanalysis is particularly notable for the emphasis it places on the course of an individual's sexual development in pathogenesis. Psychoanalytic concepts have had a strong and lasting influence on Western culture, particularly on the arts. Although its scientific contribution is still a matter of debate, both Freudian and Jungian psychology revealed the existence of compartmentalized thinking, in which some behavior and thoughts are hidden from consciousness – yet operative as part of the complete personality. Hidden agendas, a bad conscience, or a sense of guilt, are examples of the existence of mental processes in which the individual is not conscious, through choice or lack of understanding, of some aspects of their personality and subsequent behavior.


title: History of psychology

text: Psychoanalysis examines mental processes which affect the ego. An understanding of these theoretically allows the individual greater choice and consciousness with a healing effect in neurosis and occasionally in psychosis, both of which Richard von Krafft-Ebing defined as "diseases of the personality".


title: History of psychology

text: Freud founded the International Psychoanalytic Association in 1910, inspired also by Ferenczi. Main theoretical successors were Anna Freud (his daughter) and Melane Klein, particularly in child psychoanalysis, both inaugurating competing concepts; in addition to those who became dissidents and developed interpretations different from Freud's psychoanalytic one, thus called by some neo-freudians, or more correctly post-freudians: the most known are Alfred Adler (individual psychology), Carl Gustav Jung (analytical psychology), Otto Rank, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson and Erich Fromm.


title: History of psychology

text: Jung was an associate of Freud's who later broke with him over Freud's emphasis on sexuality. Working with concepts of the unconscious first noted during the 1800s (by John Stuart Mill, Krafft-Ebing, Pierre Janet, Théodore Flournoy and others), Jung defined four mental functions which relate to and define the "ego", the conscious self:


title: History of psychology

text: Jung insisted on an empirical psychology on which theories must be based on facts and not on the psychologist's projections or expectations.


title: History of psychology

text: Around 1875 the Harvard physiology instructor (as he then was), William James, opened a small experimental psychology demonstration laboratory for use with his courses. The laboratory was never used, at that time, for original research, and so controversy remains as to whether it is to be regarded as the "first" experimental psychology laboratory or not. In 1878, James gave a series of lectures at Johns Hopkins University entitled "The Senses and the Brain and their Relation to Thought" in which he argued, "contra" Thomas Henry Huxley, that consciousness is not epiphenomenal, but must have an evolutionary function, or it would not have been naturally selected in humans. The same year James was contracted by Henry Holt to write a textbook on the "new" experimental psychology. If he had written it quickly, it would have been the first English-language textbook on the topic. It was twelve years, however, before his two-volume "The Principles of Psychology" would be published. In the meantime textbooks were published by George Trumbull Ladd of Yale (1887) and James Mark Baldwin then of Lake Forest College (1889).


title: History of psychology

text: William James was one of the founders of the American Society for Psychical Research in 1885, which studied psychic phenomena (parapsychology), before the creation of the American Psychological Association in 1892. James was also president of the British society that inspired the United States' one, the Society for Psychical Research, founded in 1882, which investigated psychology and the paranormal on topics such as mediumship, dissociation, telepathy and hypnosis, and it innovated research in psychology, by which, according to science historian Andreas Sommer, were "devised methodological innovations such as randomized study designs" and conducted "the first experiments investigating the psychology of eyewitness testimony (Hodgson and Davey, 1887), [and] empirical and conceptual studies illuminating mechanisms of dissociation and hypnotism"; Its members also initiated and organised the International Congresses of Physiological/Experimental psychology.