title: Type system

text: A third way of categorizing the type system of a programming language is by the safety of typed operations and conversions. Computer scientists use the term "type-safe language" to describe languages that do not allow operations or conversions that violate the rules of the type system.


title: Type system

text: Computer scientists use the term "memory-safe language" (or just "safe language") to describe languages that do not allow programs to access memory that has not been assigned for their use. For example, a memory-safe language will check array bounds, or else statically guarantee (i.e., at compile time before execution) that array accesses out of the array boundaries will cause compile-time and perhaps runtime errors.


title: Type system

text: In this example, the variable will have the value 42. Although this may not be what the programmer anticipated, it is a well-defined result. If were a different string, one that could not be converted to a number (e.g. "Hello World"), the result would be well-defined as well. Note that a program can be type-safe or memory-safe and still crash on an invalid operation. This is for languages where the type system is not sufficiently advanced to precisely specify the validity of operations on all possible operands. But if a program encounters an operation that is not type-safe, terminating the program is often the only option.


title: Type system

text: In this example will point to a memory address five characters beyond , equivalent to three characters after the terminating zero character of the string pointed to by . This is memory that the program is not expected to access. In C terms this is simply undefined behaviour and the program may do anything; with a simple compiler it might actually print whatever byte is stored after the string "37". As this example shows, C is not memory-safe. As arbitrary data was assumed to be a character, it is also not a type-safe language.


title: Type system

text: In general, type-safety and memory-safety go hand in hand. For example, a language that supports pointer arithmetic and number-to-pointer conversions (like C) is neither memory-safe nor type-safe, because it allows arbitrary memory to be accessed as if it were valid memory of any type.


title: Type system

text: Some languages allow different levels of checking to apply to different regions of code. Examples include:


title: Type system

text: Additional tools such as lint and IBM Rational Purify can also be used to achieve a higher level of strictness.


title: Type system

text: It has been proposed, chiefly by Gilad Bracha, that the choice of type system be made independent of choice of language; that a type system should be a module that can be "plugged" into a language as needed. He believes this is advantageous, because what he calls mandatory type systems make languages less expressive and code more fragile. The requirement that the type system does not affect the semantics of the language is difficult to fulfill.


title: Type system

text: Optional typing is related to, but distinct from, gradual typing. While both typing disciplines can be used to perform static analysis of code (static typing), optional type systems do not enforce type safety at runtime (dynamic typing).


title: Type system

text: The term "polymorphism" refers to the ability of code (especially, functions or classes) to act on values of multiple types, or to the ability of different instances of the same data structure to contain elements of different types. Type systems that allow polymorphism generally do so in order to improve the potential for code re-use: in a language with polymorphism, programmers need only implement a data structure such as a list or an associative array once, rather than once for each type of element with which they plan to use it. For this reason computer scientists sometimes call the use of certain forms of polymorphism "generic programming". The type-theoretic foundations of polymorphism are closely related to those of abstraction, modularity and (in some cases) subtyping.


title: Type system

text: Many type systems have been created that are specialized for use in certain environments with certain types of data, or for out-of-band static program analysis. Frequently, these are based on ideas from formal type theory and are only available as part of prototype research systems.


title: Type system

text: The following table gives an overview over type theoretic concepts that are used in specialized type systems.


title: Type system

text: Dependent types are based on the idea of using scalars or values to more precisely describe the type of some other value. For example, formula_10 might be the type of a formula_11 matrix. We can then define typing rules such as the following rule for matrix multiplication:


title: Type system

text: where , , are arbitrary positive integer values. A variant of ML called Dependent ML has been created based on this type system, but because type checking for conventional dependent types is undecidable, not all programs using them can be type-checked without some kind of limits. Dependent ML limits the sort of equality it can decide to Presburger arithmetic.


title: Type system

text: Other languages such as Epigram make the value of all expressions in the language decidable so that type checking can be decidable. However, in general proof of decidability is undecidable, so many programs require hand-written annotations that may be very non-trivial. As this impedes the development process, many language implementations provide an easy way out in the form of an option to disable this condition. This, however, comes at the cost of making the type-checker run in an infinite loop when fed programs that do not type-check, causing the compilation to fail.


title: Type system

text: Linear types, based on the theory of linear logic, and closely related to uniqueness types, are types assigned to values having the property that they have one and only one reference to them at all times. These are valuable for describing large immutable values such as files, strings, and so on, because any operation that simultaneously destroys a linear object and creates a similar object (such as 'codice_11') can be optimized "under the hood" into an in-place mutation. Normally this is not possible, as such mutations could cause side effects on parts of the program holding other references to the object, violating referential transparency. They are also used in the prototype operating system Singularity for interprocess communication, statically ensuring that processes cannot share objects in shared memory in order to prevent race conditions. The Clean language (a Haskell-like language) uses this type system in order to gain a lot of speed (compared to performing a deep copy) while remaining safe.


title: Type system

text: Intersection types are types describing values that belong to "both" of two other given types with overlapping value sets. For example, in most implementations of C the signed char has range -128 to 127 and the unsigned char has range 0 to 255, so the intersection type of these two types would have range 0 to 127. Such an intersection type could be safely passed into functions expecting "either" signed or unsigned chars, because it is compatible with both types.


title: Type system

text: Intersection types are useful for describing overloaded function types: for example, if " → " is the type of functions taking an integer argument and returning an integer, and " → " is the type of functions taking a float argument and returning a float, then the intersection of these two types can be used to describe functions that do one or the other, based on what type of input they are given. Such a function could be passed into another function expecting an " → " function safely; it simply would not use the " → " functionality.


title: Type system

text: In a subclassing hierarchy, the intersection of a type and an ancestor type (such as its parent) is the most derived type. The intersection of sibling types is empty.


title: Type system

text: The Forsythe language includes a general implementation of intersection types. A restricted form is refinement types.


title: Type system

text: Union types are types describing values that belong to "either" of two types. For example, in C, the signed char has a -128 to 127 range, and the unsigned char has a 0 to 255 range, so the union of these two types would have an overall "virtual" range of -128 to 255 that may be used partially depending on which union member is accessed. Any function handling this union type would have to deal with integers in this complete range. More generally, the only valid operations on a union type are operations that are valid on "both" types being unioned. C's "union" concept is similar to union types, but is not typesafe, as it permits operations that are valid on "either" type, rather than "both". Union types are important in program analysis, where they are used to represent symbolic values whose exact nature (e.g., value or type) is not known.


title: Type system

text: In a subclassing hierarchy, the union of a type and an ancestor type (such as its parent) is the ancestor type. The union of sibling types is a subtype of their common ancestor (that is, all operations permitted on their common ancestor are permitted on the union type, but they may also have other valid operations in common).


title: Type system

text: Existential types are frequently used in connection with record types to represent modules and abstract data types, due to their ability to separate implementation from interface. For example, the type "T = ∃X { a: X; f: (X → int); }" describes a module interface that has a data member named "a" of type "X" and a function named "f" that takes a parameter of the "same" type "X" and returns an integer. This could be implemented in different ways; for example:


title: Type system

text: These types are both subtypes of the more general existential type T and correspond to concrete implementation types, so any value of one of these types is a value of type T. Given a value "t" of type "T", we know that "t.f(t.a)" is well-typed, regardless of what the abstract type "X" is. This gives flexibility for choosing types suited to a particular implementation, while clients that use only values of the interface type—the existential type—are isolated from these choices.


title: Type system

text: In general it's impossible for the typechecker to infer which existential type a given module belongs to. In the above example intT { a: int; f: (int → int); } could also have the type ∃X { a: X; f: (int → int); }. The simplest solution is to annotate every module with its intended type, e.g.:


title: Type system

text: Although abstract data types and modules had been implemented in programming languages for quite some time, it wasn't until 1988 that John C. Mitchell and Gordon Plotkin established the formal theory under the slogan: "Abstract [data] types have existential type". The theory is a second-order typed lambda calculus similar to System F, but with existential instead of universal quantification.


title: Type system

text: In a type system with Gradual typing, variables may be assigned a type either at compile-time (which is static typing). or at run-time (which is dynamic typing). This allows software developers to choose either type paradigm as appropriate, from within a single language. Gradual typing uses a special type named "dynamic" to represent statically-unknown types; gradual typing replaces the notion of type equality with a new relation called "consistency" that relates the dynamic type to every other type. The consistency relation is symmetric but not transitive.


title: Type system

text: Many static type systems, such as those of C and Java, require "type declarations": the programmer must explicitly associate each variable with a specific type. Others, such as Haskell's, perform "type inference": the compiler draws conclusions about the types of variables based on how programmers use those variables. For example, given a function that adds and together, the compiler can infer that and must be numbers—since addition is only defined for numbers. Thus, any call to elsewhere in the program that specifies a non-numeric type (such as a string or list) as an argument would signal an error.


title: Type system

text: Numerical and string constants and expressions in code can and often do imply type in a particular context. For example, an expression might imply a type of floating-point, while might imply a list of integers—typically an array.


title: Type system

text: Type inference is in general possible, if it is computable in the type system in question. Moreover, even if inference is not computable in general for a given type system, inference is often possible for a large subset of real-world programs. Haskell's type system, a version of Hindley–Milner, is a restriction of System Fω to so-called rank-1 polymorphic types, in which type inference is computable. Most Haskell compilers allow arbitrary-rank polymorphism as an extension, but this makes type inference not computable. (Type checking is decidable, however, and rank-1 programs still have type inference; higher rank polymorphic programs are rejected unless given explicit type annotations.)


title: Type system

text: A type system that assigns types to terms in type environments using typing rules is naturally associated with the decision problems of type checking, typability, and type inhabitation.


title: Type system

text: Some languages like C# or Scala have a unified type system. This means that all C# types including primitive types inherit from a single root object. Every type in C# inherits from the Object class. Some languages, like Java and Raku, have a root type but also have primitive types that are not objects. Java provides wrapper object types that exist together with the primitive types so developers can use either the wrapper object types or the simpler non-object primitive types. Raku automatically converts primitive types to objects when their methods are accessed.


title: Type system

text: A type checker for a statically-typed language must verify that the type of any expression is consistent with the type expected by the context in which that expression appears. For example, in an assignment statement of the form codice_12,


title: Type system

text: the inferred type of the expression "codice_13" must be consistent with the declared or inferred type of the variable codice_14. This notion of consistency, called "compatibility", is specific to each programming language.


title: Type system

text: If the type of "codice_13" and the type of codice_14 are the same, and assignment is allowed for that type, then this is a valid expression. Thus, in the simplest type systems, the question of whether two types are compatible reduces to that of whether they are "equal" (or "equivalent"). Different languages, however, have different criteria for when two type expressions are understood to denote the same type. These different "equational theories" of types vary widely, two extreme cases being "structural type systems", in which any two types that describe values with the same structure are equivalent, and "nominative type systems", in which no two syntactically distinct type expressions denote the same type ("i.e.", types must have the same "name" in order to be equal).


title: Type system

text: In languages with subtyping, the compatibility relation is more complex: If codice_17 is a subtype of codice_18, then a value of type codice_17 can be used in a context where one of type codice_18 is expected (covariant), even if the reverse is not true. Like equivalence, the subtype relation is defined differently for each programming language, with many variations possible. The presence of parametric or ad hoc polymorphism in a language may also have implications for type compatibility.


title: South Sea Company

text: The South Sea Company (officially The Governor and Company of the merchants of Great Britain, trading to the South Seas and other parts of America, and for the encouragement of the Fishery) was a British joint-stock company founded in January 1711, created as a public-private partnership to consolidate and reduce the cost of the national debt. To generate income, in 1713 the company was granted a monopoly (the Asiento de Negros) to supply African slaves to the islands in the "South Seas" and South America. When the company was created, Britain was involved in the War of the Spanish Succession and Spain and Portugal controlled most of South America. There was thus no realistic prospect that trade would take place, and as it turned out, the Company never realised any significant profit from its monopoly. However, Company stock rose greatly in value as it expanded its operations dealing in government debt, and peaked in 1720 before suddenly collapsing to little above its original flotation price. The notorious economic bubble thus created, which ruined thousands of investors, became known as the South Sea Bubble.


title: South Sea Company

text: The Bubble Act 1720 (6 Geo. 1 c. 18), which forbade the creation of joint-stock companies without royal charter, was promoted by the South Sea Company itself before its collapse.


title: South Sea Company

text: In Great Britain, many investors were ruined by the share-price collapse, and as a result, the national economy diminished substantially. The founders of the scheme engaged in insider trading, by using their advance knowledge of the timings of national debt consolidations to make large profits from purchasing debt in advance. Huge bribes were given to politicians to support the Acts of Parliament necessary for the scheme. Company money was used to deal in its own shares, and selected individuals purchasing shares were given cash loans backed by those same shares to spend on purchasing more shares. The expectation of profits from trade with South America was talked up to encourage the public to purchase shares, but the bubble prices reached far beyond what the actual profits of the business (namely the slave trade) could justify.


title: South Sea Company

text: A parliamentary inquiry was held after the bursting of the bubble to discover its causes. A number of politicians were disgraced, and people found to have profited immorally from the company had personal assets confiscated proportionate to their gains (most had already been rich and remained so). Finally, the Company was restructured and continued to operate for more than a century after the Bubble. The headquarters were in Threadneedle Street, at the centre of the City of London, the financial district of the capital. At the time of these events, the Bank of England was also a private company dealing in national debt, and the crash of its rival confirmed its position as banker to the British government.


title: South Sea Company

text: When in August 1710 Robert Harley was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer, the government had already become reliant on the Bank of England, a privately owned company chartered 16 years previously, which had obtained a monopoly as the lender to the government. The government had become dissatisfied with the service it was receiving and Harley was actively seeking new ways to improve the national finances.


title: South Sea Company

text: A new Parliament met in November 1710 resolved to attend to national finances, which were suffering from the pressures of two simultaneous wars: the War of the Spanish Succession with France, which ended in 1713, and the Great Northern War, which was not to end until 1721. Harley came prepared, with detailed accounts describing the situation of the national debt, which was customarily a piecemeal arrangement, with each government department borrowing independently as the need arose. He released the information steadily, continually adding new reports of debts incurred and scandalous expenditure, until in January 1711 the House of Commons agreed to appoint a committee to investigate the entire debt. The committee included Harley himself, the two Auditors of the Imprests (whose task was to investigate government spending), Edward Harley (the Chancellor's brother), Paul Foley (the Chancellor's brother-in-law), the Secretary of the Treasury, William Lowndes (who had had significant responsibility for reminting the entire debased British coinage in 1696) and John Aislabie (who represented the October Club, a group of about 200 MPs who had agreed to vote together).


title: South Sea Company

text: Harley's first concern was to find £300,000 for the next quarter's payroll for the British army operating on the Continent under the Duke of Marlborough. This funding was provided by a private consortium of Edward Gibbon, grandfather of , George Caswall, and Hoare's Bank. The Bank of England had been operating a Lottery on behalf of the government, but in 1710 this had produced less revenue than expected and another begun in 1711 was also performing poorly; Harley granted the authority to sell tickets to John Blunt, a director of the Hollow Sword Blade Company, which despite its name was an unofficial bank. Sales commenced on 3 March 1711 and tickets had completely sold out by the 7th, making it the first truly successful English state lottery.


title: South Sea Company

text: The success was shortly followed by another larger lottery, "The Two Million Adventure" or "The Classis", with tickets costing £100, with a top prize of £20,000 and every ticket winning a prize of at least £10. Although prizes were advertised by their total value, they were in fact paid out by installments in the form of a fixed annuity over a period of years, so that the government effectively held the prize money as borrowings until the whole value had been paid out to the winners. Marketing was handled by members of the Sword Blade syndicate, Gibbon selling £200,000 of tickets and earning £4,500 commission, and Blunt selling £993,000. Charles Blunt (a relative) was made Paymaster of the lottery with expenses of £5,000.


title: South Sea Company

text: The national debt investigation concluded that a total of £9 million was owed by the government, with no specifically allocated income to pay it off. Robert Harley and John Blunt had jointly devised a scheme to consolidate this debt in much the same way that the Bank of England had consolidated previous debts, although the Bank still held the monopoly for operating as a bank. All holders of the debt (creditors) would be required to surrender it to a new company formed for the purpose, the South Sea Company, which in return would issue them shares in itself to the same nominal value. The government would make an annual payment to the Company of £568,279, equating to 6% interest plus expenses, which would then be redistributed to the shareholders as a dividend. The company was also granted a monopoly to trade with South America, a potentially lucrative enterprise, but one controlled by Spain, with whom Britain was at war.


title: South Sea Company

text: At that time, when the continent of America was being explored and colonized, Europeans applied the term "South Seas" only to South America and surrounding waters. The concession both held out the potential for future profits and encouraged a desire for an end to the war, necessary if any profits were to be made. The original suggestion for the South Sea scheme came from William Paterson, one of the founders of the Bank of England and of the financially disastrous Darien Scheme.


title: South Sea Company

text: Harley was rewarded for delivering the scheme by being created Earl of Oxford on 23 May 1711 and was promoted to Lord High Treasurer. With a more secure position, he began secret peace negotiations with France.


title: South Sea Company

text: The scheme to thus consolidate all government debt and to manage it better in the future held out the prospect of all existing creditors being repaid the full nominal value of their loans, which at the time before the scheme was publicised were valued at a discounted rate of £55 per £100 nominal value, as the lotteries were discredited and the government's ability to repay in full was widely doubted. Thus bonds representing the debt intended to be consolidated under the scheme were available for purchase on the open market at a price that allowed anyone with advance knowledge to buy and resell in the immediate future at a high profit, for as soon as the scheme became publicised the bonds would once again be worth at least their nominal value, as repayment was now more certain a prospect. This anticipation of gain made it possible for Harley to bring further financial supporters into the scheme, such as James Bateman and Theodore Janssen.


title: South Sea Company

text: The originators of the scheme knew that there was no money to invest in a trading venture, and no realistic expectation that there would ever be a trade to exploit, but nevertheless the potential for great wealth was widely publicised at every opportunity, so as to encourage interest in the scheme. The objective for the founders was to create a company that they could use to become wealthy and that offered scope for further government deals.


title: South Sea Company

text: The royal charter for the company, based on that of the Bank of England, was drawn up by Blunt who was paid £3,846 for his services in setting up the company. Directors would be elected every three years and shareholders would meet twice a year. The Company employed a Cashier, Secretary and Accountant. The Governor was intended as an honorary position, and was later customarily held by the monarch. The charter allowed the full court of directors to nominate a smaller committee to act on any matter on its behalf. Directors of the Bank of England and of the East India Company were barred from being directors of the South Sea Company. Any ship of more than 500 tons owned by the Company was to have a Church of England clergyman on board.


title: South Sea Company

text: The surrender of government debt for Company stock was to occur in five separate lots. The first two of these, totaling £2.75 million from about 200 large investors, had already been arranged before the company's charter was issued on 10 September 1711. The government itself surrendered £0.75 million of its own debt held by different departments (at that time individual office holders were at liberty to invest government funds under their control to their own advantage before it was required for government expenditure). Harley surrendered £8,000 of debt and was appointed Governor of the new company. Blunt, Caswall and Sawbridge together surrendered £65,000, Janssen £25,000 of his own plus £250,000 from a foreign consortium, Decker £49,000, Sir Ambrose Crawley £36,791. The company had a Sub-Governor, Bateman; a Deputy Governor, Ongley; and 30 ordinary directors. In total, nine of the directors were politicians, five were members of the Sword Blade consortium, and seven more were financial magnates who had been attracted to the scheme.


title: South Sea Company

text: The company created a coat of arms with the motto "A Gadibus usque ad Auroram" ("from Cadiz to the dawn", from Juvenal, Satires, 10) and rented a large house in the City of London as its headquarters. Seven sub-committees were created to handle its everyday business, the most important being the "committee for the affairs of the company". The Sword Blade company was retained as the Company's banker and on the strength of its new government connections issued notes in its own right, notwithstanding the Bank of England's monopoly. The task of the Company Secretary was to oversee trading activities; the Accountant, Grigsby, was responsible for registering and issuing stock; and the Cashier, Robert Knight, acted as Blunt's personal assistant at a salary of £200 per annum.


title: South Sea Company

text: The Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 granted Britain an "Asiento de Negros" lasting 30 years to supply the Spanish colonies with 4,800 slaves per year. Britain was permitted to open offices in Buenos Aires, Caracas, Cartagena, Havana, Panama, Portobello and Vera Cruz to arrange the Atlantic slave trade. One ship of no more than 500 tons could be sent to one of these places each year (the "Navío de Permiso") with general trade goods. One quarter of the profits were to be reserved for the King of Spain. There was provision for two extra sailings at the start of the contract. The Asiento was granted in the name of Queen Anne and then contracted to the company.


title: South Sea Company

text: By July the company had arranged contracts with the Royal African Company to supply the necessary African slaves to Jamaica. Ten pounds was paid for a slave aged over 16, £8 for one under 16 but over 10. Two-thirds were to be male, and 90% adult. The company trans-shipped 1,230 slaves from Jamaica to America in the first year, plus any that might have been added (against standing instructions) by the ship's captains on their own behalf. On arrival of the first cargoes, the local authorities refused to accept the Asiento, which had still not been officially confirmed there by the Spanish authorities. The slaves were eventually sold at a loss in the West Indies.


title: South Sea Company

text: In 1714 the government announced that a quarter of profits would be reserved for Queen Anne and a further 7.5% for a financial adviser, Manasseh Gilligan. Some Company board members refused to accept the contract on these terms, and the government was obliged to reverse its decision.


title: South Sea Company

text: Despite these setbacks, the company continued, having raised £200,000 to finance the operations. In 1714 2,680 slaves were carried, and for 1716–17, 13,000 more, but the trade continued to be unprofitable. An import duty of 33 pieces of eight was charged on each slave (although for this purpose some slaves might be counted only as a fraction of a slave, depending on quality). One of the extra trade ships was sent to Cartagena in 1714 carrying woollen goods, despite warnings that there was no market for them there, and they remained unsold for two years.


title: South Sea Company

text: It has been estimated that the company transported a little over 34,000 slaves with mortality losses comparable to its competitors, showing that slave trading was a significant part of the company's work, and that it was carried out to the standards of the day. Its trading activities therefore offered a financial motivation for investment in the company.


title: South Sea Company

text: The company was heavily dependent on the goodwill of government; when the government changed, so too did the company board. In 1714 one of the directors who had been sponsored by Harley, Arthur Moore, had attempted to send 60 tons of private goods on board the company ship. He was dismissed as a director, but the result was the beginning of Harley's fall from favour with the company. On 27 July 1714, Harley was replaced as Lord High Treasurer as a result of a disagreement that had broken out within the Tory faction in parliament. Queen Anne died on 1 August 1714; and at the election of directors in 1715 the Prince of Wales (the future King George II) was elected as Governor of the Company. The new King George I and the Prince of Wales both had large holdings in the company, as did some prominent Whig politicians, including James Craggs the Elder, the Earl of Halifax and Sir Joseph Jekyll. James Craggs, as Postmaster General, was responsible for intercepting mail on behalf of the government to obtain political and financial information. All Tory politicians were removed from the board and replaced with businessmen. The Whigs Horatio Townshend, brother in law of Robert Walpole, and the Duke of Argyll were elected directors.


title: South Sea Company

text: The change of government led to a revival of the company's share value, which had fallen below its issue price. The previous government had failed to make the interest payments to the company for the preceding two years, owing more than £1 million. The new administration insisted that the debt be written off, but allowed the company to issue new shares to stockholders to the value of the missed payments. At around £10 million, this now represented half the share capital issued in the entire country. In 1714 the company had 2,000 to 3,000 shareholders, more than either of its rivals.


title: South Sea Company

text: By the time of the next directors' elections in 1718 politics had changed again, with a schism within the Whigs between Walpole's faction supporting the Prince of Wales and James Stanhope's supporting the King. Argyll and Townshend were dismissed as directors, as were surviving Tories Sir Richard Hoare and George Pitt, and King George I became governor. Four MPs remained directors, as did six people holding government financial offices. The Sword Blade Company remained bankers to the South Sea, and indeed had flourished despite the company's dubious legal position. Blunt and Sawbridge remained South Sea directors, and they had been joined by Gibbon and Child. Caswall had retired as a South Sea director to concentrate on the Sword Blade business. In November 1718 Sub-Governor Bateman and Deputy Governor Shepheard both died. Leaving aside the honorary position of Governor, this left the company suddenly without its two most senior and experienced directors. They were replaced by Sir John Fellowes as Sub-Governor and Charles Joye as Deputy.


title: South Sea Company

text: In 1718 war broke out with Spain once again, in the War of the Quadruple Alliance. The company's assets in South America were seized, at a cost claimed by the company to be £300,000. Any prospect of profit from trade, for which the company had purchased ships and had been planning its next ventures, disappeared.


title: South Sea Company

text: Events in France now came to influence the future of the company. A Scottish economist and financier, John Law, exiled after killing a man in a duel, had travelled around Europe before settling in France. There he founded a bank, which in December 1718 became the Banque Royale, national bank of France, while Law himself was granted sweeping powers to control the economy of France, which operated largely by royal decree. Law's remarkable success was known in financial circles throughout Europe, and now came to inspire Blunt and his associates to make greater efforts to grow their own concerns.


title: South Sea Company

text: In February 1719 Craggs explained to the House of Commons a new scheme for improving the national debt by converting the annuities issued after the 1710 lottery into South Sea stock. By Act of Parliament, the company was granted the right to issue £1,150 of new stock for every £100 per annum of annuity which was surrendered. The government would pay 5% per annum on the stock created, which would halve their annual bill. The conversion was voluntary, amounting to £2.5 million new stock if all converted. The company was to make an additional new loan to the government pro rata up to £750,000, again at 5%.


title: South Sea Company

text: In March there was an abortive attempt to restore the Old Pretender, James Edward Stuart, to the throne of Britain, with a small landing of troops in Scotland. They were defeated at the Battle of Glen Shiel on 10 June. The South Sea company presented the offer to the public in July 1719. The Sword Blade company spread a rumour that the Pretender had been captured, and the general euphoria induced the South Sea share price to rise from £100, where it had been in the spring, to £114. Annuitants were still paid out at the same money value of shares, the company keeping the profit from the rise in value before issuing. About two-thirds of the in-force annuities were exchanged.


title: South Sea Company

text: The 1719 scheme was a distinct success from the government's perspective, and they sought to repeat it. Negotiations took place between Aislabie and Craggs for the government and Blunt, Cashier Knight and his assistant and Caswell. Janssen, the Sub Governor and Deputy Governor were also consulted but negotiations remained secret from most of the company. News from France was of fortunes being made investing in Law's bank, whose shares had risen sharply. Money was moving around Europe, and other flotations threatened to soak up available capital (two insurance schemes in December 1719 each sought to raise £3 million).


title: South Sea Company

text: Plans were made for a new scheme to take over most of the unconsolidated national debt of Britain (£30,981,712) in exchange for company shares. Annuities were valued as a lump sum necessary to produce the annual income over the original term at an assumed interest of 5%, which favoured those with shorter terms still to run. The government agreed to pay the same amount to the company for all the fixed-term repayable debt as it had been paying before, but after seven years the 5% interest rate would fall to 4% on both the new annuity debt and also that assumed previously. After the first year, the company was to give the government £3 million in four quarterly installments. New stock would be created at a face value equal to the debt, but the share price was still rising and sales of the remaining stock, i.e. the excess of the total market value of the stock over the amount of the debt, would be used to raise the government fee plus a profit for the company. The more the price rose in advance of conversion, the more the company would make. Before the scheme, payments were costing the government £1.5 million per year.


title: South Sea Company

text: The purpose of this conversion was similar to the old one: debt holders and annuitants might receive less return in total, but an illiquid investment was transformed into shares that could be readily traded. Shares backed by national debt were considered a safe investment and a convenient way to hold and move money, far easier and safer than metal coins. The only alternative safe asset, land, was much harder to sell and transfer of its ownership was legally much more complex.


title: South Sea Company

text: The government received a cash payment and lower overall interest on the debt. Importantly, it also gained control over when the debt had to be repaid, which was not before seven years but then at its discretion. This avoided the risk that debt might become repayable at some future point just when the government needed to borrow more, and could be forced into paying higher interest rates. The payment to the government was to be used to buy in any debt not subscribed to the scheme, which although it helped the government also helped the company by removing possibly competing securities from the market, including large holdings by the Bank of England.


title: South Sea Company

text: Company stock was now trading at £123, so the issue amounted to an injection of £5 million of new money into a booming economy just as interest rates were falling. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for Britain at this point was estimated as £64.4 million.


title: South Sea Company

text: On 21 January the plan was presented to the board of the South Sea Company, and on 22 January Chancellor of the Exchequer John Aislabie presented it to Parliament. The House was stunned into silence, but on recovering proposed that the Bank of England should be invited to make a better offer. In response, the South Sea increased its cash payment to £3.5 million, while the Bank proposed to undertake the conversion with a payment of £5.5 million and a fixed conversion price of £170 per £100 face-value Bank stock. On 1 February, the company negotiators led by Blunt raised their offer to £4 million plus a proportion of £3.5 million depending on how much of the debt was converted. They also agreed that the interest rate would decrease after four years instead of seven, and agreed to sell on behalf of the government £1 million of Exchequer bills (formerly handled by the Bank). The House accepted the South Sea offer. Bank stock fell sharply.


title: South Sea Company

text: Perhaps the first sign of difficulty came when the South Sea Company announced that its Christmas 1719 dividend would be deferred for 12 months. The company now embarked on a show of gratitude to its friends. Select individuals were sold a parcel of company stock at the current price. The transactions were recorded by Knight in the names of intermediaries, but no payments were received and no stock issued – indeed the company had none to issue until the conversion of debt began. The individual received an option to sell his stock back to the company at any future date at whatever market price might then apply. Shares went to the Craggs: the Elder and the Younger; Lord Gower; Lord Lansdowne; and four other MPs. Lord Sunderland would gain £500 for every pound that stock rose; George I's mistress, their children and Countess Platen £120 per pound rise, Aislabie £200 per pound, Lord Stanhope £600 per pound. Others invested money, including the Treasurer to the Navy, Hampden, who invested £25,000 of government money on his own behalf.


title: South Sea Company

text: The proposal was accepted in a slightly altered form in April 1720. Crucial in this conversion was the proportion of holders of irredeemable annuities who could be tempted to convert their securities at a high price for the new shares. (Holders of redeemable debt had effectively no other choice but to subscribe.) The South Sea Company could set the conversion price but could not diverge much from the market price of its shares. The company ultimately acquired 85% of the redeemables and 80% of the irredeemables.


title: South Sea Company

text: The company then set to talking up its stock with "the most extravagant rumours" of the value of its potential trade in the New World; this was followed by a wave of "speculating frenzy". The share price had risen from the time the scheme was proposed: from £128 in January 1720, to £175 in February, £330 in March and, following the scheme's acceptance, £550 at the end of May.


title: South Sea Company

text: What may have supported the company's high multiples (its P/E ratio) was a fund of credit (known to the market) of £70 million available for commercial expansion which had been made available through substantial support, apparently, by Parliament and the King.


title: South Sea Company

text: Shares in the company were "sold" to politicians at the current market price; however, rather than paying for the shares, these recipients simply held on to what shares they had been offered, with the option of selling them back to the company when and as they chose, receiving as "profit" the increase in market price. This method, while winning over the heads of government, the King's mistress, et al., also had the advantage of binding their interests to the interests of the Company: in order to secure their own profits, they had to help drive up the stock. Meanwhile, by publicising the names of their elite stockholders, the Company managed to clothe itself in an aura of legitimacy, which attracted and kept other buyers.


title: South Sea Company

text: The South Sea Company was by no means the only company seeking to raise money from investors in 1720. A large number of other joint-stock companies had been created making extravagant (sometimes fraudulent) claims about foreign or other ventures or bizarre schemes. Others represented potentially sound, although novel, schemes, such as for founding insurance companies. These were nicknamed "Bubbles". Some of the companies had no legal basis, while others, such as the Hollow Sword Blade company acting as the South Sea's banker, used existing chartered companies for purposes entirely different from their creation. The York Buildings Company was set up to provide water to London, but was purchased by Case Billingsley who used it to purchase confiscated Jacobite estates in Scotland, which then formed the assets of an insurance company.


title: South Sea Company

text: On 22 February 1720 John Hungerford raised the question of bubble companies in the House of Commons, and persuaded the House to set up a committee, which he chaired, to investigate. He identified a number of companies which between them sought to raise £40 million in capital. The committee investigated the companies, establishing a principle that companies should not be operating outside the objects specified in their charters. A potential embarrassment for the South Sea was avoided when the question of the Hollow Sword Blade Company arose. Difficulty was avoided by flooding the committee with MPs who were supporters of the South Sea, and voting down by 75 to 25 the proposal to investigate the Hollow Sword. (At this time, committees of the House were either 'Open' or 'secret'. A secret committee was one with a fixed set of members who could vote on its proceedings. By contrast, any MP could join in with an 'open' committee and vote on its proceedings.) Stanhope, who was a member of the committee, received £50,000 of the 'resaleable' South Sea stock from Sawbridge, a director of the Hollow Sword, at about this time. Hungerford had previously been expelled from the Commons for accepting a bribe.


title: South Sea Company

text: Amongst the bubble companies investigated were two supported by Lords Onslow and Chetwynd respectively, for insuring shipping. These were criticised heavily, and the questionable dealings of the Attorney-General and Solicitor-General in trying to obtain charters for the companies led to both being replaced. However, the schemes had the support of Walpole and Craggs, so that the larger part of the Bubble Act (which finally resulted in June 1720 from the committee's investigations) was devoted to creating charters for the Royal Exchange Assurance Corporation or London Assurance Corporation. The companies were required to pay £300,000 for the privilege. The Act required that a joint stock company could be incorporated only by Act of Parliament or Royal charter. The prohibition on unauthorised joint stock ventures was not repealed until 1825.


title: South Sea Company

text: The passing of the Act gave a boost to the South Sea Company, its shares leaping to £890 in early June. This peak encouraged people to start to sell; to counterbalance this the company's directors ordered their agents to buy, which succeeded in propping the price up at around £750.


title: South Sea Company

text: The price of the stock went up over the course of a single year from about £100 to almost £1000 per share. Its success caused a country-wide frenzy—herd behavior—as all types of people, from peasants to lords, developed a feverish interest in investing: in South Seas primarily, but in stocks generally. One famous apocryphal story is of a company that went public in 1720 as "a company for carrying out an undertaking of great advantage, but nobody to know what it is".


title: South Sea Company

text: The price finally reached £1,000 in early August 1720, and the level of selling was such that the price started to fall, dropping back to £100 per share before the year was out. This triggered bankruptcies amongst those who had bought on credit, and increased selling, even short selling (i.e., selling borrowed shares in the hope of buying them back at a profit if the price fell).


title: South Sea Company

text: Also, in August 1720, the first of the installment payments of the first and second money subscriptions on new issues of South Sea stock were due. Earlier in the year John Blunt had come up with an idea to prop up the share price: the company would lend people money to buy its shares. As a result, many shareholders could not pay for their shares except by selling them.


title: South Sea Company

text: Furthermore, a scramble for liquidity appeared internationally as "bubbles" were also ending in Amsterdam and Paris. The collapse coincided with the fall of the Mississippi Company of John Law in France. As a result, the price of South Sea shares began to decline.


title: South Sea Company

text: By the end of September the stock had fallen to £150. Company failures now extended to banks and goldsmiths, as they could not collect loans made on the stock, and thousands of individuals were ruined, including many members of the British elite. With investors outraged, Parliament was recalled in December and an investigation began. Reporting in 1721, it revealed widespread fraud amongst the company directors and corruption in the Cabinet. Among those implicated were John Aislabie (the Chancellor of the Exchequer), James Craggs the Elder (the Postmaster General), James Craggs the Younger (the Southern Secretary), and even Lord Stanhope and Lord Sunderland (the heads of the Ministry). Craggs the Elder and Craggs the Younger both died in disgrace; the remainder were impeached for their corruption. The Commons found Aislabie guilty of the "most notorious, dangerous and infamous corruption", and he was imprisoned.


title: South Sea Company

text: The newly appointed First Lord of the Treasury, Robert Walpole, successfully restored public confidence in the financial system. However, public opinion, as shaped by the many prominent men who lost money, demanded revenge. Walpole supervised the process, which removed all 33 of the company directors and stripped them of, on average, 82% of their wealth. The money went to the victims and the stock of the South Sea Company was divided between the Bank of England and the East India Company. Walpole made sure that King George and his mistresses were protected, and by a margin of three votes he managed to save several key government officials from impeachment. In the process, Walpole won plaudits as the savior of the financial system while establishing himself as the dominant figure in British politics; historians credit him for rescuing the Whig government, and indeed the Hanoverian dynasty, from total disgrace.


title: South Sea Company

text: Joseph Spence wrote that Lord Radnor reported to him "When Sir Isaac Newton was asked about the continuance of the rising of South Sea stock ... He answered 'that he could not calculate the madness of people'." He is also quoted as stating, "I can calculate the movement of the stars, but not the madness of men". Newton himself owned nearly £22,000 in South Sea stock in 1722, but it is not known how much he lost, if anything. There are, however, numerous sources stating he lost up to £20,000 (equivalent to £ in 2022).


title: South Sea Company

text: The South Sea Company was created in 1711 to reduce the size of public debts, but was granted the commercial privilege of exclusive rights of trade to the Spanish Indies, based on the treaty of commerce signed by Britain and the Archduke Charles, candidate to the Spanish throne during the War of the Spanish Succession. After Philip V became the King of Spain, Britain obtained at the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht the rights to the slave trade to the Spanish Indies (or Asiento de Negros) for 30 years. Those rights were previously held by the Compagnie de Guinée et de l'Assiente du Royaume de la France.


title: South Sea Company

text: The South Sea Company board opposed taking on the slave trade, which had showed little profitability when chartered companies had engaged in it, but it was the only legal type of commerce with the Spanish Colonies as they were a closed market. To increase the profitability, the Asiento contract included the right to send one yearly 500-ton ship to the fairs at Portobello and Veracruz loaded with duty-free merchandises, called the "Navío de Permiso". The Crown of England and the King of Spain were each entitled to 25% of the profits, according to the terms of the contract, that was a copy of the French Asiento contract, but Queen Anne soon renounced her share. The King of Spain did not receive any payments due to him, and this was one of the sources of contention between the Spanish Crown and the South Sea Company.


title: South Sea Company

text: As was the case for previous holders of the Asiento, the Portuguese and the French, the profit was not in the slave trade but in the illegal contraband goods smuggled in the slave ships and in the annual ship. Those goods were sold at the Spanish colonies at a handsome price as they were in high demand and constituted unfair competition with taxed goods, proving a large drain on the Spanish Crown trade income. The relationship between the South Sea Company and the Government of Spain was always bad, and worsened with time. The Company complained of searches and seizures of goods, lack of profitability, and confiscation of properties during the wars between Britain and Spain of 1718–1723 and 1727–1729, during which the operations of the Company were suspended. The Government of Spain complained of the illegal trade, failure of the company to present its accounts as stipulated by the contract, and non-payment of the King's share of the profits. These claims were a major cause of deteriorating relations between the two countries in 1738; and although the Prime Minister Walpole opposed war, there was strong support for it from the King, the House of Commons, and a faction in his own Cabinet. Walpole was able to negotiate a treaty with the King of Spain at the Convention of Pardo in January 1739 that stipulated that Spain would pay British merchants £95,000 in compensation for captures and seized goods, while the South Sea Company would pay the Spanish Crown £68,000 in due proceeds from the Asiento. The South Sea Company refused to pay those proceeds and the King of Spain retained payment of the compensation until payment from the South Sea Company could be secured. The breakup of relations between the South Sea Company and the Spanish Government was a prelude to the "Guerra del Asiento", as the first Royal Navy fleets departed in July 1739 for the Caribbean, prior to the declaration of war, which lasted from October 1739 until 1748. This war is known as the War of Jenkins' Ear.


title: South Sea Company

text: Under the Treaty of Tordesillas, Spain was the only European power that could not establish factories in Africa to purchase slaves. The slaves for the Spanish America were provided by companies that were granted exclusive rights to their trade. This monopoly contract was called the slave Asiento. Between 1701 and 1713 the Asiento contract was granted to France. In 1711 Britain had created the South Sea Company to reduce debt and to trade with the Spanish America, but that commerce was illegal without a permit from Spain, and the only existing permit was the Asiento for the slave trade, so at the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 Britain obtained the transfer of the Asiento contract from French to British hands for the next 30 years.


title: South Sea Company

text: The board of directors was reluctant to take on the slave trade, which was not an object of the company and had shown little profitability when carried out by chartered companies, but they finally agreed on 26 March 1714. The Asiento set a sale quota of 4,800 units of slaves per year. An adult male slave counted as one unit; females and children counted as fractions of a unit. Initially the slaves were provided by the Royal African Company.


title: South Sea Company

text: The South Sea Company established slave reception factories at Cartagena, Colombia, Veracruz, Mexico, Panama, Portobello, La Guaira, Buenos Aires, La Havana and Santiago de Cuba, and slave deposits at Jamaica and Barbados. Despite problems with speculation, the South Sea Company was relatively successful at slave trading and meeting its quota (it was unusual for other, similarly chartered companies to fulfill their quotas). According to records compiled by David Eltis and others, during the course of 96 voyages in 25 years, the South Sea Company purchased 34,000 slaves, of whom 30,000 survived the voyage across the Atlantic. (Thus about 11% of the slaves died on the voyage: a relatively low mortality rate for the Middle Crossing.) The company persisted with the slave trade through two wars with Spain and the calamitous 1720 commercial bubble. The company's trade in human slavery peaked during the 1725 trading year, five years after the bubble burst. Between 1715 and 1739, slave trading constituted the main legal commercial activity of the South Sea Company.


title: South Sea Company

text: The slave Asiento contract of 1713 granted a permit to send one vessel of 500 tons per year, loaded with duty-free merchandise to be sold at the fairs of New Spain, Cartagena and Portobello. This was an unprecedented concession that broke two centuries of strict exclusion of foreign merchants from the Spanish Empire.


title: South Sea Company

text: The first ship to head for the Americas, the "Royal Prince", was scheduled for 1714 but was delayed until August 1716. In consideration of the three annual ships missed since the date of the Asiento, the permitted tonnage of the next ten ships was raised to 650. Actually only seven annual ships sailed during the Asiento, the last one being the Royal Caroline in 1732. The company's failure to produce accounts for all the annual ships but the first one, and lack of payment of the proceeds to the Spanish Crown from the profits for all the annual ships, resulted in no more permits being granted to the Company's ships after the Royal Caroline trip of 1732–1734.


title: South Sea Company

text: In contrast to the "legitimate" trade in slaves, the regular trade of the annual ships generated healthy returns, in some case profits were over 100%. Accounts for the voyage of the "Royal Prince" were not presented until 1733, following continuous demands by Spanish officials. They reported that profits of £43,607. Since the King of Spain was entitled to 25% of the profits, after deducting interest on a loan he claimed £8,678. The South Sea Company never paid the amount due for the first annual ship to the Spanish Crown, nor did it pay any amount for any of the other six trips.


title: South Sea Company

text: The Greenland Company had been established by Act of Parliament in 1693 with the object of catching whales in the Arctic. The products of their "whale-fishery" were to be free of customs and other duties. Partly due to maritime disruption caused by wars with France, the Greenland Company failed financially within a few years. In 1722 Henry Elking published a proposal, directed at the governors of the South Sea Company, that they should resume the "Greenland Trade" and send ships to catch whales in the Arctic. He made very detailed suggestions about how the ships should be crewed and equipped.


title: South Sea Company

text: The British Parliament confirmed that a British Arctic "whale-fishery" would continue to benefit from freedom from customs duties, and in 1724 the South Sea Company decided to commence whaling. They had 12 whale-ships built on the River Thames and these went to the Greenland seas in 1725. Further ships were built in later years, but the venture was not successful. There were hardly any experienced whalemen remaining in Britain, and the Company had to engage Dutch and Danish whalemen for the key posts aboard their ships: for instance all commanding officers and harpooners were hired from the North Frisian island of Föhr. Other costs were badly controlled and the catches remained disappointingly few, even though the Company was sending up to 25 ships to Davis Strait and the Greenland seas in some years. By 1732 the Company had accumulated a net loss of £177,782 from their eight years of Arctic whaling.


title: South Sea Company

text: The South Sea Company directors appealed to the British government for further support. Parliament had passed an Act in 1732 that extended the duty-free concessions for a further nine years. In 1733 an Act was passed that also granted a government subsidy to British Arctic whalers, the first in a long series of such Acts that continued and modified the whaling subsidies throughout the 18th century. This, and the subsequent Acts, required the whalers to meet conditions regarding the crewing and equipping of the whale-ships that closely resembled the conditions suggested by Elking in 1722. In spite of the extended duty-free concessions, and the prospect of real subsidies as well, the Court and Directors of the South Sea Company decided that they could not expect to make profits from Arctic whaling. They sent out no more whale-ships after the loss-making 1732 season.


title: South Sea Company

text: The company continued its trade (when not interrupted by war) until the end of the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). However, its main function was always managing government debt, rather than trading with the Spanish colonies. The South Sea Company continued its management of the part of the national debt until it was disestablished in 1853, at which point the debt was reconsolidated. The debt was not paid off by World War I, at which point it was consolidated again, under terms that allowed the government to avoid repaying the principal.


title: South Sea Company

text: The armorials of the South Sea Company, according to a grant of arms dated 31 October 1711, were: "Azure, a globe whereon are represented the Straits of Magellan and Cape Horn all proper and in sinister chief point two herrings haurient in saltire argent crowned or, in a canton the united arms of Great Britain". Crest: "A ship of three masts in full sail". Supporters, dexter: "The emblematic figure of Britannia, with the shield, lance etc all proper"; sinister: "A fisherman completely clothed, with cap boots fishing net etc and in his hand a string of fish, all proper".


title: South Sea Company

text: The South Sea Company had a governor (generally an honorary position), a subgovernor, a deputy governor and 30 directors (reduced in 1753 to 21).


title: Milkshake (song)

text: "Milkshake" is a song by American singer Kelis from her third studio album, "Tasty" (2003). Written and produced by the Neptunes, the song was originally offered to Britney Spears for her fourth studio album, "In the Zone", but was instead given to Kelis. It was released as the lead single from "Tasty" in the United States on August 25, 2003, by Star Trak and Arista Records, and internationally on November 24, 2003. According to Kelis, "milkshake" in the song is used as a metaphor for "something that makes women special". The song is noted for its euphemistic chorus and low beat R&B sound.


title: Milkshake (song)

text: "Milkshake" peaked at number three on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 in December 2003, becoming Kelis' highest-charting single to date. Elsewhere, the single topped the charts in Ireland and peaked inside the top 10 of the charts in Australia, Denmark, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom. "Milkshake" was certified Gold in the United States, where it has sold 883,000 paid downloads. The song was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Urban/Alternative Performance in 2004.


title: Milkshake (song)

text: "Milkshake" was written and produced by Pharrell Williams and Chad Hugo, known collectively as the Neptunes. The song was conceived when "Tasty" was chosen as the album's title. When making the song, Kelis "knew right away that it was a really good song", and she wanted it to be the album's first single. Recording sessions took place at Hovercraft Studios in Virginia Beach, Virginia. Phil Tan mixed the recordings at Right Track Studios in New York City.


title: Milkshake (song)

text: When asked about the meaning of the song, Kelis told "The Observer" that "It means whatever people want it to; it was just a word we came up with on a whim, but then the song took on a life of its own." However, in an interview with the Associated Press, she likened one's milkshake to one's self-confidence: "A milkshake is the thing that makes women special. It's what gives us our confidence and what makes us exciting."


title: Milkshake (song)

text: "Milkshake" is an R&B song, and Joey Rivaldo of About.com described it as a "low beat dance song". The song is noted for its chorus, in which Kelis sings "My milkshake brings all the boys to the yard". The line was referred to as a "sexy, euphemistic playground rap" by MTV News. The song's riff was described as "blaring synth-funk". Unlike many urban pop songs, which rely on drum machines, the beat consists of a lone darbuka playing a rhythm similar to a belly dance. A manjira sample resembling an order-up counter bell is used throughout the song. Andy Kellman of AllMusic compared the song's suggestive lyrics to "Nasty Girl" by Vanity 6, "In My House" by Mary Jane Girls and "Touch It" by Monifah. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing, "Milkshake" has a moderate beat rate of 113 beats per minute.


title: Milkshake (song)

text: "Milkshake" received critical acclaim upon its release, both for its inventive and groundbreaking production as well as Kelis' vocal performance.


title: Milkshake (song)

text: About.com's Joey Rivaldo rated the song four out of five stars, and stated: "Clearly this is the case of my milkshake is better than yours, so grab yours quick, or we'll have to charge." While reviewing the soundtrack to the film "Mean Girls" (2004), in which "Milkshake" is featured, Heather Phares of AllMusic wrote that the song describes "the movie's playfully menacing undercurrent", and called the song "fantastic", and that it is "basically a three-minute tutorial in sex appeal." Rollie Pemberton of "Pitchfork" called the song "brilliant", and said: "Equal parts cantina gyration and future-funk, Kelis plays the coquette, enticing the entire American male populace with rhythmic coos while simultaneously providing an apt tutorial for aspiring temptresses." Bjorn Randolph of "Stylus Magazine" said that the song "may well be remembered as their [the Neptunes'] masterpiece".


title: Milkshake (song)

text: Mark Danson of Contactmusic.com was not very fond of the song, criticizing the Neptunes' sound, and said: "as it sounds like [Pharrell] Williams has done this one in his sleep, it'll probably slip under the radar unless it has a fairly decent video to back it up. It's obviously supposed to be a kind of sexy electronica, but it just ends up sounding slack." Tony Naylor of "NME" called the song "probably the oddest track" on the "Tasty" album. Adam Webb of Yahoo! Music UK said that the song "nestles in seamlessly, the rhythm as relentless as a parade of majorettes with Kelis upfront as the cheerleader." Neil Drumming of "Entertainment Weekly" called the song a "lusty party anthem". Ernest Hardy of "Rolling Stone" called it "the superfreakiest song on the charts", Sal Cinquemani of "Slant Magazine" called it "thick and creamy", Steve Jones of "USA Today" called it "saucy", and Dorian Lynskey of "The Guardian" said that in the song "Kelis exploits her husky croon like never before, pouring it over lascivious double entendre."


title: Milkshake (song)

text: "The Observer" named the song the best single of 2004. In 2004, "Pitchfork" made a list of the top 50 singles of 2003 and listed the song at number eight. In 2005, "Pitchfork" made a list of the top 100 singles of 2000–2004, listing "Milkshake" at number 21. "Stylus Magazine" named the song the 13th-best single of 2000–2005. In September 2011, VH1 ranked the song at number 61 on its list of the "100 Greatest Songs of the '00s". In October 2011, "NME" placed it at number 136 on its list "150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years".


title: Milkshake (song)

text: "Milkshake" debuted at number 73 on the September 6, 2003, chart of the "Billboard" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, and peaked at number four on January 3, 2004. In October 2003, it debuted at number 95 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. It was Kelis' second entry on the chart, following "Caught out There", which spent 12 weeks on the chart between December 1999 and February 2000. In its 13th week on the chart, "Milkshake" reached its peak of number three, and stayed there for five consecutive weeks. The song charted on the Hot 100 for 22 weeks, and was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on October 25, 2004. "Milkshake" also spent a week atop the Hot Dance Club Songs chart in December 2003. The song has sold 883,000 paid digital downloads in the United States, according to Nielsen SoundScan. It was listed at number 41 on the 2004 Hot 100 year-end chart, and number 41 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs year-end chart.


title: Milkshake (song)

text: The single debuted at number 15 on the Irish Singles Chart, and later topped the chart for five consecutive weeks. In the United Kingdom, "Milkshake" peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart, where it remained for four consecutive weeks, and has been certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). Elsewhere in Europe, the track reached the top five in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, and the top 10 in Netherlands.


title: Milkshake (song)

text: In Australia, "Milkshake" peaked at number two on the ARIA Singles Chart for five non-consecutive weeks and has been certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). It also peaked at number three on the New Zealand Singles Chart and has been certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ).


title: Milkshake (song)

text: The music video for "Milkshake" was directed by Jake Nava. In the video, Kelis enters a diner called Tasty's Yard. She dances suggestively, and puts her lips around a cherry, which causes a mother to cover her child's eyes. A cook, played by rapper Nas, starts delivering milkshakes to the customers while Kelis dances. A milkshake machine then starts spurting milkshake all over the customers, and more and more people enter the "yard". "FHM" named the music video the 73rd sexiest music video by a female performer of all time and commented: "Here she's backed up by a posse of dancers wearing tiny diner uniforms. The way she sucks a milkshake and bites a cherry is just unfairly sexy", and said that the best part is when Kelis demonstrates a "perfect bending-over-oven technique".


title: Milkshake (song)

text: The song has been featured in numerous television series and films including "The Simpsons", "Family Guy", "Jane the Virgin", "South Park", "The Glee Project", "Nip/Tuck", "The Haunted Mansion", "Mean Girls", "", "King's Ransom", "The Big Short", "Date Movie", "2 Broke Girls", "Norbit" and "Identity Thief". It appeared in season 3, episode 8 of "Sex Education".


title: Milkshake (song)

text: The song was covered by Australian rock band The Pictures in 2005 as part of youth radio station Triple J's "Like a Version" segment. The song was also covered by Ashleigh Murray, Asha Bromfield and Madelaine Petsch in the episode "Chapter Fifteen: Nighthawks" from the second season of the television series "Riverdale". The song was also covered by Robyn Adele Anderson in 2020.


title: Black Dolphin Prison

text: Federal Governmental Institution — penal colony No. 6 of the Federal Penitentiary Service of Russia in Orenburg Oblast, commonly known as the Black Dolphin Prison (), is a correctional facility in Sol-Iletsk, Orenburg Oblast, Russia, near its border with Kazakhstan. The prison is one of the oldest in Russia, and one of the first in the Orenburg Oblast to accept prisoners with life sentences. It gets its unofficial name from a prisoner-constructed sculpture depicting a black dolphin, which is set in front of the main entrance.


title: Black Dolphin Prison

text: Originally, Black Dolphin was a jail (ostrog) for those sentenced to life at hard labor, since at least 1745. After the suppression of Pugachev's Rebellion in 1773, the prison was updated for the deportation and confinement of robbers. The prison houses approximately 700 of Russia's worst criminals, including child molesters, murderers, terrorists, cannibals, and serial killers. Prisoners at Black Dolphin are all serving sentences of life imprisonment. The prison began accepting these inmates on 1 November 2000.


title: Black Dolphin Prison

text: Inmates are kept isolated in cells that have a set of three steel doors. For 90 minutes a day, they exercise in a large cage; during this time, cells are searched for contraband or illegal items. Inmates are also under 24-hour surveillance and supervision; they are not permitted to rest or sit on their bunks from the time they awake until bedtime (roughly 16 hours). When prison officers make a command to the inmates, they must respond with the words "yes, sir." Every 15 minutes, a guard makes rounds to ensure Black Dolphin inmates are complying with the rules. The prisoners are fed soup four times a day, and are only allowed books, newspapers, and a radio.


title: Black Dolphin Prison

text: Prison guards place blindfolds on arriving inmates so that they cannot map out the prison or plan escapes. The inmates are also blindfolded whenever they are transported between buildings. Black Dolphin prison officers have a unique form of escorting inmates: Prisoners are kept bent over at the waist while a guard holds their handcuffed hands behind their back, higher than the hips. This escort control tactic allows for maximum control while depriving the inmate of a view of his immediate surroundings (preventing him from escaping and/or attacking prison staff).


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: Brian David Scalabrine (born March 18, 1978), nicknamed the "White Mamba", is an American former professional basketball player who is currently a television analyst for the Boston Celtics of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He is also the co-host of "The Starting Lineup", which airs weekdays from 7 a.m. to 10 a.m. ET on SiriusXM NBA Radio.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: Raised in Enumclaw, Washington, Scalabrine attended the University of Southern California after transferring from Highline College. As a member of the USC Trojans men's basketball team, Scalabrine was the top scorer and a leader in field goals and rebounds. He also played at the center position in college.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: The New Jersey Nets selected him in the second round of the 2001 NBA draft. The Nets made consecutive NBA Finals his first two years, and Scalabrine played four seasons with the team. In 2005, he signed with the Boston Celtics and won a championship with the team in 2008. The Celtics also appeared in the 2010 NBA Finals. Scalabrine signed with the Chicago Bulls the following season, and played with them until 2012. Throughout his NBA career, Scalabrine served as a backup power forward.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: In 2013, Mark Jackson announced that Scalabrine would join his Golden State Warriors coaching staff. In 2014, Scalabrine took a job as an analyst for Celtics games on local Boston broadcasts.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: Born in Long Beach, California, Scalabrine was one of four children in his family and graduated from Enumclaw High School at Enumclaw, Washington in 1996. He is of Italian ancestry. He enrolled at Highline College in 1996, played his first year with its basketball team the Thunderbirds, and redshirted his second year. As a freshman at Highline, Scalabrine averaged 16.3 points, 9.6 rebounds, 2.9 assists and 1.2 steals per game. Scalabrine recorded seventeen double-doubles, and led the team in rebounds, blocks, and free throw percentage (75%). The Thunderbirds went 31-1 in the 1996–97 season and won the state junior college championship. Scalabrine was a Northern Division All-Star in 1997 as well as part of the All-Northwest Athletic Association of Community Colleges Championship Tournament Team.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: In 1998, he transferred to the University of Southern California (USC). In his first year with the USC Trojans, he was the only player to start all 28 games. He led the Trojans in scoring (14.6 points), rebounding (6.4), and field goals (53.1%). In scoring, blocked shots, and field goals, he was also the only Pac-10 conference player among the top 10 players in those areas. His best game performance was against American University on December 21, 1998: 26 points, seven rebounds, and two blocks. On February 13, 1999, he scored 22 points including an important three-pointer in overtime; the unranked USC won an upset victory over number-six Stanford 86-82 in overtime. He was the 1999 Pac-10 Newcomer of the Year and earned an All-Pac-10 honorable mention.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: During his second season with USC, Scalabrine was named to the All-Pac-10 first team and the National Association of Basketball Coaches All-District 15 first team. He also earned a "Sporting News" All-American honorable mention. Again, he finished as USC's top scorer (17.8 ppg) and field goal shooter (53.1%) and was also the second-best Pac-10 scorer. He also made 40.3% of attempted three-pointers. Against the Oregon Ducks, Scalabrine scored 29 points and made 10 rebounds.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: USC advanced to the NCAA tournament in 2001, Scalabrine's senior season. In the Elite Eight round, USC lost to Duke 79-69; Scalabrine scored 13 points. Scalabrine graduated with a degree in history.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: Because he injured his fifth metatarsal bone during workouts in late September 2001, Scalabrine missed the first ten days of New Jersey Nets training camp. During the second quarter of the final 2001–02 preseason game, which took place against the Detroit Pistons on October 26, 2001, Scalabrine again injured his right foot. He made his NBA debut on January 31, 2002, when the Nets played against the Milwaukee Bucks. As a rookie, Scalabrine averaged 2.1 points, 1.8 rebounds, and 0.8 assists per game. He played in six playoff games his debut season and averaged 0.3 points and 0.5 rebounds. The Nets were the Eastern Conference Champions of the 2001–02 season and lost the 2002 NBA Finals to the Los Angeles Lakers in four games. In a triple-overtime victory over the Detroit Pistons in Game 5 of the 2004 Eastern Conference Semifinal series, Scalabrine scored a career high 17 points. He surpassed that high with 29 points on January 26, 2005 against the Golden State Warriors. On April 15, 2005, he played a career high 45 minutes.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: During his time with the Nets, Scalabrine gained the nickname "Veal", a play on words based on the dish veal scaloppini.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: On August 2, 2005, Scalabrine signed a five-year contract with the Boston Celtics. A month earlier, he and the team agreed on terms that the contract be worth $15 million over the five years.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: Scalabrine started in nine of 48 games during the 2007–08 season, and played on average 10.7 minutes. He averaged 1.8 points and 1.6 rebounds per game. On April 16, 2008, in the final game of the regular season, Scalabrine tied a season-high with six rebounds and played 29 minutes. He did not make an appearance in the NBA playoffs. In the 2008 Finals, the Celtics defeated the Lakers in six games.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: On September 21, 2010, Scalabrine agreed to a non-guaranteed contract with the Chicago Bulls. The Bulls visited the Boston Celtics on November 5, 2010, and in double overtime the Bulls won 110-105. Scalabrine played only three minutes that game. He played 18 games with the Bulls and averaged 1.1 points and 0.4 rebounds per game.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: On September 22, 2011, during the 2011 NBA lockout, Scalabrine signed with the Italian team Benetton Treviso. He left the team in December 2011 to pursue opportunities in the NBA after the lockout had ended.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: On December 12, 2011, Scalabrine re-signed with the Bulls. During the 2011-12 season, Scalabrine played in 28 games. In September 2012, he was offered a position as an assistant coach for the Bulls under Tom Thibiodeau, but instead opted to become a broadcaster for the Boston Celtics.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: In July 2013, Golden State Warriors coach Mark Jackson announced via Twitter that Scalabrine was joining his coaching staff. During the season, Jackson reassigned Scalabrine to the Warriors' D-League affiliate after a difference of opinion on the team's direction.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: In September 2012, Scalabrine announced that he had turned down an opportunity to become an assistant coach with the Bulls so that he could join Comcast SportsNet New England as a commentator. Scalabrine described the job as "a trial run", and said there was a "small possibility" he would resume his playing career overseas in 2013.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: In 2014, Scalabrine wrote an essay to Boston to announce his "homecoming" to become a Comcast SportsNet announcer. His essay spoofed a famous "Sports Illustrated" story about LeBron James's return to Cleveland.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: Scalabrine married Kristen Couch in 2003; their wedding ceremony was held in Hawaii. They have two children. He is also a member of the sports philanthropy organization Athletes for Hope.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: Despite his limited playing time, Scalabrine became a popular player. Bulls fans referred to him as "The White Mamba", a play on Kobe Bryant's nickname of "The Black Mamba".


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: In 2013 in response to criticism over him being in a bench role throughout his career and to claims that many would beat him 1-on-1 Scalabrine stated "I'm closer to LeBron than you are to me", suggesting that there is a huge difference between any (active or retired) NBA player and the majority of those outside the league.


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: In an event organized by The Toucher and Rich Show selected volunteers had the chance to play 1-on-1 against Scalabrine (until 11 points with a margin of 2).


title: Brian Scalabrine

text: The format was called the "Scallange" and Scalabrine played four games (one against each of the voluntary contenders).


title: Outlier

text: In statistics, an outlier is a data point that differs significantly from other observations. An outlier may be due to a variability in the measurement, an indication of novel data, or it may be the result of experimental error; the latter are sometimes excluded from the data set. An outlier can be an indication of exciting possibility, but can also cause serious problems in statistical analyses.


title: Outlier

text: Outliers can occur by chance in any distribution, but they can indicate novel behaviour or structures in the data-set, measurement error, or that the population has a heavy-tailed distribution. In the case of measurement error, one wishes to discard them or use statistics that are robust to outliers, while in the case of heavy-tailed distributions, they indicate that the distribution has high skewness and that one should be very cautious in using tools or intuitions that assume a normal distribution. A frequent cause of outliers is a mixture of two distributions, which may be two distinct sub-populations, or may indicate 'correct trial' versus 'measurement error'; this is modeled by a mixture model.


title: Outlier

text: In most larger samplings of data, some data points will be further away from the sample mean than what is deemed reasonable. This can be due to incidental systematic error or flaws in the theory that generated an assumed family of probability distributions, or it may be that some observations are far from the center of the data. Outlier points can therefore indicate faulty data, erroneous procedures, or areas where a certain theory might not be valid. However, in large samples, a small number of outliers is to be expected (and not due to any anomalous condition).


title: Outlier

text: Outliers, being the most extreme observations, may include the sample maximum or sample minimum, or both, depending on whether they are extremely high or low. However, the sample maximum and minimum are not always outliers because they may not be unusually far from other observations.


title: Outlier

text: Naive interpretation of statistics derived from data sets that include outliers may be misleading. For example, if one is calculating the average temperature of 10 objects in a room, and nine of them are between 20 and 25 degrees Celsius, but an oven is at 175 °C, the median of the data will be between 20 and 25 °C but the mean temperature will be between 35.5 and 40 °C. In this case, the median better reflects the temperature of a randomly sampled object (but not the temperature in the room) than the mean; naively interpreting the mean as "a typical sample", equivalent to the median, is incorrect. As illustrated in this case, outliers may indicate data points that belong to a different population than the rest of the sample set.


title: Outlier

text: Estimators capable of coping with outliers are said to be robust: the median is a robust statistic of central tendency, while the mean is not. However, the mean is generally a more precise estimator.


title: Outlier

text: In the case of normally distributed data, the three sigma rule means that roughly 1 in 22 observations will differ by twice the standard deviation or more from the mean, and 1 in 370 will deviate by three times the standard deviation. In a sample of 1000 observations, the presence of up to five observations deviating from the mean by more than three times the standard deviation is within the range of what can be expected, being less than twice the expected number and hence within 1 standard deviation of the expected number – see Poisson distribution – and not indicate an anomaly. If the sample size is only 100, however, just three such outliers are already reason for concern, being more than 11 times the expected number.


title: Outlier

text: In general, if the nature of the population distribution is known "a priori", it is possible to test if the number of outliers deviate significantly from what can be expected: for a given cutoff (so samples fall beyond the cutoff with probability "p") of a given distribution, the number of outliers will follow a binomial distribution with parameter "p", which can generally be well-approximated by the Poisson distribution with λ = "pn". Thus if one takes a normal distribution with cutoff 3 standard deviations from the mean, "p" is approximately 0.3%, and thus for 1000 trials one can approximate the number of samples whose deviation exceeds 3 sigmas by a Poisson distribution with λ = 3.


title: Outlier

text: Outliers can have many anomalous causes. A physical apparatus for taking measurements may have suffered a transient malfunction. There may have been an error in data transmission or transcription. Outliers arise due to changes in system behaviour, fraudulent behaviour, human error, instrument error or simply through natural deviations in populations. A sample may have been contaminated with elements from outside the population being examined. Alternatively, an outlier could be the result of a flaw in the assumed theory, calling for further investigation by the researcher. Additionally, the pathological appearance of outliers of a certain form appears in a variety of datasets, indicating that the causative mechanism for the data might differ at the extreme end (King effect).


title: Outlier

text: There is no rigid mathematical definition of what constitutes an outlier; determining whether or not an observation is an outlier is ultimately a subjective exercise. There are various methods of outlier detection, some of which are treated as synonymous with novelty detection. Some are graphical such as normal probability plots. Others are model-based. Box plots are a hybrid.


title: Outlier

text: Model-based methods which are commonly used for identification assume that the data are from a normal distribution, and identify observations which are deemed "unlikely" based on mean and standard deviation:


title: Outlier

text: It is proposed to determine in a series of formula_1 observations the limit of error, beyond which all observations involving so great an error may be rejected, provided there are as many as formula_2 such observations. The principle upon which it is proposed to solve this problem is, that the proposed observations should be rejected when the probability of the system of errors obtained by retaining them is less than that of the system of errors obtained by their rejection multiplied by the probability of making so many, and no more, abnormal observations. (Quoted in the editorial note on page 516 to Peirce (1982 edition) from "A Manual of Astronomy" 2:558 by Chauvenet.)


title: Outlier

text: Other methods flag observations based on measures such as the interquartile range. For example, if formula_3 and formula_4 are the lower and upper quartiles respectively, then one could define an outlier to be any observation outside the range:


title: Outlier

text: John Tukey proposed this test, where formula_7 indicates an "outlier", and formula_8 indicates data that is "far out".


title: Outlier

text: In various domains such as, but not limited to, statistics, signal processing, finance, econometrics, manufacturing, networking and data mining, the task of "anomaly detection" may take other approaches. Some of these may be distance-based and density-based such as Local Outlier Factor (LOF). Some approaches may use the distance to the k-nearest neighbors to label observations as outliers or non-outliers.


title: Outlier

text: The modified Thompson Tau test is a method used to determine if an outlier exists in a data set. The strength of this method lies in the fact that it takes into account a data set's standard deviation, average and provides a statistically determined rejection zone; thus providing an objective method to determine if a data point is an outlier.


title: Outlier

text: First, a data set's average is determined. Next the absolute deviation between each data point and the average are determined. Thirdly, a rejection region is determined using the formula:


title: Outlier

text: where formula_10 is the critical value from the Student distribution with "n"-2 degrees of freedom, "n" is the sample size, and s is the sample standard deviation.


title: Outlier

text: The modified Thompson Tau test is used to find one outlier at a time (largest value of "δ" is removed if it is an outlier). Meaning, if a data point is found to be an outlier, it is removed from the data set and the test is applied again with a new average and rejection region. This process is continued until no outliers remain in a data set.


title: Outlier

text: Some work has also examined outliers for nominal (or categorical) data. In the context of a set of examples (or instances) in a data set, instance hardness measures the probability that an instance will be misclassified ( formula_12 where is the assigned class label and represent the input attribute value for an instance in the training set ). Ideally, instance hardness would be calculated by summing over the set of all possible hypotheses :


title: Outlier

text: Practically, this formulation is unfeasible as is potentially infinite and calculating formula_14 is unknown for many algorithms. Thus, instance hardness can be approximated using a diverse subset formula_15:


title: Outlier

text: where formula_17 is the hypothesis induced by learning algorithm formula_18 trained on training set with hyperparameters formula_19. Instance hardness provides a continuous value for determining if an instance is an outlier instance.


title: Outlier

text: The choice of how to deal with an outlier should depend on the cause. Some estimators are highly sensitive to outliers, notably estimation of covariance matrices.


title: Outlier

text: Even when a normal distribution model is appropriate to the data being analyzed, outliers are expected for large sample sizes and should not automatically be discarded if that is the case. The application should use a classification algorithm that is robust to outliers to model data with naturally occurring outlier points.


title: Outlier

text: Deletion of outlier data is a controversial practice frowned upon by many scientists and science instructors; while mathematical criteria provide an objective and quantitative method for data rejection, they do not make the practice more scientifically or methodologically sound, especially in small sets or where a normal distribution cannot be assumed. Rejection of outliers is more acceptable in areas of practice where the underlying model of the process being measured and the usual distribution of measurement error are confidently known. An outlier resulting from an instrument reading error may be excluded but it is desirable that the reading is at least verified.


title: Outlier

text: The two common approaches to exclude outliers are truncation (or trimming) and Winsorising. Trimming discards the outliers whereas Winsorising replaces the outliers with the nearest "nonsuspect" data. Exclusion can also be a consequence of the measurement process, such as when an experiment is not entirely capable of measuring such extreme values, resulting in censored data.


title: Outlier

text: In regression problems, an alternative approach may be to only exclude points which exhibit a large degree of influence on the estimated coefficients, using a measure such as Cook's distance.


title: Outlier

text: If a data point (or points) is excluded from the data analysis, this should be clearly stated on any subsequent report.


title: Outlier

text: The possibility should be considered that the underlying distribution of the data is not approximately normal, having "fat tails". For instance, when sampling from a Cauchy distribution, the sample variance increases with the sample size, the sample mean fails to converge as the sample size increases, and outliers are expected at far larger rates than for a normal distribution. Even a slight difference in the fatness of the tails can make a large difference in the expected number of extreme values.


title: Outlier

text: A set membership approach considers that the uncertainty corresponding to the "i"th measurement of an unknown random vector "x" is represented by a set "X" (instead of a probability density function). If no outliers occur, "x" should belong to the intersection of all "X"'s. When outliers occur, this intersection could be empty, and we should relax a small number of the sets "X" (as small as possible) in order to avoid any inconsistency. This can be done using the notion of "q"-relaxed intersection. As illustrated by the figure, the "q"-relaxed intersection corresponds to the set of all "x" which belong to all sets except "q" of them. Sets "X" that do not intersect the "q"-relaxed intersection could be suspected to be outliers.


title: Outlier

text: In cases where the cause of the outliers is known, it may be possible to incorporate this effect into the model structure, for example by using a hierarchical Bayes model, or a mixture model.


title: Candy Clark

text: Candace June Clark is an American actress and model. She is well known for her roles as Debbie Dunham in the 1973 film "American Graffiti", for which she received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, and Mary Lou in the 1976 film "The Man Who Fell to Earth".


title: Candy Clark

text: Born in Norman, Oklahoma to Ella (née Padberg) and Thomas Clark, a chef, she grew up in Fort Worth, Texas. She attended Green B. Trimble Technical High School.


title: Candy Clark

text: Clark's first acting role was the character of Faye in John Huston's film "Fat City" in 1972. She also starred or acted in " American Graffiti", "The Man Who Fell to Earth" (1976), "The Big Sleep" (1978), "Q" (1982), "Blue Thunder" (1983), "Amityville 3-D" (1983), "Cat's Eye" (1985) and "At Close Range" (1986) and played the role of Francine Hewitt in "The Blob" (1988).


title: Candy Clark

text: She appeared in the 2009 film "The Informant!" as the mother of Mark Whitacre, played by Matt Damon. In 2011, Clark went to Berlin to work on the play "Images of Louise Brooks", directed by Sven Mundt.


title: Candy Clark

text: Along with her film work, she also has made guest appearances on television series, including "Dating Game", "Magnum, P.I.", "Banacek", "Simon & Simon", "Matlock", "Baywatch Nights", "Criminal Minds", and "Twin Peaks: The Return".


title: Candy Clark

text: Clark dated Jeff Bridges for several years after they met on the set of "Fat City" in 1972. She was married to Marjoe Gortner from 1978 to 1979. She married Jeff Wald in 1987 and divorced him in 1988.


title: George Washington's Farewell Address

text: Washington's Farewell Address is a letter written by American President George Washington as a valedictory to "friends and fellow-citizens" after 20 years of public service to the United States. He wrote it near the end of his second term of presidency before retiring to his home at Mount Vernon in Virginia.


title: George Washington's Farewell Address

text: The letter was first published as The Address of Gen. Washington to the People of America on His Declining the Presidency of the United States in "Claypoole's American Daily Advertiser" on September 19, 1796, about ten weeks before the presidential electors cast their votes in the 1796 election. It is a classic statement of republicanism, warning Americans of the political dangers they must avoid to remain true to their values. It was almost immediately reprinted in newspapers around the country, and later in pamphlet form.


title: George Washington's Farewell Address

text: The first draft was originally prepared by James Madison in June 1792, as Washington contemplated retiring at the end of his first term in office. However, he set it aside and ran for a second term because of heated disputes between Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton and Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson which convinced Washington that the growing tensions would rip apart the country without his leadership. This included the state of foreign affairs, and divisions between the newly formed Federalist and Democratic-Republican parties.


title: George Washington's Farewell Address

text: As his second term came to a close four years later, Washington prepared a revision of the original letter with the help of Hamilton to write a new farewell address to announce his intention to decline a third term in office. He reflects on the emerging issues of the American political landscape in 1796, expresses his support for the government eight years after the adoption of the Constitution, defends his administration's record, and gives valedictory advice to the American people. The letter also attempted to reunite the country, which had partly turned against Washington following the controversial 1794 Jay Treaty.