title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: PharmD is a professional degree in Pharmaceutical Sciences and according to newly adopted educational advancements, it is the minimum requirement to be licensed as a Pharmacist in Egypt, the curriculum consists of 6 years ( 5 years of Pharmaceutical & clinical studies followed by 1 year of Clinical internships ), this program is intended for students who have graduated from High school. As for the Pharmacists with a bachelor of Pharmaceutical Sciences who graduated before the decree of the new law, there is a Postgraduate PharmD offered by many faculties of Pharmacy for Pharmacists, The duration of the program consists of two calendar years. The first year consists of many didactic courses covering topics such as pharmacotherapy, pharmacokinetics, and pharmaceutical care of many diseases. The second year consists of clinical rotations in different specialties including ambulatory care, oncology, cardiology, nephrology, pediatrics, and others. Some of the universities that offer this degree include Cairo University, Ain Shams University, Mansoura University, Tanta University, Alexandria University, Beni- Suef University and Galala University.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: PharmD is a 6-year course offered in Ghana from the academic year 2012/2013, initially by the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST). It leads to the award of the Doctor of Pharmacy certificate making one eligible to qualify, register and operate as a licensed pharmacist. An aggregate of 06 in the WASSCE results is currently the acceptable cut-off point. Also, a year top-up program was rolled out in the 2017/18 academic year for practicing pharmacists with the B.Pharm(Bachelor of Pharmacy) qualification to obtain the Pharm.D qualification which will soon become the minimum degree for licensure. The University of Health and Allied Sciences (UHAS) - Volta Region (2016/17 academic year), The University of Ghana - Legon, Entrance University College of Health Sciences - Spintex and Central University (Ghana) - Miotso (in 2018/19 academic year) The University for Development Studies-UDS, Tamale(2018/19 academic year), have also rolled out the Pharm.D program.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: PharmD is a program offered at the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Rabat. and the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca. In Morocco, Pharm.D studies can only be accessed through a competitive examination ("concours", with numerus clausus) happening at the start of the first year of health studies. All candidates hold a Scientific Baccalaureate from the equivalent to high schools (lycée). About a 100 students are accepted every year. In order to obtain the state diploma of "Doctor of Pharmacy", studies last a minimum of six years, or 11 years for students choosing residency (hospital/clinical pharmacy, pharmaceutical industry or medical biology). It is accessible through another two competitive exams, even more selective. The first ("Internat") is accessible in the start of the sixth year, it grants residency after two years of internship and after the student defends their thesis. The second ("Résidanat") is accessible after obtaining the doctorate. Residency lasts four years and gives another diploma of specialist like in medicine (DES for "diplôme d'études spécialisées" ).


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Presently, there are only five universities in Nigeria offering the Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD.) program. These are the University of Benin, Benin City, Bayero University, Kano, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, University of Jos, University of ilorin, and University of Ibadan. The University of Benin (Uniben) commenced the program in 2001 following the approval given for the commencement of the program by the regulatory government agency for pharmacy education and practice in the country, Pharmacists Council of Nigeria (PCN). However, it was not until 2016 that the overall regulatory government agency for all university degree programs in the country, National Universities Commission (NUC), formally approved the PharmD degree program. Like other Universities approved for PharmD program in Nigeria, the PharmD in Uniben is a six-year undergraduate program. Upon successful completion of the program in Uniben, students are awarded both the Bachelor of Pharmacy (BPharm) degree and the Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) degree. Prior to the commencement of the program, the university offered a five-year BPharm degree program which commenced in 1970. In the PharmD program, students are given extensive didactic preclinical/professional clinical preparation as well as clinical training (including pharmaceutical care) in different hospitals and community pharmacies. Students are prepared to have knowledge on patients counseling, drug information, pharmaceutical care, adverse drug reaction reporting, pharmacovigilance and much more. Pharmacy council of Nigeria and the national professional body of pharmacists, Pharmaceutical Society of Nigeria (PSN), have envisaged that in the near future, PharmD degree will become the minimum educational qualification for the registration/licensing of fresh graduates of Nigeria's pharmacy schools for practice in the country. Through the efforts of the PCN, most pharmacy schools in Nigeria are now intensifying their preparations to commence the PharmD degree program.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: There is only one faculty in Tunisia that provides education for PharmD ; Faculty of pharmacy of Monastir.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: It is a diverse program focusing on pharmaceutical sciences, chemistry and biology along with marketing and management.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: At present a five-year professional degree is offered in various public universities in Bangladesh. Previously, it was a four-year degree (Graduation) and a one-year degree (Post-Graduation) in Pharmacy is offered in numerous universities of Bangladesh. The study material is taught in English. The textbooks, exams as well as thesis are also provided in English. The universities are the University of Dhaka since 1964, Jahangirnagar University since 1982, University of Chittagong, Rajshahi University, Khulna University, Jagannath University, Pabna University of Science & Technology, Jessore University of Science & Technology and Noakhali Science & Technology University. All of these are government universities. There are also 20 private universities in Bangladesh offering pharmacy education. Among them Gono Bishwabidyalay, BGC Trust University Bangladesh (BGCTUB), Southeast University (SEU), East West University, Northern University Bangladesh since 2003, Daffodil International University , University of Science and Technology Chittagong (USTC), Stamford University Bangladesh (SUB), Manarat International University (MIU),Dhaka International University (DIU), The University of Asia Pacific, International Islamic University Chittagong, North South University, ASA University Bangladesh (ASAUB), City University (CU) and University of Development Alternative (UODA),Bangladesh University(BU) are the top rated private universities. It is the best for home and abroad students. The B.Pharm. is completed in 4 years and the M.Pharm. in one year. Pharmacy Council of Bangladesh (PCB) is the Professional Regulatory Authority for Pharmacists in Bangladesh.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: PharmD course introduced by the Government of India and Pharmacy Council of India in 2008. The Pharm.D program is a pre-PhD, post-graduate professional doctorate of 6 years which includes 5 years of study and 1 year of internship or residency. It was introduced to improve clinical pharmacy services in India and it is the only pharmacy service which is in direct contact with patient health care system. The first batch of Pharm.D post baccalaureate students graduated in August 2011 and 1st regular batch graduated in June 2014. The Pharm.D degree requires five years of classroom and hospital based didactic study (two years didactic post-baccalaureate course), followed by one year of internship training in hospitals in addition to ongoing practicals and research project. With reference to Clarification on Pharm.D qualification, it is clarified to all universities that Pharm.D is a post graduate degree and passing students can directly register for Ph.D. From 2012. Pharm.D is approved by PCI only and MCI do not recognize this course in India. After the Amendment in August 2019,It is compulsory for hospitals to develop DIC(drug information centre).This DIC will be headed by a Pharm.D Holder.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: The Clinical Pharmacist must also assist the physician and medical representative to promote the wellness and correct use of medications.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Nepal started three years post baccalaureate Pharm.D in 2010 in Department of Pharmacy, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Kavre. It is the first batch in Nepal pursuing the degree. The first batch is now currently involved in a 1 years internship at different well established teaching hospitals of Nepal. The students are enrolled in Manipal Teaching Hospital, Pokhara, College of Medical Sciences Bharatpur and KIST medical College, Lalitpur for their internship of 1 year. Kathmandu University has already enrolled the next two batches for further continuation of the Pharm D program.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Pharmacy Council of Pakistan (PCP) is the professional regulatory authority for Pharmacists in Pakistan. Earlier (before 2003), pharmacy degree was a 4-year undergraduate B.Pharmacy (Bachelor of Pharmacy) that focused mainly on drug manufacturing and pharmaceutics but later in 2004, Higher Education Commission of Pakistan and Pharmacy Council of Pakistan collaboratively changed the syllabus and upgraded the B.Pharmacy degree to Pharm.D. Pharm.D (Doctor of Pharmacy) is a 5-year professional degree in Pakistan. Admission requirements for Pharm.D is 12-years of schooling or HSSC (Higher Secondary School Certificate) in pre-medical subjects (Biology, Chemistry and Physics etc.) or A-levels in similar subjects. Passing an aptitude test is mandatory for getting admission into Pharm.D program. As compared to B.Pharm., Pharm.D is a more clinical and research oriented program. Some pharmacy institutes have collaboration with hospitals for providing clinical clerkship during 4th & 5th Professional year. In 2006, first batch completed Pharm.D program.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Centro Escolar University Makati offers the degree Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.). The degree requires the completion of 52 units of formal course work and 36 units of clinical rotation done at the Makati Medical Center and The Medical City. It is a 2-year first postbaccalaureate degree open to licensed pharmacists in the Philippines.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In Taiwan, Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm. D.) program was first introduced in National Taiwan University since Fall 2009.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: PharmD program in Taiwan is a six-year academic program, while Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy (BSc. Pharm.) is a four-year or five-year program. Students taking either PharmD or BSc Pharm. program are all eligible to take the pharmacist licensure exam.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In Thailand, Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharmaceutical Care) program first curriculum in Asia was established at Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University in 1913. The PharmD Program (Pharmaceutical care or Industrial Pharmacy) is a six-year academic program.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: The education of pharmacists in Belgium requires a minimum of five years of university study. EU-harmonisation has led to division into three bachelor and two master years. A bachelor title is, however, not used at all professionally. Belgium considers the educational level of their current (M.Sc.) degree in pharmacy to be comparable to the Pharm.D. title used in the United States. To become a hospital pharmacist, a three-year residency program has to be completed after obtaining the M.Sc. in pharmaceutical sciences.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In both countries, the PharmDr (Pharmaciae doctor) diploma can be obtained by pharmacists who have previously graduated in pharmacy (Magister, Mgr) (the undergraduate study of pharmacy takes five years). Applicants must defend a research or experimental thesis, and pass a rigorous examination. The PharmDr title is highly prestigious and written in front of the name. It is different from the postgraduate Ph.D. degree.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In France, Pharm.D studies can only be accessed through a competitive examination ("concours", with "numerus clausus") happening at the end of the first year of health studies. Most candidates hold a Scientific Baccalaureate from the equivalent to high schools (lycée). In case of failure, it is possible to retry once. Yearly success rate depends on the university's current "numerus clausus" and the number or registered students, ranging from 10 to 30% bearing in mind that second-time participants are three to four times more likely to succeed than students trying for the first time.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In order to obtain the state diploma of "Doctor of Pharmacy", the studies last a minimum of six years, or nine years for students choosing residency (hospital pharmacy or medical biology). It is accessible through another competitive exam, even more selective. It lasts four years and gives another diploma of specialist like in medicine (DES for "diplôme d'études spécialisées" ).


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Students must specialise when entering the 5th year, and choose between dispensing pharmacy, pharmaceutical industry or hospital residency. In any case, a 12-month part-time hospital externship is mandatory during the fifth year, although some flexibility is possible for students choosing industry.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Sixth year for industry is generally dedicated to further specialisation with a former Professional master's degree or a former Research master's degree including internship.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In France, since the harmonization of European Union in September 2005, the student who chooses the industry/research orientation have a six-month period of part-time hospital externship, and 3 to 6 months of full-time training in a pharmaceutical industry or a research lab.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In Hungary, pharmacists obtain their master's degree, after five years of study. In the fifth year, students must undergo a professional training, that lasts for two+two months (autumn and spring) in a public pharmacy and one month in a hospital. At the end of this period, the student must pass a nationwide exam to be legally entitled for practicing the profession of pharmacy, after acquiring the pharmacist work license. According to the new law in 2008, which is valid from 2009, all pharmacists, who have acquired the master's degree of Pharmacy, are entitled to the Doctor of Pharmacy.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In order to obtain the state diploma of "Doctor of Pharmacy", the studies last a minimum of 5 years, or 9 years for students choosing residency (hospital pharmacy, medical biology) or pharmacology. In Italy the Professional degree in Pharmacy lasts 5 years, which includes a 6-month professional training in a public pharmacy or hospital. At the end of this period, the student must pass a nationwide exam to be legally entitled to practise as a pharmacist. The subscription to "Pharmacist's Order", or in Italian "Ordine dei Farmacisti", is required for working in private and public pharmacies or hospitals. It is not required if the pharmacist is working at a pharmaceutical company. Besides the professional degree in Pharmacy, the title of Doctor of Pharmacy can be achieved in Italy by obtaining a MSc in Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Technology (Chimica e Tecnologia Farmaceutiche, CTF) and then subscribing to the "Pharmacist's Order".


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In Malta, the warrant to practice as a pharmacist is given after the Master of Pharmacy course is completed successfully. The University of Malta, however, offers a Level 8 Postgraduate Degree known as the Doctorate in Pharmacy (PharmD) which expands the pharmacist's knowledge on clinical, pharmacoeconomic, and regulatory aspects. The Doctorate in Pharmacy course is offered in collaboration with the University of Illinois in Chicago and uses a mixed-approach learning programme including theory and practical experience.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: The education of pharmacists in the Netherlands requires a minimum of six years of university study. EU-harmonisation has led to division into three bachelor and three master years. A bachelor title is, however, not used at all professionally. The Dutch consider the educational level of their current (M.Sc.) degree in pharmacy to be comparable to the PharmD-title in use in the United States. Before the harmonization a four-year Master of Science was superseded by two more years of university education preparing for pharmacy practice. To become a hospital pharmacist, a four-year residency program has to be completed after that.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In Portugal, pharmacy studies consists of four years of basic school, five years of preparatory school, and three years of high school, where afterward the student is submitted to nationwide exams. The process is the same for every degree the student chooses, from medicine to engineering.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: The student takes the master's degree in Pharmaceutical Sciences (equivalent to the PharmD program) in one of the nine Pharmacy faculties with their own respective numerous clausus which comprises a six-year rigorous study (5 with the uniformities in EU teaching). Finished the degree, the academic title of Doctor of Pharmacy is issued. The graduate can then enroll in the regulatory institution for the Pharmacist profession in Portugal called, "Portuguese Pharmaceutical Society" or, in Portuguese, "Ordem dos Farmacêuticos". After the enrollment, the title of Pharmacist is issued. Afterwards, Pharmacists can start their career in a limitless number of professional areas that range from community pharmacies, drug development, fundamental or applied research, biotechnology to areas such as forensic sciences, toxicology, regulatory affairs, clinical analysis, law enforcement (scientific police), bromatology, drug marketing, regulatory authorities, university teachers, etc. The Pharmacists can also choose to become a specialist in one of following areas of activity: Pharmaceutical Industry, Regulatory Affairs, Hospital Pharmacy, and Clinical Analysis. Each specialization requires an additional 5-year professional study program guided by a tutor in the respective area of knowledge. This training includes regular evaluations by the professional competent authority ("Ordem dos Farmacêuticos"), which also requires an exam at the end of the 5-year training. After the success at the exam, the Pharmacist then becomes a specialist in its area of expertise.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Faculty of Pharmacy in Ljubljana provides reformed or new Bologna study programme. For the study of pharmacy the 5+0 uniform master's studies lasts 5 years - first and second cycles combined. Students have 5 months of pharmacy practice in their last yeat at the university. After completing master's studies it is possible to contitune and finish one of Specialist study programmes. Those are intended for the candidates who have finished the university pharmacy programme and passed the professional examination or Uniform master's study programme Pharmacy. Those programmes are: Medicinals design, Medicinals testing, Clinical pharmacy, Pharmacognosy, Community pharmacy or Clinical chemistry (Medical Biochemistry). All specialist study programmes, except for Clinical chemistry, include training which lasts 36 months and theoretical part (1st year) in form of lectures and exams within the Bologna third cycle studies, and experimental part in suitable departments of pharmaceutical industry, pharmacies, institutions and faculties. After successful completion of the programme, the student must write the specialist thesis and pass the specialist exam in order to be granted the academic title for the appropriate field. Specialist study programme Clinical chemistry includes training which lasts 48 months in form of lectures within the Bologna third cycle studies, and professional part in the laboratories of specialization institutions authorized by the Ministry of Health. It is concluded by the specialist (theoretical and practical) exam. The gained title Specialist of Medicinal Biochemistry is equivalent to (and formally and legally acknowledged as) the title European Specialist of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Diagnostics.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In Spain, Pharmacy studies can be accessed after completing five and a half years of university college (with at least 6 months of initiation to Pharmacy Practice). The "Licenciado en Farmacia" or "Grado en Farmacia" (equivalent to the PharmD-program) English degree is the only title that allows holders to practice the profession of Pharmacy in Spain. To become a Hospital Pharmacist a person with a degree in Pharmacy must enter a selection process (national selection process called FIR) to initiate a Pharmacy Residency period of professional training during 4 additional years (including one full year of advanced clinical practice in different medical wards). Apart from the professional degrees, like with any other university studies, Pharmacy degree allows holders to pursue an academic career by enrolling master's and doctorates programs (MSc and PhD) in several scientific fields (pharmaceutical technology, pharmacokinetics and biopharmaceutics, biomedical sciences, cosmetics & pharmaceutical industry, pharmaceutical and organic chemistry, physical chemistry, food sciences, pharmacology, toxicology, public health, etc.). Master's usually lasts 1–2 years and PhD no less than 4 years.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In summary, in Spain an entry-level pharmacy degree lasts 5 years and a "Hospital Pharmacy Specialist" needs 9.5 years of education and/or training. Hospital Pharmacy residents are paid during their residency period. There are other residencies available to pharmacists such as Medical Biology, Clinical Biochemistry, Immunology, Microbiology, Radiopharmacy, Pharmaceutical Analysis, and Industrial Pharmacy lasting from 2 to 4 years.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Pharmacists usually work as retail pharmacists (private practice), hospital pharmacists, primary care pharmacists, medical biologists, scientists (private and public biomedical research institutions), as university professors (Pharmacy, Medicine, Biology, Food Sciences, Biochemistry, Veterinary, Nursing, etc.), and as technicians and executive managers (pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies and governmental institutions).


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In Sweden, Pharmacy Doctors could be considered equal to those who have earned a Master's degree in pharmacy and are actively licensed to work as a pharmacist.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: The Master's program typically takes students 5 years to complete, which prepares students for careers in pharmacies, the pharmaceutical industry, and, more recently, clinical pharmacy.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Students who have earned their Master's degree in pharmacy can also choose to further specialize themselves with a wide range of Ph.D programs, which are offered at universities in Uppsala, Gothenburg, and Umeå


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: A special license which is issued by Socialstyrelsen is required in order to work in healthcare as a pharmacist ("i.e." as a pharmacy clerk or a clinical pharmacist),


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Sweden does not refer to licensed and practicing pharmacists as pharmacy "doctors". Instead, pharmacists refer to themselves as "apotekare" or "farmaceuter", which is an informal academic title referring to their Master's degree in pharmacy.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: The education of pharmacists in Switzerland also follows the EU-harmonisation with three bachelor and two master years. A bachelor title is, however, not used at all professionally. A federal exam is required in addition to the master's degree in order to practice. Switzerland considers the educational level of their current (M.Sc.) degree in pharmacy and the federal degree to be equivalent to the Pharm.D. title used in the United States. The pharmacists have indeed a research and a clinical experience during their degree.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Founded in 1936, the College of Pharmacy at the University of Baghdad, had a graduating class of 12 students. By 1993, the number of disciplines offered in the college expanded to the chemistry pharmaceuticals, pharmacists, drugs and medicinal plants, and drugs and toxins, and the laboratory sciences, clinical, and clinical pharmacy. The period of study at the college is 5 years. The college follows the seasonal semester system where the academic year is made up of 2 independent semester courses. This system is accredited by the MOHE for all pharmacy colleges in Iraq.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: A ministry of higher education decree established the Faculty of Pharmacy at Knowledge University in 2020 in Erbil City of Kurdistan Region of Iraq. It is five years under-graduate program that is designed according to the Bologna system which includes updated courses in pharmaceutics, clinical pharmacy, clinical pharmacokinetics, therapeutics, pharmaceutical chemistry, pharmaceutical analysis, pharmacology, pharmacoeconomic, toxicology, pharmacognosy, clinical microbiology, clinical biochemistry, physiology, pathology, histology, human biology, genetics, immunology, anatomy, hospital training, and quality control, in addition to courses in English, mathematics, and computer science.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In 1930 Tehran University changed the Pharmacy degree from master's to doctorate, and the duration of the study was increased to 5 years. Graduates need to present and defend their theses in different fields of pharmacy, and this adds another year to their studies, and generally after 6 years students can graduate as Doctor in Pharmacy. The master's degree in Pharmacy was available in Tehran University since 1926.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In Israel the PharmD-program is offered only by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Unlike the United States and European countries, in order to practice pharmacy in Israel, only a bachelor's degree is required.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In Palestine, the PharmD-program is offered by the Birzeit University also in Al-Najah University as a bachelor program. The program takes a duration of 6 years with the sixth year as a practicum year. PharmD-program faces challenges with legislation in Palestine, it is not fully approved as a major and it is not given its full value, instead graduates can fill employment positions such as pharmacists or pharmacists assistant.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In Jordan, the PharmD-program is offered by the University of Jordan, this link has videos of all programs available at the school of pharmacy of the University of Jordan, and Jordan University of Science and Technology at the undergraduate level. This program is not to be confused with the BSc in Pharmacy program even though both programs are still offered today. Students complete 5 years of academic work and 1 year of clinical practice to earn the degree. This program is offered at public universities only: at the University of Jordan and Jordan University of Science and Technology. The University of Jordan calls this degree BSc in Doctor of Pharmacy, which is granted after successful completion of 216 credit hours. The Jordan University of Science and Technology has a similar credit hour requirement and calls the degree the BSc. of Doctor of Pharmacy degree.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Pharmacy degree is awarded by several Lebanese universities (upon a decree by the Lebanese government).


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: The Lebanese American University awards a Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.) degree that is accredited by the ACPE. The program extends over six years (two years of pre-pharmacy and four professional years).


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In Qatar, pharmacy degrees are offered by the new College of Pharmacy at Qatar University. Students were accepted into the 5-year BSc (Pharm) program commencing in 2007. Students will be accepted into the final year of the 6-year Pharm.D program in 2011. Accordingly, the first graduates of the Pharm.D program are expected in 2012. The program adopts a Canadian curriculum and received early accreditation by the Canadian Council for Accreditation of Pharmacy Programs (CCAPP) in February 2009. This is the first international program to undergo review and receive accreditation by this sole Canadian accreditation agency.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Started in 2001 at King Abdulaziz University, then in 2005 at Ibn-Sina National College, then 2006 at KFU, then 2007 at Qassim University. In 2008, King Saud University College of Pharmacy at Riyadh, College of Pharmacy at Kharj, and Taif University. In 2009, Almaarefa College started their Pharm.D. program, and Shaqra University in 2011.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: The degree duration in Saudi Arabia is six years in total, including one academic year of clinical rotations. According to the Saudi Commission for Health Specialties, if a student graduates with a (minimum six years) Pharm.D. degree, then the graduate has the chance to further develop himself. This can be achieved by taking an Accredited Residency Training Program that is at least one year long (for a total of seven years, minimum). Upon successfully completing both the Residency program and the Pharm.D., the graduate can apply for Professional Equivalent (only equivalent in practice) to the master's degree in Pharmacy.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: The Pharm.D degree is now offered by almost all pharmacy colleges in Saudi Arabia. This is a transitional period as this degree will replace the conventional Bachelor of pharmacy degree in the near future and the old bachelor's degree will be phased out.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: The Doctor of Pharmacy program started in 2008 by the College of Pharmacy, at Gulf Medical University, Ajman.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Currently, in Canada, the BPharm (and not Pharm.D.) is the minimum qualification required to practice pharmacy. In Canada the Pharm.D. program is offered in both English and French, and as a first professional degree as well as a postgraduate degree. Students enrolled in the program must have graduated from a CCAPP (Canadian Council for Accreditation of Pharmacy Programs) or an ACPE (Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education) school with an accredited teaching program or must have obtained a Certificate of Qualification from PEBC.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: As of 2007, the PharmD professional degree program in French is offered at the Université de Montréal and, as of 2011, at the Université Laval. The Université de Montréal was the first Canadian university to offer the Pharm.D. program as a first professional degree instead of the BPharm in pharmacy. In 2013, the University of Alberta would be offering a Pharm.D. as a post-professional degree, and a BPharm is required for admission into the program. The University of Toronto replaced their entry-level BPharm curriculum with an entry-to-practice Pharm.D. curriculum in 2011, with approval being granted in 2013.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: The PharmD. degree is also offered as an undergraduate professional degree at the University of British Columbia and the University of Toronto. However, since 2020, most, if not all Canadian Pharmacy schools have changed their Entry-To-Practice programs that awarded successful graduates with a Bachelor of Pharmaceutical Sciences to Entry-To-Practice PharmD as the scope of practice for pharmacists continue to expand and change. Since this change, UBC no longer has a separate 2-year Pharm.D. Program that is offered.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: On 23 January 2013, the government of Ontario approved the University of Toronto and the University of Waterloo applications for the entry-to-practice Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.) program. Students graduating in 2015 was the first cohort under this new undergraduate Pharm.D. program.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Dalhousie University (Halifax, Nova Scotia) is in progress of transitioning to the Pharm.D. program. Undergraduate applicants will require a minimum two years of prerequisite courses.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In the Fall of 2017, Memorial University of Newfoundland (St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador), also replaced their BPharm program with the Pharm.D. program, with the first graduating class expected in 2022. This program requires one full year of prerequisite courses.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In the Fall of 2018, the University of Alberta (Edmonton, Alberta) replaced their four-year BSc. Pharm program with an entry to practise PharmD. program, also with the first graduating class expected in April 2022. However, since the spring of 2017 the university has offered current BSc. Pharm students the ability to bridge to the PharmD. program. This requires the students to take two extra summer semesters between their third and fourth years, as well as an extra 16 weeks of clinical rotations during their fourth year. Only students graduating between 2018 and 2021 will have had this option. As a result, currently the university is offering 3 possible means to obtain a PharmD degree. That is the 2 year PharmD program for practising pharmacists, those in the PharmD for BSc. Pharm students (PBS), and those in the entry to practise PharmD program. BSc. Pharm students who did not enrol in the PBS program between 2018 and 2021 will be the final students to graduate with a bachelor's degree from the faculty.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: The Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.) is a professional degree that offers opportunities in research, teaching, clinical practice, industry, manufacturing, judicial, and a multitude of other areas. Six pharmacy schools in the U.S. still offer a high school student to enroll directly into the School of Pharmacy for a six-year PharmD. degree. In most other Schools of Pharmacy, after completing the required prerequisites or obtaining a transferable bachelor's degree, pharmacy school is another four years. In general, the total collegiate timeline to become an entry-level pharmacist is six to eight years; three to four years undergraduate prerequisite is a bachelor's degree then 3 to 4 years (accelerated track) professional doctorate.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Acceptance to a Pharm.D. program is competitive. Along with excellent natural science grades, most schools require students to take a pharmacy college admissions test (PCAT) and complete 90 credit hours of university coursework in the sciences, mathematics, composition, and humanities before entry into the Pharm.D. program. Due to the extensive admission requirements and highly competitive nature of the field, many pharmacy students complete a bachelor's degree before entry to pharmacy school. Some institutions still offer six-year accelerated Pharm.D. programs (similar to six-year MD programs).


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Residency is an option that is typically one to two years in length. Graduating candidates typically apply their final year of the Pharm.D. program. The accrediting body for most residency positions is the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Applications are submitted through the Pharmacy Online Residency Centralized Application Service; which opens November 3 each residency year. Residency sites interview candidates and a ranking occurs prior to a match process. "The match" is facilitated via the National Matching Services Inc. in conjunction with Pharmacy Online Residency Centralized Application Service website portal. A residency is useful; especially for new graduates who do not yet have adequate patient care experience or potentially seeking accelerated and additional experiential training.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: An ACPE Accredited doctorate of pharmacy (Pharm.D.) is currently the only degree accepted by the National Association of Boards of Pharmacy (NABP) to be eligible to "sit" for the North American Pharmacist Licensure Examination (NAPLEX).


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Previously, the United States had a five-year bachelor's degree in pharmacy. Up until the School of Pharmacy graduating class of 1964, in all states with the exception of a few on the west coast, the requirement to sit for a pharmacy license was four years of a licensed College of Pharmacy concentrating in the practice of pharmacy during much of that time. The incoming class of 1961, in anywhere but the West coast, was required to take a five-year university course, culminating in a Bachelor of Science degree in Pharmacy. In most Schools of Pharmacy, that meant two years pre-pharmacy and three years in the actual School of Pharmacy, with graduation in 1966, although some schools were either 1 and 4 or 3 and 2.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: The current Pharm.D. degree curriculum is considerably different from that of the prior B.S. in pharmacy. It now includes extensive didactic clinical preparation, hands-on clinical practice experience in a wider array of healthcare settings, and a greater emphasis on clinical pharmacy practice pertaining to pharmacotherapy optimization. Requirements in the US to becoming a pharmacist include graduating with a Doctor of Pharmacy from an ACPE accredited program, conducting a specified number of hours in internship under a licensed pharmacist (i.e. 1800 hours in some states), passing the NAPLEX, and passing a Multistate Pharmacy Jurisprudence Examination (MPJE).


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: For pharmacy graduates holding the Bachelor of Science degrees currently licensed in the United States wishing to attain the Pharm.D., there are programs available to bridge that gap. These programs are fully accredited by Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE), but they are only available to current B.S.Pharm. graduates with a license to practice pharmacy in the United States.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: The pharmacy program in Mexico is similar to that of Spain's program but differs vastly from its neighbors up north in the United States and Canada.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In Brazil the title of pharmacist is awarded after completion of certified graduate studies; while the term Pharm.D. is not formally regulated it can be used and is commonly added to the graduate's professional license (issued by the regional pharmacy (Conselho Regional de Farmacia)).


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Many universities award sub-titles or co-titles including Biochemist and Industrial Pharmacist. University of São Paulo and a few others have awarded specialization titles for many years for their Pharmacy and Biochemistry graduate students, including toxicological and clinical analysis, food and nutrition and industrial pharmacy, which are also equivalent to different degrees in the US and Europe.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Whereas Bachelor of Pharmacy takes a minimum of 4 years, the Pharmacist-Biochemist degree is completed by 4 and 1/2 years of full-time studies with at least 720 hours of internship. The student can opt to get the degree during evening and it takes 6 years with Saturday classes (full day) and also at least 720 hrs of internship.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: Although many universities grant a degree of Doctor in Pharmaceutical Sciences or Doctor in Pharmacy after completion of original research dissertation, those are not professional but a post-graduate course and do not grant permission to work as a pharmacist.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In Chile, the title of Pharmacist (Quimico Farmaceutico) is granted after completing 10 or 11 semesters of full-time studies in an accredited University.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: The Pharmacist degree is a Professional Degree, awarded after finishing 5.5–6 years of study (Bachelor in Pharmacy or Pharmaceutical Sciences), and then finish an internship of 6 months on the specialization area of the student (Pharmaceutical Lab, Community Pharmacy, Hospital Pharmacy) and/or a scientific thesis. The Chilean pharmacy professional degree of Químico Farmaceutico (Q.F.) is generally equivalent to the degree of PharmD.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: The pharmacist can get a Master in Pharmaceutical Sciences (MSc), of 2 years, or a Doctorate in Pharmacology (PhD), of 4 years after finished the Bachelor. These are Academic Degrees, needed for scientific career on investigation, but are not required to work in other professional areas.


title: Doctor of Pharmacy

text: In Colombia, the title of Pharmacist (Quimico Farmaceutico) is granted after completing 10 semesters of full-time studies in an accredited University. The Pharmacist degree is a Professional Degree. While the term Pharm.D. is not formally regulated it can be used and is commonly added to the graduate's professional license (issued by the Colegio Nacional de Quimicos Farmaceuticos de Colombia).


title: Chad Mendes

text: Chad Edward Mendes (born May 1, 1985) is an American professional bare-knuckle boxer and former mixed martial artist and collegiate wrestler who is currently signed to Bare Knuckle Fighting Championship (BKFC). Mendes gained notoriety competing in the featherweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC), where he was a three-time UFC championship challenger. Competing as a Cal Poly Mustang, he was a two-time NCAA Division I All-American and a Pac-10 Conference champion in folkstyle wrestling.


title: Chad Mendes

text: Mendes wrestled for Cal Poly in San Luis Obispo, California. He finished his career with an overall record of 64–14 and twice earned NCAA All-American honors at 125 pounds as a sophomore, then 141 pounds as a senior. As a senior, Mendes finished the year with a 30–1 record; he placed 2nd in the 2008 NCAA championships at 141 lb., falling to Ohio State's J Jaggers in the title match. That year, Mendes was Pac-10 Wrestler of the Year.


title: Chad Mendes

text: After the conclusion of his collegiate career, Mendes began to train mixed martial arts with Team Alpha Male. He began fighting for the Palace Fighting Championship and went undefeated.


title: Chad Mendes

text: Mendes made his WEC debut against Erik Koch on March 6, 2010 at WEC 47. He won the fight via unanimous decision, despite a cut over his right eye that was examined during the fight to see if he could continue.


title: Chad Mendes

text: Mendes faced Anthony Morrison, replacing an injured Mackens Semerzier, on April 24, 2010 at WEC 48. He won the bout via first round submission.


title: Chad Mendes

text: Mendes faced Cub Swanson on August 18, 2010 at WEC 50. He won the fight via unanimous decision (30–27, 29–28, and 29–28).


title: Chad Mendes

text: Mendes faced Javier Vazquez on November 11, 2010 at WEC 52 and defeated him via unanimous decision. Mendes was able to utilize his improved striking to complement his superior wrestling to dictate where he wanted to take the action. During the fight, Mendes used an unorthodox move when he front flipped on Vazquez who was on the ground, to land on him.


title: Chad Mendes

text: On October 28, 2010, World Extreme Cagefighting merged with the Ultimate Fighting Championship. As part of the merger, all WEC fighters were transferred to the UFC.


title: Chad Mendes

text: Mendes made his UFC debut against returning veteran and judo black belt Michihiro Omigawa on February 5, 2011 at UFC 126. He won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Chad Mendes

text: Following UFC 129, Dana White mentioned in the post-fight press conference that Mendes may have a shot at the title against UFC featherweight champion José Aldo. Although the two were expected to fight on August 6, 2011 at UFC 133, Aldo would be sidelined until October recovering from various injuries sustained during his fight with Mark Hominick. Mendes instead faced Rani Yahya at the event. He won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Chad Mendes

text: Mendes fought UFC Featherweight Champion José Aldo on January 14, 2012 at UFC 142, losing at 4:59 of the first round via KO, giving Mendes his first professional loss.


title: Chad Mendes

text: Mendes next faced Cody McKenzie on July 7, 2012 at UFC 148. He won the fight via first-round TKO due to a body punch.


title: Chad Mendes

text: Mendes was expected to face Hacran Dias on December 15, 2012 at UFC on FX 6. However, in just days before the event, Dias pulled out of the bout, citing a shoulder injury, and he was replaced by promotional newcomer Yaotzin Meza. Mendes defeated Meza via KO at 3:38 in the first round.


title: Chad Mendes

text: Mendes was expected to face Manvel Gamburyan on February 23, 2013 at UFC 157. However, Gamburyan pulled out of the bout, citing a thumb injury. Subsequently, Mendes was pulled from the card as a suitable replacement could not be found on short notice.


title: Chad Mendes

text: Mendes was expected to face Clay Guida on April 20, 2013 at UFC on Fox 7. However, it was revealed on March 15 that Guida had pulled out of the bout, citing an injury, and he was replaced by Darren Elkins. Mendes won the fight by TKO at 1:08 in the first round.


title: Chad Mendes

text: A rescheduled bout with Guida took place on August 31, 2013 at UFC 164. After a close first and second round, Mendes finished Guida via TKO by punches in the third round and became the first man to ever finish Guida by strikes. The win also earned Mendes his first "Knockout of the Night" bonus award.


title: Chad Mendes

text: Mendes faced Nik Lentz on December 14, 2013 at UFC on Fox 9. He won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Chad Mendes

text: A rematch with José Aldo was expected to take place on August 2, 2014, as the event headliner at UFC 176 for the UFC Featherweight Championship. However, in early July, Aldo pulled out of the bout with an injury. The rematch with Aldo was subsequently rescheduled and took place on October 25, 2014, at UFC 179. He became the first man to knock down Aldo dropping him with a left hand in the first round. Mendes and Aldo both rocked each other with clean punches, Mendes would go on to lose the fight via unanimous decision. Despite the loss on the scorecards, Mendes was awarded his first "Fight of the Night" bonus award for the bout. The fight won World MMA Awards 2015 "fight of the year" award.


title: Chad Mendes

text: Mendes faced Ricardo Lamas on April 4, 2015 in the main event at UFC Fight Night 63. Mendes won the fight via TKO in the first round. The win also earned Mendes his first "Performance of the Night" bonus award.


title: Chad Mendes

text: José Aldo was expected to face Conor McGregor on July 11, 2015 at UFC 189 for the undisputed UFC Featherweight Championship. However, in the days leading up to the fight, Aldo pulled out of the bout because of a rib injury he sustained in training. Mendes stepped in as a short notice replacement to face McGregor for the interim championship. Mendes lost the fight via TKO in the second round.


title: Chad Mendes

text: Mendes faced Frankie Edgar on December 11, 2015 at . He lost the fight via knockout in the first round.


title: Chad Mendes

text: After returning from his suspension and two-and-a-half years away from the sport, Mendes faced Myles Jury on July 14, 2018 at UFC Fight Night 133. He won the fight via TKO in the first round. This win earned him the Performance of the Night award.


title: Chad Mendes

text: Mendes faced Alexander Volkanovski on December 29, 2018 at UFC 232. He lost the fight via TKO in the second round. This fight earned both participants "Fight of the Night" honors. Following the loss, Mendes announced his retirement from the sport.


title: Chad Mendes

text: On August 4, 2021, Mendes announced that he was released from his UFC contract by his own request and signed a multi-fight contract with Bare Knuckle Fighting Championship. However, he later reiterated that he was still under contract with the UFC, but was given exemption to compete in bare-knuckle. He was initially expected to make his debut at a BKFC event on October 22, 2021, but that was postponed on two occasions. He debuted on February 19, 2022 at defeating Joshuah Alvarez by technical knockout.


title: Chad Mendes

text: On June 10, 2016, the UFC announced that Mendes had been informed of a potential doping violation stemming from an out-of-competition test conducted by USADA. Mendes responded, "I didn't do my homework and that was a big mistake. I own it and I'm going to pay for it." He claims the cause was from a topical cream used to treat his psoriasis, however, on July 20, 2016, USADA reported that Mendes tested positive for GHRP-6, a growth hormone release stimulator, and suspended Mendes for 2 years. He was not eligible to compete again until June 10, 2018.


title: Chad Mendes

text: Mendes competed in Submission Underground 3 on January 30, 2017, where he defeated Brazilian jiu-jitsu world champion and 27 time Grapplers Quest champion, Jeff Glover in overtime.


title: Chad Mendes

text: Mendes was charged with battery for his alleged involvement in a bar fight on July 29, 2012 in his hometown of Hanford, California. The Kings County District Attorney's Office announced on August 25, 2012, that it would seek a battery charge against Mendes. The charges were dropped after Mendes pleaded no contest to a count of public disturbance and paid a fine.


title: Straight-four engine

text: A straight-four engine (also called an inline-four) is a four-cylinder piston engine where cylinders are arranged in a line along a common crankshaft.


title: Straight-four engine

text: The vast majority of automotive four-cylinder engines use a straight-four layout (with the exceptions of the flat-four engines produced by Subaru and Porsche) and the layout is also very common in motorcycles and other machinery. Therefore the term "four-cylinder engine" is usually synonymous with straight-four engines. When a straight-four engine is installed at an inclined angle (instead of with the cylinders oriented vertically), it is sometimes called a slant-four.


title: Straight-four engine

text: Between 2005 and 2008, the proportion of new vehicles sold in the United States with four-cylinder engines rose from 30% to 47%. By the 2020 model year, the share for light-duty vehicles had risen to 59%.


title: Straight-four engine

text: A four-stroke straight-four engine always has a cylinder on its power stroke, unlike engines with fewer cylinders where there is no power stroke occurring at certain times. Compared with a V4 engine or a flat-four engine, a straight-four engine only has one cylinder head, which reduces complexity and production cost.


title: Straight-four engine

text: Petrol straight-four engines used in modern production cars typically have a displacement of , however larger engines have been used in the past, for example the 1927-1931 Bentley 4½ Litre.


title: Straight-four engine

text: Diesel engines have been produced in larger displacements, such as a 3.2 L turbocharged Mitsubishi engine (used the Pajero/Shogun/Montero SUV) and a 3.0 L Toyota engine. European and Asian trucks with a gross vehicle weight rating between 7.5 and 18 tonnes typically use inline four-cylinder diesel engines with displacements around 5 litres. Larger displacements are found in locomotive, marine and stationary engines.


title: Straight-four engine

text: Displacement can also be very small, as found in kei cars sold in Japan. Several of these engines had four cylinders at a time when regulations dictated a maximum displacement of 550 cc; the maximum size is currently at 660 cc.


title: Straight-four engine

text: Straight-four engines with the preferred crankshaft configuration have perfect primary balance. This is because the pistons are moving in pairs, and one pair of pistons is always moving up at the same time as the other pair is moving down.


title: Straight-four engine

text: However, straight-four engines have a secondary imbalance. This is caused by the acceleration/deceleration of the pistons during the top half of the crankshaft rotation being greater than that of the pistons in the bottom half of the crankshaft rotation (because the connecting rods are not infinitely long). As a result, two pistons are always accelerating faster in one direction, while the other two are accelerating more slowly in the other direction, which leads to a secondary dynamic imbalance that causes an up-and-down vibration at twice crankshaft speed. This imbalance is common among all piston engines, but the effect is particularly strong on inline-four because of the two pistons always moving together.


title: Straight-four engine

text: The strength of this imbalance is determined by the reciprocating mass, the ratio of connecting rod length to stroke, and the peak piston velocity. Therefore, small displacement engines with light pistons show little effect, and racing engines use long connecting rods. However, the effect grows exponentially with engine speed (rpm).


title: Straight-four engine

text: Four-stroke engines with five or more cylinders are able to have at least one cylinder performing its power stroke at any given point in time. However, four-cylinder engines have gaps in the power delivery, since each cylinder completes its power stroke before the next piston starts a new power stroke. This pulsating delivery of power results in more vibrations than engines with more than four cylinders.


title: Straight-four engine

text: A balance shaft system is sometimes used to reduce the vibrations created by a straight-four engine, most often in engines with larger displacements. The balance shaft system was invented in 1911 and consists of two shafts carrying identical eccentric weights that rotate in opposite directions at twice the crankshaft's speed. This system was patented by Mitsubishi Motors in the 1970s and has since been used under licence by several other companies.


title: Straight-four engine

text: Not all large displacement straight-four engines have used balance shafts, however. Examples of relatively large engines without balance shafts include the 2.4 litre Citroën DS engine, the 2.6 litre Austin-Healey 100 engine, the 3.3 L Ford Model A (1927) engine and the 2.5 L GM Iron Duke engine. Soviet/Russian GAZ Volga and UAZ engines with displacements of up to 2.9 litres were produced without balance shafts from the 1950s to the 1990s, however these were relatively low-revving engines which reduces the need for a balance shaft system.


title: Straight-four engine

text: Most modern straight-four engines used in cars have a displacement of . The smallest automotive straight-four engine was used in the 1963–1967 Honda T360 kei truck and has a displacement of , while the largest mass-produced straight-four car engine is the 1999–2019 Mitsubishi 4M41 diesel engine which was used in the Mitsubishi Pajero and has a displacement of .


title: Straight-four engine

text: Many early racing cars used straight-four engines, however the Peugeot engine which won the 1913 Indianapolis 500 was a highly influential engine. Designed by Ernest Henry, this engine had double overhead camshafts (DOHC) with four valves per cylinder, a layout that would become the standard until today for racing inline-four engines.


title: Straight-four engine

text: Amongst the engines inspired by the Peugeot design was the Miller engine, which was a successful racing engine through the 1920s and early 1930s. The Miller engine evolved into the Offenhauser engine which had a highly successful spanning from the 1933 until 1981, including five straight victories at the Indianapolis 500 from 1971 to 1976.


title: Straight-four engine

text: Many cars produced for the pre-WWII voiturette Grand Prix motor racing category used inline-four engine designs. 1.5 L supercharged engines found their way into cars such as the Maserati 4CL and various English Racing Automobiles (ERA) models. These were resurrected after the war, and formed the foundation of what was later to become Formula One, although the straight-eight supercharged Alfettas would dominate the early years of F1.


title: Straight-four engine

text: Another engine that played an important role in racing history is the straight-four Ferrari engine designed by Aurelio Lampredi. This engine was originally designed as a 2 L Formula 2 engine for the Ferrari 500, but evolved to 2.5 L to compete in Formula One in the Ferrari 625. For sports car racing, capacity was increased up to 3.4 L for the Ferrari 860 Monza.


title: Straight-four engine

text: The Coventry Climax straight-four engine was also a very successful racing engine, which began life as a 1.5 litre Formula 2 engine. Enlarged to 2.0 litres for Formula One in 1958, it evolved into the large 2,495 cc FPF that won the Formula One championship in Cooper's chassis in 1959 and 1960.


title: Straight-four engine

text: In Formula One, the 1980s were dominated by the 1,500 cc turbocharged cars. The BMW M12/13 engine was notable for the era for its high boost pressures and performance. The cast iron block was based on a standard road car block and powered the F1 cars of Brabham, Arrows and Benetton and won the world championship in 1983. The 1986 version of the engine was said to produce about in qualifying trim.


title: Straight-four engine

text: Belgian arms manufacturer FN Herstal, which had been making motorcycles since 1901, began producing the first motorcycles with inline-fours in 1905. The FN Four had its engine mounted upright with the crankshaft longitudinal. Other manufacturers that used this layout included Pierce, Henderson, Ace, Cleveland, and Indian in the United States, Nimbus in Denmark, Windhoff in Germany, and Wilkinson in the United Kingdom.


title: Straight-four engine

text: The first across-the-frame 4-cylinder motorcycle was the 1939 racer Gilera 500 Rondine, it also had double-over-head camshafts, forced-inducting supercharger and was liquid-cooled. Modern inline-four motorcycle engines first became popular with Honda's SOHC CB750 introduced in 1969, and others followed in the 1970s. Since then, the inline-four has become one of the most common engine configurations in street bikes. Outside of the cruiser category, the inline-four is the most common configuration because of its relatively high performance-to-cost ratio. All major Japanese motorcycle manufacturers offer motorcycles with inline-four engines, as do MV Agusta and BMW. BMW's earlier inline-four motorcycles were mounted horizontally along the frame, but all current four-cylinder BMW motorcycles have transverse engines. The modern Triumph company has offered inline-four-powered motorcycles, though they were discontinued in favour of triples.


title: Straight-four engine

text: The 2009 Yamaha R1 has an inline-four engine that does not fire at even intervals of 180°. Instead, it uses a crossplane crankshaft that prevents the pistons from simultaneously reaching top dead centre. This results in better secondary balance, which is particularly beneficial in the higher rpm range, and "big-bang firing order" theory says the irregular delivery of torque to the rear tire makes sliding in the corners at racing speeds easier to control.


title: Straight-four engine

text: Inline-four engines are also used in MotoGP by the Suzuki (since 2015) and Yamaha (since 2002) teams. In 2010, when the four-stroke Moto2 class was introduced, the engines for the class were a inline-four engine made by Honda based on the CBR600RR with a maximum power output of . Starting in 2019, the engines were replaced by a Triumph triple engine.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: AbdullahI bin Al-Hussein (, 2 February 1882 – 20 July 1951) was the ruler of Jordan from 11 April 1921 until his assassination in 1951. He was the Emir of Transjordan, a British protectorate, until 25 May 1946, after which he was king of an independent Jordan. As a member of the Hashemite dynasty, the royal family of Jordan since 1921, Abdullah was a 38th-generation direct descendant of Muhammad.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: Born in Mecca, Hejaz, Ottoman Empire, Abdullah was the second of four sons of Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, and his first wife, Abdiyya bint Abdullah. He was educated in Istanbul and Hejaz. From 1909 to 1914, Abdullah sat in the Ottoman legislature, as deputy for Mecca, but allied with Britain during World War I. During the war, he played a key role in secret negotiations with the United Kingdom that led to the Great Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule that was led by his father Sharif Hussein. Abdullah personally led guerrilla raids on garrisons.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: Abdullah became emir of Transjordan in April 1921. He upheld his alliance with the British during World War II, and became king after Transjordan gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1946. In 1949, Jordan annexed the West Bank, which angered Arab countries including Syria, Saudi Arabia and Egypt, which all defended the creation of a Palestinian state. He was assassinated in Jerusalem while attending Friday prayers at the entrance of the Al-Aqsa Mosque by a nationalist Palestinian in 1951. He was succeeded by his eldest son Talal.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: In 1910, Abdullah persuaded his father to stand, successfully, for Grand Sharif of Mecca, a post for which Hussein acquired British support. In the following year, he became deputy for Mecca in the parliament established by the Young Turks, acting as an intermediary between his father and the Ottoman government. In 1914, Abdullah paid a clandestine visit to Cairo to meet Lord Kitchener to seek British support for his father's ambitions in Arabia.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: Abdullah maintained contact with the British throughout the First World War and in 1915 encouraged his father to enter into correspondence with Sir Henry McMahon, British high commissioner in Egypt, about Arab independence from Turkish rule. (see McMahon–Hussein Correspondence). This correspondence in turn led to the Arab Revolt against the Ottomans. During the Arab Revolt of 1916–18, Abdullah commanded the Arab Eastern Army. Abdullah began his role in the Revolt by attacking the Ottoman garrison at Ta'if on 10 June 1916. The garrison consisted of 3,000 men with ten 75-mm Krupp guns. Abdullah led a force of 5,000 tribesmen, but they did not have the weapons or discipline for a full attack. Instead, he laid siege to town. In July, he received reinforcements from Egypt in the form of howitzer batteries manned by Egyptian personnel. He then joined the siege of Medina commanding a force of 4,000 men based to the east and north-east of the town. In early 1917, Abdullah ambushed an Ottoman convoy in the desert, and captured £20,000 worth of gold coins that were intended to bribe the Bedouin into loyalty to the Sultan. In August 1917, Abdullah worked closely with the French Captain Muhammand Ould Ali Raho in sabotaging the Hejaz Railway. Abdullah's relations with the British Captain T. E. Lawrence were not good, and as a result, Lawrence spent most of his time in the Hejaz serving with Abdullah's brother, Faisal, who commanded the Arab Northern Army.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: When French forces captured Damascus after the Battle of Maysalun (24 July 1920) and expelled his brother Faisal (27 July–1 August 1920), Abdullah moved his forces from Hejaz into Transjordan with a view to liberating Damascus, where his brother had been proclaimed King in 1918. Having heard of Abdullah's plans, Winston Churchill invited Abdullah to Cairo in 1921 for a famous "tea party", where he convinced Abdullah to stay put and not attack Britain's allies, the French. Churchill told Abdullah that French forces were superior to his and that the British did not want any trouble with the French. On 8 March 1920, Abdullah was proclaimed King of Iraq by the Iraqi Congress but he refused the position. After his refusal, his brother Faisal who had just been defeated in Syria, accepted the position. Abdullah headed to Transjordan and established an emirate there after being welcomed into the country by its inhabitants.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: Although Abdullah established a legislative council in 1928, its role remained advisory, leaving him to rule as an autocrat. Prime Ministers under Abdullah formed 18 governments during the 23 years of the Emirate.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: Abdullah set about the task of building Transjordan with the help of a reserve force headed by Lieutenant-Colonel Frederick Peake, who was seconded from the Palestine police in 1921. The force, renamed the Arab Legion in 1923, was led by John Bagot Glubb between 1930 and 1956. During World War II, Abdullah was a faithful British ally, maintaining strict order within Transjordan, and helping to suppress a pro-Axis uprising in Iraq. The Arab Legion assisted in the occupation of Iraq and Syria.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: Abdullah negotiated with Britain to gain independence. On 25 May 1946, the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan (renamed the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan on 26 April 1949) was proclaimed independent. On the same day, Abdullah was crowned king in Amman.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: Abdullah, alone among the Arab leaders of his generation, was considered a moderate by the West. It is possible that he might have been willing to sign a separate peace agreement with Israel, but for the Arab League's militant opposition. Because of his dream for a Greater Syria within the borders of what was then Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon, and the British Mandate for Palestine under a Hashemite dynasty with "a throne in Damascus," many Arab countries distrusted Abdullah and saw him as both "a threat to the independence of their countries and they also suspected him of being in cahoots with the enemy" and in return, Abdullah distrusted the leaders of other Arab countries.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: Abdullah supported the Peel Commission in 1937, which proposed that Palestine be split up into a small Jewish state (20 percent of the British Mandate for Palestine) and the remaining land be annexed into Transjordan. The Arabs within Palestine and the surrounding Arab countries objected to the Peel Commission while the Jews accepted it reluctantly. Ultimately, the Peel Commission was not adopted. In 1947, when the UN supported partition of Palestine into one Jewish and one Arab state, Abdullah was the only Arab leader supporting the decision.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: In 1946–48, Abdullah actually supported partition in order that the Arab allocated areas of the British Mandate for Palestine could be annexed into Transjordan. Abdullah went so far as to have secret meetings with the Jewish Agency for Israel (Golda Meyerson, the future Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir, was among the delegates to these meetings) that came to a mutually agreed upon partition plan independently of the United Nations in November 1947. On 17 November 1947, in a secret meeting with Meir, Abdullah stated that he wished to annex all of the Arab parts as a minimum, and would prefer to annex all of Palestine. This partition plan was supported by British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin who preferred to see Abdullah's territory increased at the expense of the Palestinians rather than risk the creation of a Palestinian state headed by the Mufti of Jerusalem Mohammad Amin al-Husayni.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: The claim has, however, been strongly disputed by Israeli historian Efraim Karsh. In an article in "Middle East Quarterly", he alleged that "extensive quotations from the reports of all three Jewish participants [at the meetings] do not support Shlaim's account...the report of Ezra Danin and Eliahu Sasson on the Golda Meir meeting (the most important Israeli participant and the person who allegedly clinched the deal with Abdullah) is conspicuously missing from Shlaim's book, despite his awareness of its existence". According to Karsh, the meetings in question concerned "an agreement based on the imminent U.N. Partition Resolution, [in Meir's words] "to maintain law and order until the UN could establish a government in that area"; namely, a short-lived law enforcement operation to implement the UN Partition Resolution, not obstruct it".


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: Historian Graham Jevon discusses the Shlaim and Karsh interpretations of the critical meeting and accepts that there may not have been a "firm agreement" as posited by Shlaim while claiming it is clear that the parties openly discussed the possibility of a Hashemite-Zionist accommodation and further says it is "indisputable" that the Zionists confirmed that they were willing to accept Abdullah's intention.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: On 4 May 1948, Abdullah, as a part of the effort to seize as much of Palestine as possible, sent in the Arab Legion to attack the Israeli settlements in the Etzion Bloc. Less than a week before the outbreak of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Abdullah met with Meir for one last time on 11 May 1948. Abdullah told Meir, "Why are you in such a hurry to proclaim your state? Why don't you wait a few years? I will take over the whole country and you will be represented in my parliament. I will treat you very well and there will be no war". Abdullah proposed to Meir the creation "of an autonomous Jewish canton within a Hashemite kingdom," but "Meir countered back that in November, they had agreed on a partition with Jewish statehood." Depressed by the unavoidable war that would come between Jordan and the Yishuv, one Jewish Agency representative wrote, "[Abdullah] will not remain faithful to the 29 November [UN Partition] borders, but [he] will not attempt to conquer all of our state [either]." Abdullah too found the coming war to be unfortunate, in part because he "preferred a Jewish state [as Transjordan's neighbour] to a Palestinian Arab state run by the mufti."


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: The Palestinian Arabs, the neighbouring Arab states, the promise of the expansion of territory and the goal to conquer Jerusalem finally pressured Abdullah into joining them in an "all-Arab military intervention" on 15 May 1948. He used the military intervention to restore his prestige in the Arab world, which had grown suspicious of his relatively good relationship with Western and Jewish leaders. Abdullah was especially anxious to take Jerusalem as compensation for the loss of the guardianship of Mecca, which had traditionally been held by the Hashemites until Ibn Saud seized the Hejaz in 1925. Abdullah's role in this war became substantial. He distrusted the leaders of the other Arab nations and thought they had weak military forces; the other Arabs distrusted Abdullah in return. He saw himself as the "supreme commander of the Arab forces" and "persuaded the Arab League to appoint him" to this position. His forces under their British commander Glubb Pasha did not approach the area set aside for the Jewish state, though they clashed with the Yishuv forces around Jerusalem, intended to be an international zone. According to Abdullah el-Tell it was the King's personal intervention that led to the Arab Legion entering the Old City against Glubb's wishes.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: After conquering the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, at the end of the war, King Abdullah tried to suppress any trace of a Palestinian Arab national identity. Abdullah annexed the conquered Palestinian territory and granted the Palestinian Arab residents in Jordan and Jordanian citizenship. In 1949, Abdullah entered secret peace talks with Israel, including at least five with Moshe Dayan, the Military Governor of West Jerusalem and other senior Israelis. News of the negotiations provoked a strong reaction from other Arab States and Abdullah agreed to discontinue the meetings in return for Arab acceptance of the West Bank's annexation into Jordan.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: On 16 July 1951, Riad Bey Al Solh, a former Prime Minister of Lebanon, had been assassinated in Amman, where rumours were circulating that Lebanon and Jordan were discussing a joint separate peace with Israel.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: 96 hours later, on 20 July 1951, while visiting Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, Abdullah was shot dead by a Palestinian from the Husseini clan, who had passed through apparently heavy security. Contemporary media reports attributed the assassination to a secret order based in Jerusalem known only as "the Jihad", discussed in the context of the Muslim Brotherhood. Abdullah was in Jerusalem to give a eulogy at the funeral and for a prearranged meeting with Reuven Shiloah and Moshe Sasson. He was shot while attending Friday prayers at Al-Aqsa Mosque in the company of his grandson, Prince Hussein. The Palestinian gunman fired three fatal bullets into the King's head and chest. Prince Hussein was hit too but a medal that had been pinned to Hussein's chest at his grandfather's insistence deflected the bullet and saved his life. Abdullah's assassination was said to have influenced Hussein not to enter peace talks with Israel in the aftermath of the Six-Day War in order to avoid a similar fate.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: The assassin, who was shot dead by the king's bodyguards, was a 21-year-old tailor's apprentice named Mustafa Shukri Ashu. According to Alec Kirkbride, the British Resident in Amman, Ashu was a "former terrorist", recruited for the assassination by Zakariyya Ukah, a livestock dealer and butcher.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: Ashu was killed; the revolver used to kill the king was found on his body, as well as a talisman with "Kill, thou shalt be safe" written on it in Arabic. The son of a local coffee shop owner named Abdul Qadir Farhat identified the revolver as belonging to his father. On 11 August, the Prime Minister of Jordan announced that ten men would be tried in connection with the assassination. These suspects included Colonel Abdullah at-Tell, who had been Governor of Jerusalem, and several others including Musa Ahmad al-Ayubbi, a Jerusalem vegetable merchant who had fled to Egypt in the days following the assassination. General Abdul Qadir Pasha Al Jundi of the Arab Legion was to preside over the trial, which began on 18 August. Ayubbi and at-Tell, who had fled to Egypt, were tried and sentenced "in absentia". Three of the suspects, including Musa Abdullah Husseini, were from the prominent Palestinian Husseini family, leading to speculation that the assassins were part of a mandate-era opposition group.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: The Jordanian prosecutor asserted that Colonel el-Tell, who had been living in Cairo since January 1950, had given instructions that the killer, made to act alone, be slain at once thereafter, to shield the instigators of the crime. Jerusalem sources added that Col. el-Tell had been in close contact with the former Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Amin al-Husayni, and his adherents in the Kingdom of Egypt and in the All-Palestine protectorate in Gaza. El-Tell and Husseini, and three co-conspirators from Jerusalem, were sentenced to death. On 6 September 1951, Musa Ali Husseini, 'Abid and Zakariyya Ukah, and Abd-el-Qadir Farhat were executed by hanging.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: Abdullah is buried at the Royal Court in Amman. He was succeeded by his son Talal; however, since Talal was mentally ill, Talal's son Prince Hussein became the effective ruler as King Hussein at the age of sixteen, three months before his 17th birthday. In 1967, el-Tell received a full pardon from King Hussein.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: Emir Abdullah I had two sons: future King Talal and Prince Naif. Talal, being the eldest son, was considered the "natural heir to the throne". However, Talal's troubled relationship with his father led Emir Abdullah to remove him from the line of succession in a secret royal decree during World War II. Subsequently, their relationship improved after the Second World War and Talal was publicly declared heir apparent by the Emir.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: Tension between Emir Abdullah and then-Prince Talal continued, however, after Talal had been "compiling huge, unexplainable debts". Both Emir Abdullah and Prime Minister Samir Al-Rifai were in favor of Talal's removal as heir apparent and replacement with his brother Naif. However, the British resident Alec Kirkbride warned Emir Abdullah against such a "public rebuke of the heir to the throne", a warning which Emir Abdullah reluctantly accepted and then proceeded to appoint Talal as regent when the Emir was on leave.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: A major reason for the British's reluctance to allow the replacement of Talal is his well-publicized anti-British stance which caused the majority of Jordanians to assume that Kirkbride would favor the vigorously pro-British prince Naif. Thus, Kirkbride is said to have reasoned that Naif's "accession would have been attributed by many Arabs to a Machiavellian plot on the part of the British government to exclude their enemy Talal", an assumption that would give the Arab nationalist sympathetic public an impression that Britain still actively interfered in the affairs of newly independent Jordan. Such assumption would disturb British interests as it may lead to renewed calls to remove British forces and fully remove British influence from the country.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: This assumption would be put to a test when Kirkbride sent Talal to a Beirut mental hospital, stating that Talal was suffering from severe mental illness. Many Jordanians believed that there was "nothing wrong with Talal and that the wily British fabricated the story about his madness in order to get him out of the way." Because of widespread popular opinion of Talal, Prince Naif was not given British support to succeed the Emir.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: The conflicts between his two sons led Emir Abdullah to seek a secret union with Hashemite Iraq, in which Abdullah's nephew Faisal II would rule Jordan after Abdullah's death. This idea received some positive reception among the British, but ultimately rejected as Baghdad's domination of Jordan was viewed as unfavorable by the British Foreign Office due to fear of "Arab republicanism".


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: With the two other possible claimants to the throne sidelined by the British (Prince Naif and King Faisal II of Iraq), Talal was poised to rule as king of Jordan upon Emir Abdullah's assassination in 1951. However, as King Talal was receiving medical treatment abroad, Prince Naif was allowed to act as regent in his brother's place. Soon enough, Prince Naif began "openly expressing his designs on the throne for himself". Upon hearing of plans to bring King Talal back to Jordan, Prince Naif attempted to stage a coup d'état by having Colonel Habis Majali, commander of the 10th Infantry Regiment (described by Avi Shlaim as a "quasi-Praetorian Guard"), surround the palace of Queen Zein (wife of Talal) and "the building where the government was to meet in order to force it to crown Nayef".


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: The coup, if it was a coup at all, failed due to lack of British support and because of the interference of Glubb Pasha to stop it. Prince Naif left with his family to Beirut, his royal court advisor Mohammed Shureiki left his post, and the 10th Infantry Regiment was disbanded. Finally, King Talal assumed full duties as the successor of Abdullah when he returned to Jordan on 6 September 1951.


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: In 1904, Abdullah married his first wife, Musbah bint Nasser (1884 – 15 March 1961), at Stinia Palace, İstinye, Istanbul, Ottoman Empire. She was a daughter of Emir Nasser Pasha and his wife, Dilber Khanum. They had three children:


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: In 1913, Abdullah married his second wife, Suzdil Khanum (d. 16 August 1968), in Istanbul, Turkey. They had two children:


title: Abdullah I of Jordan

text: In 1949, Abdullah married his third wife, Nahda bint Uman, a lady from Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, in Amman. They had one child:


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: Husband Edward Kimmel (February 26, 1882 – May 14, 1968) was a United States Navy four-star admiral who was the commander in chief of the United States Pacific Fleet (CINCPACFLT) during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. He was removed from that command after the attack, in December 1941, and was reverted to his permanent two-star rank of rear admiral due to no longer holding a four-star assignment. He retired from the Navy in early 1942. The United States Senate voted to restore Kimmel's permanent rank to four stars in 1999, but President Clinton did not act on the resolution, and neither have any of his successors.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: Husband Kimmel was born in Henderson, Kentucky, on February 26, 1882, to Sibella "Sibbie" Lambert Kimmel (1846–1919) and Major Manning Marius Kimmel (1832–1916), a graduate of West Point who fought with the Union side during the American Civil War before switching allegiance to the Confederate States Army to fight alongside his neighbors.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: Kimmel was nicknamed variously "Kim", "Hubbie" and "Mustafa", the last being a reference to Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, due to the similar homophone between "Kimmel" and "Kemal".


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: He married Dorothy Kinkaid (1890–1975), sister of Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid, with whom he had three sons: Manning, Thomas K. Kimmel and Edward R. Kimmel.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: Kimmel graduated in 1904 from the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland. One of his classmates was Fleet Admiral Willam Halsey. From 1906 to 1907 he served on several battleships in the Caribbean. In 1907 he was assigned to the during its participation in the around-the-world cruise of the Great White Fleet. Kimmel then served in the United States occupation of Veracruz, Mexico, during which he was wounded in April 1914.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: In 1915 he was briefly appointed as an aide to Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt. During World War I, Kimmel served as a squadron gunnery officer in U.S. Battleship Division Nine which served as the Sixth Battle Squadron of the British Grand Fleet. After the war he served as Executive Officer aboard the battleship , then in Washington D.C. and the Philippines, as well as commanding two destroyer divisions before attaining the rank of captain in 1926 upon completion of the senior course at the Naval War College.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: From 1926 to 1937 Kimmel held a number of positions in the Navy Department, as well as the command of a destroyer squadron and of the battleship .


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: In 1937 he was promoted to the flag rank of rear admiral. In this capacity he commanded Cruiser Division Seven on a diplomatic cruise to South America and in 1939 became Commander of Battle Force Cruisers.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: After Admiral James O. Richardson was relieved of command in February 1941 (in part for protesting that the Pacific Fleet if based in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii would be the logical first target in the event of war with Japan), Kimmel was appointed in his place as Commander in Chief, United States Fleet (CINCUS). Kimmel was also appointed Commander in Chief, United States Pacific Fleet (CINCPACFLT), a position reestablished on 1 February 1941 when General Order 143 was issued, and Kimmel assumed command with the temporary rank of admiral starting on that date. Kimmel earned a reputation as a hard worker who inspired subordinates, but some later criticized him for over-attention to detail, claiming it betrayed a lack of self-confidence. These critics asserted that Kimmel constantly revisited minute tasks he had done previously when he could have delegated the work to others.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: On the other hand, Kimmel's Fleet gunnery officer Willard Kitts later testified that under Kimmel's leadership, "the efficiency and training of the Fleet was at its highest level." William "Bull" Halsey, who in 1941 commanded one of the Pacific Fleet's carrier task forces and rose during the war to five-star fleet admiral, described Kimmel as "the ideal man for the job."


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: The base for the fleet had been moved from its traditional home at San Diego, California, to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, in May 1940. Richardson had been relieved of command for his vocal opposition to this move and concerns about the fleet's vulnerability. On 18 February 1941, Kimmel wrote to the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), Admiral Harold Rainsford Stark:


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: I feel that a surprise attack (submarine, air, or combined) on Pearl Harbor is a possibility, and we are taking immediate practical steps to minimize the damage inflicted and to ensure that the attacking force will pay.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: On 18 April 1941, Kimmel wrote to the CNO requesting additional resources for base construction at Wake Island and for a Marine Corps defense battalion to be stationed there. On 19 August the first permanent Marine garrison was assigned. Naval Air Station Midway was commissioned in August after the completion of runways and support structures, and a Marine garrison assigned shortly afterwards. In November Kimmel ordered to ferry Marine fighters and pilots to Wake Island to reinforce the garrison, and for to depart Pearl Harbor on 5 December to ferry Marine dive bombers to Midway. Because of these missions neither aircraft carrier was in Pearl Harbor during the later Japanese attack.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor occurred in an air raid on December 7, 1941, and caused the deaths of 2,403 U.S. military personnel and civilians. Edwin T. Layton related that during the attack:


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: Kimmel stood by the window of his office at the submarine base, his jaw set in stony anguish. As he watched the disaster across the harbor unfold with terrible fury, a spent .50 caliber machine gun bullet crashed through the glass. It brushed the admiral before it clanged to the floor. It cut his white jacket and raised a welt on his chest. "It would have been merciful had it killed me," Kimmel murmured to his communications officer, Commander Maurice "Germany" Curts.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: In "The World at War", a naval serviceman—who had been alongside Admiral Kimmel during the attack—recalled that as Kimmel watched the destruction of the fleet, he tore off his four-star shoulder boards, in apparent recognition of the impending end of his command.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: Kimmel was relieved of his command ten days after the attack. At the time he was planning and executing retaliatory moves, including an effort to relieve and reinforce Wake Island that could have led to an early clash between American and Japanese carrier forces. Vice Admiral William S. Pye (Commander, Battle Force, Pacific Fleet) became acting CINCPACFLT on 17 December. He had reservations about Kimmel's plan and decided the Wake Island operation was too risky, recalling the relief force. Admiral Chester W. Nimitz took over as CINCPACFLT on 31 December and by that time Wake Island had been invaded and occupied by the Japanese. Kimmel's CINCUS command was reassigned to Admiral Ernest J. King (at that time Commander in Chief, U.S. Atlantic Fleet [CINCLANTFLT]) in a wartime expanded role of Commander in Chief, United States Fleet (with the new acronym of COMINCH), which would also be combined with King's subsequent appointment as the Chief of Naval Operations.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: In 1942, the Roberts Commission, appointed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to investigate the attack, determined that Kimmel and his counterpart, Army Lieutenant General Walter Short, were guilty of errors of judgment and dereliction of duty in the events leading up to the attack. Kimmel defended his decisions at several hearings, testifying that important information had not been made available to him.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: Following the death of Secretary Knox in April 1944, his successor James V. Forrestal ordered that a Naval Court of Inquiry be convened to investigate the facts surrounding the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and to assess any culpability borne by members of the Navy. The court consisted of Admiral Adolphus Andrews; Admiral Orin G. Murfin, who served as President of the Court, and Admiral Edward C. Kalbfus. The court convened on July 24, 1944 and held daily sessions in Washington, D.C., San Francisco, and Pearl Harbor. After interviewing numerous witnesses, it completed its work on October 19, 1944. Its report to the Navy Department largely exonerated Kimmel. The court found that Kimmel's decisions had been correct given the limited information available to him, but criticized then-Chief of Naval Operations Harold R. Stark for failing to warn Kimmel that war was imminent. The court concluded that "based upon the facts established, the Court is of the opinion that no offenses have been committed nor serious blame incurred on the part of any person or persons in the naval service." Because the court's findings implicitly revealed that American cryptographers had broken the Japanese codes, a critical wartime secret, the court's report was not made public until after the end of the war.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: Upon reviewing the report, Forrestal felt that the court had been too lenient in assigning blame for the disaster. The court had found that the Army and Navy had adequately cooperated in the defense of Pearl Harbor; that there had been no information indicating that Japanese carriers were on their way to attack Pearl Harbor; and that the attack had succeeded principally because of the aerial torpedo, a secret weapon whose use could not have been predicted. Forrestal disapproved all of these findings, judging that Kimmel could have done more with the information he had had to prevent or mitigate the attack. Forrestal concluded that both Kimmel and Stark had "failed to demonstrate the superior judgment necessary for exercising command commensurate with their rank and their assigned duties."


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: Kimmel retired in early 1942, and worked for the military contractor Frederic R. Harris, Inc. after the war. In retirement, Kimmel lived in Groton, Connecticut, where he died on May 14, 1968.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: His son, Manning, died after the submarine he commanded, the , was sunk near Palawan on or around July 26, 1944. The Kimmel family at the time was informed that Manning had gone down with his ship. Though it was widely believed that Manning Kimmel died on board his boat, several sources (including Admiral Ralph Waldo Christie, commander of submarine operations at Fremantle at the time) stated after the war that Manning was one of a handful of survivors from his submarine, having been swept overboard as the boat sank after hitting a mine. According to these sources, Manning was captured by Japanese forces, and along with several other survivors from the USS "Robalo" was pushed into a ditch, doused with gasoline and burned alive by his captors, who were enraged over a recent American air attack.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: Historians agree that the United States was unprepared for the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor at all levels. Japanese military forces enjoyed clear superiority in training, equipment, experience and planning over the Americans. The extent to which Kimmel himself bore responsibility for the unreadiness of his Pacific Fleet has been a matter of debate.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: Some, such as submarine Captain Edward L. "Ned" Beach, concluded that Admiral Kimmel and General Short, who was also dismissed from command, were made scapegoats for the failures of superiors in Washington. Kimmel's supporters point to a series of bureaucratic foulups and circumstances beyond anyone's control that led to the fleet's lack of preparedness, including poor atmospheric conditions that blocked a radio warning from the War Department to Pearl Harbor of a possible attack, forcing it to be sent as a telegram, which delayed it long enough for the attack to start before Kimmel received it (the telegram messenger was on his way to deliver the message when the attack commenced; he was forced to take cover in a ditch. Kimmel did not get the warning until after the attack ended).


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: Edwin T. Layton, chief intelligence officer for Kimmel and one of the officers who knew Kimmel best, provided support for Kimmel's position. Layton argued Kimmel had not been provided complete information and that Kimmel deployed the few reconnaissance resources at his disposal in the most logical way, given the available information.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: On the other hand, Kimmel's critics point out that he had been ordered 10 days prior to the attack to initiate a "defensive deployment" of the fleet. Kimmel, thinking the main threat to the fleet was sabotage, kept much of the fleet in port and did not place the fleet on alert. When his intelligence unit lost track of Japan's aircraft carriers, he did not order long-range air or naval patrols to assess their positions. He had a poor working arrangement with his Army counterpart, General Short, who was charged with defending the fleet while in port.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: Historians generally recognize that American forces would have fared poorly even if Kimmel had reacted differently. In a 1964 interview, Admiral Chester Nimitz, who took over as commander of the Pacific Fleet three weeks after the attack, concluded that, "It was God's mercy that our fleet was in Pearl Harbor on December 7." If Kimmel "[had] had advance notice that the Japanese were coming, he most probably would have tried to intercept them. With the difference in speed between Kimmel's battleships and the faster Japanese carriers, the former could not have come within rifle range of the enemy's flattops. As a result, we would have lost many ships in deep water and also thousands more in lives." Instead, at Pearl Harbor, the crews were easily rescued, and six of eight front-line battleships ultimately raised. This was also the assessment of Joseph Rochefort, head of the US Navy's Station HYPO, who remarked the attack was cheap at the price.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: In 1994 Kimmel's family, including his grandson, South Carolina broadcaster Manning Kimmel IV, attempted for the third time to have Kimmel's four-star rank reinstated. President Bill Clinton denied the request, as had Presidents Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan. A 1995 Pentagon study concluded other high-ranking officers were also responsible for the failure at Pearl Harbor, but did not exonerate Kimmel.


title: Husband E. Kimmel

text: On May 25, 1999, the United States Senate, by a vote of 52–47, passed a non-binding resolution to exonerate Kimmel and Short and requested that the President of the United States posthumously restore both men to full rank. Senator Strom Thurmond, one of the sponsors of the resolution, called Kimmel and Short "the two final victims of Pearl Harbor." The Senate enquiry in 2000 issued a lengthy exoneration of Kimmel's conduct. President Clinton did not act on the resolution, nor have any of his successors.


title: Eva Andersson-Dubin

text: Eva Birgitta Andersson-Dubin (born 1961) is a Swedish physician. She is also the founder of the Dubin Breast Center at the Tisch Cancer Institute at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City. She is married to hedge fund billionaire Glenn Dubin. She worked as a model and won the Miss Sweden contest in 1980.


title: Eva Andersson-Dubin

text: Born in Sweden, she earned a high school diploma from Östraboskolan (Östrabo school) where she graduated first in her class, concentrating in mathematics and physics. After graduating, she pursued a career in modeling and in 1980 was named Miss Sweden and placed fourth runner up in the Miss Universe contest. She attended Karolinska Institutet in Stockholm for three and a half years and then transferred to UCLA's School of Medicine where she earned her MD in 1989. She then completed her residency in internal medicine at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York in 1990.


title: Eva Andersson-Dubin

text: The Dubins donated approximately $19 million and were involved in raising an additional $24 million so that the center could open in 2011 and have funding to operate. Andersson-Dubin works at the Dubin Breast Center part of the Tisch Cancer Institute at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City. Since opening in 2011 to 2018, the center has processed 180,000 patient visits.


title: Eva Andersson-Dubin

text: Gerard W. Ford, who founded and ran Ford Models with his wife Eileen Ford, discovered Eva Andersson while she was walking down the street in New York City. Jerry Ford took Eva Andersson to meet Eileen Ford and Andersson became a Ford Model. In the 1970s, Eileen Ford the American model agency executive and co-founder of Ford Models described Eva Andersson-Dubin's legs on her modeling card as: "excellent". Later, Eva Andersson was entered into the Miss Sweden contest without her knowledge, and won Miss Sweden 1980.


title: Eva Andersson-Dubin

text: Eva Andersson dated Jeffrey Epstein. Eva Andersson continued to "socialize with Epstein after his time in jail" for pleading guilty in 2008 to a state charge (one of two) of procuring for prostitution a girl below age 18.


title: Eva Andersson-Dubin

text: In the early 1990s, Eva Andersson was seen by her future husband Glenn Dubin for the first time via a modeling photo in the "New York Post"'s Page Six section.