title: NEMA connector

text: The appearance of this plug is sometimes confused with a NEMA 10 connector, rated for 240 V, but the NEMA TT-30 is a 120 V device. The hot and neutral blades are angled at 45° from vertical and 90° to each other, unlike NEMA 10 devices (where the angles are 30° and 60° respectively), also the plug is slightly smaller than a NEMA 10 and larger than ordinary 5-15P plugs. The ground pin is round, like those on straight-blade NEMA grounding devices. Referring to the picture, the orientation is the same as the NEMA 5 plug and receptacle, with the neutral blade on the lower right.


title: NEMA connector

text: Adapters are available with the TT-30P plug on one side and a 5-15R or 5-20R receptacle on the other side. When a power feed cord is detachable from an RV, an L5-30P is usually used on the RV end of the cord.


title: NEMA connector

text: Twist-locking connectors were first invented by Harvey Hubbell III in 1938 and "Twist-Lock" remains a registered trademark of Hubbell Incorporated, although the term is used generically to refer to NEMA locking connectors manufactured by any company. Locking connectors use curved blades. Once pushed into the receptacle, the plug is twisted and its now-rotated blades latch into the receptacle. To unlatch the plug, the rotation is reversed. The locking coupling makes for a more reliable connection in commercial and industrial settings, where vibration or incidental impact could disconnect a non-locking connector.


title: NEMA connector

text: Locking connectors come in a variety of standardized configurations that follow the same general naming scheme except that the designations include an "L" for "locking". Locking connectors are designed so that different voltages and current ratings can not be accidentally intermated. Many specific types exist; only a few are listed below. Other types include special purpose connectors for boats, 400 Hz circuits such as used for aircraft, and direct-current applications.


title: NEMA connector

text: One apparent disadvantage of twist-lock connectors is that in the event that the cable is accidentally pulled too hard, rather than the plug falling out of the receptacle, exposed conductors may come out of the plug, causing dangerous shorts or shock hazards if the circuit is live. This is resolved in most cases by the connector having a robust integral strain relief.


title: NEMA connector

text: ML-series "Midget Locking" connectors are for 15 A applications where a larger locking connector would not fit.


title: NEMA connector

text: NEMA L1 series devices are single-pole plus neutral, two-wire, non-grounding devices for 125 volts single phase. Designs and devices for 15 amp devices (L1-15) exist.


title: NEMA connector

text: NEMA L2 series devices are two-pole, two-wire, non-grounding devices for 250 volts single-phase. Designs and devices for 20 amp devices (L2-20) exist.


title: NEMA connector

text: These devices would have been for 277 and 600 volt two-pole, two-wire non-grounding devices similar to the straight-blade NEMA 3 and 4 families, but were never specified by NEMA.


title: NEMA connector

text: NEMA L5 connectors are a series of two-pole and ground locking connectors rated for 125 V. L5-30R receptacles are common at marinas that provide power to docked boats. They are also found on some RVs for connecting to shore power. RVs in the US are equipped for 120 V 30 A or 240 V 50 A service, and use a cord to connect to a receptacle at the campsite, usually on a power pedestal with one or more receptacles providing 120 V 30 A (TT30R), 240 V 50 A (14-50R), or 120 V 15/20 A (5-20R) service. Locking receptacles appropriate for the voltage and current are used on the RV end of the cord, along with non-locking plugs on the end connecting to the pedestal.


title: NEMA connector

text: NEMA L6 connectors are rated for a maximum of 250 volts. They are intended for two-pole, three wire, line-line-earth (or hot-hot-ground) circuits with a nominal supply voltage of 208 or 240 volts, depending on phase configuration. The L6 connector does not provide a neutral connection.


title: NEMA connector

text: L6-20 connectors provide a maximum of 20 amps and are commonly found in power distribution units (PDUs) used in the information technology sector. Most often, these connectors can be found in server rooms and data centers where the connectors are used to power equipment such as servers, backup systems and UPS units.


title: NEMA connector

text: L6-30 connectors provide a maximum of 30 amps and tend to be used in heavy-industry sectors. For example, welders and other manufacturing machinery where industrial equipment or large power tools are commonplace.


title: NEMA connector

text: NEMA L7 are two-pole and ground connectors rated for 277 V. Typically, these connectors are found in commercial or industrial lighting circuits, especially where metal halide lamps are common.


title: NEMA connector

text: NEMA L8 are two-pole and ground connectors rated for 480 V. Intended for three-wire hot-hot-ground circuits.


title: NEMA connector

text: NEMA L9 are two-pole and ground connectors rated for 600 V. Intended for three-wire hot-hot-ground circuits.


title: NEMA connector

text: NEMA L10 series devices are two-pole plus neutral, three-wire, non-grounding devices for 125/250 volts single-phase. These are deprecated due to the lack of grounding but L10-20 and L10-30 devices are specified by NEMA and are commercially available.


title: NEMA connector

text: NEMA L11 series devices are three-pole, three-wire, non-grounding devices for three-phase 250 volt devices. Designs exist for 15 amp (L11-15), 20 amp (L11-20), and 30 amp (L11-30) devices, and L11-20 and L11-30 devices were commercially available from at least one manufacturer (Bryant Electric).


title: NEMA connector

text: NEMA L12 series devices are three-pole, three-wire, non-grounding devices for three-phase 480 volt devices. Designs exist for 20 amp (L12-20), and 30 amp (L12-30) devices, and L12-20 and L12-30 devices were commercially available from at least one manufacturer (Bryant Electric).


title: NEMA connector

text: NEMA L13 series devices are three-pole, three-wire, non-grounding devices for three-phase 600 volt devices. Designs exist for 30 amp (L13-30) devices and L13-30 devices were commercially available from at least one manufacturer (Bryant Electric).


title: NEMA connector

text: NEMA L14 are three-pole and ground connectors rated for 125/250 V. Intended for three-pole, four-wire hot-hot-neutral-ground circuits with a nominal supply voltages of 240 or 208 V hot-to-hot and 120 V hot-to-neutral.


title: NEMA connector

text: These connectors are common on household backup generators, and on racks of power amplifiers in large audio systems.


title: NEMA connector

text: NEMA L18 are four-pole no ground connectors rated for 120/208 V. Intended for wye three-phase circuits.


title: NEMA connector

text: NEMA L19 series devices are three-pole, four-wire, non-grounding devices for three-phase 277/480 volt devices. Designs exist for 20 amp (L19-20), and 30 amp (L19-30) devices, and L19-20 and L19-30 devices were commercially available from at least one manufacturer (Bryant Electric).


title: NEMA connector

text: NEMA L20 series devices are three-pole, four-wire, non-grounding devices for three-phase 347/600 volt devices. Designs exist for 20 amp (L12-20), and 30 amp (L20-30) devices, and L20-20 and L20-30 devices were commercially available from at least one manufacturer (Bryant Electric).


title: NEMA connector

text: NEMA L21 are four-pole and ground connectors rated for 120/208 V. Intended for wye three-phase circuits with both neutral and ground. The pin in the middle is ground, and the blade with a right angle on the tab is neutral. These connectors are common in live event power distribution. Many event production companies use power distributors with camlock connectors for feeder cable, and 12 or more L21-30 connectors which can each be broken out to three individual 120 V circuits via the use of a stringer box.


title: NEMA connector

text: NEMA L22 are four-pole and ground connectors rated for 277/480 V. Intended for wye three-phase circuits with both neutral and ground. The pin in the middle is ground, and the blade with a right angle on the tab is neutral.


title: NEMA connector

text: NEMA L23 are four-pole and ground connectors rated for 347/600 V. Intended for wye three-phase circuits with both neutral and ground. The pin in the middle is ground, and the blade with a right angle on the tab is neutral.


title: NEMA connector

text: Over time, electrical codes in the US and Canada began to require additional safety features in the basic NEMA 5-15R and 5-20R configurations to address specific electric shock hazard concerns. The safety features listed below are not mutually exclusive; for example, tamper-resistant GFCI receptacles are available.


title: NEMA connector

text: These versions of the 5-15R or 5-20R receptacle are residual-current devices, and have "Test" and "Reset" buttons (and sometimes an indicator light which may be normally on or normally off per the vendor's design). In the US and Canada, GFCI protection is required for receptacles in many potentially wet locations, including outside outlets, bathrooms, and some places in kitchens, basements, and crawl spaces. This is an expedient way to provide that protection at the receptacle itself.


title: NEMA connector

text: These safety devices work by comparing the currents flowing in the live and neutral conductors, and disconnect the circuit if their difference exceeds 4 to 6 milliamperes. Installing a single receptacle is often cheaper or more convenient than providing this GFCI protection at the circuit breaker. In addition, a tripped GFCI receptacle may be more easily noticed and reset, as compared to a tripped GFCI located in a remote circuit breaker panel far from the point of usage.


title: NEMA connector

text: Like most current interrupting devices, a GFCI receptacle can optionally be wired to feed additional "downstream" outlets; correctly installing one GFCI receptacle in a circuit can protect all the plugs, lights, switches, and wiring which receive power from it. This allows for cost-effective retrofits on older installations where branch circuits were often daisy-chained between wet and dry locations. A GFCI receptacle may be installed indoors where it is sheltered from dampness and corrosion, while still protecting an outdoors receptacle wired downstream.


title: NEMA connector

text: GFCIs are also recommended for power tool outlets and any locations where children might insert conductive objects into the receptacles, although this safety measure does not substitute for additional requirements for tamper-resistant receptacles.


title: NEMA connector

text: Starting with the 2008 National Electrical Code and the 2009 Canadian Electrical Code, listed tamper-resistant receptacles that address electric shock hazards to children must now be installed in almost all areas of new or renovated dwellings. According to statistics cited by the NFPA, the code change adds only $40 to the cost of building an average, 75-receptacle home in the US.


title: NEMA connector

text: This safety measure reduces shock hazards to a child that attempts to insert a single conductive object into the receptacle. Inserting a normal, two-blade electrical plug applies simultaneous pressure on both sides of the receptacle to open an internal, spring-loaded shutter, but a foreign object fails to do so and therefore cannot make contact with the live electrical contacts. However, the device can still be defeated by inserting two objects simultaneously. Despite its weaknesses, the tamper-resistant receptacle is superior to protective plastic outlet caps which must be individually installed on each receptacle (and are a choking hazard when removed), and to sliding covers that children easily learn to defeat.


title: NEMA connector

text: The National Electrical Code has been updated for 2014 to address the use of Outlet Branch Circuit (OBC) Arc Fault Circuit Interrupter (AFCI) receptacles as an alternative to traditional circuit breakers when used for modifications, extensions, replacement receptacles, or in new construction. AFCI receptacles reduce the dangers associated with potentially-hazardous arcing conditions (parallel arcs and series arcs), by interrupting power to arcing devices (e.g. a damaged appliance cord) that might otherwise not draw enough current to trip the primary circuit protection device.


title: NEMA connector

text: AFCI protection is mandated by the 2014 Code in residential family rooms, dining rooms, living rooms, kitchens, parlors, libraries, dens, bedrooms, laundry rooms, sunrooms, recreation rooms, closets, hallways or similar rooms. It is also required in dormitory units. AFCI receptacles look similar to GFCI receptacles in that they have a "Test" and "Reset" button on the face of the device for localized testing. This saves a homeowner a trip to the breaker panel, should the device trip. Unlike AFCI breakers, AFCI receptacles can be used on any wiring system, regardless of the panel. When installed as the first receptacle on a branch circuit, AFCI receptacles can provide series arc protection for the entire branch circuit. They also provide parallel arc protection for the branch circuit downstream of the AFCI receptacle.


title: NEMA connector

text: Surge protective devices are designed to reduce the random energy surges of voltage transients and electrical noise on the power supply line, which can damage sensitive electronics such as TVs, computers, and smart appliances. They are available for 120 V, 15/20 A applications, in different form factors such as surge protective receptacles in single, duplex, four-in-one, and six receptacle configurations, as well as surge-protective power strips. These devices provide point-of-use protection and are the last line of defense in a whole-house surge protection network.


title: NEMA connector

text: Weather-resistant (WR) receptacles are made with ultraviolet-resistant insulating materials having excellent cold-temperature impact resistance to withstand longterm exposure to weathering and abuse. Metallic components are required to be resistant to corrosion. Mandated by the 2008 National Electrical Code in outdoor damp or wet locations, WR receptacles are required in patio, deck, and pool areas. They are available in a variety of variations, including GFCI and tamper-resistant.


title: NEMA connector

text: For added protection, WR receptacles should be shielded by "Extra-Duty While In-Use" or "Weather-Resistant" covers. These covers are ruggedly constructed to keep out moisture (either dripping or condensing), dust, debris, and insects, while providing easy access to receptacles to allow their use with power tools, trimmers, sprinkler systems, and pumps.


title: NEMA connector

text: Damaged power cords of portable air conditioners have caused many electrical fires, and about 350 deaths per year. To combat this, the 2017 NEC requires each portable air conditioner sold in the United States to have either a leakage current detector interrupter (LCDI) or a ground-fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) protective device built into its power cord. The device can be integral with the power plug, or a separate module within 12 inches of the plug. The protection device is equipped with "Test" and "Reset" buttons on the housing. An LCDI cord has a fine wire mesh around the conductors, and circuitry to detect current leaking from the conductors to the mesh, which would happen if the cord were damaged or frayed. The plugs are normal NEMA 5-15, 5-20, 6-15, 6-20, or 6-30 plugs, depending on the air conditioner design, and are typically molded-on designs.


title: NEMA connector

text: The color of a device neither identifies its voltage class nor power system. Because the colors are not specified by NEMA standards, the purpose of color-coding a receptacle may be set by the building owner, who may select brown, ivory, white, almond, grey, or black receptacles in the 5-15 configuration to blend with the decor of a room.


title: NEMA connector

text: However, although colors are not standardized by NEMA, some industries utilize colors for certain applications, following de facto standards:


title: NEMA connector

text: Most duplex receptacles have metal tabs connecting the top and bottom receptacles. These tabs can be broken off to allow the top and bottom receptacles to be wired onto separate circuits. This may allow for one switched receptacle for a lamp, or for two separate supply circuits when heavy loads are anticipated. Two branch circuits may optionally share a common neutral wire terminating on duplex receptacles, a condition sometimes referred to as "split-wiring", "split-receptacle", or "half-split".


title: NEMA connector

text: The dimensions and configurations for NEMA connectors are given in ANSI/NEMA standard WD-6. Underwriters Laboratories maintains UL Standard 498, which specifies construction performance (e.g. durability, electrical safety, and fire-resistance) for NEMA connectors. These additional requirements allow connectors to be manufactured to be compliant with the National Electrical Code. The Defense Logistics Agency and General Services Administration maintain Federal Specification W-C-596 and its associated specification sheets. This specification references WD-6 and UL 498, and provides additional durability and electrical safety performance criteria for connectors intended for military use.


title: Top Thrill Dragster

text: Top Thrill Dragster is a hydraulically-launched steel roller coaster located at Cedar Point in Sandusky, Ohio, United States. Manufactured by Intamin and designed by Werner Stengel, it opened in 2003 as the in the world, as well as the first full-circuit roller coaster to exceed in height. Top Thrill Dragster reaches a height of , a maximum speed of , and features a total track length of . Its records were surpassed in 2005 by Kingda Ka at Six Flags Great Adventure.


title: Top Thrill Dragster

text: Top Thrill Dragster is themed to Top Fuel drag racing, with the starting launch designed to resemble a dragstrip. The roller coaster is the second Accelerator Coaster model built by Intamin and one of two strata coasters in existence. It has also consistently ranked as one of the world's top steel coasters in the annual Golden Ticket Awards publication from "Amusement Today". Following an incident in 2021 in which a guest was severely injured, the park closed the ride indefinitely, later announcing in September 2022 that Top Thrill Dragster would be retired and replaced with a new ride experience.


title: Top Thrill Dragster

text: According to Rob Decker, Vice President of Planning and Design, the park began working on a new project shortly after the debut of Millennium Force in 2000. After the 2001 season ended, a Dodgem ride across from Magnum XL-200's entrance was relocated to Michigan's Adventure to clear the way for the new ride. In April 2002, work began on the concrete foundation. The concrete footings were kept hidden behind a fence when the park opened for the 2002 season. In August, an informal announcement from Cedar Point confirmed the park was building a new ride for the 2003 season. Track pieces identified as Intamin were previously spotted near Mean Streak. Vertical construction by Martin & Vleminckx began in the fall season, months before the formal announcement. By October, the roller coaster had reached in height, and the highest peak was topped off in December. To construct the roller coaster, the park used five cranes, two of which were tall.


title: Top Thrill Dragster

text: At the time, only four such cranes in the United States were tall enough to handle construction of the 420-foot tower section. An official announcement revealing details on the new ride was made the following month on January 9, 2003. Officials for the park stated the goal was to build "the tallest and fastest roller coaster on earth", reaching in height and accelerating up to in 4 seconds. The large investment tied it with Millennium Force as being the most expensive in park history. The structure was built by Intamin's subcontractor Stakotra. In March, Cedar Fair registered a trademark for the name "Top Thrill Dragster".


title: Top Thrill Dragster

text: Top Thrill Dragster's media day was held on May 1, 2003, and it officially opened to the public three days later. It became the tallest and fastest roller coaster in the world, overtaking the height record from Steel Dragon 2000 at Nagashima Spa Land, built three years earlier, and the speed record from Dodonpa at Fuji-Q Highland, which opened in late 2001. It lost both records to Kingda Ka at Six Flags Great Adventure in May 2005. Intamin designed both Kingda Ka and Top Thrill Dragster, and the two share a similar design and layout that differs primarily by theme and an additional hill featured on Kingda Ka. Shortly after it opened, a faulty valve on the hydraulic system caused a short-term closure. The ride continued to experience a variety of issues dealing with its hydraulic system and launch cable, which frequently led to downtime early on in its tenure.


title: Top Thrill Dragster

text: During the 2017 season's opening weekend, Cedar Point temporarily renamed the ride "Top Thrill Cubster", referencing a lost wager with Six Flags Great America over the World Series. In 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, timed boarding passes called "Access Passes" were used temporarily to comply with social distancing guidelines.


title: Top Thrill Dragster

text: In August 2021, Top Thrill Dragster experienced a "serious accident" in which a guest waiting in line was seriously injured after a small metal piece was dislodged from a train. An investigation by the Ohio Department of Agriculture (ODA) determined that half of the bolts securing the plate dislodged. Although ODA finished its investigation in February 2022, exonerating Cedar Point from any wrongdoing, park officials announced that Top Thrill Dragster would remain closed for the 2022 season.


title: Top Thrill Dragster

text: On September 6, 2022, Cedar Point officials released an update on social media stating, "Top Thrill Dragster, as you know it, is being retired." This came after an extended closure that spanned more than one season. Officials did not provide further details other than stating they were working on a "new and reimagined ride experience". When it closed, Top Thrill Dragster had accommodated 18 million riders over 19 seasons. Prior to the end of Cedar Point's operating season, parts of the roller coaster's track near the station were dismantled.


title: Top Thrill Dragster

text: After leaving the station, the train entered the launch area. To the left of the launch area was a "Christmas tree" light, similar to those employed at the starting line of a drag strip. A brief message was played to the riders before the launch: "Keep arms down, head back, and hold on." Once the train was prepared to launch, a motor revving sound effect was played and its magnetic braking fins were lowered from the launch track. It then launched, accelerating to a speed of in 3.8 seconds. Shortly after reaching its maximum velocity, the catch car disengaged, and the train began its ascent up a 90-degree incline, twisting 90 degrees clockwise before climbing over the top hat. Upon descending, the track twisted 270 degrees before leveling out, allowing the train to be stopped by the magnetic brakes.


title: Top Thrill Dragster

text: The roller coaster was themed to Top Fuel drag racing, a category of motor racing that involved the world's fastest accelerating cars. An actual Top Fuel dragster weighs approximately one ton, while each train on the coaster weighed 15 tons. Originally, the design called for five cars on each train, but when the ride first opened, there were only four. A fifth car was added to each by midseason. Each dragster-themed train was also decorated with a spoiler, a set of tires, and an engine at the rear of each train, but these were removed after the fifth car was added to allow an extra row of seats to take their place.


title: Top Thrill Dragster

text: Occasionally, a train was launched without sufficient speed to reach the top of the tower and rolled back onto the launch track, hence the term "rollback". This typically happened in cool, wet, or breezy weather, or when the wind was working against it. The launch track was equipped with retractable magnetic braking fins, which were raised after each launch to slow the train down in case it did not reach the top of the tower.


title: Top Thrill Dragster

text: On very rare occasions, a combination of the weight distribution of the train, the force of the launch, and the wind could stall a train on top of the tower. When this happened, a mechanic took the elevator to the top and pushed the train down the hill.


title: Top Thrill Dragster

text: It became the fastest roller coaster in the world with a maximum speed of . It was the fourth roller coaster to exceed , preceded by Tower of Terror II at Dreamworld, at Six Flags Magic Mountain and Dodonpa at Fuji-Q Highland. Dodonpa held the record previously with a top speed of . Top Thrill Dragster also broke the height record, standing at , which was previously held by Superman: Escape from Krypton at . Kingda Ka opened two years later at Six Flags Great Adventure and broke both of Top Thrill Dragster's records, boasting a height of and a top speed of . The speed record was again broken in 2010 by Formula Rossa at Ferrari World, which reaches a maximum speed of .


title: Top Thrill Dragster

text: In the last operational year of the Top Thrill Dragster in 2021, the roller coaster had the second tallest height, the third fastest speed, and the second-highest drop among steel roller coasters in the world. Top Thrill Dragster was the second hydraulically-launched roller coaster from Intamin following Xcelerator at Knott's Berry Farm, and along with Kingda Ka, it is one of two strata coasters ever built. Its marketing tagline was "Race for the Sky".


title: Top Thrill Dragster

text: On July 14, 2004, four people were struck by flying debris while riding the coaster. Reports indicated that a metal cable frayed during launch, shearing off shards of metal that struck the riders. The injuries were mainly arm abrasions, with one passenger experiencing cuts to the face. They were treated at the park's first aid station, and two later sought further medical attention.


title: Top Thrill Dragster

text: On August 7, 2016, two people were treated for minor injuries when the launch cable detached from the ride. The ride was closed for the following day while the park and Ohio state officials investigated the incident.


title: Top Thrill Dragster

text: In September 2017, a report with photos surfaced that the braking system on the launch side of the track may have been damaged, causing the ride to close indefinitely. Cedar Point did not acknowledge the incident and stated the closure was for maintenance reasons.


title: Top Thrill Dragster

text: On August 15, 2021, in what was described as a "serious accident", a guest waiting in line was struck by a small metal piece that dislodged from a train as it was nearing the end of its run. The guest was taken to a nearby hospital and was found to have suffered serious injuries. Cedar Point announced that the coaster would be closed for the remainder of the season. The piece was later determined to be a flag plate – an L-shaped bracket that signals the train's location to sensors positioned along the track. An ODA investigation later determined that half of the bolts securing the plate dislodged. The ODA required that Top Thrill Dragster be closed during the investigation and subsequent re-inspections. ODA found there was "insufficient evidence to find the action or inactions of Cedar Point violated any of the laws" and concluded its investigation in February 2022. However, Cedar Point was required to perform a list of repairs, including repairing damaged track sections and replacing "different or improper grade" bolts before ODA could certify the attraction to reopen. Despite this, the ride never reopened, and its retirement was announced on September 6, 2022.


title: David Production

text: The company was founded by former Gonzo president and producer Kōji Kajita and fellow producer Taito Okiura in September 2007 upon having left Gonzo. The company's first work was as an animation subcontractor, but in 2009 David Production undertook their first full animation production as a primary contractor with "Ristorante Paradiso".


title: David Production

text: The company's name is a reference to the Biblical story of "David and Goliath", a story chosen to represent "[the creation of] good animation with great storytelling and characters" despite being smaller than other well-known studios. It is also short for "Design Audio & Visual Illusion Dynamics", which signifies the studio's impactful animations.


title: Bavarian language

text: Bavarian ( , Bavarian: "Boarisch") or alternately Austro-Bavarian, is a West Germanic language, part of the Upper German family, together with Alemannic and East Franconian.


title: Bavarian language

text: Bavarian is spoken by approximately 12 million people in an area of around , making it the largest of all German dialects. It can be found in the German state of Bavaria (especially Old Bavaria), most of the Republic of Austria (excluding Vorarlberg) and the Italian region of South Tyrol. In 2008, 45 percent of Bavarians claimed to use only dialect in everyday communication. Prior to 1945, Bavarian was also prevalent in parts of the southern Czech Republic and western Hungary.


title: Bavarian language

text: The difference between Bavarian and Standard High German is larger than the difference between Danish and Norwegian or between Czech and Slovak; as such, there is disagreement regarding its classification. The International Organization for Standardization classifies it as a separate language, assigning it a unique ISO 639-3 language code ("bar"). It has been listed by UNESCO in the Atlas of Endangered Languages since 2009.


title: Bavarian language

text: The word "Bavarian" is derived from the name of the people who settled Bavaria along with their tribal dialect. The origin of the word is disputed. The most common theory traces the word to "Bajowarjōz", meaning "inhabitants of Bojer land". In turn, "Bojer" (, ) originated as the name for former Celtic inhabitants of the area, with the name passing to the mixed population of Celts, Romans, and successive waves of German arrivals during the early medieval period.


title: Bavarian language

text: The local population eventually established of the Duchy of Bavaria, forming the south-eastern part of the kingdom of Germany. The Old High German documents from the area of Bavaria are identified as ("Old Bavarian"), even though at this early date there were few distinctive features that would divide it from Alemannic German.


title: Bavarian language

text: The dialectal separation of Upper German into East Upper German (Bavarian) and West Upper German (Alemannic) became more tangible in the Middle High German period, from about the 12th century.


title: Bavarian language

text: Differences are clearly noticeable within those three subgroups, which in Austria often coincide with the borders of the particular states. For example, each of the accents of Carinthia, Styria, and Tyrol can be easily recognised. Also, there is a marked difference between eastern and western central Bavarian, roughly coinciding with the border between Austria and Bavaria. In addition, the Viennese dialect has some characteristics distinguishing it from all other dialects. In Vienna, minor, but recognizable, variations are characteristic for distinct districts of the city.


title: Bavarian language

text: Before the expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia, the linguistic border of Bavarian with Czech was on the farther side of the Bohemian Forest and its Bohemian foreland was Bavarian-speaking.


title: Bavarian language

text: Given that Central German and Upper German together comprise the High German languages, out of which the then new, written standard was developed and as opposed to Low German, that is an alternative naming many High German dialect speakers regard justified.


title: Bavarian language

text: Vowel phonemes in parentheses occur only in certain Bavarian dialects or only appear as allophones or in diphthongs. Nasalization may also be distinguished in some dialects.


title: Bavarian language

text: Bavarian has an extensive vowel inventory, like most Germanic languages. Vowels can be grouped as back rounded, front unrounded and front rounded. They are also traditionally distinguished by length or tenseness.


title: Bavarian language

text: The possessive pronouns "Deina" and "Seina" inflect in the same manner. Oftentimes, "nige" is added to the nominative to form the adjective form of the possessive pronoun, like mei(nige), dei(nige), and the like.


title: Bavarian language

text: Just like the possessive pronouns listed above, the indefinite pronouns "koana", "none", and "oana", "one" are inflected the same way.


title: Bavarian language

text: There is also the indefinite pronoun "ebba(d)", "someone" with its impersonal form "ebb(a)s", "something". It is inflected in the following way:


title: Bavarian language

text: The interrogative pronouns "wea", "who", and "wås", "what" are inflected the same way the indefinite pronoun "ebba" is inflected.


title: Bavarian language

text: Bavarians produce a variety of nicknames for those who bear traditional Bavarian or German names like Josef, Theresa or Georg (becoming "Sepp'l" or more commonly "Sepp", "Resi" and "Schorsch", respectively). Bavarians often refer to names with the family name coming first (like "da Stoiber Ede" instead of Edmund Stoiber). The use of the article is considered mandatory when using this linguistic variation. In addition, nicknames different from the family name exist for almost all families, especially in small villages. They consist largely of their profession, names or professions of deceased inhabitants of their homes or the site where their homes are located. This nickname is called "Hausname" (en: name of the house) and is seldom used to name the person, but more to state where they come from or live or to whom they are related. Examples of this are:


title: Cy Twombly

text: Edwin Parker "Cy" Twombly Jr. (; April 25, 1928July 5, 2011) was an American painter, sculptor and photographer. He belonged to the generation of Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns.


title: Cy Twombly

text: Twombly is said to have influenced younger artists such as Anselm Kiefer, Francesco Clemente, Julian Schnabel and Jean-Michel Basquiat. His best-known works are typically large-scale, freely-scribbled, calligraphic and graffiti-like works on solid fields of mostly gray, tan, or off-white colors. His later paintings and works on paper shifted toward "romantic symbolism", and their titles can be interpreted visually through shapes and forms and words. Twombly often quoted poets such as Stéphane Mallarmé, Rainer Maria Rilke and John Keats, as well as classical myths and allegories, in his works. Examples of this are his "Apollo and The Artist" and a series of eight drawings consisting solely of inscriptions of the word "VIRGIL".


title: Cy Twombly

text: Twombly's works are in the permanent collections of modern art museums globally, including the Menil Collection in Houston, the Tate Modern in London, New York's Museum of Modern Art and Munich's Museum Brandhorst. He was commissioned for a ceiling at the Musée du Louvre in Paris.


title: Cy Twombly

text: In a 1994 retrospective, curator Kirk Varnedoe described Twombly's work as "influential among artists, discomfiting to many critics and truculently difficult not just for a broad public, but for sophisticated initiates of postwar art as well."


title: Cy Twombly

text: Twombly was born in Lexington, Virginia, on April 25, 1928. Twombly's father, also nicknamed "Cy", pitched for the Chicago White Sox. They were both nicknamed after the baseball great Cy Young, who pitched for, among others, the Cardinals, Red Sox, Indians, and Braves.


title: Cy Twombly

text: At age 12, Twombly began to take private art lessons with the Catalan modern master Pierre Daura. After graduating from Lexington High School in 1946, Twombly attended Darlington School in Rome, Georgia, and studied at the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (1948–49), and at Washington and Lee University (1949–50) in Lexington, Virginia. On a tuition scholarship from 1950 to 1951, he studied at the Art Students League of New York, where he met Robert Rauschenberg. Rauschenberg encouraged him to attend Black Mountain College near Asheville, North Carolina. At Black Mountain in 1951 and 1952 he studied with Franz Kline, Robert Motherwell and Ben Shahn, and met John Cage. The poet and rector of the College, Charles Olson, had a great influence on him.


title: Cy Twombly

text: Motherwell arranged Twombly's first solo exhibition, which was organized by the Samuel M. Kootz Gallery in New York in 1951. At this time his work was influenced by Kline's black-and-white gestural expressionism, as well as Paul Klee's imagery. In 1952, Twombly received a grant from the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts which enabled him to travel to North Africa, Spain, Italy, and France. He spent this journey in Africa and Europe with Robert Rauschenberg. In 1954, he served in the U.S. Army as a cryptographer in Washington, D.C., and would frequently travel to New York during periods of leave. From 1955 through 1956, he taught at the Southern Seminary and Junior College in Buena Vista, Virginia, currently known as Southern Virginia University; during the summer vacations, Twombly would travel to New York to paint in his Williams Street apartment.


title: Cy Twombly

text: In 1957, Twombly moved to Rome and made it his primary city, where he met the Italian artist Tatiana Franchetti – sister of his patron Baron Giorgio Franchetti. They were married at New York City Hall in 1959 and then bought a palazzo on the Via di Monserrato in Rome. In addition, they had a 17th-century villa in Bassano in Teverina, north of Rome. They had a son, Cyrus Alessandro Twombly (born 1959), who is also a painter and lives in Rome.


title: Cy Twombly

text: In 1964, Twombly met Nicola Del Roscio of Gaeta, who became his longtime companion. Twombly bought a house and rented a studio in Gaeta in the early 1990s. Twombly and Tatiana, who died in 2010, never divorced and remained friends.


title: Cy Twombly

text: In July 2011, after suffering from cancer for several years, Twombly died in Rome after a brief hospitalization. A plaque in Santa Maria in Vallicella commemorates him.


title: Cy Twombly

text: After his return in 1953, Twombly served in the U.S. army as a cryptologist, an activity that left a distinct mark on his artistic style. From 1955 to 1959, he worked in New York, where he became a prominent figure among a group of artists including Robert Rauschenberg, with whom he was sharing a studio, and Jasper Johns. Exposure to the emerging New York School purged figurative aspects from his work, encouraging a simplified form of abstraction. He became fascinated with tribal art, using the painterly language of the early 1950s to invoke primitivism, reversing the normal evolution of the New York School. Twombly soon developed a technique of gestural drawing characterized by thin white lines on a dark canvas that appear to be scratched onto the surface. He would apply bitumen on the canvas in a quick and coarse fashion, making the painting tactile and scarred with his energetic, gestural lines that would become his signature style. He stopped making sculptures in 1959 and did not take up sculpting again until 1976.


title: Cy Twombly

text: Twombly often inscribed on paintings the names of mythological figures during the 1960s. Twombly's move to Gaeta in Southern Italy in 1957 gave him closer contact with classical sources. From 1962 he produced a cycle of works based on myths including Leda and the Swan and "The Birth of Venus"; myths were frequent themes of Twombly's 1960s work. Between 1960 and 1963 Twombly painted the rape of Leda by the god Zeus/Jupiter in the form of a Swan six times, once in 1960, twice in 1962 and three times in 1963.


title: Cy Twombly

text: Twombly's 1964 exhibition of the nine-panel "Discourses on Commodus" (1963) at the Leo Castelli Gallery in New York was panned by artist and writer Donald Judd who said "There are a few drips and splatters and an occasional pencil line," he wrote in a review. "There isn't anything to these paintings." They are currently exhibited at the Guggenheim Bilbao.


title: Cy Twombly

text: Erotic and corporeal symbols became more prominent, whilst a greater lyricism developed in his 'Blackboard paintings'. Between 1967 and 1971, he produced a number of works on gray grounds, the 'grey paintings'. This series features terse, colorless scrawls, reminiscent of chalk on a blackboard, that form no actual words and are examples of asemic writing. Twombly made this work using an unusual technique: he sat on the shoulders of a friend, who shuttled back and forth along the length of the canvas, thus allowing the artist to create his fluid, continuous lines.


title: Cy Twombly

text: His later sculptures exhibit a similar blend of emotional expansiveness and intellectual sophistication. From 1976, Twombly again produced sculptures, lightly painted in white, suggestive of Classical forms. In an interview with critic David Sylvester, on the occasion of the large exhibition of his sculpture at Kunstmuseum Basel in 2000, Twombly revealed that, for him, the demands of making sculpture were distinctly different from those required of painting. "[Sculpture is] a whole other state. And it's a building thing. Whereas the painting is more fusing—fusing of ideas, fusing of feelings, fusing projected on atmosphere."


title: Cy Twombly

text: In the mid-1970s, in paintings such as "Untitled" (1976), Twombly began to evoke landscape through colour (favouring brown, green and light blue), written inscriptions and collage elements. In 1978 he worked on the monumental historical ensemble "Fifty Days at Iliam", a ten-part cycle inspired by Homer's "Iliad"; since then Twombly continued to draw on literature and myth, deploying cryptic pictorial metaphors that situate individual experience within the grand narratives of Western tradition, as in the Gaeta canvases and the monumental "Four Seasons" concluded in 1994.


title: Cy Twombly

text: In an essay in the catalogue to the 2011 Dulwich exhibition (see below), Katharina Schmidt summarizes the scope and technique of Twombly's "œuvre":


title: Cy Twombly

text: Cy Twombly's work can be understood as one vast engagement with cultural memory. His paintings, drawings and sculptures on mythological subjects have come to form a significant part of that memory. Usually drawing on the most familiar gods and heroes, he restricts himself to just a few, relatively well-known episodes, as narrated by poet-historians, given visible shape by artists and repeatedly reinterpreted in the literature and visual art of later centuries ... His special medium is writing. Starting out from purely graphic marks, he developed a kind of meta-script in which abbreviated signs, hatchings, loops, numbers and the simplest of pictographs spread throughout the picture plane in a process of incessant movement, repeatedly subverted by erasures. Eventually, this metamorphosed into script itself.


title: Cy Twombly

text: However, in a 1994 article Kirk Varnedoe thought it necessary to defend Twombly's seemingly random marks and splashes of paint against the criticism that "This is just scribbles – my kid could do it".


title: Cy Twombly

text: One could say that any child could make a drawing like Twombly only in the sense that any fool with a hammer could fragment sculptures as Rodin did, or any house painter could spatter paint as well as Pollock. In none of these cases would it be true. In each case the art lies not so much in the finesse of the individual mark, but in the orchestration of a previously uncodified set of personal "rules" about where to act and where not, how far to go and when to stop, in such a way as the cumulative courtship of seeming chaos defines an original, hybrid kind of order, which in turn illuminates a complex sense of human experience not voiced or left marginal in previous art.


title: Cy Twombly

text: Together with Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns, Twombly is regarded as the most important representative of a generation of artists who distanced themselves from abstract expressionism.


title: Cy Twombly

text: After having an art piece being shown at Stable Gallery from 1953 to 1957, Twombly moved to Leo Castelli Gallery and later exhibited with Gagosian Gallery. Gagosian Gallery opened a new gallery in Rome, Twombly's hometown, on December 15, 2007, with the inaugural exhibition, of Twombly's work, "Three Notes from Salalah".


title: Cy Twombly

text: In 1993, at Matthew Marks Gallery in New York, an exhibition of Twombly's photographs offered a selection of large blurry color images of tulips, trees and ancient busts, based on the artist's Polaroids. In 2008, a specially curated selection of Twombly's photographic work was exhibited in Huis Marseille, the Museum for Photography, Amsterdam; the exhibition was opened by Sally Mann. For the season 2010/2011 in the Vienna State Opera Cy Twombly designed the large scale picture (176 sqm) "Bacchus" as part of the exhibition series "Safety Curtain", conceived by museum in progress. In 2011, the Museum Brandhorst, mounted a retrospective of Twombly's photographs from 1951 to 2010. It later was passed over to the Museum für Gegenwartskunst at Siegen and the Palais des Beaux Arts, Brussels.


title: Cy Twombly

text: Twombly's work went on display as part of "Twombly and Poussin: Arcadian Painters" at the Dulwich Picture Gallery in London from June 29, 2011, less than a week before Twombly's death. The show was built on a quote by Twombly stating that "I would've liked to have been Poussin, if I'd had a choice, in another time" and is the first time that his work was put in an exhibition with Poussin. Opening in conjunction with the museum's Modern Wing, Twombly's solo exhibition—"Cy Twombly: The Natural World, Selected Works 2000–2007"—was on display at the Art Institute of Chicago in 2009. "The Last Paintings", Twombly's most recent solo exhibition, began in Los Angeles in early 2012. Following the Hong Kong exhibition, it traveled to Gagosian Gallery locations in London and New York throughout 2012. The eight untitled paintings are closely related to the Camino Real group that inaugurated Gagosian Paris in 2010.


title: Cy Twombly

text: In 1968, the Milwaukee Art Museum mounted the first retrospective of his art. Twombly had his next retrospective at the Whitney Museum of American Art in 1979, curated by David Whitney. The artist was later honored by retrospectives at the Kunsthaus Zürich in 1987 (curated by Harald Szeemann), the Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris, in 1988, and the Museum of Modern Art, New York, in 1994, with additional venues in Houston, Los Angeles, and Berlin. In 2001, the Menil Collection, the Kunstmuseum Basel, and the National Gallery of Art presented the first exhibition devoted entirely to Twombly's sculpture, assembling sixty-six works created from 1946 to 1998. The European retrospective "Cy Twombly: Cycles and Seasons" opened at the Tate Modern, London, in June 2008, with subsequent versions at the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao and the Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna in Rome in 2009. At the Tate Modern retrospective, a text read:


title: Cy Twombly

text: This was his first solo retrospective in fifteen years, and provides an overview of his work from the 1950s to now. ... At the heart of the exhibition is Twombly's work exploring the cycles associated with seasons, nature and the passing of time. Several key groups are brought together for the first time, such as Tate's "Four Seasons" (1993–94) with those from the Museum of Modern Art, New York. The exhibition also explores how Twombly is influenced by antiquity, myth and the Mediterranean, for example the violent red swirls in the Bacchus 2005 paintings which bring to mind the drunken god of wine. The exhibition provides a unique opportunity to see the full range of Twombly's long and influential career from a fresh perspective.


title: Cy Twombly

text: Some of his work was also shown in an exhibition named "Turner Monet Twombly: Later Paintings" which ran from 22 June to 28 October 2012 at Tate Liverpool.


title: Cy Twombly

text: In 1989, the Philadelphia Museum of Art opened permanent rooms dedicated to his monumental 10-painting cycle, "Fifty Days at Iliam" (1978), based on Alexander Pope's translation of "The Iliad".


title: Cy Twombly

text: The Cy Twombly Pavilion of the Menil Collection in Houston, which was designed by Renzo Piano and opened in 1995, houses more than thirty of Twombly's paintings, sculptures, and works on paper, dating from 1953 to 1994. The Museum Brandhorst in Munich holds 170 works including the Lepanto series. The newly opened Broad Collection in Los Angeles holds 22 works.


title: Cy Twombly

text: In 1995, "The Four Seasons" entered the permanent collection of the Museum of Modern Art as a gift from the artist. A recent (1998–1999) Twombly work, "Three Studies from the Temeraire", a triptych, was purchased by the Art Gallery of New South Wales for A$4.5 million in 2004. In 2010, Twombly's permanent site-specific painting, "Ceiling" was unveiled in the "Salle des Bronzes" at the Musée du Louvre. He was only the third artist to be invited to contribute in such a way (the other two were Georges Braque in the 1950s and François Morellet in 2010). In 2011, the Museum of Modern Art, New York, made a large acquisition of nine works worth about $75 million. The "Bacchus" series and five bronze sculptures were given by Twombly's estate to Tate Modern in 2014.


title: Cy Twombly

text: The Art Institute of Chicago hosted a two-year exhibition, "Cy Twombly: Sculpture Selections, 1948–1995". The exhibition featured examples of Twombly's sculptures made between 1948 and 1995, composed primarily of rough elements of wood coated in plaster and white paint. The Institute also holds prints, drawings, and paintings by the artist in its permanent collection.


title: Cy Twombly

text: Twombly was a recipient of numerous awards. In 1984 he was awarded the "Internationaler Preis für bildende Kunst des Landes Baden-Württemberg" and in 1987 the . Most notably, he was awarded the Praemium Imperiale in 1996.


title: Cy Twombly

text: Twombly was invited to exhibit his work at the Venice Biennale in 1964, in 1989 and in 2001 when he was awarded the Golden Lion at the 49th Venice Biennale. In 2010 he was made Chevalier of the Légion d'Honneur by the French government. During fall 2010 Tacita Dean produced a film on Twombly, entitled "Edwin Parker".


title: Cy Twombly

text: Twombly's will, written under U.S. law, allocated the bulk of the artist's art and cash to the Cy Twombly Foundation. The foundation now controls much of Twombly's work. It has reported $70 million in assets in 2011, and $1.5 billion in the following two years. In 2012 it purchased a 25-foot-wide Beaux Arts mansion on 19 E 82nd St, Upper East Side Manhattan, planning to open an education center and a small museum. There is an additional foundation office on the Gaeta property. The four board members were divided in a lawsuit, settled in March 2014.


title: Cy Twombly

text: In 2021, the Cy Twombly Foundation and the Louvre settled a dispute over an unauthorized renovation of Twombly's "The Ceiling", the site-specific mural created for the "Salle des Bronzes", and announced that the foundation had dropped the lawsuit in exchange for a plan to restore the gallery to the artist's original design.


title: Cy Twombly

text: In 1990, a Christie's auction set a record for Twombly, with his 1971 untitled blackboard painting fetching $5.5 million. In 2011, a Twombly work from 1967, "Untitled", sold for $15.2 million at Christie's in New York. A new record was made in May 2012 for the 1970 painting "Untitled (New York)" at Sotheby's, selling for $17.4 million (€13.4 million). In November 2013 a record price of $21.7 million for "Poems to the Sea" (1959), an abstract, 24-part multimedium work on paper, was achieved at Sotheby's Contemporary Art Sale.


title: Cy Twombly

text: A new price record was set at Christie's Contemporary Art Sale on November 12, 2014, an untitled 1970 painting from his "Blackboard" series with "lasso-like scribbles" fetched far beyond the $35 million to $55 million estimate, selling at $69.6 million (£44.3m).


title: Cy Twombly

text: In November, 2015, "New York City" (1968) set another new price record for Twombly. Per Artnet News, "Covered with his trademark looping white scribbles on a slate-gray background, the work recalls his experience as a cryptologist at the Pentagon."


title: Cy Twombly

text: In 2007, an exhibition of Twombly's paintings, "Blooming, a Scattering of Blossoms and Other Things", and other works on paper from gallerist Yvon Lambert's collection, was displayed from June to September at the Museum of Contemporary Art in Avignon. On July 19, 2007, police arrested Cambodian-French artist Rindy Sam after she kissed one panel of Twombly's triptych "Phaedrus". The panel, an all-white canvas, was smudged by Sam's red lipstick and she was tried in a court in Avignon for "voluntary degradation of a work of art".


title: Cy Twombly

text: Sam defended her gesture to the court: ""J'ai fait juste un bisou. C'est un geste d'amour, quand je l'ai embrassé, je n'ai pas réfléchi, je pensais que l'artiste, il aurait compris ... Ce geste était un acte artistique provoqué par le pouvoir de l'art"" ("It was just a kiss, a loving gesture. I kissed it without thinking; I thought the artist would understand ... It was an artistic act provoked by the power of art").


title: Cy Twombly

text: The prosecution described the act as a "sort of cannibalism, or parasitism", but admitted that Sam was "visibly not conscious of what she has done", asking that she be fined €4,500 and compelled to attend a citizenship class. The art work was worth an estimated $2 million. In November 2007, Sam was convicted and ordered to pay €1,000 to the painting's owner, €500 to the Avignon gallery where it was exhibited, and €1 to the painter.


title: Mistral (missile)

text: The Missile Transportable Anti-aérien Léger (English: Transportable lightweight anti-air missile), commonly called Mistral, is a French infrared homing short range air defense system manufactured by MBDA France (formerly by Matra Defence and then Matra BAe Dynamics). Based on the French SATCP ("Sol-Air à Très Courte Portée"), the portable missile later to become the Mistral began development in 1974. It was initially deployed in 1988 for the first version (S1), 1997 for the second version (M2), and 2019 for the third version (M3).


title: Mistral (missile)

text: Mistral is a short-range air defence (SHORAD) missile system that can be used from vehicles, surface ships, and helicopters, as well as in a portable configuration. When used in the MANPADS role the "Mistral" missile is transported in a transport and launch container (MPC) together with "friend or foe" interrogator, power source and tripod with its sighting devices. They are then to be operated by a pair of crew as commander and the shooter. There are also launch units that allow the missile to be fired from armoured vehicles, ships or helicopters (such as the Aérospatiale Gazelle, Denel Rooivalk, or Eurocopter Tiger). To defeat flares ejected from the rear of a targeted aircraft, proportional navigation using a gyro as a reference is adopted for Mistral, instead of the pursuit method in earlier IR-guided MANPADS. To further enhance the ECCM capability, the seeker of Mistral has a very narrow field of view to reject decoys and interference, the seeker can tilt in the range of +/− 38 degrees. On the launcher, the missile runs up the gyro in 2 seconds, and total reaction time is 5 seconds. The all-aspect two-color (2–4 and 3–5 µm) cooled IR-seeker of Mistral is developed by SAT ("Societe Anonyme de Telecommunications"), and the missile adopts both laser proximity and impact fuzes.


title: Mistral (missile)

text: The MCP (Mistral Coordination Post) was first shown at the 1991 Paris Air Show fitted with SHORAR (Short-range Anti-aircraft Defence Radar) from Oerlikon Contraves. The MCP is designed to be used with a portable Mistral system, ATLAS, ALBI or MPCV systems and also used as part of MBDA Mistral missile Ground Based Air Defence (GBAD) systems for air defense of military units and important facilities.


title: Mistral (missile)

text: The MCP provides target designation and fire control for eleven Mistral firing unit, ALBI, ATLAS or MPCV air defence systems. The MCP is mounted on a truck chassis or any other off-road chassis. The newer version of MCP are called the IMCP or Improved Missile Control Post.


title: Mistral (missile)

text: A close-in weapon system based on Mistral is a six-missile version called "Sadral", with a stabilized rapid-reload launcher that is fully automated. A CSEE developed fire control director is integrated to the launcher, consisted of TV camera and FLIR. Image produced by both directors appear on the screen in the operator console below deck, and the missiles are locked onto the target before being launched. A fully loaded Sadral launcher weighs 1080 kg, and the operator console weighs 280 kg. A two-missile unit installed on ships is called "Simbad", and a newly launched four-missile version is called "Tetral". An evolution of the "Simbad" is now proposed: "Simbad RC". Both "Tetral" and "Simbad RC" are remote controlled from the ship's deck while the original Simbad is manually operated with a simple optical sight.


title: Mistral (missile)

text: The Mistral entered production in 1989 and is now deployed in various forms by 37 armed forces of 25 countries including Austria, the Brazilian Marine Corps, Chile, Colombia, Cyprus, Ecuador, Estonia, Finland, France, Hungary, Indonesia, Morocco, New Zealand, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, South Korea, Singapore, Spain, and Venezuela.


title: Mistral (missile)

text: Mistral missiles used by the Rwandan forces in the Second Congo War shot down a Zimbabwean Air Force BAE Hawk fighter on 23 March 1999.


title: Mistral (missile)

text: Two automated SADRAL launchers (re-cycled from the retiring s) and each equipped with six Mistral Mk 3 surface-to-air missiles are to be fitted to three s of the French Navy in the 2021–2023 period. The system replaced the previous Crotale SAM system in order to provide a modernized defence against sea-skimming targets. The Mistral Mk 3 carries an infrared imaging seeker and possesses advanced image processing capabilities. This allows it to engage low thermal signature targets such as: UAVs, turbojet-powered missiles and fast craft at long range, while reportedly offering resistance to countermeasures. The system is also carried on the aircraft carrier "Charles de Gaulle", the s and is planned for installation on the French Navy's "Jacques Chevallier"-class support ships.


title: Mistral (missile)

text: Two Sadral turrets for Mistral were also installed on the raised deck on each side of the helicopter hangar of the former s. Space for the SADRAL/Mistral system is also provided for on the French s but, as of 2021, has not been installed on those vessels.


title: Meritorious Service Medal (United States)

text: The Meritorious Service Medal (MSM) is a military award presented to members of the United States Armed Forces who distinguished themselves by outstanding meritorious achievement or service to the United States subsequent to January 16, 1969.


text: The MSM was previously awarded as a decoration for achievement during peacetime, but effective September 11, 2001 this decoration may also be bestowed in lieu of the Bronze Star Medal for meritorious achievement in a designated combat theater. Normally, the acts or services rendered must be comparable to that required for the Legion of Merit but in a duty of lesser, though considerable, responsibility. Within the U.S. Army, according to AR 600-8-22, Paragraph 3-16, the MSM may not be upgraded to or downgraded from a recommended Bronze Star Medal. In the Army, an MSM recommendation that is downgraded will be approved as an Army Commendation Medal (ARCOM).


text: A higher award and decoration, the Defense Meritorious Service Medal (DMSM), is intended for similar services performed under joint duty within the United States Department of Defense, to include the Joint Staff, the Unified Combatant Commands, and joint task forces under their cognizance.


text: The Meritorious Service Medal (MSM) is given to all ranks for meritorious service in the U.S. Army, U.S. Air Force, and U.S. Space Force. Award of the MSM may be for meritorious performance while serving in a staff position as a field grade officer, senior chief warrant officer, or senior non-commissioned officer, or, in the case of field grade officers, for successful completion of a command tour at the battalion (Army) or squadron (Army, Air Force, or Space Force) level. Award of the MSM to company grade officers in pay grades O-1 through O-3 (second lieutenant, first lieutenant, captain), junior warrant officers and chief warrant officers in pay grades W-1 and W-2 (WO1 and CW2, Army only), and junior NCOs in pay grades E-6 and below is rare and typically by exception.


text: The U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps, and U.S. Coast Guard subscribe to a slightly different philosophy from the Army, Air Force, and Space Force in awarding the MSM, typically reserving it for senior Navy and Coast Guard officers in pay grades O-5 to O-6 (commander and captain) and Marine Corps field grade officers in pay grades O-5 and O-6 (lieutenant colonel and colonel), with the first award of the MSM typically occurring after completion of a successful commanding officer assignment at the O-5 level. Award of the MSM to USN, USMC, and USCG officers in pay grade O-4 (USN & USCG lieutenant commander / USMC major) and below, to include chief warrant officers and below (other than as an award at retirement to CWO5 and CWO4) is typically by exception and normally limited to those who have held one of the service's handful of O-4–level commanding officer assignments (e.g., Avenger-class mine countermeasures ship) or serving on a USN or USCG flag officer staff or USMC general officer staff.


text: Enlisted award of the MSM in the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard is likewise typically limited to pay grades E-8 (e.g., USN/USCG senior chief petty officer and USMC master sergeant or first sergeant) and E-9 (e.g., USN/USCG master chief petty officer and USMC sergeant major or master gunnery sergeant), while award of the MSM to pay grade E-7 (e.g., USN/USCG chief petty officer and USMC gunnery sergeant) and below is very rare and by exception. In the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard, the awarding authority for the MSM must be either a flag officer or general officer holding the pay grade of O-7 or above. It is most common for Navy and Coast Guard master chief petty officers (typically command master chief petty officers) and Marine Corps master gunnery sergeants and sergeants major to receive the MSM as an end-of-tour award or upon retirement.


text: Foreign military personnel in the ranks of NATO OF-5 (US O-6 equivalent) and below and individuals who have displayed a level of service that warrants an award of such magnitude may also be eligible to be awarded the MSM, subject to approval by a U.S. flag officer or general officer. To receive this medal, the individual must exhibit exceptionally meritorious service at that level of responsibility.


text: The Meritorious Service Medal is a bronze medal, 1.5 inches in diameter overall, consisting of six rays issuant from the upper three points of a five-pointed star with beveled edges and containing two smaller stars defined by incised outlines; in front of the lower part of the star an eagle with wings upraised standing upon two upward curving branches of laurel tied with a ribbon between the feet of the eagle. The reverse has the encircled inscriptions "UNITED STATES OF AMERICA" and "MERITORIOUS SERVICE". The suspension ribbon is 1 3/8 inches wide and consists of the following stripes: 1/8 inch Crimson 67112; 1/4 inch White 67101; center 5/8 inch Crimson; 1/4 inch White; and 1/8 inch Crimson.


text: Additional awards of the Meritorious Service Medal are denoted by bronze oak leaf clusters in the Army, Air Force, and Space Force, with one silver oak leaf cluster denoting five additional awards. (1 silver OLC plus the medal itself represents six) and gold 5/16 inch stars in the U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Coast Guard (with a 5/16 inch silver star denoting five additional awards). These devices are also authorized for wear on the suspension and service ribbon of the medal. In certain instances, the U.S. Coast Guard also authorizes an Operational Distinguishing Device for the medal.


text: At the Tri-Department Awards Conference (February 5, 1968), there was a discussion on the need for a third meritorious award to provide appropriate recognition for non-combat achievement or service comparable to that of the Bronze Star Medal for combat achievement or service. It was felt that the Legion of Merit's prestige was slipping because it was being used with increasing frequency to reward service below the Legion of Merit's intended standard, but higher than that required for the Commendation Medals of the various military services.


text: An "ad hoc" committee was formed by the Secretary of Defense (M&RA) to select a name. On November 8, 1968, the committee unanimously approved the name "Meritorious Service Medal". President Lyndon B. Johnson established the Meritorious Service Medal per , dated January 16, 1969. The Executive Order was amended by President Ronald Reagan per , dated July 2, 1981, to authorize award to members of the armed forces of friendly foreign nations.


text: Prior to 2004, the MSM could only be awarded for peacetime service and could not be awarded in a combat zone, the MSM equivalent for those zones being the Bronze Star Medal (BSM). As in 1968 when the MSM was created, there were concerns that the prestige of the BSM was also slipping during combat operations in Southwest Asia that had essentially been continuous since 1990. In 2004, authority to award the MSM for combat zone service was authorized, retroactive to September 11, 2001.


text: The medal was designed by Mr. Jay Morris of the Institute of Heraldry, and the design was approved by the committee on March 20, 1969. The ribbon design purposely follows the colors used for the Legion of Merit to reflect the parallel between the two medals. The eagle, symbol of the United States, stands on laurel branches denoting achievement. The star is used to represent the military service and the rays emanating therefrom denote the constant efforts of individuals to achieve through excellent and meritorious service.


title: Warren Clarke

text: Warren Clarke (born Alan James Clarke; 26 April 1947 – 12 November 2014) was an English actor. He appeared in many films after a significant role as Dim in Stanley Kubrick's "A Clockwork Orange". His television appearances included "Dalziel and Pascoe" (as Detective Superintendent Andy Dalziel), "The Manageress" and "Sleepers".


title: Warren Clarke

text: Clarke was born in Oldham, Lancashire. His father worked as a stained-glass maker and his mother as a secretary.


title: Warren Clarke

text: He left Barlow Hall Secondary Modern School, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester, aged 15 and began work at the "Manchester Evening News" as a copy boy. He later moved on to amateur dramatics and performed at Huddersfield Rep before working as an actor full-time. During this period he also decided to change his first name to Warren, a name he chose as his girlfriend of the time had a crush on Warren Beatty.


title: Warren Clarke

text: Clarke's first television appearance was in the long-running Granada soap opera "Coronation Street", initially as Kenny Pickup in 1966 and then as Gary Bailey in 1968. His first major film appearance was in Stanley Kubrick's "A Clockwork Orange" (1971) where he played a "droog" named Dim opposite Malcolm McDowell. He appeared with McDowell again in the film "O Lucky Man!" (1973) and in the TV film "Gulag" (1985).


title: Warren Clarke

text: Clarke appeared in a wide range of roles in television and film productions including "The Breaking of Bumbo" (1970), "Home" (1970) opposite Sir Ralph Richardson and Sir John Gielgud, Charlton Heston's "Antony and Cleopatra" (1972), "" (1972), "The Frighteners", (ep.4.The Minder), (1974), "Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy" (1979), "S.O.S. Titanic" (1979), ‘’Hammer House of Horror,(se1ep2) (1980), "Hawk the Slayer" (1980), "Masada" (1981), "Enigma" (1982), "Lassiter" (1984), "Top Secret!" (1984), "Ishtar" (1987) and "I.D." (1995). He played a Russian dissident in Clint Eastwood's "Firefox" (1982).


title: Warren Clarke

text: In Granada Television's series "The Jewel in the Crown" (1984) Clarke played the role of the overtly homosexual 'Sophie' Dixon, and he was Colonel Krieger in the first series of LWT's "Wish Me Luck" (1988). In 1989 Clarke played Captain Lee in the film "Crusoe". The same year he played the role of Martin Fisher, the chairman of a football club, in "The Manageress" and the role of Managing Director of an engineering firm, Vic Wilcox, in the TV adaptation of the David Lodge novel "Nice Work". He also starred in an episode of "Lovejoy" entitled "Bin Diving". In 1990 he appeared in the episode "Odi, et Amo" of the situation comedy "Chelmsford 123". He played Larry Patterson in "Gone to the Dogs" (1991), which was followed by the series "Gone to Seed" (1992), in which Clarke again starred. He also appeared in "Our Mutual Friend" (the 1976 TV mini-series) as Bradley Headstone.


title: Warren Clarke

text: In "Sleepers" (1991), alongside Nigel Havers, Clarke played one of the two lead roles as two KGB sleeper agents living in Britain and leading their own lives until they are reactivated. He played Bamber in the ITV comedy-drama "Moving Story" (1994). His comedic talents can be seen in the one-off special "", in which he played Oliver Cromwell and in the episode "Amy and Amiability" of the series "Blackadder the Third".


title: Warren Clarke

text: Beginning in 1996, he starred for 11 series as Detective Superintendent Andy Dalziel in the TV series "Dalziel and Pascoe", based on the crime novels of Reginald Hill.


title: Warren Clarke

text: In 1997 he starred in the drama "The Locksmith". Between 2000 and 2003, Clarke played Brian Addis, a father who moved his family from the bustle of London to a Devon farm, in the BBC TV series "Down to Earth". He appeared as Mr Boythorn in the BBC One dramatisation of "Bleak House" (2005) and starred alongside Anthony Head in the BBC Drama "The Invisibles" (2008) and in the Channel 4 trilogy "Red Riding" (2009).


title: Warren Clarke

text: Around the same time, Clarke appeared as Commander Peters in the ITV production of "Agatha Christie's Marple" "Why Didn't They Ask Evans?" (2009). In 2010 he guested in ITV series "Lewis" ("Dark Matter"), Chuggington (2010), the BBC series "Inspector George Gently" ("Peace and Love", 2010) and played Mr Bott in the BBC's "Just William". He guested as innkeeper Samuel Quested in "Midsomer Murders" ("The Night of the Stag", 2011) and as John Lacey in "Call the Midwife" (also 2011).


title: Warren Clarke

text: In 2014 he began filming "Poldark" as Charles Poldark. The character's final scene in the series, in episode four in which Poldark lies on his deathbed before dying, was also Clarke's final scene as an actor: he was very ill at the time of filming and died a few weeks later; the first episode of the television series was then dedicated to his memory.


title: Warren Clarke

text: Clarke’s marriage to his first wife ended in divorce a few years after his parents died. They had a son together, Rowan. He had a daughter, Georgia, by his second wife, Michelle.


title: Warren Clarke

text: Clarke lost money by investing in the 2013 action film "The Numbers Station". On 12 November 2014 Clarke died in his sleep, after a short illness. He lived in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: Casper is a city in, and the county seat of, Natrona County, Wyoming, United States. Casper is the second-largest city in the state, with the population at 59,038 as of the 2020 census. Only Cheyenne, the state capital, is larger. Casper is nicknamed "The Oil City" and has a long history of oil boomtown and cowboy culture, dating back to the development of the nearby Salt Creek Oil Field.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: The city was established east of the former site of Fort Caspar, which was built during the mid-19th century mass migration of land seekers along the Oregon, California and Mormon trails. The area was the location of several ferries that offered passage across the North Platte River in the early 1840s. In 1859, Louis Guinard built a bridge and trading post near the original ferry locations.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: The government soon posted a military garrison nearby to protect telegraph and mail service. It was under the command of Lieutenant Colonel William O. Collins. Native American attacks increased after the Sand Creek Massacre in Colorado in 1864, bringing more troops to the post, which was by now called Platte Bridge Station. In July 1865, Lieutenant Caspar Collins (the son of Colonel Collins) was killed near the post by a group of Indian warriors. Three months later the garrison was renamed Fort Caspar after Lieutenant Collins. In 1867, the troops were ordered to abandon Fort Caspar in favor of Fort Fetterman downstream on the North Platte along the Bozeman Trail.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: The town of Casper itself was settled in 1887 and incorporated a year later, well after the fort had been closed. The city was founded by developers as an anticipated stopping point during the expansion of the Wyoming Central Railway; it was an early commercial rival to Bessemer and Douglas, Wyoming. The lack of a railhead doomed Bessemer in favor of Casper. Douglas, also a railhead, survives to the present day. The presence of a railhead made Casper the starting off point for the "invaders" in the Johnson County War. The special chartered train carrying the men up from Texas stopped at Casper. The town is named "Casper", instead of "Caspar", honoring the memory of Fort Caspar and Lt. Caspar Collins, due to a typo that occurred when the town's name was officially registered.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: A site a few miles east was planned to be the original site of Casper, where a homesteader named Joshua Stroud lived prior to a station of the Chicago and North Western Railway being built. The site was laid out by the Pioneer Town Site Company in 1888 and was known as Strouds.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: The city received a significant number of visitors during the solar eclipse of August 21, 2017, due to its position along the path of totality.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: Interstate 25, which approaches Casper from the north and east, is the main avenue of transportation to and from the city. The towns immediately adjacent to Casper are Mills, Evansville, and Bar Nunn. Unincorporated areas include Allendale, Dempsey Acres, Red Buttes, Indian Springs, and several others.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: Casper, as with most of the rest of Wyoming, has a continental semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification "BSk"), with long, cold, but dry winters, hot but generally dry summers, mild springs, and short and crisp autumns. Normal daily maxima range from in January to in July. Snow can fall heavily during the winter and early to mid-spring months, and usually falls in May and October. Precipitation is greatest in spring and early summer, but even then it is not high. Highs reach on 37.8 days per year and fail to surpass freezing on 41.3. Lows drop to on an average of 14.6 nights annually. The hottest temperature recorded in Casper was on July 12, 1954, July 16, 2005, and July 29, 2006, while the coldest temperature recorded was on December 21, 1990.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 55,316 people, 22,794 households, and 14,237 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 24,536 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 92.3% White, 1.0% African American, 0.9% Native American, 0.8% Asian, 2.3% from other races, and 2.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 7.4% of the population.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: There were 22,794 households, of which 31.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.1% were married couples living together, 11.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 37.5% were non-families. Of all households 30.3% were made up of individuals, and 10.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.95.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: The median age in the city was 36 years. 23.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 10.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.7% were from 25 to 44; 26.4% were from 45 to 64; and 12.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.7% male and 50.3% female.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 49,644 people, 20,343 households, and 13,141 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,073.2 people per square mile (800.3/km). There were 21,872 housing units at an average density of 913.4 per square mile (352.6/km). The racial makeup of the city was 94.03% White, 0.86% Black, 1.00% Native American, 0.49% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 2.04% from other races, and 1.56% from two or more races. 5.35% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: There were 20,343 households, out of which 31.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.6% were married couples living together, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.4% were non-families. Of all households 29.1% were made up of individuals, and 10.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.94.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 25.9% under the age of 18, 10.5% from 18 to 24, 27.7% from 25 to 44, 22.3% from 45 to 64, and 13.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.6 males.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: The median income for a household in the city was $36,567, and the median income for a family was $46,267. Males had a median income of $34,905 versus $21,810 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,409. About 8.5% of families and 11.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.4% of those under age 18 and 7.3% of those age 65 or over.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: After the discovery of crude oil in the region during the 1890s, Casper became the regional petroleum industry center. Oil has figured prominently in its history from nearly the outset. Oil was first discovered in the famous Salt Creek Oil Field in 1889, approximately north of Casper; the first refinery in Casper was built in 1895. The city has featured a refinery ever since, although various refineries have been built and closed over the years. As recently as the early 1980s, the city was near or home to three refineries. The surviving one, operated by Sinclair Oil Corporation, is located nearby in Evansville. Development of Wyoming coal and uranium fields in recent decades has helped Casper continue its role as a center in the energy industry.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: Casper Wind Farm began operations near Casper in Natrona County and has 11 turbines with a generating capacity of 16.5 MW. Energy Transportation Inc. is headquartered in Casper. This logistics firm transports overweight and outsized components used in the wind power industry. The Casper landfill is also a disposal site for windmill blades.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: Casper is home to Casper College, a community college that offers bachelor's degrees in sixteen areas of study from the University of Wyoming through their UW/CC Center.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: Public education in the city of Casper is provided by Natrona County School District #1. The district operates sixteen elementary schools, five middle schools, and three high schools in Casper. The high schools are Kelly Walsh, Natrona County, and Roosevelt High Schools. A program called CAPS is being added to Natrona County School District, which will provide more space and classrooms for juniors and seniors at the three high schools.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: Casper is served by two print newspapers, the "Casper Star-Tribune", a daily, and the "Casper Journal", published weekly. Casper is also home to WyoFile, an online publication focusing on state issues and "Oil City News," an online news and media site.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: Casper has three locations offering theater: the Gertrude Krampert Theatre at Casper College, Stage III Community Theatre, and the Casper Events Center where an annual series of touring Broadway shows, "Broadway in Casper", can be seen.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: Casper is home to the Troopers, a drum and bugle corps in Drum Corps International, and the Wyoming Symphony Orchestra. During the summer months, Casper's City Band performs free concerts Thursday evenings at Washington Park, weather permitting.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: Wyoming National Bank, a mid-century modern tower, was designed by Charles Deaton and is featured in Casper's logo.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: The city has scheduled air service at Casper–Natrona County International Airport, a former army air base built during World War II. The runways are large, having been built for bombers. It replaced a regional airport north of Casper which later became the town of Bar Nunn, Wyoming. The airport is located west of the city just off of US Highway 20/26. In July 2004, the airport facilities were renovated. Passenger service at the airport is offered by United Express (SkyWest Airlines and GoJet Airlines), and Delta Connection (SkyWest Airlines). FedEx Express and FedEx Feeder provide cargo airline service to the airport.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: Public transit in the Casper area had been provided by the Casper Area Transportation Coalition but is now offered by the city of Casper. They offer fixed route service called Casper Area LINK and an on-request service called ASSIST from Monday to Saturday.


title: Casper, Wyoming

text: Scheduled bus service once offered by Power River Bus Lines is now offered by ExpressArrow (formerly Black Hills Stages).


title: Homework

text: Homework is a set of tasks assigned to students by their teachers to be completed outside the classroom. Common homework assignments may include required reading, a writing or typing project, mathematical exercises to be completed, information to be reviewed before a test, or other skills to be practiced.


title: Homework

text: The effects of homework are debated. Generally speaking, homework does not improve academic performance among young children. Homework may improve academic skills among older students, especially lower-achieving students. However, homework also creates stress for students and parents, and reduces the amount of time that students can spend in other activities.


title: Homework

text: The basic objectives of assigning homework to students often align with schooling in general. However, teachers have many purposes for assigning homework, including:


title: Homework

text: Homework research dates back to the early 1900s. However, no consensus exists on the general effectiveness on homework. Results of homework studies vary based on multiple factors, such as the age group of those studied and the measure of academic performance.


title: Homework

text: Younger students who spend more time on homework generally have slightly worse, or the same academic performance, as those who spend less time on homework. Homework has not been shown to improve academic achievements for grade school students. Proponents claim that assigning homework to young children helps them learn good study habits. Essentially, they advocate for doing potentially unnecessary homework from approximately age five to ten as a way of practicing for doing necessary homework from age 10 to 15. No research has ever been conducted to determine whether this claim has any merit.


title: Homework

text: Among teenagers, students who spend more time on homework generally have higher grades, and higher test scores than students who spend less time on homework. Large amounts of homework cause students' academic performance to worsen, even among older students. Students who are assigned homework in middle and high school score somewhat better on standardized tests, but the students who have more than 90 minutes of homework a day in middle school or more than two hours in high school score worse.


title: Homework

text: Low-achieving students receive more benefit from doing homework than high-achieving students. However, school teachers commonly assign less homework to the students who need it most, and more homework to the students who are performing well. In past centuries, homework was a cause of academic failure: when school attendance was optional, students would drop out of school entirely if they were unable to keep up with the homework assigned.


title: Homework

text: The amount of homework given does not necessarily affect students' attitudes towards homework and various other aspects of school.


title: Homework

text: Homework has been identified in numerous studies and articles as a dominant or significant source of stress and anxiety for students. Studies on the relation between homework and health are few compared to studies on academic performance.


title: Homework

text: A 2007 study of American students by MetLife found that 89% of students felt stressed from homework, with 34% reporting that they "often" or "very often" felt stressed from homework. Stress was especially evident among high school students. Students that reported stress from homework were more likely to be deprived of sleep.


title: Homework

text: Homework can cause tension and conflict in the home as well as at school, and can reduce students' family and leisure time. In the survey, failure to complete homework and low grades where homework was a contributing factor was correlated with greater conflict; some students have reported teachers and parents frequently criticizing their work. In the MetLife study, high school students reported spending more time completing homework than performing home tasks. argued that homework can create family conflict and reduce students' quality of life. The authors of , both high school English teachers, reported that their homework disrupted their students' extracurricular activities and responsibilities. However, found that parents were less likely to report homework as a distraction from their children's activities and responsibilities. recommended further empirical study relating to this aspect due to the difference between student and parent observations.


title: Homework

text: A University of Michigan Institute for Social Research nationally representative survey of American 15- to 17-year olds, conducted in 2003, found an average of 50 minutes of homework each weekday.


title: Homework

text: A 2019 Pew Research Center review of Bureau of Labor Statistics' American Time Use Survey data reported that 15-, 16-, and 17-year-olds Americans, spent on average an hour a day on homework during the school year. The change in this demographic's average daily time spent doing homework (during the school year) increased by about 16 minutes from 2003-2006 to 2014-2017. U.S. teenage girls spent more time doing homework than U.S. teenage boys.


title: Homework

text: A 2019 nationally representative survey of 95,505 freshmen at U.S. colleges, conducted by the UCLA Higher Education Research Institute, asked respondents, "During your last year in high school, how much time did you spend during a typical week studying/doing homework?" 1.9% of respondents said none, 7.4% said less than one hour, 19.5% said 1-2 hours, 27.9% said 3-5 hours, 21.4% said 6-10 hours, 11.4% said 11-15 hours, 6.0% said 16-20 hours, 4.5% said over 20 hours.


title: Homework

text: Some educators argue that homework is beneficial to students, as it enhances learning, develops the skills taught in class, and lets educators verify that students comprehend their lessons. Proponents also argue that homework makes it more likely that students will develop and maintain proper study habits that they can use throughout their educational career.


title: Homework

text: Historically, homework was frowned upon in American culture. With few students able to pursue higher education, and with many children and teenagers needing to dedicate significant amounts of time to chores and farm work, homework was disliked not only by parents, but also by some schools. The students' inability to keep up with the homework, which was largely memorizing an assigned text at home, contributed to students dropping out of school at a relatively early age. Attending school was not legally required, and if the student could not spend afternoons and evenings working on homework, then the student could quit school.


title: Homework

text: Complaints from parents were common at all levels of society. In 1880, Francis Amasa Walker convinced the school board in Boston to prohibit teachers from assigning math homework under normal circumstances. In 1900, journalist Edward Bok railed against schools assigning homework to students until age 15. He encouraged parents to send notes to their children's teachers to demand the end of all homework assignments, and thousands of parents did so. Others looked at the new child labor laws in the United States and noted that school time plus homework exceeded the number of hours that a child would be permitted to work for pay. The campaign resulted in the US Congress receiving testimony to the effect that experts thought children should never have any homework, and that teenagers should be limited to a maximum of two hours of homework per day. In 1901, the California legislature passed an act that effectively abolished homework for anyone under the age of 15. While homework was generally out of favor in the first half of the 20th century, some people supported homework reform, such as by making the assignments more relevant to the students' non-school lives, rather than prohibiting it.


title: Homework

text: In the 1950s, with increasing pressure on the United States to stay ahead in the Cold War, homework made a resurgence, and children were encouraged to keep up with their Russian counterparts. From that time on, social attitudes have oscillated approximately on a 15-year cycle: homework was encouraged in the 1950s to mid-1960s; it was rejected from the mid-1960s until 1980; it was encouraged again from 1980 and the publication of "A Nation at Risk" until the mid-1990s, when the Cold War ended. At that time, American schools were overwhelmingly in favor of issuing some homework to students of all grade levels. Homework was less favored after the end of the Cold War.


title: Homework

text: British students get more homework than many other countries in Europe. The weekly average for the subject is 5 hours. The main distinction for UK homework is the social gap, with middle-class teenagers getting a disproportionate amount of homework compared to Asia and Europe.


title: Homework

text: In 2012, a report by the OECD showed that Spanish children spend 6.4 hours a week on homework. This prompted the CEAPA, representing 12,000 Spanish parent associations, to call for a homework strike.


title: Homework

text: Homework and its effects, justifications, motivations and alleged benefits have been the subject of sharp criticism among many education experts and researchers.


title: Homework

text: According to a study by the Dresden University of Technology, homework—described in the study as "an educational ritual"—has little to no influence on academic performance.


title: Homework

text: When assigning homework, each student is usually given the same exercises, regardless of how well the student is performing. This leaves some students under-challenged and others overwhelmed by their homework. For others, the degree of difficulty of homework may be appropriate, but students are unable to decide for themselves whether they need to deepen their knowledge in a particular subject or whether to use the time in other subjects with which they experience more difficulty, despite the fact that homework is often seen as a way of encouraging self-regulation.


title: Homework

text: Homework is sometimes used to outsource school material not completed in class to the home, leaving children with homework that is not designed to be done on their own and parents feeling helpless and frustrated. As a consequence, students often have to use the internet or other resources for help, which provides disadvantages for students without internet access. Thus, such homework fails to promote equality of opportunity. Homework without professional feedback from the teacher has little effect on the learning success of students.


title: Homework

text: Even if it is generally not wanted by homework distributors (unless homework is given as a punishment), completing homework may take up a large part of the student's free time. It is often the case that children try to finish their homework until late at night, which can lead to sleep disorders and unhealthy stress. Children may feel overwhelmed when they have too much homework, which can negatively affect children's natural curiosity and thirst for knowledge.


title: Homework

text: A study by the UCL Institute of Education, which concerned the impact of homework in different countries, discovered that the pressure associated with homework causes arguments among family members. The study also showed that homework can lead to anxiety, depression, and emotional exhaustion among children.


title: Scram

text: A scram or SCRAM is an emergency shutdown of a nuclear reactor effected by immediately terminating the fission reaction. It is also the name that is given to the manually operated kill switch that initiates the shutdown. In commercial reactor operations, this type of shutdown is often referred to as a "scram" at boiling water reactors (BWR), a "reactor "trip"" at pressurized water reactors and at a CANDU reactor. In many cases, a scram is part of the routine shutdown procedure, which serves to test the emergency shutdown system.


title: Scram

text: The etymology of the term is a matter of debate. United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission historian Tom Wellock notes that "scram" is English-language slang for leaving quickly and urgently, and cites this as the original and most likely accurate basis for the use of "scram" in the technical context. A persistent alternative explanation posits that "scram" is an acronym for "safety control rod axe man", which was supposedly coined by Enrico Fermi when the world's first nuclear reactor was built under the spectator seating at the University of Chicago's Stagg Field. That reactor had an actual control rod tied to a rope, with a man with an axe standing next to it. It could also stand for "safety control rods activation mechanism" or "safety control rod actuator mechanism", but both of these are probably backronyms from the original, non-technical usage.


title: Scram

text: The Russian name, AZ-5 (, in Cyrillic), is an abbreviation for (), which translates to "emergency protection of the 5th category" in English.


title: Scram

text: In any reactor, a scram is achieved by inserting large amounts of negative reactivity mass into the midst of the fissile material, to immediately terminate the fission reaction.


title: Scram

text: In light-water reactors, this is achieved by inserting neutron-absorbing control rods into the core, although the mechanism by which rods are inserted depends on the type of reactor. In PWRs, the control rods are held above a reactor's core by electric motors against both their own weight and a powerful spring. A scram is designed to release the control rods from those motors and allows their weight and the spring to drive them into the reactor core, rapidly halting the nuclear reaction by absorbing liberated neutrons. Another design uses electromagnets to hold the rods suspended, with any cut to the electric current resulting in an immediate and automatic control rod insertion.


title: Scram

text: In BWRs, the control rods are inserted up from underneath the reactor vessel. In this case a hydraulic control unit with a pressurized storage tank provides the force to rapidly insert the control rods upon any interruption of the electric current. In both the PWR and the BWR there are secondary systems (and often even tertiary systems) that will insert control rods in the event that primary rapid insertion does not promptly and fully actuate.


title: Scram

text: In CANDU reactors this is achieved by injecting a neutron poison into the reactor core itself via the EPIS or "emergency poison injection system".